ANGLE

MODULATION
FUNDAMENTALS
and CIRCUITS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Compare and contrast frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
✓ Calculate the modulation index given the maximum
deviation and the maximum modulating frequency and
use the modulation index and Bessel coefficients to
determine the number of significant sidebands in an FM
signal.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Explain the effect of noise on a frequency modulated
wave
✓ Explain how pre-emphasis is used to solve the problem of
the interference of high-frequency components by noise.
✓ Understand the theory of stereo FM
✓ Describe the various methods of generation of FM
Types of Modulations
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude

of the modulated carrier is kept constant, while its
frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating
signal.

Frequency deviation is the amount by which the carrier

frequency is varied from its unmodulated value and it is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage.
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

ln FM, all components of the modulating signal having the

same amplitude will deviate the carrier frequency by the
same amount, no matter what their frequencies.

Similarly, all components of the modulating signal of the

same frequency, will deviate the carrier at the same rate, no
matter what their individual amplitudes. The amplitude of
the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all
times.
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

As the modulating signal

amplitude increases, the carrier
frequency increases.

With no modulation the carrier is

at its normal center or resting
frequency.
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of FM
The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated
wave is given by
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒎 𝒕

where:
fc - is unmodulated (or average) carrier frequency,
k - is proportionality constant expressed in Hz/volt and
Vmsin⍵mt - is instantaneous modulating voltage.
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of FM
The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the
sine tern, has its maximum value, ±1. Under these
conditions, the instantaneous frequency will be

𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 ± 𝒌𝑽𝒎

so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

𝜹𝒇 = 𝒌𝑽𝒎
 Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of FM
The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝜹𝒇
𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕)
𝒇𝒎

Modulation index of FM is defined as

𝜹𝒇 (𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝒎𝒇 =
𝒇𝒎
 Sample Problem

ln an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the
AF voltage is now increased to·7.2 V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised
to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Phase modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the

modulated carrier is kept constant, while its phase and rate
of phase change are varied by the modulating signal.

Phase deviation is the amount by which the carrier phase

is varied from its unmodulated value and is made
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage. The rate at which this phase variation
changes is equal to the modulating frequency.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

In PM, the amount of carrier

deviation is proportional to the rate
of change of the modulating signal.
With a sine wave modulating
signal, the PM carrier appears to be
frequency-modulated by the cosine
of the modulating signal.
Remember that the cosine occurs
90° earlier (leads) than the sine.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of PM
The instantaneous phase of the phase modulated wave is
given by
∅ = ∅𝒄 + 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕

where:
⏀c - is unmodulated (or average) carrier phase,
kp - is proportionality constant expressed in rad/volt and
Vmcos⍵mt – is the phase shifted version of instantaneous modulating
voltage.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of FM
The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the
cosine term, has its maximum value, ±1. Under these
conditions, the instantaneous phase will be

∅ = ∅𝒄 ± 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎

so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

𝜹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Mathematical Representation of PM
The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + ∅𝒄 + 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕)

Modulation index of PM is defined as

𝒎𝒑 = 𝜹𝒑
 Sample Problem

ln an PM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the
AF voltage is now increased to·7.2 V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised
to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Converting PM into FM
• In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
• This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
 Phase Modulation Fundamentals

Converting PM into FM
• This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-correcting
network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and causes the higher
modulating frequencies to be attenuated.
• The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
Phase Modulation Fundamentals
Modulation Index and
Sidebands
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• Any modulation process produces sidebands.

• The side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and the modulating frequency.
• In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband
frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number of
pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a
result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually
wider than that of an equivalent AM signal.
Modulation Index and Sidebands
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite

number of upper and lower sidebands and, therefore, a
theoretically infinitely large bandwidth.
• However, in practice, only those sidebands with the
largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the
information. Typically any sideband whose amplitude is
less than 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is
considered insignificant.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

Modulation Index
• The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
• In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

Modulation Index
• When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and
the maximum modulating frequency are used in
computing the modulation index, mf is known as the
deviation ratio.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted

frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
• The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is
therefore 5.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

Modulation Index
• For broadcast television (NTSC format), the maximum
frequency deviation of the aural carrier, is ±25 kHz with a
maximum audio input frequency, of 15 kHz.
• Therefore, for broadcast TV (NTSC format), the deviation
ratio (DR) is 1.67
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• FM systems that have a deviation ratio greater than or

equal to 1 (DR >1) are considered to be wideband
systems, whereas FM systems that have a deviation ratio
• less than 1 (DR < 1) are considered to be narrowband
FM systems.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

Bessel Functions
• The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of
the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a complex
mathematical process known as Bessel functions.
• Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not
necessary to memorize or calculate them.
Modulation Index and Sidebands
Modulation Index and Sidebands
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• This is a special case of FM in

which the modulation process
produces only a single pair of
significant sidebands like those
produced by AM.
• With a modulation index of 0.25,
the FM signal occupies no more
spectrum space than an AM signal.
This type of FM is called
narrowband FM, or NBFM.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

• Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which the

modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π /2.
• NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves
spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise
ratio.
 Heat Check!

1. What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum

deviation is 25 kHz and the maximum modulating
frequency is 15 kHz? ANS. 1.667
2. What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be
used to achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a deviation
of 7.48 kHz? ANS. 3.4 kHz
 Heat Check!

FM is a modulation process in which the change in the

frequency of the carrier signal and its rate of change are
made proportional to instantaneous variations in

a. message amplitude only

b. message frequency only
c. both message amplitude and frequency
d. message amplitude, frequency and phase
 Heat Check!

Frequency deviation in FM refers to the extent by which

carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value in
proportion to

a. message amplitude
b. message frequency
c. both message amplitude and frequency
d. message amplitude, frequency and phase
 Heat Check!

The difference between phase and frequency modulation

a. is purely theoretical because they are the same in practice

b. is too great to make the two system compatible
c. lies in the poorer audio response of phase modulation
d. lies in the different definitions of the modulation index
 Heat Check!

Indicate which one of the following is not an advantage of

FM over AM:

a. Better noise immunity is provided

b. Lower bandwidth is required
c. The transmitted power is more useful
d. Less modulating power is required
 FM Signal Bandwidth

The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by

knowing the modulation index and using Bessel function.
The bandwidth can then be determined with the simple
formula
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 𝑵

where:
N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal
 FM Signal Bandwidth

Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes only the power in
the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than
2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)

𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐[𝜹𝒇(𝒎𝒂𝒙) + 𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ]
 FM Signal Bandwidth

Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes only the power in
the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than
2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)

𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐[𝜹𝒇(𝒎𝒂𝒙) + 𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ]
 Sample Problem

1. What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a

deviation of 30 kHz and a maximum modulating signal
of 5 kHz as determined by (a) using Bessel function and
(b) Carson’s rule?

2. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in

which the modulating frequency is 2 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 10 kHz?
Noise Suppression
Effects of FM
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

• Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,

automotive ignition systems, and power line switching
that produces transient signals.
• Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies. Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
• Some noise completely obliterates signal information.
Noise Suppression Effects of FM
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

• FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

• FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
• Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are
effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
• This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

• Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits,

noise is almost completely eliminated. Even if the peaks
of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened and the
resulting signal is distorted, no information is lost.
• In fact, one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its
superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating
or recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise and
improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Noise and Phase Shift

• The noise amplitude
added to an FM signal
introduces a small
frequency variation, or
phase shift, which
changes or distorts
the signal.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Noise and Phase Shift

• The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and
signal phasors are at a right angle to each other.
• This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse
sine according to the formula
𝑵
∅ = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝑪
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Noise and Phase Shift

• It is possible to determine just how much of a frequency
shift a particular phase shift produces by using the
formula
𝜹𝑵 = ∅𝒇𝒎
where:
𝜹𝑵 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
∅ − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝒇𝒎 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Noise and Phase Shift

• Remember that the noise interference is of very short
duration; thus, the phase shift is momentary, and
intelligibility is rarely severely impaired.
• With heavy noise, human speech might be temporarily
garbled, but so much that it could not be understood.
 Sample Problem

1. Assume that the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is 3:1 and

the modulating signal frequency is 800 Hz. The phase
shift is then equal to? The frequency deviation produced
by this brief phase shift can be calculated as?
2. Assume that the maximum allowed deviation is 5 kHz in
the example number 1. The ratio of the shift produced
by the noise to the maximum allowed deviation is
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

• Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly

with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal.
• Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a
lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
• To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known
as pre-emphasis is used.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Pre-emphasis
• Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-
frequency components.
• At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple network that amplifies the high
frequency components more than the low-frequency
components.
• A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-
emphasis circuit.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Pre-emphasis
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Deemphasis
• A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
• A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
• The combined effect of pre-emphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.
 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

De-emphasis
Comparison of FM and
AM
 FM vs. AM

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

✓ FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
✓ In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are
effectively rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
• Capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur
simultaneously on the same frequency. If one signal is more than
twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal captures the
channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
 FM vs. AM

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

✓ FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is no need
to use linear amplifiers to increase power levels. This
increases transmitter efficiency.
✓ It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the
deviation. This is a feature which AM does not have; since it
is not possible to exceed I00 percent modulation without
causing severe distortion.
 FM vs. AM

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

✓ At the FM broadcast frequencies, the space wave is used for
propagation, so that the radius of operation is limited to s
lightly more than line of sight. It is thus possible to operate
several independent transmitters on the same frequency
with considerably less interference than would be possible
with AM.
 FM vs. AM

Disadvantage of FM
❖ FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space. Since
FM occupies so much bandwidth, it is typically used only in
those portions of the spectrum where adequate bandwidth is
available, i.e., at very high frequencies.
❖ FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and
demodulation.
“The only way to grow is to challenge
yourself.

The only way to challenge yourself is to

do something you’ve never done
before.”