MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS NEET-PHYSICS-VOL- III

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

a b −dU
SYNOPSIS Ø Generally U = − , also F =
r p rq dr
Introduction: d  a b  pa qb
∴F = − − = −
Ø Elasticity deals with property of a material , such dr  r p r q  r p +1 rq +1
as its strength and ability to withstand against where q, p are powers and a,b are constants.
external forces which are acting on it. Ø The positive term with constant ‘a’ indicates
Inter Molecular Forces: positive potential energy , the negative term with
Ø The force between the molecules due to constant ‘b’ indicates negative potential energy.
electrostatic interaction between the charges of the WE-1: The potential energy function for the force
molecules are called intermolecular forces. Thus between two atoms in a diatomic molecule is
intermolecular forces are also electromagnetic in
a b
nature. These forces are active if the separation approximately given by U ( r ) = 12
− 6,
between two molecules is of the order of molecular r r
size ( ≈ 10-9m). where a and b are constants and r is the
The variation of intermolecular forces with distance distance between the atoms. If the dissociation
is shown in fig. energy of the molecule
F
is D = U ( r = ∞ ) −U atequilibrium  , D is
rep ul sio

[AIEEE-2010]
n

a b
Sol. U ( r ) = 12 − 6 , U ( r = ∞) = 0
X r r
r dU  12a 6b 
O r0
as, F = − dr = − − r 13 + r 7 
attraction  
The variation of potential energy versus distance 2a
At equilibrium, F=0, r =
6
(U-r) graph is b
U
a b −b 2
U atequilibrium = − =
 2a 
2
 2a  4a
   
 b   b 
r0
b2
O
∴ D = U ( r = ∞ ) − U atequilibrium  =
U0 4a
r=
0 Equilibrium distance
Rigid Body :A body whose size and shape
cannot be changed, however large the applied force
Ø For large distance ‘r’, the intermolecular force is may be is called rigid body.
negligible. There is no perfectly rigid body in nature. The
Ø As the distance decreases, the force of attraction nearest approach to a perfect rigid body is
increases. diamond.
Ø At a particular distance x, the force of attraction Deformation force :The external force which
becomes maximum. After this distance, the force changes the size (or) shape (or) both of a body
of attraction decreases and becomes zero at a without moving it as a whole is called deformation
distance ‘r0 ’. force.
Ø Interatomic force is the force between two atoms Restoring force :The internal force which
or molecules due to electrostatic force of attraction restores the size and shape of the body when
between charges. deformation force is removed is called restoring
force.

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Ø Magnitude of restoring force is equal to the Ø If the force is tangential to the surface, then the
deformation force. stress is called tangential stress.
Ø The restoring force at a point do not form action, Ø The stress which changes the shape of the body is
reaction pair with applied force. This force is called shearing stress
responsible for the elastic nature of the body. Tangential restoring force
Elastic Behaviour of Solids: Shearing stress =
Area of cross section
Ø In a solid, atoms (or) molecules are bonded
together by interatomic (or) intermolecular forces F
and stay in a stable equilibrium position.
Ø When a solid is deformed, the atoms (or) molecules
are displaced from their equilibrium positions causing A A
F
a change in the interatomic distances. When the
deforming force is removed, the interatomic forces
tend to drive them back to their original positions.
Thus the body regains its original shape and size. Fixed Fixed
Elasticity : Normal stress Tangential stress
The property of a material by virtue of which it (A) (B)
regains its original size and shape when deformation
Ø Shearing stress is a tangential stress which produce
force is removed is called elasticity.
Ex :Quartz, Diamond, Steel, Rubber etc... change in shape.
There is no perfectly elastic material exist in nature, Ø When normal stress changes the volume of the body
but quartz is the nearest perfectly elastic material. then it is called volume stress (or) bulk stress. It is
Elasticity is molecular property of matter. denoted by ‘B’.
Plasticity : Ø Longitudinal stress, bulk stress are kinds of normal
The property of a material by virtue of which it stresses which produce change in size.
does not regain its original size and shape after the Ø A hollow cylinder of inner and outer radii r1 and r2
deforming force is removed is called Plasticity. respectively is placed vertically on the horizontal
Ex : Putty dough, Chewing gum, Soldering lead surface, stress at the bottom of the cylinder is
Ø No material is perfectly plastic but putty is nearest mg
π ( r2 − r1 )
approach for perfect plastic material. 2 2
Stress
Ø The restoring force acting per unit area is called stress. WE- 2:A uniform rope of mass M and length L, on
which a force F is applied at one end, then
restoring force F find stress in the rope at a distance x from the
Stress = =
area of cross section A end where force is applied?
SI Unit : N/m 2 (or) Pascal. L
Dimensional formula: M 1 L− 1T − 2
Ø Longitudinal stress is called tensile stress when Sol. T F
there is an increase in length and compressive stress
when there is a decrease in length. x
Ø The normal stress developed due to elongation is M
called tensile stress. = mass per unit length
L
F
From F = Ma ⇒ a = M
F F
Ø The normal stress developed due to compression M
Tension, T = ( L − x ) a
is called compressive stress. L
M F F
T= ( L− x ) = ( L − x )
F L M L
F
Ø If the force is normal to the surface, then the stress T F x
Stress = A = A  1− L 
is called normal stress.
Normal restoring force Where tension T and area A must be perpendicular
Normal stress = for tensile stress.
Area of cross section

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WE-3.Two equal and opposite forces F and -F act relativedisplacementbetweentwoextremelayers

Shearing strain=
on a rod of uniform cross-sectional area A, as perpendiculardistancebetweenthelayers
shown in the figure. Find the (i) shearing (ii)
∆x
longitudinal stress on the section AB. φ=
A L
Ø This strain is due to the change in shape of the body.
F F Ø Volume strain (or) Bulk strain
θ change in volume ∆V
B = =
Sol. (i) As the net force acting on the rod is zero, it is in original volume V
equilibrium. Let the tension in the segment AB be For isotropic substances:-
F1 . Applying Newton’s 2nd law for the segment 1 Shearing strain = 2 x longitudinal strain
Bulk strain = 3 x longitudinal strain
Fnet = F 1 − F = ma,
For a given material,
Longitudinal strain : Shear strain : Bulk strain=1:2:3
A 1
F sin θ Elastic limit :
The maximum value of the stress within which the
1
F 1 F body can regain its original size and shape is
θ called elastic limit.
θ Hooke's law :
B F cos θ
1
Ø Within the elastic limit, stress is directly
where, a=0 ;this gives, F 1 = F proportional to strain.
Resolving the force F1 parallel and perpendicular Stress ∝ strain
to the given area AB(= A1 , say), Stress = E × Strain
we have Ftan = F 1 cos θ ; Flong = F 1 sin θ Where E = Modulus of elasticity
Ø Within the elastic limit, stress-strain graph is a straight
F F 1 cos θ line passing through the origin.
Then, Pshearing = tan1 =
A A1
A
where, A1 = andF 1 = F
sin θ
F sin θ cos θ
Stress

This gives, Pshearing =

A
Flong
(ii) Similarly, Plong = 1 θ
A O Strain
=
F 1 sin θ
whereA1 =
A
and F 1 = F tan θ = slope ( m) = E ; Slope of the graph is E.
A1 sin θ Spring balance works on the principle of Hooke's law.
F Modulus of elasticity depends on the nature of
This gives, Plong = sin 2 θ
the material, but it is independent of dimensions.
A
Strain : Stress - Strain Curve:
The change produced per unit dimension is called strain. Ø Behaviour of a wire under increasing load.
change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension D
It has no units and dimensions. B E
Stress

Shearing strain: A C
∆x
force

L φ O P Strain
A - Proportional limit B - Elastic limit
C - Yield point OP - Permanent set
E - Breaking point

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Ø Area under stress - strain curve gives strain energy Elastic Hysteresis : As a natural consequence of
per unit volume. the elastic after-effect, the strain in the body tends
Breaking Stress : The maximum stress that the
material can with stand without breaking is called to lag behind the stress applied to the body so that
breaking stress. during a rapidly changing stress, the strain is greater
Ø Breaking stress depends on the nature of the for the same value of stress. This lag of strain behind
material, but it is independent of dimensions.
Breaking force = Breaking stress x area of the stress is called elastic hysteresis.
cross section Ø Due to elastic hysteresis, the original curve (OAB)
Ø Breaking force is independent of length of the wire, is not retraced when the deforming force is
but it depends on the nature of material and area of
cross section. removed, although finally acquires natural length.
F ∝ A, F ∝ r 2 [in case of cylindrical wire] Ø The figure clearly indicates that the work done by
Ø The maximum length of the wire that can be hanged the material in returning to its original shape is less
without breaking under its own weight than the work done by the deforming force Hence,
breaking stress
l= some amount of energy is absorbed by the material
dg in the cycle which appears as heat.
Ø If we cut a wire that can support a maximum load Ø The magnitude of the energy absorbed is
W into two equal parts, then each part of the wire
can support a maximum load W. proportional to the area of the loop. The material
Punching a hole : having low elastic hysteresis have low elastic
Ø The force required to punch a hole of radius 'r' in relaxation time.
a metal plate of thickness 't' is
F = Maximum shearing stress x 2πrt
B
Elastomers
Ø Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc.,which
can be stretched to cause large strains are called
Stress

elastomers. A
Ø The stress - strain behaviour varies from material C
to material.
Ø The figure shows stress-strain curve for the elastic
tissue of aorta, present in the heart. O
Strain
Ø For a given load the elongation of steel wire is less
than rubber. So steel is more elastic than rubber.
1.0
Stress (10 Nm )

Ø Springs are made of steel, because it is more elastic.

-2

Ø Elasticity of a material will decrease with increase

6

of temperature.
0.5 Ø For rubber elasticity will increase with increase of
temperature.
Ø For invar steel elasticity is independent of
temperature.
O 0.5 1.0 Ø Annealing means slow cooling of material after
Strain heating. It decreases the elastic property.
Although elastic region is very large, the material does
not obey Hooke’s law over most of the region. Ø Elastic property of a material changes with addition
There is no well defined plastic region. of impurity.
Elastic after effect : Elastic Modulus:
Ø The delay in regaining the original state on removal The ratio of stress and strain is called elastic modulus.
of the deforming force on a body is called Young's modulus (Y)
elastic after effect. Within the elastic limit,
Ø For a perfectly elastic body, the elastic after Longitudinalstress F/A FL
effect is zero. Y= = =
Ø For a perfectly plastic body, the elastic after effect Longitudinalstrain ∆L / L A∆L
is infinity. Dimensional formula: M 1 L− 1T − 2

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Ø From Searle's experiment the Young's modulus of modulii Y1, Y2 respectively ,and combination
the material of wire can be determined by using. behaves as a single wire.
Mgl stress produced in two wires is same
Y=
πr 2e
Ø The graph between load and elongation is a straight e1 Y1
line passing through the origin.
Ø Y depends only on the nature of material, e2 Y2
but it is independent of dimensions of material
Ø Y is defined for solids but not for liquids and gases.
Ø Y for perfectly rigid body is infinity Total elongation is e = e1 + e2
Ø If the load attached to the wire and Y are constants
F l eff F l1 F l2 l1 + l 2 l 1 l 2
l = + = +
, then e∝ 2 A Yeff A Y1 A Y2 , Yeff Y1 Y2
r
1 if two wires are having same length, l 1 = l 2 then
If length is also constant, then e∝
r2 2 1 1 2Y Y
If volume of the wire is constant, then = + ⇒ Yeff = 1 2
Yeff Y1 Y2 Y1 + Y2
1 1
e ∝ l2 ; e ∝ ; e ∝
A2 r4 Two wires connected in parallel
Ø When a load is suspended from a wire of negligible Ø Two wires of same length but different area of cross
mass. Its elongation is e1 . Then section A1 , A2 are joined in parallel and loaded. If
F l Mg l the young’s moduli of the materials of the wires are
e1 = × = × Y1 & Y2 and the combination behaves as a single
A Y A Y
wire
If the load is immersed in a liquid of density 'ρ' The strain produced in the two wires is same
then the new elongation is e2 . Then
 ρ Y1 Y2
Mg ′ l Mg 1 −  l
e2 = × =  d
A Y AY A1 A2
 ρ
⇒ e2 = e1 1 − 
 d
( e2 < e1 )
where d is density of the body
Ø The elongation produced in a wire when a mass W
Ø Elongation produced in the two wires is same but
hung at the free end of the wire is partially immersed stress is shared between them
( Mg − Vin ρg ) L (stress)1 +(stress)2 =stress
in a liquid =
AY F F F
Vin - volume of mass immersed in Liquid = 1 + 2
Aeff A1 A2
L - Length of the wire
ρ - Density of liquid Yeff Aeff Y1 A1 Y2 A2
A - Area of cross-section of wire = +
l l l
Ø Relation between interatomic force constant ( K)
and Young’s modulus (Y) is K = Y r Y1A1 +Y2 A2 =Yeff [ A1 + A2 ]
where r is interatomic distance Y1 A1 + Y2 A2
Two wires connected in series = Yeff . If two wires are of same area
A1 + A2
Two wires of different length l1 , l 2 and of same Y1 + Y2
radii are joined end to end and loaded. Young’s of cross section, A1 = A2 , Yeff =
2
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Ø A block of mass m is suspended with a wire of 1 mgL 1 ρ gL2

length l and of uniform area of cross section at one e=l= =
end, other end is connected to a rigid support and 2 YA 2 Y
is rotated in vertical circle, the elongation of the it indicates that the elongation of the rod is
wire when the mass is at highest and lowest points proportional to square of the length of the rod.
is WE-4: A 8m long string of rubber, having density
v2 1.5×103 kg/m3 and young's modulus 5×106 N/m2
is suspended from the ceiling of a room. The
T2 increase in its length due to its own weight
mg
will be (g=10m/s2 )
Sol: Given length =8m, Density ρ = 1.5 ×103 kg / m3
T1 Young’s modulus,
v1 Y = 5 × 106 N / m2 , g = 10m / s 2
mg The increase in its length due to its own weight
Ø Tension in the wire when the mass is at lowest
mv12 l 2ρg 82 ×1.5 ×103 ×10
point is T1 = mg + e= = =9.6×10−2 m
l 2Y 2×5 ×10 6

F l T1l
∴ elongation e1 = AY = AY WE-5: The length of a metal wire is l1 when the
tension in it is F1 and l2 when the tension
Ø Tension in the wire when the mass is at highest
becomes F2 . Find the natural length of wire
mv22 [2012M]
point is T2 = − mg
l Sol. Let l be the natural length of the wire for the force
F l T2l F1l Fl
∴ elongation e2 = AY = AY F1 if elongation is e1 . e1 =
AY
⇒Y = 1
Ae1
Ø If it just completes the vertical circle Similarly for the force F2 , if elongation is e2
v1 = 5 gl and T1 = 6 mg e2 =
F2l Fl
⇒ Y = 2 , l = l + e and l = l + e
Elongation of the rod due to its own weight AY Ae2 1 1 2 2

A rod of uniform cross sectional area A and length Fl F2 l

Y= 1
=
L, and weight W is suspended vertically from a A( l1 − l ) A ( l2 − l )
fixed support. If the material of the rod is ⇒ F1 ( l2 − l) = F2 ( l1 − l ) and F1l2 − F1l = F2 l1 − F2 l
homogeneous and its modulus of elasticity Y, l F −l F
( F2 − F1 ) l = l1F2 − l2 F1
or l = ( F − F ) .
1 2 2 1

2 1
WE-6.A horizontally oriented uniform copper rod
L of length l is rotating about a vertical axis
dx passing through its centre. Calculate the
rotated frequency at which the rod ruptures.
x Breaking or rupture strength of copper is σ
and density of copper is ρ .
then elongation due to its own weight is non uniform ω
in different parts of the rod.The
element closer to support elongates more dx
[since stress is higher w.r.t free end of rod]
Stress on given cross section dx is F F+dF
W  x
 x dS W
dS =   , elongation, dl = Y dx = YAL xdx
L
A Sol. The stress is zero at the free surface end and
L
W maximum at the axis. Therefore the rod will ruptures
totalelongation,l = ∫ dl = ∫ xdx at the middle. Let us consider an element of rod at
o
YAL
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a distance x from the axis, the mass of element Rupture takes place when f = σ
dm= ρ Adx, Applying Newton’s second law
σ
F − ( F + dF ) = ( dm) an , − dF = ( ρ Adx ) ω 2 x ∴σ = δω 2 R 2 ⇒ω = and
δR2
x2
∫ −dF =∫ ( ρ Adx ) ω x , F = −ρ Aω +C σ σ
2 2
1 1
2 n = =
2π δ R 2
2π R δ
l ρ Aω 2l 2
at x = ,F = 0 ∴C = WE-8: A body of mass m is connected to an
2 8 inextensible thread of length L is whirled in
Aω 2  l 2  horizontal circle. Find the maximum angular
Now F = ρ  − x2 
2 4  velocity with which it can be whirled without
breaking the thread (Breaking stress of thread
Aω 2 l2
at x = 0, F = ρ and =S).
8
Sol. T = F centripetal = mLω
2
F ρω 2l2
Stress S = = force
A 8
Rupture of rod will occur when S = σ , Tmax mLωmax 2
SA
S= = ; ω max =
A A mL
ρω 2l 2 8σ 1 8σ
∴ =σ ⇒ω = 2 ;
n= WE-9: In the given graph extension (e) of a wire
ρl 2π ρl
2
8 of length 1m is suspended from the top of a
WE-7:A ring of radius R made of lead wire of roof at one end and with a load W connected
to other end , if the cross sectional area of the
breaking strength σ and density δ , is rotated
wire is 10-6m2 , the Young’s modulus of the
about a stationary vertical axis passing material of wire is
through its centre and perpendicular to its
plane.Calculate the number of rotation per  e ×10 −4 m 
 
second at which the ring ruptures.
dmω R
2

4
ω
3
θ/2 θ/2 2
R T θ/2 θ/2 T 1

W[N]
O 20 40 60 80
e 1
Sol. Due to rotation, each part of the ring experiences Sol. From graph, slope= = ×10−4
W 20
an outward force (centrifugal force). Because of
W F F l W  l
this force, the ring will rupture. or = = 20 × 104 , Y = × =   ×
Let us consider small part of the ring, which subtend e e A e e  A
an angle θ at the centre, 1
= 20 ×104 × −6 = 2 × 1011 N / m2
Mass of the element ( dm) = δ dV = δ ( ARθ ) 10
∴ 2T sin θ / 2 = ( dm ) ω 2 R WE-10 : A slightly conical wire of length l and
When θ is small sin θ / 2 → θ / 2 radiir1 and r2 is stretched by two forces each
∴2T ×θ / 2 = (δ ARθ ) ω 2 R ⇒ T = δ Aω 2 R2 of magnitude F applied parallel to length in
opposite directions and normal to end faces.
The stress at any section of the ring If Y denotes the Young’s modulus, then find
T δ Aω 2 R 2 the elongation of the wire ( r2 > r1 ) .
f = = = δω 2 R2
A A
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WE-14: A rod PQ of length 1.05 m having F1 F2

negligible mass is supported at its ends by two
wires one of steel (wire A), and the other of
aluminium (wire B) of equal lengths as shown
in Fig. The cross-sectional areas of wires A O
and B are 1.0 mm2 and 2.0mm2 respectively. P 1 Q
x
At what point along the rod a load W be
suspended in order to produce
(a) equal stress (b) equal strains in both W = mg
steel and aluminium.
(Ysteel=200 GPa, Yaluminium=70 GPa) F1 1.05 − x′
F1 x′ = F2 (1.05 − x′ ) or
=
A B F2 x′
7.35
Ysteel YAl ⇒ 7.35 − 7x′ = 10x′ ⇒ x′ = = 0.43m
17
WE-15: A light rod of length 100 cm is suspended
x
from the ceiling horizontally by means of two
vertical wires of equal lengths tied to the ends
P Q of the rod. One of the wires is of steel and is of
W2 area of cross section 0.1cm2 . The other wire is
Sol. (a) For wire A, A1 =1mm and for wire B,
A2 =2mm2 . If F1 and F 2 are the tensions in the wires of brass and of area of cross-section 0.2cm2 .
A and B to produce equal stresses in both as shown The position from the steel wire along the rod
in Fig, then at which a load is to be placed to produce equal
stresses in both wires is
F1 F2 F1 A1 1mm2 1
= or = = =
A1 A2 F2 A2 2mm2 2
(Y steel = 20 ×1011 dynes / cm2 ,Ybrass = 10 ×1011 dynes / cm2 )
Sol.
F1 F2 F1 F2

O O
P Q P Q
x x 100-x

W = mg W = mg
Given that stress in the wires is equal
If mass m is at a distance x from the end P of the F F F 0.1 1
rod PQ, then for rotational equilibrium of the rod ∴ 1 = 2 ⇒ 1 = =
A1 A2 F2 0.2 2
about O ,
As the system is in equilibrium and taking moments
F 1.05 − x
F1 x = F2 (1.05 − x ) ( or ) 1 = about ‘o’ F1 ( x ) = F2 (100 − x )
F2 x
1.05 − x 1 F1 100 − x 1
= ⇒ 2.1 − 2 x = x ⇒ x=0.7 m ⇒ = = ⇒ x = 200 cm
x 2 F2 x 2 3
b) If F1 and F2 are the tensions in the wires A and WE-16:Two elastic rods are fixed between two
B respectively to produce equal strain in both wires, rigid supports as shown in fig. Condition
then for no change in the length of individual rods
F1 F AY  
= 2 ⇒ 1 = 1 1 =  1mm 2  200GPa  = 10
F 2
with the increase of temperature is
AY
1 1 A2 Y2 F2 A2Y2  2mm   70GPa  7 α1 , α 2 → linear coefficients of expansion
If mass m is now placed at a distance x1 from the
A1 , A2 → area of cross-sections of the rods
end P of the rod PQ, for the rotational equilibrium
of the rod about O, Y1 , Y2 → Young’s moduli
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1/3
Y1A1α1  Mg 
Sol. x = l   ;Here, 2l = 1m, l = 0.5m,
Y2A2α2  YA 
Mass=100g=0.1 kg
Y=200Gpa=200 x 109 N/m2 =2 x1011 N/m2
1/3
 0.1×10 
L1 L2 x = 0.5   = 1.074 × 10− 2 m
 ( 2 × 10 )( 0.50 × 10 ) 
11 −6
Sol. Since tensions in the two rods are same,
F1=F2 ⇒Y1A1α1 ∆θ = Y2 A2α2 ∆θ ⇒Y1 A1α1 = Y2 A2α2 Rigidity modulus:
WE-17: A steel wire of area of cross-section A and Ø Within the elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress
length 2L is clamped firmly between two rigid to the shearing strain is called rigidity modulus.
supports separated by a distance ‘2L’. A body shearing stress
is hung from the middle point of the wire such Rigidity modulus =
shearing strain
that the middle point sags by a distance x. unit: Nm-2
Calculate the mass of the body and the angle Dimensional formula: M 1 L− 1T − 2
made by the string with the horizontal.
(Young’s modulus of Steel =Y) Ø In this case, the shape of the body changes but its
volume remains unchanged
L L Ø Let us consider a cube whose lower face is fixed
and the tangential force F act on the upper face
θ θ whose area A,
x
F F F

Mg θ
x
Sol. Since 'θ ' is small ; sin θ ≈ tan θ =
L If the vertical sides of the cube shifts by an angle φ
( L + x2 ) − L
FL YAe YA  2 1/2 called shearing angle,then rigidity modulus is
Y= ;F = =
Ae L L   F/A F
η= =
YA   x2   YA  x2  φ Aφ
= L 1 + 2  − L  = L+ −L
L   2L   L  2L  It is a measure of resistance to alter the shape of
the body
YAx 2
Y= ...........(1); From the fig. S.I. unit : N/m2 (or) Pa
2L2 Ø If η is small for a wire, it can be twisted easily..
2 F sin θ = Mg ; 2 Fθ = Mg , from (1) Ø As the rigidity modulus of phosphor bronze is low,
 YAx 2  YAx2 x YAx3 it is used as suspension wire in moving coil
2  2  θ = Mg ⇒ 2 × = Mg ⇒ M = 3 galvanometer.
 2L  L L Lg
Ø A rod of length 'l' and radius r is fixed at one end.If
1/3
x 3 Mg
⇒ = 
x Mg  x the other free end is twisted through an angle θ .
=  ; since, Tanθ =
L 3
YA L  YA  L rθ
Then the angle of shear 'φ ' is given by φ = .
1/3 1/3 l
 Mg   Mg  φ
Tanθ =   ⇒ θ = Tan−1  
 YA   YA 
WE-18: A mild steel wire of length 1.0 m and cross- r r θ
sectional area 0.50 × 10-2cm 2 is stretched,
within its elastic limit horizontally between
two pillars. A mass of 100 g is suspended from
the midpoint of the wire. Calculate the
depression at the midpoint ( Ysteel = 200GPa )
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Ø A force F is applied tangentially on the upper face Torsion of a cylinder:

of a cube of side length L by fixing its lower face. Ø When one end of a cylinder of length l and radius
If l is the displacement of the upper face and A is r is clamped and the other end is given a twist
the area of the upper face, A = L2 . f then the restoring torque
phr 4 f
FL FL F
∴ Rigidity modulus, η = = = . t= ; where h = rigidity modulus
Al L2 l Ll 2l
Ø One end of the rod is fixed the other free end is WE-21: Two cylinders A and B of the same
twisted through an angle θ by applying a torque τ . material have same length, their radii being
1 in the ratio of 1:2 respectively. They are
The work done on the rod is W = τ θ joined end to end as shown in figure. The
2
WE-19 :The edge of an aluminium cube is 10 cm upper end of A is rigidly fixed. The lower end
long. One face of cube is firmly fixed to a of B is twisted through an angle θ , the angle
vertical wall. A mass of 100 kg is then attached of twist of the cylinder A is:
to the opposite face of the cube. The shear A
modulus of aluminium is 25 GPa. What is
the displacement of upper face relative to
lower face.
Sol. Here; L = 10cm = 10 −1 m ,
A = L2 = 10−2 m2
B
F = 100kg wt = 100 × 9.8N = 9.8 ×102 N .
η = 25 GPa = 25 ×109 Pa = 25 ×109 N / m 2 πη r 4
Sol. For cylinder A: τ = θ′
shear stress F/A FL 2l
As η = Shearstrain = ∆x / L = A∆x
πη ( 2r ) (θ − θ ′ )
4

For cylinder B: τ =
FL ( 9.8×10 )(10 )
2 −1
2l
∆x = =
Aη (10−2 )( 25×109 ) πη r 4
16 r 4
∴ θ ′ = πη (θ − θ ′)
= 0.4 ×10 −6 m = 4 ×10−7 m. 2l 2l
WE-20: A piece of copper having a rectangular θ ′ = 1 6θ − 16θ ′
cross-section of 15.2 mm × 19.1 mm is pulled r
in tension with 44,500 N force, producing
only elastic deformation. Calculate the
resulting strain. (shear modulus of elasticity A
of copper =42 GPa)
Sol. Here;
A = 15.2 mm× 19.1mm = 2.90 ×10 2 mm2
θ
= 2.90 × 10 − 4 m 2
F = 44,500 N , η = 42 GPa = 42 ×109 N / m2
F 44500N
Shear stress= = −4 2
= 1.53×108 N / m2
A 2.90 ×10 m
shear stress
As η = shearstrain , B

shear stress 1.53 ×108 2r θ

Shear strain = =
η 42 ×109
= 0.036 ×10 −1 = 3.6 ×10−3
16
∴θ ′ = θ
17
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∆V
= ( 79 × 1.013 ×105 ) × ( 45.8 ×10 −10 )
Bulk modulus (K) :
Ø Within the elastic limit the ratio between volume V
stress and bulk strain is called bulk modulus. = 36.65 ×10−3
∆V ( m / ρ ) − ( m / ρ )
volume stress
Bulk modulus =
1
ρ
bulk strain = =1 − 1
unit: Nm-2
but
V (m/ ρ) ρ
Dimensional formula: M 1 L− 1T − 2 ρ ∆V 1.03 ×103
=1− or ρ 1
=
F ρ′ V 1 − 36.65 × 10−3
V F − PV 1.03 ×103
K= A =− = ρ1 = = 1.07 × 10 3 kg / m 3
−∆V ∆V A ∆V 0.964
V WE-23: Determine the volume contraction of a
Ø Negative sign indicates the decrease in volume with solid copper cube, 10 cm on an edge, when
increase in pressure subjected to a hydraulic pressure of 7.0 ×106
K solids > Kliquids > Kgases Pa. (Bulk modulus for copper=140 GPa)
Ø If a block of coefficient of cubical expansion γ is Sol. Here; L = 10cm = 10 −1 m; V = L3 =10−3 m3,
heated through a rise in temperature of θ , then the ∆P = 7.0 ×106 Pa, K = 140 GPa = 140 × 109 Pa.
pressure to be applied on it to prevent its expansion
∆P V
= K γθ , where K is its bulk modulus. As K = ,
Ø When a rubber ball of volume V, bulk modulus K ∆V
∆P V ( 7.0 ×10 )(10 )
6 −3
is taken to a depth 'h' in water decrease in its
∆V = = = 5 ×10−8 m3
volume ∆V =
hdgV
; (d = density of material)
K (140 ×10 )9

K WE-24: The normal density of gold is ρ . It’s bulk

Ø For an incompressible material, ∆V = 0 , modulus is K. Find the increase in density of
so its bulk modulus is infinity. a piece of gold when a pressure P is applied
Solid possesses Y, η and K uniformly from all sides?
Liquids and gases possess only K. P dV P M
Ø Isothermal bulk modulus of the gas = P(Pressure) K= ⇒ = and ρ =
dV
Adiabatic bulk modulus of the gas = γp Sol. V K V
V
Cp
(where γ = ) ρ + ∆ρ =
M
⇒ ∆ρ =
M
−
M
CV V − ∆V V − ∆V V
adiabatic change involume ∆Va    
γ = = M 1  M  1 
isothermal change involume ∆Vi ∆ρ =  ∆ V − 1 ⇒ ∆ ρ =  P − 1
V 1 −  V 1 − 
Ø The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called
 V   K 
1 M  K − K + P
Compressibility. C = ∆ρ =
M K 
− 1 ⇒ ∆ρ =
K 
V K − P  V  K − P 
WE-22: What is the density of water at a depth
where the pressure is 79.0 atm, given its  P 
∆ρ = ρ  .
density at the surface is 1.03 ×103 kg / m3 ? K −P
Compressibility of water = 45.8 ×10 −10 pa −1. Poisson's ratio (σ ) :
Ø The ratio of lateral contraction strain to the
∆P ∆V ∆P
Sol. K = ⇒ = longitudinal elongation strain is called Poisson's
∆V V K ratio.
V lateral contractio n strain
σ=
∆V  1
⇒ = ( ∆P ) C Q C =  longitudin al elongation strain
V  K transversestrain −∆r / r
= =
longitudinalstrain ∆l / l
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Ø As it is a ratio, it has no units and dimensions. ∆A ∆r

A = π r 2 l, A α r 2 , = 2×
Ø Theoretical limits of σ = −1 to 0.5 A r
Practical limits of σ = 0.2 to 0.4 ∆A 20
= 2 × 0.32 × ×10 −4 = 1.16 ×10−4 m 2
Ø For an incompressible substance σ = 0.5 A 11
Ø The Poisson’s ratio of a given material is ' σ '. When Decrease in cross sectional area of the wire is
the load is applied on it, the longitudinal elongation ∆A = 1.16 × 10−4 ×10−6 = 1.16 ×10−10 m 2
∆l ∆r WE-26: When a wire of length 10 m is subjected to
strain is , the lateral contraction strain is ,
l r a force of 100N along its length, the lateral
Then the fractional change in its volume is strain produced is 0.01 × 10-3 .The Poisson’s
F ratio was found to be 0.4. If area of cross
F section of wire is 0.025m2 , its Young’s modulus
r-∆r is [2007 E]
Sol. Poisson’s ratio
r
∆r
lateralstrain −
σ= = r
longitudinalstrain ∆l
l
+∆
∆r
−
∆l 10 −5
∴ = r = = 25 × 10−6
l σ 0.4
From
Fl F 100
Y= = =
F A∆l  ∆l  25 ×10 × 25 ×10 −6
−3
A 
F  l 
volume of thewire V = π r l 2
= 1.6 × 10 N m 2
8

When a load is applied on a wire the fractional Relation among elastic constants Y, η ,K:
change in its volume is
9 1 3 9η K
∆V ∆r ∆l ∆V  ∆l  ∆l Ø = + (or) Y =
=2 + ⇒ V = 2  −σ l  + l Y K η 3K + η
V r l  
3 K − 2η
∆V ∆l Ø Y = 2η (1 + σ ) ; Y = 3K (1 − 2σ ) ; σ =
= [1 − 2σ ] 6 K + 2η
V l Elastic Potential Energy in A stretched Wire
WE-25: A tension of 20 N is applied to a copper Ø Work is done by the force in causing deformation
wire of cross sectional area 0.01 cm2 , Young’s (or) strain. This work done is stored in the body as
Modulus of copper is 1.1×10 11 N/m 2 and potential energy and is called strain energy.
Poisson’s ratio 0.32. The decrease in cross Ø When the applied force is removed, the strain
sectional area of the wire is [ENG-2013] energy is converted into heat energy and the
Sol. Given, tension=20N temperature of the body increases by a small
area of cross section = 0.01cm2 = 1x 10-6m2 amount.
Young’s Modulus, Y= 1.1 x 1011 N/m2 1
YA∆l ∆l F Ø E = (Stress) (Strain) (volume of body)
F= ⇒ = 2
l l YA
1 1 e 2 AY
20 W = Fe =
= −6 =
20
×10 −4 N , 2 2 l
1.1 ×10 ×10
11
11 Ø Strain energy per unit volume of the body is given
From Poisson’s ratio E 1 1
∆r ∆l 20 by = (Stress) (Strain) = Y ( Strain) 2
=σ × = 0.32 × × 10−4 V 2 2
r l 11 2
( Stress)
area of the wire is =
2Y
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Thermal force: WE-29: A copper wire 2m long is stretched by

Ø When a metal bar is fixed between two supports 1mm. If the energy stored in the stretched wire
and heated, it tries to expand and exerts force is converted into heat, then calculate the rise
on the walls. This is called thermal force. in temperature of the wire.
F = AYα ∆θ . ( Y = 12.5 ×1010 N / m2 ;
Thermal force is independent of length of the bar. ρ = 9 × 103 kg / m3 ; s = 385 J / Kg − K )
F AYα ∆θ
Thermal stress = = = Yα ∆θ . 1
Sol. m s ∆ t = 2 Y ( strain ) × ρ
2 m
A A
Thermal stress is independent of length and area of 2
cross section and depends on its nature 1 Y  e
∆t = × ×  
Ø Thermal strain = α ∆θ 2 sρ  l 
Ø Thermal energy stored in metallic bar 2
1 12.5×1010  1 
1 ( thermalstress ) ∆t = × × = 0.00450C
2
1
= Yα 2 ( ∆θ )
2
2 9 ×10 × 385 1000× 2 
=
3

2 Y 2 So the rise in temperature of the wire is 0.0045O C

WE-27 : Find the pressure that has to be applied
to the ends of a steel wire of length 10 cm, to WE-30:A catapult consists of two parallel rubber
keep its length constant when its temperature cords each of length 20 cm and cross- sectional
is raised by 1000 C is [AIE-2014] area 5 cm2 .When stretched by 8 cm, it can
throw a stone of mass 4gm to a vertical height
Ysteel = 2 ×1011 N / m 2 α wire = 1.1× 10−5 / K 5 m, the Young’s modulus of elasticity of
F rubber is  g = 10 m /sec 2 
Sol. Pressure , P =
A Sol. The total elastic potential energy is converted
F/A F ∆l into gravitational potential energy
but Y = ⇒ =Y = Yα∆ t
∆l A l 1 YAe 2 2mghL
l × = mgh ⇒ Y = 2
2 L Ae
∴ P = Yα ∆t = 2 ×1011 ×1.1×10−5× 102 = 2.2× 10+8 Pa
mghL
for a single string, Y =
WE-28 : A 40 kg boy whose legs are 4cm2 in area
50cm long falls through a height of 2m Ae 2
without breaking his leg bones. If the bones
4 ×10−3 ×10 × 5 × 20 ×10 −2 4 ×10−2
can withstand a stress of 0.9 ×108 N / m 2 . = =
5 × 10−4 × (8 ×10−2 )
2
Calculate the Young’s modulus of material of 5× 64 ×10−8
the bone.
Sol. Mass=40Kg,area of each leg=4cm2 =4 x 10-4m2 = 1.25 ×104 N / m 2
breaking stress = 0.9 ×108 N / m 2 , WE-31: A uniform cylinder of length L and mass
length of each leg = 50cm=50 x 10-2m. m having cross-sectional area A is suspended
with its length vertical from a fixed point by a
1 ( stress )
2

From E = 2 × Y × A× L mass less spring, such that it is half submerged

in a liquid of density at equilibrium position,
Where elastic energy of bone in the form of the extension x0 of the spring when it is in
equilibrium is [AIE-2013]
potential energy, E = mgh ; For two legs,
Sol. F= Kx0 [restoring force in spring]
æ 1 stress 2 ö
mgh = 2çç ´ ´volume÷÷÷ , F FB FB = buoyant force = ( mg ) liqdisplaced
çè 2 ø÷
.
AL
Y = σ g , at equilibrium Fnet=0
2
(0.9 ´108 ) ´4´10- 4 ´50´10-2 From free body diagram,
2

Y= K x0 +
AL
σ g = mg
40´ 9.8´ 2 2 AL
⇒ K x0 = mg − 2 σ g
= 2.05´10 N / m2
9

mg  ALσ 
x0 = 1−
mg K  2 m 
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Spring : 3. Which of the following effects the elasticity of

F a substance
Ø For a given spring F ∝ x; F = Kx ; K = 1) hammering and annealing
x
k is called spring constant (or) force constant (or) 2) change in temperature
stiffness constant. 3) impurity in substance 4) all of these
Spring constant in terms of Young's modulus, area STRESS & STRAIN
YA 4. A spiral spring is stretched by a force, the
of cross section and length K = resultant strain produced in the spring is
l 1) volume strain 2) longitudinal strain
Ø P.E. of a stretched spring 3) shearing strain 4) all the above
1 1 F2 5. Three wires A, B, C made of different
E = Kx 2 = Fx = materials elongated by 1.5,2.5,3.5 mm, under
2 2 2K
K K
a load of 5kg. If the diameters of the wires
Ø Springs in series, Keff = 1 2 are the same, the most elastic material is that
K +K
1 2 of
Ø Springs in parallel , Keff = K1 + K2 1)A 2)B 3)C 4) A, B & C are correct
6. The modulus of elasticity is dimensionally
Ø Two springs having force constants K1 & K 2
equivalent to
( K1 > K2 ) are stretched by same amount then 1) stress 2) surface tension
more work is done on the first spring W ∝ K . 3) strain 4) coefficient of viscosity
Ø Two springs having force constants K1 ,K2 (K 1 >K2) 7. Modulus of elasticity for a perfectly elastic
are stretched by same force then more work is body is
done on the second spring. W ∝ 1 / K . 1) Zero 2) infinity3)1 4) 2
8. The only elastic modulus that applies to fluids
Ø If energy is same for both the springs the relation is
between force and spring constant is F ∝ K . 1) young’s modulus 2) bulk modulus
WE-32 :A spring of force constant 800 N/m has an 3) modulus of rigidity 4) all the above
extension of 5cm, The work done in extending 9. As temperature increases the Young’s modulus
it from 5cm to 15cm is of the material of a wire
Sol. W = K ( x2 − x1 ) = × 800 15 − 5  ×10
1 2 2 1 2 2 −4
1)increases 2)decreases
3)remains the same 4)becomes infinite
2 2
10. If stress is numerically equal to young’s
= 400 ×[ 225 − 25] ×10 −4 = 4 × 10−2 × 200 = 8J modulus, the elongation will be
WE-33: Two springs of spring constants 1500 N/m 1)1/4 the original length
and 3000 N/m respectively are stretched by 2)1/2 the original length
the same force. The potential energy gained 3) equal to the original length
by the two springs will be in the ratio 4)twice the original length
11. A wire elongates by1 mm when a load W is
F2
Sol. From W = , if force F is same on two springs hung from it. If the wire goes over a pulley
2K and the elongation of the wire will be
1 1 U 1 = K 2 = 3000 = 2 1) 0.5mm 2) 1 mm 3) 2mm4) 4mm
Wα orUα , 12. An iron bar of length L. cross-section A and
K K U 2 K1 1500 1 Young’s modulus Y is pulled by a force F from
ends so as to produce an elongation l. Which of
C.U.Q the following statements is correct?
ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR 1 1
1) lα 2) lα A 3) lα 4) lα Y
1. Reason for the deformation of a regular body L A
is 13. The bulk modulus for an incompressible liquid
1)bulk strain 2) shearing strain is
3)linear strain 4)lateral strain 1) infinity 2) unity
2. For a gas elastic limit 3) zero 4) between 0 and 1
1) exists 2) eoes not exist 14. Shearing strain is expressed by
3) exists only at absolute zero 1) angle of twist 2) angle of shear
4) exists for a perfect gas 3) decrease in volume 4) increase in volume

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