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Lec 3

Core analysis data can be inaccurate for several reasons, including measurement errors and biased sampling. Conventional open-hole well logs measure properties like hole size, gamma ray emissions, porosity, and resistivity. These logs can estimate formation thickness, porosity, water saturation, and locate contacts. However, downhole factors like hole sloughing or mudcake invasion can impact log accuracy. Common open-hole logs include caliper, gamma ray, spontaneous potential, acoustic, and density logs, which are used to characterize formations and reservoirs.

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15 views11 pages

Lec 3

Core analysis data can be inaccurate for several reasons, including measurement errors and biased sampling. Conventional open-hole well logs measure properties like hole size, gamma ray emissions, porosity, and resistivity. These logs can estimate formation thickness, porosity, water saturation, and locate contacts. However, downhole factors like hole sloughing or mudcake invasion can impact log accuracy. Common open-hole logs include caliper, gamma ray, spontaneous potential, acoustic, and density logs, which are used to characterize formations and reservoirs.

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petroliferohasan
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© © All Rights Reserved
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lecture (3 ) reservoir characterization

Open-hole Well Logs

3.1 Core Analysis

Petrophysical data obtained from core measurements are


normally considered to be accurate and are used to calibrate log
data. Routine core analysis data, can be very inaccurate for the
reasons listed below:
1. Some methods of measuring porosity, such as the sum-of-
fluids method, are very inaccurate.
2. Biased sampling of the core can result in incorrect
representations of porosity and permeability.
3. Induced fractures commonly result in unrealistically high
permeability values because insufficient confining
pressure is used.
4. Porosity values can be too low due to incomplete removal
of hydrocarbons or other fluids.
5. Porosity and permeability values can be too high if high-
temperature procedures are used on core material
containing gypsum and clay minerals, because high
temperatures can significantly alter these minerals.

Conventional open-hole well logs include:


1. measurements of hole size,
2. gamma ray emissions,
3. various indirect measurements of porosity (compressional
wave acoustic, density, and neutron logs),
4. spontaneous potential,
5. formation resistivity.

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From these measurements we can be estimated:
1) the thickness, porosity, and water saturation of any give
formation interval.
2) The location of gas-oil and watereoil contacts can also be
determined.
3) Open-hole well log data are used for most reservoir
calculations and particularly for the creation of reservoir
maps, the determination of volumetric reserves, and
predicting lateral continuity of reservoir bodies.

illustrates some of the down hole factors that can affect the
accuracy of the log data including hole sloughing, the presence
of mudcake, and invasion of the formation by drilling mud.
When a well is drilled, the sides of the wellbore can be enlarged
due to shale sloughing in which the formation is water sensitive
or spalling due to geomechanical failure. After the cuttings are
washed away, a small cavern remains. Some logs
(microresistivity and porosity logs) may require that part of the
logging tool maintains contact with the hole wall. These logs
may be unreliable when hole sloughing occurs and this contact
cannot be maintained. A similar problem can arise when the
wellbore experinces brittle fracture due to stress in the
formation. Many logging tools are designed to minimize the
effects of mudcake when it is present, but there still may be
some effects.

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Figure 3.1Schematic of wireline openhole logging in a vertical well.

3.2 Types of Openhole Log

Table 3.2. Types and application of openhole logs

3.2.1 Caliper Log


A caliper log records the hole diameter measured using spring
loaded caliper arms. Figure 3.2.1 shows a variety of two, three,
four, and six arm calipers. in general, the more arms, the more
accurate the measurement of the shape and cross-sectional area
of the wellbore. Caliper logs are usually run simultaneously with

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an acoustic or a neutron-density log. Typically, an average hole
diameter is calculated and recorded.

Figure 3.2.1 Types of caliper configurations and typical logging applications

An example caliper log is shown in Figure 3.2.2. The bit size is


usually shown on the log as well.
Application: A comparison of the measured hole diameter with
the bit size is used to identify enlargement, hole roughness, and
mudcake (under gauge), as shown in Figure 3.2.2. The caliper
log is also used to determine the volume of the wellbore for
cementing calculations.

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Figure 3.2.2 Hypothetical caliper log with depth intervals of 1 m.

3.2.2. Gamma Ray Log


The Gamma Ray (GR) logging tool measures the natural
radioactivity from potassium, thorium, and uranium isotopes in
the earth surrounding the wellbore. The GR detector is a
scintillation counter that is 10e30 cm long; the resolution of a
GR log is thus about 30e50 cm. The counter calibration can be
traced back to one of the American Petroleum Institute (API)
test facilities in Houston and the radioactivity is expressed in
API units, which range from almost zero in anyhydrites to more
than 200 in some shales and sylvite.
The measured GR response is a function of the natural
radioactivity of the formation, the density of the formation, the
type of mud, the hole size, and the position of the tool in the
wellbore. In modern logs, the effects of the mud type, hole size,
and tool location are generally small, except when there is
potassium (increased GR readings) or barite (attenuated GR
readings) in the mud. If the log is not compensated, adjustments
can be made using the appropriate borehole correction charts
produced by logging companies. The GR reading is less reliable
in washed out zones, because the hole dimensions and tool
location are not well defined.

the radioactivity of shales and shaly sands are higher than clean
sands and carbonates. Typical GR readings for different rock
types are listed in Table 3.2.2. A hypothetical GR log is shown
in Figure 3.2.3.

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Table 3.2.2 Typical Gamma Ray log response in different rock types

Figure 3.2.3 Hypothetical GR log with depth intervals of 1 m.

Application : The GR log has a relatively high resolution and


can also be used in cased holes. It is therefore useful for locating
specific intervals in the wellbore for workover operations. It is
also used to align suites of logs and to match cored intervals to
openhole logs.

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3.2.3 Spontaneous Potential Log
The spontaneous potential (SP) is the electrical potential
between an electrode placed at the borehole wall and a fixed
electrode at surface. The SP log records the change in the
potential as the mobile electrode is moved up or down the
wellbore. The electrical potential is the sum of the potentials
arising from contacts between different formations (membrane
potential), contact between different fluids (fluid junction
potential), and the motion of fluid through the formation
(electrokinetic potential).

Figure 3.2.4 Hypothetical SP log with depth intervals of 1 m.

When a permeable zone is encountered, the SP deviates from


the baseline to more negative potentials if the mud filtrate is less
saline (“fresher”) than the formation water. If the mud filtrate is
more saline, then the SP deviates from the baseline to more
positive potentials. If the mud filtrate salinity is the same as the
formation water, then there is no SP deflection.

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Application: The SP log is used in the same manner as the GR
log to detect shales and potentially permeable formations,
Figure 3.2.4.

3.2.4 Acoustic Log

The acoustic logging tool measures the travel or transit time of


sound waves through formation. In the simplest tool
configurations, there are two transmitters and a series of two or
four receivers as shown in Figure 3.2.5. The transmitters are
pulsed alternately. The transit times from the two transmitters
are averaged to compensate for errors from changing hole size
and tool position. The distance between transmitters and
detectors (and therefore the resolution of the log) ranges from 3
to 5 ft for a conventional porosity measurement. Spacings of 10-
12 ft can be used to measure deeper into the formation. The
vertical resolution is about 2 ft for older logs, while newer tools
provide resolutions in the 1/2 to 1 ft range.

Figure 3.2.5 Schematic of a compensated acoustic logging tool.

The sound emitted from the transmitter travels through the fluid
in the wellbore and strikes the wellbore wall, generating

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compression waves and shear waves through the formation,
surface waves along the borehole wall, and guided waves within
the fluid column in the wellbore. The waves are refracted,
reflected, and converted as they encounter the borehole wall
roughness, formation boundaries, fractures, and other
discontinuities. Therefore, many waves are recorded at the
detectors, including compressional, shear, mud, and Stoneley
waves.
Application: The acoustic log is often used to estimate porosity.
The speed of the compressional wave depends on the density of
the medium through which it travels. Therefore, the travel time
depends on the type of rock matrix, the density of the fluid
phase, and the porosity of the rock.
A hypothetical acoustic log is shown in Figure 3.2.6.

Figure 3.2.6 Hypothetical acoustic log (on right) including GR trace (on left) and
with depth intervals of 1 m. Dt is the compressional wave travel time.

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3.2.5 Density Log
The density logging tool measures the amount of GRs scattered
by the formation. The GRs are emitted from a radioactive source
that is held against the borehole wall, as shown in Figure 3.2.7.
In the basic tool, there are two detectors, a short-spaced and a
long spaced detector. To minimize wellbore effects, the source
and the detectors are located on a skid, pressed against the
borehole wall.

Figure 3.2.7 Schematic of a compensated density logging tool.

GRs are scattered when they collide with electrons (Compton


scattering). The amount of scattering is proportional to the
electron density of the medium. The electron density is
proportion to the bulk density of the medium. Hence, the GR
count at the detector is proportional to the bulk density of the
formation. Density logging tools are calibrated in the laboratory
using fresh water filled limestones to determine the
proportionality constant. The calibration is used to convert the
GR counts to density, which is plotted versus depth, as shown in
Figure 3.2.8.

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Figure 3.2.8. Hypothetical density and density porosity log (on right) including
GR trace (on left) and with depth intervals of 1 m.

Application: The density log is used to determine porosity. The


bulk density is related to the density of the formation rock, the
density of the fluid in the formation, and the porosity of the
formation.

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