Geometric Design of Junctions

(priority junctions, direct

accesses, roundabouts, grade
separated and compact grade
separated junctions)
DN-GEO-03060
April 2017
 TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IRELAND (TII) PUBLICATIONS

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TII Publication Title Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct

accesses, roundabouts, grade separated and compact
grade separated junctions)
TII Publication Number DN-GEO-03060

Activity Design (DN) Document Set Standards

Stream Geometry (GEO) Publication Date April 2017
Document 03060 Historical N/A
Number Reference

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 TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IRELAND (TII) PUBLICATIONS

TII Publications

Activity: Design (DN)

Stream: Geometry (GEO)
Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct
TII Publication Title: accesses, roundabouts, grade separated and compact
grade separated junctions)
TII Publication Number: DN-GEO-03060
Publication Date: April 2017
Set: Standards

Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

2. Junction Types ............................................................................................................ 6

3. Road Safety ............................................................................................................... 19

4. Selection of Junction Type ....................................................................................... 23

5. Geometric Design of Priority Junctions & Vehicular Access to National roads . 31

6. Geometric Design of Roundabouts ......................................................................... 62

7. Layout of Grade Separated Junctions................................................................... 105

8. Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions .................................................. 150

9. References ............................................................................................................... 163

..................................................................................................................... 165

..................................................................................................................... 168

..................................................................................................................... 179

..................................................................................................................... 181

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

Updates to TII Publications resulting in changes to

Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade
separated and compact grade separated junctions) DN-GEO-03060

Date: April 2017

Amendment Details:
This Standard supersedes:

a) DN-GEO-03043 (TD 41-42) Geometric Design of Priority Junctions and

Vehicular Access to National roads.
b) DN-GEO-03033 (TD 16) Geometric Design of Roundabouts.
c) DN-GEO-03035 (TD 22) Layout of Grade Separated Junctions.
d) DN-GEO-03042 (TD 40) Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions.
e) DN-GEO-03045 (TD 51) Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection
Islands at Roundabouts.
f) DN-GEO-03032 (TD 10) Road Link Design for Type 2 and Type 3 Dual
Carriageways. The details in relation to junctions on Type 2 and Type 3 Dual
Carriageways have been incorporated.
This standard combines the requirements of the above superseded standards into one consolidated
standard for the geometric design of junctions.

The principal changes from the previous Standards are:

General
a) The following general chapters covering each junction type have been
developed based on information contained in the above superseded standards:
i) Introduction
ii) Junction Types
iii) Road Safety
iv) Selection of Junction Type
b) Information specific to each junction type has been included within individual
chapters within this standard.
c) References to urban roads and streets and details in relation to urban junction
types are not included in this standard.
d) Details of facilities for non-motorised users (NMUs) at junctions have been
included within this standard.
e) DN-GEO-03047 Rural Cycle Scheme Design has been revised to include only
for the design of cycleways i.e. roads reserved for the exclusive use of cyclists
or cyclists and pedestrians and has been renamed Rural Cycleway Design -
Offline.
f) Details for Segregated left turn lanes at roundabouts are now included in this
standard.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

g) Details specifically for retrofitting existing junctions have been removed from this
standard and will be incorporated into an updated version of DN-GEO-03030
Guidance on Minor Improvements to National Roads.
DN-GEO-03043 Geometric Design of Priority Junctions and Vehicular Access to National
roads
a) Conflicts between the Traffic Signs Manual (TSM) and DN-GEO-03043
regarding the provision of diverge tapers and diverge lanes have been reviewed.
b) Figure 2.2 of DN-GEO-03043: ‘Approximate Level of Provision of T-junctions on
New Single Carriageway Roads for various major and minor road Design Year
Traffic Flows’ has been removed and guidance on the approach to traffic
modelling for all junction types has been provided.
c) Amended corner radii and diverge tapers have been provided in Chapter 5.
d) Chapter 5 refers to the siting of accesses and junctions on national roads. A
mandatory distance between access roads and Priority Junctions has been
included.
e) The visibility requirement for drivers emerging from a minor road or direct access
has been updated to be to the high object (1.05m) on the major road as defined
in DN-GEO-03031.
f) The requirements for channelising islands have been amended to ensure they
are raised and kerbed.
g) The maximum distance for staggered junctions has been defined.
h) Table 5.3 from DN-GEO-03043 has been reviewed with regard to the suitability
of left-in/left-out junctions for direct access on single carriageway roads.
i) The methodology for designing a channelising island has been reviewed and a
step by step process has been provided within an appendix to illustrate the
method.
j) The siting of a junction on the inside of a curve has been written into the
document as a Departure from Standards.
k) The conflict between Paragraphs 7.16 and 7.18 of DN-GEO-03043 with regard
to the maximum allowable gradients on local roads on the approach to a junction
has been clarified.
l) On the side of the major road opposite a ghost island junction the hard shoulder
shall now be tapered to form a minimum 1.5m hard strip for new build schemes,
previously 0.5m.
m) The principles for detailing of roads severed as part of road improvement
schemes have been included in the safety chapter.
DN-GEO-03033 Geometric Design of Roundabouts
a) A cut-off point between roundabout and link design has been established and
guidance on suitable approach curvature to roundabouts has been provided.
b) The maximum inscribed circle diameter (ICD) for roundabouts has been revised.
c) A minimum inscribed circle diameter (ICD) for roundabouts with more than four
arms has been included.
d) The overrun area diagrams from TAL 12/93 have been reviewed to clarify that
the stepped pattern is not a requirement.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

e) The minimum longitudinal gradients for the circulatory carriageways have been
revised. Similarly, a maximum longitudinal gradient for the circulatory
carriageway has been introduced.
f) Minimum resultant gradients of the pavement surface on the approach to
roundabouts have been introduced to comply with DN-GEO-03031.
g) Roundabout types available for use on rural roads are single lane and multi-lane
roundabouts; compact, mini, signalised and double roundabouts have been
removed.
DN-GEO-03035 Layout of Grade Separated Junctions
a) Layout options were reviewed and Layout Type F Option 1 was amended to
provide for an additional auxiliary lane.
b) Direct merge layout A from DN-GEO-03035 has been removed.
c) Definitions were reviewed to ensure consistency with the definitions of rural
roads in DN-GEO-03036.
d) Paragraph 4.4 from DN-GEO-03035 has been amended to remove the
reference to TA 58.
e) Two bridge roundabout layouts and associated text have been removed from the
standard.
f) Diamond interchange layouts and associated text have been removed from the
standard.
DN-GEO-03042 Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions
a) Layout options for 4 arm compact grade separation on Single and Dual
Carriageways have been reviewed and updated.
b) Visibility requirements for low radii connector roads have been updated.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

Contents Table
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 General ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Scope ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Implementation ................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Relaxations and Departures ............................................................................... 1
1.5 Definitions ........................................................................................................... 2

2. Junction Types ............................................................................................................ 6

2.1 General ............................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Priority Junctions ................................................................................................ 8
2.3 Roundabouts .................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Grade Separated Junctions .............................................................................. 14
2.5 Compact Grade Separated Junctions ............................................................... 16
2.6 Major Interchanges ........................................................................................... 18

3. Road Safety ............................................................................................................... 19

3.1 General ............................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Road User’s Limitations .................................................................................... 19
3.3 Visibility ............................................................................................................. 20
3.4 Road Marking and Signing ............................................................................... 20
3.5 Lighting ............................................................................................................. 20
3.6 Landscaping ..................................................................................................... 20
3.7 Enhancing road layouts at existing priority junctions to improve safety ............ 21
3.8 Safety Barriers .................................................................................................. 21
3.9 Detailing of Severed Roads .............................................................................. 21

4. Selection of Junction Type ....................................................................................... 23

4.1 General ............................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Selection of Junction Type ................................................................................ 23
4.3 Design Vehicle .................................................................................................. 27
4.4 Improvement of Existing Junctions ................................................................... 28

5. Geometric Design of Priority Junctions & Vehicular Access to National roads . 31

5.1 General ............................................................................................................. 31
5.2 Siting of priority junctions and direct access to national roads .......................... 31
5.3 Priority Junction Layouts ................................................................................... 33
5.4 Provision for Non-Motorised Users ................................................................... 36
5.5 Direct Accesses ................................................................................................ 39

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

5.6 Geometric Design of Priority Junctions on Single and Dual Carriageway Roads
.......................................................................................................................... 43
5.7 Diverging/Merging Tapers and Lanes at Junctions ........................................... 57
5.8 Priority Junctions on climbing lanes .................................................................. 57
5.9 Drainage and Crossfall ..................................................................................... 57
5.10 Roads with Hard Shoulders .............................................................................. 57
5.11 Specific Geometric Design Layouts for Dual Carriageways .............................. 59

6. Geometric Design of Roundabouts ......................................................................... 62

6.1 General ............................................................................................................. 62
6.2 Siting................................................................................................................. 62
6.3 Landscaping within a Roundabout .................................................................... 63
6.4 Selection of Roundabout Type ......................................................................... 64
6.5 Provision for Non-Motorised Users (NMUs) ...................................................... 65
6.6 Geometric Design of Roundabouts ................................................................... 66
6.7 Visibility ............................................................................................................. 84
6.8 Crossfall............................................................................................................ 89
6.9 Road Marking and Signing ............................................................................... 92
6.10 Kerbing and Verge Width .................................................................................. 93
6.11 Heavy Goods Vehicles ..................................................................................... 95
6.12 Segregated Left Turn Lanes at Roundabouts ................................................... 95

7. Layout of Grade Separated Junctions................................................................... 105

7.1 General Principles .......................................................................................... 105
7.2 Design Process............................................................................................... 107
7.3 Layout Options ............................................................................................... 107
7.4 Design Principles ............................................................................................ 109
7.5 Merges – General Principles .......................................................................... 109
7.6 Diverges – General Principles ........................................................................ 116
7.7 Geometric Design Parameters ....................................................................... 121
7.8 Successive Merges or Diverges Within Interchanges ..................................... 122
7.9 Designing Weaving Sections .......................................................................... 126
7.10 Traffic Flows ................................................................................................... 131
7.11 Geometric Standards ...................................................................................... 132
7.12 Loops .............................................................................................................. 135
7.13 Sight Distances ............................................................................................... 139
7.14 Hardstrip and Hardshoulder ............................................................................ 139

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separated and compact grade separated junctions)

7.15 Lane Drop/Lane Gain and Through Carriageway ........................................... 143

7.16 Interchanges ................................................................................................... 144
7.17 General ........................................................................................................... 147
7.18 Safety ............................................................................................................. 149

8. Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions .................................................. 150

8.1 Design Procedure ........................................................................................... 150
8.2 Geometric Standards ...................................................................................... 151
8.3 Layout Options ............................................................................................... 155
8.4 Safety ............................................................................................................. 161
8.5 Specific Road User Requirements .................................................................. 162

9. References ............................................................................................................... 163

9.1 TII Publications (Standards) ........................................................................... 163
9.2 Transport Infrastructure Ireland Publications .................................................. 163
9.3 Traffic Sign Regulations.................................................................................. 163
9.4 UK, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Standards ................................... 163

..................................................................................................................... 165
Design Vehicles ........................................................................................................ 165

..................................................................................................................... 168
Design of Channelising Islands ................................................................................. 168

..................................................................................................................... 179
Design of a Compound Curve ................................................................................... 179

..................................................................................................................... 181
Junction Analysis Procedure Worked Example ......................................................... 181

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TII Publications DN-GEO-03060
Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

1. Introduction
1.1 General
This Standard sets out the standards and advice for the geometric design of junctions. The design
principles and geometric parameters which shall be considered by Designers when developing safe,
traffic efficient junction layouts and vehicular accesses onto new and improved National roads are
outlined.

This standard does not cover the design requirements and methodology for the geometric layout of
major interchanges (including the expansion and improvement of existing interchanges and junctions).
This is set out in DN-GEO-03041: The Design of Major Interchanges.

1.2 Scope
This standard sets out the design requirements and methodology which shall be followed when
developing junction and access layouts for Motorways and all-purpose national roads, both dual and
single carriageways, in rural areas, taking into consideration traffic operation, physical elements,
economic and safety factors and the requirements of non-motorised users (NMUs). This standard also
provides guidance on junction and access layouts on regional and local roads which form part of a
national road scheme.

This standard provides recommendations on the siting of junctions with respect to topography and
driver expectations and limitations.

This standard shall not be used for the design of road markings and signage at junctions. Road
markings and signage for junctions on national roads shall be designed in accordance with the
requirements of the Traffic Signs Manual (TSM) issued by the Department of Transport.

1.3 Implementation
This Standard shall be used for the design of junction layouts on all new or improved national roads.
The design of national, regional and local roads which are constructed or improved as part of a
national road scheme shall also be developed in accordance with this standard.

1.4 Relaxations and Departures

The standards contained in this document represent the maximum/minimum levels of provision whose
incorporation in the junction design would achieve a desirable level of performance in average
conditions in terms of traffic safety, operation, economic and environmental effects and sustainability.
In most cases, with care, designs can be achieved which do not utilise the lowest levels of design
parameters given. At some locations on new roads or major improvements, however, it may not be
possible to justify even the lowest levels of design parameters in economic or environmental terms,
due to high costs, low traffic levels, and environmental damage, etc. In such cases, sufficient
advantages might justify either a Relaxation within the standards or, in more constrained locations, a
Departure from the standards. Relaxations and Departures should be assessed in terms of their
effects on the economic worth of the scheme, the environment, and the safety of the road user. Further
details on the use of Relaxations and Departures are as follows.

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TII Publications DN-GEO-03060
Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

1.4.1 Relaxations within Standard

In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax a standard set out in this document, where
specifically provided for within the text (refer to DN-GEO-03031 for all combinations of allowable
relaxations from standard). The Designer shall record the fact that a Relaxation has been used in the
design and the corresponding reasons for its use. The record shall be endorsed by the Designer
responsible for the scheme. The Designer shall report all Relaxations incorporated into the design as
part of the project report at the end of each project management phase (refer to the national roads
Project Management Guidelines).

1.4.2 Departures from Standards

In exceptional situations, Transport Infrastructure Ireland (TII) may be prepared to agree to a
Departure from Standards where the standard, including permitted Relaxations, is not realistically
achievable. Designers faced by such situations and wishing to consider pursuing this course shall
discuss any such option at an early stage in design with TII. Proposals to adopt Departures from
Standard must be submitted by the Designer to TII and formal approval received BEFORE
incorporation into a design layout. Further information can be found in GE-GEN-01005 Departures
from Standards and Specification.

1.5 Definitions
The terminology used in this Standard are defined as follows:

a) Auxiliary Lane: An additional lane at the side of the mainline carriageway to

provide increased merge or diverge opportunity or additional space for weaving
traffic.
b) Central reserve: The area which separates the carriageways of a dual
carriageway or Motorway. Note that this includes any offside hard strips.
c) Channelising Island: A raised kerbed island constructed (a) within the bellmouth
of a priority junction to guide traffic movements into and out of the minor road (b) at
a roundabout junction entry/exit to direct traffic onto or from a roundabout
circulatory carriageway or (c) at a segregated left turn lane, located between an
entry and exit on the same roundabout arm and shaped so as to direct and also
separate opposing traffic movements onto and from a roundabout circulatory
carriageway.
d) Compact Connector Road: In the context of compact grade separated junctions a
two way connector road between the major and minor roads.
e) Compact Grade Separated Junction: A grade separated junction designed in
accordance with Chapter 8 of this standard.
f) Connector Road: A collective term for slip roads, link roads, interchange links and
loop roads.
g) Cycle Facilities: Refers to all types of measures which improve conditions for
cyclists and include:
i. Cycleways: a public road or proposed public road reserved for the exclusive use
of cyclists or cyclists and pedestrians.
ii. Cycle Track: Part of a road, including part of a footway or part of a roadway, which
is reserved for the use of pedal cycles and from which all mechanically propelled
vehicles, other than mechanically propelled wheelchairs, are prohibited from
entering except for the purpose of access.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

iii. Cycle Lane: part of the carriageway of a road reserved primarily for use by
cyclists. The cycle lane forms part of the road and it is located within the
contiguous road surface. A cycle lane can also be referred to as an on-road cycle
track.
iv. Shared Use Cycle and Pedestrian Facilities: A Cycle Track or Cycleway that is
provided for both cycle and pedestrian use.
v. Shared roads with Motor Vehicles: A road under low speed/low vehicular traffic
flow conditions that is also provided for both cycle and pedestrian use.
vi. Greenway: a Cycleway that caters for pedestrian and cyclists in a recreational
environment
vii. Cycle Network: is a defined collection of routes which connect key origins and
destinations in a specified area for cyclists.
h) Downstream: That part of the carriageway(s) where the traffic is flowing away
from the section under consideration.
i) Dual Carriageway: A divided road with one or more (generally two) lanes in each
direction with carriageway widths of up to 7.5m (for two lanes in each direction i.e.
2 × 3.75m lanes).
j) Dumb-bell Link Road: A short link road connecting two roundabouts either side of
a dual carriageway or motorway at a grade separated junction (Refer to Chapter
7).
k) Designer: The organisation responsible for undertaking and/or certifying the
design.
l) Direct Access: An access that connects directly to a national road including field
accesses and accesses serving one or more properties as described in Chapter 5
national road.
m) Fork: At an at-grade junction, usually on a link road within a grade separated
interchange, where the road splits into two. Usually both diverging roads have
equal status and diverge from the single approach at similar angles.
n) Ghost Island Junction: A junction within which an area is marked on the
carriageway, shaped and located so as to direct traffic movement.
o) Ghost Island on Merges/Diverges: An area of the carriageway suitably marked
to separate lanes of traffic travelling in the same direction on both merge and
diverge layouts. The purpose of the ghost island at a merge is to separate the
points of entry of two slip road traffic lanes.
p) Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV): Vehicles designed and constructed for the carriage
of goods. Heavy Goods Vehicle refers to vehicle categories N2 (maximum mass
between 3.5 tonnes and 12 tonnes) and N3 (maximum mass exceeding 12 tonne).
q) Interchange: A grade separated junction that provides free flow of traffic from one
mainline carriageway to another. Refer to DN-GEO-03060.
r) Interchange Link: A connector road, one or two way, carrying free flowing traffic
within an interchange.
s) Lane Gain: A layout where a merging connector road becomes a lane or lanes of
the downstream carriageway.
t) Lane Drop: A layout where a lane or lanes of the upstream carriageway becomes
the diverging connector road.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

u) Link Road: A connector road separate from the mainline carriageway, which is
used to connect the mainline carriageway to the local road network.
v) Loop: A connector road, one or two way, which is made up of the elements of the
loops shown in Chapter 7 and which passes through an angle in the range of
approximately 180 to 270 degrees. The loop is considered to extend to the end of
the near straight length of road contiguous with the back of the diverge or merge
nose.
w) Low Radius: A radius between the minimum loop radius in Table 8.2 and the Two
Steps below Desirable Minimum Radius with Superelevation of 7% as required by
DN-GEO-03031 for the slip road, link road or interchange link design speed.
x) Mainline/Major Road: The carriageway carrying the main flow of traffic (generally
traffic passing through a junction or interchange).
y) Major Interchanges: Interchanges provided at the intersection of motorways, dual
carriageways and national roads to provide free flow for all movements
accommodated. The free flow arrangement removes the conflict points, however
they are generally larger and more complex than the type of junction described in
this standard and must be designed in accordance with DN-GEO-03041 (see
Section 2.6) national road.
z) Minor road: A minor road is a road which has to give priority to the major road.
aa) Near Straight: A length of road with a radius no less than the minimum radii for
the appropriate design speed for straight or nearly straight two lane overtaking
sections for the mainline design speed as outlined in Table 7.1 of DN-GEO-03031.
bb) Nose: A paved area, approximately triangular in shape, between a connector road
and the mainline at a merge or diverge.
cc) Non-motorised Users (NMUs): Pedestrians, cyclists and equestrians, including
people with disabilities (see definition of ‘People with Disabilities’) and other
mobility impaired users (e.g. people with luggage, with children, or pregnant
women).
dd) Non-physical Segregated Left Turn Lane: A left turn lane from adjacent
roundabout entry and exit, shaped to direct and separate the traffic movement
from the roundabout circulatory carriageway by means of an island delineated
using road markings only.
ee) Parallel Merge/Diverge: A layout where an auxiliary lane is provided alongside
the mainline carriageway. This term incorporates the auxiliary lane, the nose and
the taper.
ff) Physical Segregated Left Turn Lane: A left turn lane from a roundabout entry to
the first exit, separated from the roundabout entry, circulatory carriageway and exit
by means of channelised islands (See definition of Channelised Islands).
gg) Priority Junction: An at grade junction between a major road and a minor road
whereby the traffic on the minor road must yield to the traffic on the major road.
hh) Reserved Lane: A lane carrying traffic that is segregated from weaving traffic.
ii) Road Authority: The authority responsible for the road construction or
improvement scheme.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

jj) Rural Road: A road outside of built-up areas including:

i. Single Carriageway roads;
ii. All-purpose Dual Carriageway roads; or
iii. Motorways.
kk) Single Carriageway: Two-lane single carriageway road with lane widths of up to
3.65m.
ll) Skew or Y-Junction: An at-grade junction of two roads, at which the minor road
approaches the major road at an oblique angle and terminates at the junction.
mm) Slip Road: A connector road within a junction between a mainline carriageway and
the local road network, or vice versa, which meets the local road network at-grade.
Traffic using a slip road usually has to yield to traffic already on the mainline or on
the local road network.
nn) Taper Merge/Diverge: A layout where merging or diverging traffic joins or leaves
the mainline carriageway through an area forming a funnel to or flare from the
mainline carriageway.
oo) Type 1 Dual Carriageway: A divided all-purpose road with a minimum of two
lanes and hard shoulder in each direction constructed to the geometric standards
of DN-GEO-03031 and CC-SCD-00006.
pp) Type 1 Single Carriageway: An all-purpose road with a 3.65m lane in each
direction constructed to the geometric standards of DN-GEO-03031 and CC-SCD-
00001.
qq) Type 2 Dual Carriageway: A divided all-purpose road with two lanes and hard
strip in each direction constructed to the geometric standards of DN-GEO-
03031and CC-SCD-00005.
rr) Type 2 Single Carriageway: An all-purpose road with a 3.50m lane in each
direction constructed to the geometric standards of DN-GEO-03031 and CC-SCD-
00002.
ss) Type 3 Dual Carriageway: A divided all-purpose road with two lanes in one
direction of travel and one lane in the other direction, constructed to the geometric
standards of DN-GEO-03031 and Standard Construction Details CC-SCD-00004.
The two-lane section alternates with a one-lane section at intervals of 2km
approximately.
tt) Type 3 Single Carriageway: An all-purpose road with a 3.00m lane in each
direction constructed to the geometric standards of DN-GEO-03031 and CC-SCD-
00003.
uu) Upstream: That part of the carriageway(s) where traffic is flowing towards the
section in question.
vv) Urban Relief Road: An urban road where the primary purpose of the road is to
facilitate the movement of traffic and avoid congestion or other obstacles to
movement.
ww) Urban Street: A road within a built-up area where the primary purpose of the road
is to provide direct access to premises.
xx) Weaving Section: The length of the carriageway between a successive merge or
lane gain and diverge or lane drop, where vehicles leaving the mainline at the
diverge or lane drop have to cross the paths of vehicles that have joined the
mainline at the merge or lane gain.

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

2. Junction Types
2.1 General
This section describes the various junction types permitted for use on new national road schemes.
Photographs and/or figures are used to portray the general layouts for each junction type. All road
marking and signing details in photos and figures are diagrammatic only and shall not be relied upon
for road marking and signing layout design.

A junction is formed whenever two or more roads cross or meet. Junction types are characterised by
their basic geometric configuration. There are two main categories of junction which can be further
subdivided as follows:

a) At Grade Junctions
i. Priority Junctions
ii. Roundabouts
b) Grade Separated Junctions
i. Full Grade Separated Junctions
ii. Compact Grade Separated Junctions
Junction types can vary greatly in arrangement, shape, and degree of channelisation. Junctions are
often categorised based on the number of roads intersecting and their angle of intersection, the way
in which right-turning and left-turning movements are accommodated, the way in which Non-Motorised
Users (NMUs) are catered for, and the presence and shape of channelising islands.

This Standard provides advice and requirements for each junction type. Table 2.1 outlines some
advantages and disadvantages or limitations for the different junction types discussed in this
document. Designers should always consider whether the layout they are designing could be
upgraded to provide more capacity, or if this could prove necessary in the future.

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Table 2.1: Advantages and disadvantages by junction type

Junction Type Advantages Disadvantages/ Limitations

Priority Junction Through traffic on the major road is not All turning movements have potential to
delayed. create conflict.

Land take and construction cost reduced Right turn movements onto and off the
relative to more complex junction major road can lead to serious collisions.
layouts.
Not suitable for high flows and turning
movements.

Major road through traffic speeds need to

be controlled.

Roundabout Simplifies conflicts and provides a clear Major road traffic must yield to traffic from
indication of priority. the right which may cause delays.

Facilitates right turning flows and U- Dominant flows on one approach may
turns. lead to excessive delays on other
approaches.
Can facilitate a change in road
standard/cross section.

Grade Turning vehicles are removed from the Land take and construction costs high
Separated major road. relative to less complex junction layouts.
Junctions
Major road through traffic is not delayed. Not suitable for single carriageway roads,
Type 2 and Type 3 Dual Carriageways.
Can facilitate large turning flows.

Compact Grade Minimises land take. Not suitable for Motorways or Type 1 Dual
Separated Carriageways.
Junction Design enforces low traffic speeds
through the junction.

Suitable for use where high major road

and minor road through traffic.

Can be used on single carriageway

roads and Type 2 and Type 3 Dual
Carriageways.

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2.2 Priority Junctions

Priority junctions are the most common form of junction control, with the traffic on the minor road giving
way to the traffic on the major road. The advantage of priority junctions is that through traffic on the
major road is not delayed. However, high speeds and/or overtaking traffic manoeuvres on the major
road should be discouraged at priority junctions. For more heavily used junctions, more complex forms
of junction layout are required.

Priority junctions can be categorised by the configuration of the minor road(s) in relation to the major
road as described below. Priority junction types are described in further detail in Chapter 5.

2.2.1 T-Junction
An at-grade junction of two roads, at which the minor road joins the major road approximately at right
angles as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Simple T-Junction

2.2.2 Staggered Junction

An at-grade junction of three roads, at which the major road is continuous through the junction, and
the minor roads connect with the major road so as to form two opposing T-junctions at a minimum
distance apart (Figure 2.2).

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Figure 2.2: Simple Right/Left Stagger

2.2.3 Crossroads
An at-grade junction of two roads that cross approximately at right angles (Figure 2.3). Crossroads
are not permitted on national roads.

Figure 2.3: Crossroads

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2.2.4 Traffic Control at Priority Junctions

Priority junctions can be further distinguished by the type of traffic control used at the junction. These
traffic controls include:

a) Simple Junction – A “T-” or staggered junction without a ghost island in the major
road. Channelising islands can be provided in the minor road approach (Figure
2.1).
b) Ghost Island Junction – An at-grade junction, usually a T- or staggered junction,
within which an area is marked on the carriageway, shaped and located so as to
direct traffic movement by providing means of a right turning lane. A channelising
island shall be provided in the minor road approach (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Ghost Island Junction

c) Left-In/Left-Out Junction – An at-grade junction where left turn movements only

are permitted onto and off the minor road. Sign posting and physical lane
segregation are used to prevent any right turning movements. Figure 2.5 shows an
indicative layout for a left in/left out junction at a direct access.
d) Signalised Priority Junctions – Priority junctions incorporating traffic signals
shall generally not be provided on national roads and require a Departure from
Standards where they are proposed for incorporation into a national road scheme.

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Figure 2.5: Left-In/Left-Out Junction

2.2.5 Skew Junctions

Priority junctions where the minor road approaches and intersects the major road at an oblique angle
are not permitted on national roads. The design criteria outlined in Chapter 5 requiring suitable
curvature to be applied to the minor road approach so as it connects to the major road at 90˚ in order
to eliminate any driver confusion as to which route has priority must be applied at such junctions.

2.3 Roundabouts
Roundabouts are junctions with a one-way circulatory carriageway around a central island. Vehicles
on the circulatory carriageway have priority over those approaching the roundabout.

The principal objective of roundabout design is to minimise delay for vehicles whilst maintaining the
safe passage of all road users through the junction by simplifying conflicts and providing a clear
indication of priority. This is achieved by a combination of geometric layout features that, ideally, are
matched to the flows and speeds in the traffic streams and to any local topographical or other
constraints that apply.

Roundabouts are most suitable when traffic flows from all legs are balanced and there is a high density
of right turn movements. Dominant flows on one approach may lead to excessive delays on the
subsequent approach.

Roundabouts can be Single Lane Roundabouts or Multi-lane Roundabouts. Each roundabout type is
described in further detail in Chapter 6.

2.3.1 Single Lane Roundabouts

A Single Lane Roundabout (Figure 2.6) has single lane entries and exits on each arm. The width of
the circulatory carriageway shall be designed such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one
another.

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Figure 2.6: Single Lane Roundabout

NOTES:

Entries can be more perpendicular on single lane roundabouts to promote lower speeds

Central overrun area may be required

Road markings to be designed in accordance with the TSM

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2.3.2 Multi-lane Roundabouts

Multi-lane Roundabouts (Figure 2.7) require designers to achieve multi-lane entries and exits on each
arm and allow two cars to travel on the circulatory carriageway.

Figure 2.7: Multi-lane Roundabout

NOTES:

Lane markings on circulatory carriageway may or may not be required depending on roundabout size

Road markings to be designed in accordance with the TSM

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2.4 Grade Separated Junctions

A grade separated junction is a separation of the levels at which major and minor roads cross each
other in order to reduce traffic conflicts. A grade separated junction involves the use of an at-grade
junction at the commencement or termination of slip roads.

e) There are two main types of grade separated junction: Dumb-bell roundabout and
Half-Cloverleaf. These junction types are mandatory on Motorways and Type 1
Dual Carriageways and are described in the following sections. Grade Separated
Junction types are described in further detail in Chapter 7.

2.4.1 Dumb-Bell Roundabout

The dumb-bell roundabout junction comprises two roundabouts situated either side of the major road.
The minor road crosses over or under the major road at one location using a bridge – see Figure 2.8.
A Departure from Standards shall be required for a half diamond dumb-bell junction where access
onto and off of the major road is provided in one direction only.

Figure 2.8: “Dumb-bell” Grade Separated Junctions

2.4.2 Half-Cloverleaf
A half-cloverleaf is used where site conditions are such that a dumb-bell roundabout junction cannot
be provided and the use of all four quadrants is not possible for the provision of a full interchange in
accordance with DN-GEO-03041 (see Figure 2.9). The at-grade junction element should normally
utilise two roundabouts. The half-cloverleaf requires the use of only 2 quadrants, which if possible
should be chosen so as to minimise any right turn movements where priority junctions are provided.
Consideration should be given to future improvement when considering this layout.

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Figure 2.9: Half Cloverleaf Grade Separated Junctions

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2.5 Compact Grade Separated Junctions

An alternative to at-grade junctions are Compact Grade Separated Junctions. This provides a junction
to a standard intended to enforce low traffic speeds and minimise land take. See Figures 2.10 and
2.11.

Compact grade separated junctions are suitable for use on Type 2 dual carriageways where mainline
flows are high but turning traffic may be relatively low. They are also suitable for use on Type 3 dual
carriageways and on single carriageway roads where there is a high level of through traffic to reduce
the conflict points for turning traffic.

The objectives of compact grade separated junctions are to:-

a) reduce the environmental impact by providing a compact junction layout with less
landtake;
b) extend the use of grade separation on the national road network;
The benefits that a compact grade separated junction is intended to provide when compared to an at-
grade junction are:-

a) improvement of safety by reducing the number and severity of collisions;

b) separation of high through traffic from minor road off the major road.
c) a safer means of crossing high speed routes for all road users, including NMUs;
d) regulation and continuity of vehicle speed for minor route traffic through the
junction at a level appropriate to the layout standards;
e) removal of right turn manoeuvres from high speed roads;

The layout of the compact grade separated junction will in many cases be dictated by the constraints
imposed by the existing junction to be modified, or site topography in the case of new routes.

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Figure 2.10: Compact Grade Separated Junction with roundabouts

Figure 2.11: Compact Grade Separated Junction with Priority Junctions

Compact Grade Separated Junction types are discussed in further detail in chapter 8.

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2.6 Major Interchanges

Major interchanges will generally be required at the intersection of motorways and dual carriageway
national primary roads to provide free flow for all turning movements accommodated. The free flow
arrangement removes the conflict points however they are generally larger and more complex than
the types of junction described in this standard and must be designed in accordance with DN-GEO-
03041.

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3. Road Safety
3.1 General
TII is responsible for securing a safe and efficient national road network. The performance and safety
of roads are strongly influenced by the layout and frequency of junctions and accesses.

A junction layout should give road users (including NMUs) a clear understanding of what is required
of them. Poor layouts lead to road user confusion, indecisiveness and rash decisions that could
contribute to collisions.

The design should provide:

a) advance notification of the layout on the approach to a junction;

b) conspicuous junction locations and layouts;
c) an understanding of permitted changes to the direction of travel;
d) an understanding of other traffic movements;
e) avoidance of potential hazards.
Thus, in considering the design components, designers should ensure that as road users approach a
junction they are able to easily understand the junction form and layout so that they can select their
path through the junction accordingly. Ease of use should be checked in night-time conditions.

Road safety should be considered at the earliest stage of design to ensure the satisfactory operation
of a junction for all users, including cyclists and pedestrians, and to ensure that allowances are
included for physical elements, such as signing, lighting equipment, columns, feeder pillars, buried
cables, cable ducts, draw pits, etc.

3.2 Road User’s Limitations

An appreciation of road users’ performance is essential to proper road design and operation. The
suitability of a design rests as much on how safely and efficiently road users are able to use the road
as on any other criterion.

Motorist’s perception and reaction time set the standards for sight distance and length of transitions.
The driver’s ability to understand and interpret the movements and crossing times of the other
vehicles, drivers and NMU’s using the junction and their associated reactions is equally important
when making decisions. The designer needs to keep in mind the user’s limitations and therefore
design junctions so that they meet user expectation.

Sequences of junctions should not involve many different layout types. Safe road schemes are usually
straightforward, containing no surprises for the road users. A length of route or bypass containing
roundabouts, ghost islands, simple priority junctions, grade separation and different provision of NMU
facilities would inevitably create confusion and uncertainty for drivers and may result in collisions.

The sun can detrimentally affect a road user’s vision. Designers should attempt to avoid the need for
drivers to approach a manoeuvre or a decision point looking into the rising or setting sun. The designer
should consider the potential for dazzle and silhouetting of signs when the sun is low in the sky.

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3.3 Visibility
For safety, road users shall be able to see any potential hazard in time to slow down or stop
comfortably before reaching it. It is necessary therefore to consider the driver's line of vision in both
the vertical and horizontal planes and the stopping sight distance for the vehicle or NMU at the relevant
design speed. Visibility requirements for the different junction types are included in the relevant
chapters of this standard.

3.4 Road Marking and Signing

Signs and road markings are provided at junctions to warn, regulate and guide traffic. The provision
and layout of traffic signs and road markings is an integral part of the junction design process and
must be considered at an early stage and it may affect the junction geometric design. Traffic signs
and road markings can significantly affect the safety and the capacity of a junction. All road markings
and signage for national roads shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of the Traffic
Signs Manual (TSM) issued by the Department of Transport, which includes guidance on the
appropriate use and requirements of road markings at various types of junctions.

Positioning of signs within the junction and on the mainline approach to junctions must be carefully
considered so that they do not interfere with road user’s visibility. It is essential that there is no over-
provision of signing leading to ‘sign clutter’.

Road markings are used to channelise traffic and, where required, to indicate a dedicated lane. Lane
direction signs complementing the advance direction signs at entries can be beneficial where heavy
flows occur in a particular direction.

Where cycle facilities are provided road markings and signs must be adequately provided at the entry
and at suitable distances along the cycle route. Yield signs and road markings shall be provided to
indicate vehicle priority at junctions.

3.5 Lighting
Road lighting at junctions shall be provided in accordance with DN-LHT-03038 and IS EN 13201.

It is a requirement on all rural motorways and dual carriageways to light the conflict points at grade
separated junctions i.e. the roundabouts at the end of the slip roads. The lighting shall extend 60m
from the roundabout along each entry or exit slip road without lighting the mainline carriageway.

In general, the lighting layout should provide the highest levels of illumination at traffic conflict areas
and NMU crossing areas including the immediate traffic approach where illegal movements are most
likely.

3.6 Landscaping
The design of landscaping and street furniture within the road boundaries shall be carried out in
consultation with appropriate specialists. The Designer shall consider the maintenance implications
and where the responsibility for maintenance is passed to a third party, maintenance standards must
be agreed. If third parties wish to enhance the standard of planting or landscaping at a junction, this
shall be with the agreement of TII, and shall not compromise visibility sightlines or safety.

Apart from the amenity benefits, the landscape treatment of junctions can have practical advantages
from a traffic engineering point of view. These can be:

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a) To make the layout of a junction more obvious to approaching traffic.

b) To provide reference points or features for road users waiting to enter the junction,
aiding them in judging the speed of drivers approaching or in the junction. This can
be useful where a junction is located in an open landscape, where there is a lack
of natural reference points.
c) To provide a positive background to the road signs around the junction.

It is essential that visibility within the required envelopes remains unobstructed by vegetation and
street furniture. The areas required for visibility envelopes should be either hard surface or planted
with grass or species having a low mature height and low maintenance characteristics.

Too much visibility can be as problematic as too little and this can also be addressed by careful
landscape treatment.

3.7 Enhancing road layouts at existing priority junctions to improve

safety
Various methods which have been shown to enhance safety at junctions include:-

a) Where there is a history of collisions involving right turning vehicles, the installation
of a ghost island on single carriageway roads to shelter right turning traffic and
discourage overtaking.
b) The replacement of a rural crossroads by a staggered junction. This has been
shown to reduce collisions by 60%.
c) The installation of channelising islands on the minor road approaches at existing
rural crossroads. This has been shown to reduce collisions (mainly minor road
overrun) by about 50%.

3.8 Safety Barriers

Safety Barriers shall be provided at junctions in accordance with DN-REQ-03034 where required.
Designers must consider the position of such barriers and their potential for obstructing visibility when
assessing the visibility requirements at a junction as outlined in this standard.

3.9 Detailing of Severed Roads

Where an existing road is severed by a new road scheme, resulting in the creation of a cul-de-sac,
the approach to the cul-de-sac should be detailed so as to direct through traffic on to the through road.
The access to the cul-de-sac therefore, shall be detailed so as to require a deliberate turning
manoeuvre to prevent drivers assuming the previous road layout still applies.

A typical well designed cut-off should include the following:

a) The character of the road on the approach to the cut-off point shall be changed by
narrowing to between 3 and 4m for the last 100m (depending on the volume of
traffic on the cut-off road).
b) All lining shall be removed within 100m of the cut-off point.
c) All old signage relevant to the existing road shall be removed.

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d) New signage shall be put in place to inform a driver that the road they are entering
is now a cul-de-sac. The signage should be placed such that it is conspicuous to a
driver approaching the junction that leads to the cul-de-sac.
e) The possibility of see-through between old road and new road must be assessed
both by day and by night. If a see-through issue exists then a screening fence of
suitable height needs to be erected, possibly supplemented by planting of mature
scrubs, to remove the problem.
f) At some locations creation of a turning circle at the end of the road may be the
best treatment; in other cases just narrowing the road, removing the lining and
treating the area in front of the cut-off point may suffice.

Figure 3.1 illustrates both good and bad practice examples for the detailing of severed roads.

Figure 3.1: Detailing of severed road arrangements

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4. Selection of Junction Type

4.1 General
As an overarching principle TII supports a junction strategy which seeks to prevent a proliferation of
side road junctions along national roads with speed limits of greater than 60 km/h. The application of
this strategy will maintain the capacity, efficiency and safety of the national road network.

Recommendations are given in this Standard on the geometric design of the important elements of
any junction or access onto the national road network, and how the individual elements can be brought
together to produce an overall scheme.

Among the aspects of design critical to junction selection which should be taken into consideration
and included in the decision framework are:

a) traffic flows (operational efficiency);

b) safety;
c) collision history;
d) sight distances;
e) consistency;
f) location;
g) maintenance;
h) environmental effects;
i) land take;
j) capital cost;
k) economic assessment;
l) provision for NMUs.

The operation of junctions on the national road network must be readily understood by all road users
and therefore sequences of junctions should ensure a consistency of junction type application and not
involve many different layout types. It is therefore essential that designers prepare a junction strategy
when introducing or modifying a junction(s) on a road scheme and evaluate their effect upon the safety
and operational performance of the network as a whole.

The siting of a junction will require careful consideration of the local demand taking into account the
existing road network so as to ensure an adequate degree of access is provided to the national road.

4.2 Selection of Junction Type

The flow chart shown in Figure 4.1 illustrates the typical stages involved in the selection of a suitable
junction on a national roads scheme. As these stages are being completed the Designer shall
complete the junction analysis procedure form included in Figure 4.3.

If, at any point in the design procedure, the junction design is unsatisfactory, then the designer should
return to the previous stage in the procedure to refine the design. In certain cases, this process could
result in a change in junction type or form.

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Figure 4.1: Flow Chart Outlining Junction Selection Procedure (Paragraphs 4.2.1 to 4.2.5)

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4.2.1 Stage 1 – Initial Choice of Appropriate Junction Form

The most appropriate type of junction to be used depends on a number of factors but primarily safety
and operational performance, and will be subject to the evaluation of design year traffic movements
at the junction, the nature and proportions of large vehicles and a road safety audit. The following
section presents the most appropriate junction types based on projected traffic flows on both the major
road and minor road. These values can be used for an initial assessment of the most appropriate
junction type, however the final junction type will be subject to traffic analysis by the designer to assess
the capacity based on the projected turning movements at the junction.

4.2.1.1 Priority Junctions

Simple priority junctions are the most appropriate junction type for all local accesses on single
carriageway roads. On dual carriageways simple junctions must be restricted to left in/left out only
with the exception of single lane sections of Type 3 Dual Carriageways where right turns off the major
road are permitted. Further guidance in relation to simple junctions on Type 3 Dual Carriageways is
given in Chapter 5.

For junctions with a lightly trafficked minor road the provision of a simple priority junction is the most
appropriate junction type where the projected traffic flows (2-way Annual Average Daily Traffic - AADT)
are less than those presented in Table 4.1 for both the major road and the minor road. Where traffic
flows fall within the ranges outlined in Table 4.1, the provision of a ghost island junction is the most
appropriate junction type. The final junction type will be subject to traffic analysis by the designer to
assess the capacity based on the projected turning movements at the junction.

Table 4.1: Flow Ranges – Ghost Island junctions

Major road AADT Minor road AADT

< 5,000 > 600 < 5,000

5,000 - 10,000 > 450 < 3,000

> 10,000 > 300 < 1,500

Note: AADT values provided should only be used as an initial assessment of the most appropriate junction type, the final junction
arrangement shall be informed by a detailed analysis of peak hour flows (see Appendix D).

On Type 2 and Type 3 Single Carriageway schemes, nearside passing bays shall be provided at all
simple priority junctions that do not warrant a ghost island right turn lane.

At traffic flows greater than those noted in Table 4.1, the provision of an alternative junction design
such as a roundabout, compact grade or full grade separated junction should be considered.

4.2.1.2 Roundabouts
Roundabouts work most efficiently when vehicular flows are reasonably balanced between the arms,
but they may also be the optimum choice in other cases subject to traffic analysis by the designer
based on the projected turning movements at the junction. Roundabouts should be designed to match
forecast peak hourly flows. The capacity of roundabouts is determined by a number of factors such
as their geometric design and whether they are single or multi-lane roundabouts. Entry width and
sharpness of flare as described in Chapter 6 are the most important geometric parameters that
determine capacity.

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4.2.1.3 Grade Separated Junctions

Grade separation to the standards contained in Chapter 7 of this document can be economically
justified at design flows above 30,000 AADT on the major road, depending on turning traffic. It is
possible to justify grade separation to lower design flows of 20,000 AADT on the major road, but again
this is dependent on an analysis of turning traffic at the junction.

4.2.1.4 Compact Grade Separated Junctions

Compact grade separation, as discussed in Chapter 8, may be considered for lower traffic flow
situations on the major road and effectively extends downwards the range of flows and conditions
over which grade separation could be justified economically to around 12,500 AADT on the major
road. They appear to be suitable for use for mainline flows between approximately 12,500 AADT and
30,000 AADT. They are normally associated with very low flows (generally below 10% of mainline
flow) on the minor road with the majority of traffic on both the major road and minor road being through
traffic. Compact grade separated junctions can provide a suitable solution over a roundabout where
through traffic on both the major and minor road is relatively high and turning traffic is relatively low.

4.2.2 Stage 2 – Consider Layout/Size of Junction Type

Ordinarily, the 2-way AADT design year flows are used to consider junction layout to be provided.
However, if there is evidence in the area of the junction of high seasonal variations, or if short, intense
peaks in the traffic flows are likely, then the designer shall consider using the appropriate seasonal or
peak hour flows in the initial capacity assessment to select a junction layout. A traffic study may be
required to confirm that the selected junction type is appropriate at the discretion of TII. Traffic studies
shall be conducted as per the guidance in the TII Project Appraisal Guidelines.

Computerised methods shall be used by the designer to assess capacity and demonstrate that the
particular junction layout chosen is appropriate for the traffic flows and turning movements. It is not
realistic to calculate queue lengths and delays manually, reference should be made to PE-PAG-02015
Project Appraisal Guidelines for National Roads Unit 5.1.

The range of reference flows developed should be used to produce trial designs for assessment. A
flow to capacity ratio (RFC) of not greater than 75% is generally required when considering
carriageways with design speeds of greater than 60 km/h.

The selection of the junction type should be based on a consideration of the particular site
characteristics and should be consistent with adjacent junctions upstream and downstream.

Consideration needs to be given to the type of NMU facility incorporated into the junction. The type of
crossing will depend primarily on the AADT on the road to be crossed. On a road carrying less than
12,000 AADT, an at grade crossing is acceptable while on roads with greater than 12,000 AADT, the
provision of a grade separated crossing should be considered, taking into account the projected
number of NMU’s and the availability of land. The design of any grade separated NMU facility should
be in accordance with DN-STR-03005 (Design Criteria for Footbridges) and DN-GEO-03040
(Subways for Pedestrians and Pedal Cyclists Layout and Dimensions).

4.2.3 Stage 3 – Assess and Refine Preliminary Design

Stage 3 involves addressing all of the relevant safety issues to ensure as safe a design as possible
including consideration of the following:

 Road users' specific requirements.

 A preliminary signing, street furniture, vehicle restraint system, and landscape
design within the junction.

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At this point, the key geometric parameters of the junction design should be assessed and a geometric
layout developed in accordance with this standard. The swept path of vehicles likely to use the junction
shall then be checked using a computer based programme to ensure safe movements through the
intersection.

4.2.4 Stage 4 – Assemble and Model/Check Proposed Design

Having established the various components of the junction design, the Designer shall check that the
capacity of the junction is still adequate. This includes examining if the junction is located on a route
with a wide variation in flow and turning movements, particularly those having prolonged daily peak
periods. The check should be undertaken prior to assembling the component parts to form a complete
junction.

At this stage a Swept Path analysis shall be undertaken to confirm driveability using an appropriate
software programme. The swept path of vehicles likely to use the junction shall be checked using a
computer based swept path analysis programme by the Designer to ensure that all vehicle movements
can be accommodated. The swept path analysis shall be appropriate for the vehicle using the junction.
See Appendix A for details of approved Design Vehicles.

Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs) may be selected as the Design Vehicle, in which case they should
enter and depart from the junction in the correct lane(s). However, where these vehicles and other
vehicles operating under restricted access conditions only use the junction occasionally, it may be
acceptable for the design to be based on them encroaching into other traffic lanes. This may cause
some inconvenience to other road users, but may be acceptable where there is a low frequency of
occurrence.

Both the tracking width and swept path width shall be considered in the design of the road for use by
the Design Vehicles. Tracking width lines delineate the path of the vehicle tires as the vehicle moves
through the turn. Swept path width lines delineate the path of the vehicle body as the vehicle moves
through the turn and will therefore always exceed the tracking width. Refer to Figure 4.2.

Before proceeding to final design, a driveability check should be performed, to assess firstly the
smooth assembly of the components of the junction design. This should include a computer generated
visual assessment of the junction on all approaches from the road user’s eye view. Secondly, the
junction should be considered within the context of its adjacent links and those adjacent junctions on
the particular route. As a whole, the layout should be designed to suit the anticipated traffic pattern,
with the principal movements following smooth vehicular paths.

4.2.5 Stage 5 – Final Design

A design shall be developed for the junction layout in accordance with the relevant sections of this
standard.

4.3 Design Vehicle

The use of computer software to predict the swept path of large vehicles is mandatory in the design
of all junction types. The vehicle type used shall be appropriate to the predicted use of the junction or
direct access. The vehicle tracking software should be capable of allowing vehicle speed to be
measured. The Designer shall ensure that the junction design can accommodate a driver negotiating
the junction at a minimum speed of 5km/hr for direct accesses and 15km/hr for priority junctions. At
all other junctions, Designers shall demonstrate using tracking software that the design vehicles
included in Appendix A can travel at the design speed set out in this standard.

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All of the geometric parameters outlined in this standard for the design of priority junctions have been
developed to cater for a 16.5m long articulated vehicle, whose turning width is greater than the vehicle
dimensions permitted in the existing Road Traffic (Construction, Equipment and Use of Vehicles)
Regulations, or likely to be permitted in the near future. In cases where hard strips are present, the
design vehicle may encroach on these while turning, and at some simple junctions with local roads,
the design vehicle may encroach into opposing traffic lanes.

Figure 4.2: Tracking Width and Swept Path of Vehicle

4.4 Improvement of Existing Junctions

Junctions are improved to increase traffic flow or to provide safety improvements.

For junctions where traffic flow patterns have changed since design, a traffic assessment of the
existing and anticipated traffic flows should be conducted as per the current TII Project Appraisal
Guidelines. Improvements could include additional lanes, change in traffic control.

For junctions where flow patterns have changed since design but geometric improvements are not
justified based on the traffic assessment, additional road markings may be appropriate. Road
markings may help to:

a) improve throughput at high levels of traffic flow;

b) cater for particularly high turning movements;

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c) smooth the flow at junctions with irregular geometry;

d) improve safety;
e) improve junction efficiency;
f) increase clarity to road users of the junction layout.

4.4.1 Existing Priority Junctions

At existing rural priority junctions, the cost of upgrading a simple junction to provide a right turning
facility will vary from site to site. However, upgrading should always be considered where the right
turning flow into the minor road exceeds 120 vehicles per day, a right turning collision problem is
evident, or where vehicles waiting on the major road to turn right inhibit the through flow and create a
hazard.

For existing roads where the flow levels are not great enough to justify the provision of a ghost island
or roundabout and a right turning problem remains, consideration may be given to the use of other
low cost measures such as a nearside passing bay where the road width allows through vehicles to
pass drivers waiting in the centre of the major road to turn right, albeit at a reduced speed. Where
there is not enough road width for a passing bay, then warning arrow markings may be used, with two
directional arrows on one stalk. Such measures shall require a Departure from Standard.

4.4.2 Existing Grade Separated Junctions

At existing grade separate junctions where significant delay is incurred during peak periods as a
result of high exit or entry flows, it may be appropriate to convert the layouts to non-standard layouts
such as a ghost island diverge layout based on the results of traffic modelling. Use of such layouts
require a Departure from Standards.

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Figure 4.3: Junction Analysis Procedure Form

Date:

Junction Analysis Procedure Project:

Location:
AADT Design Posted
Classification and
Data Collection Current Year Design Year Speed Speed
Name
(______) (______) (Km/h) (Km/h)
Major road
Intersecting Road
Junction Type New Existing 
Site Visit Yes: ____ No: ____ Date of Site Visit (if applicable): _______________
Functional Characteristics Part 1 (General Information for all Intersections)
Collision Analysis
Access Requirements (Including
NMU Requirements and Level of
Usage)
Access Control
Future Development
Vehicle Design Type (Include any
Special Design Vehicle Details)
% HGV’s

Part 2 (Specific Information for More Detailed Analysis)

Include Layout with all approaches clearly labelled.

Junction Layout & Turning
Direction of flow and flow ratios to be clearly identified.
Movement Diagram
Worked example included in Appendix D to this document.

Notable Constraints due to

Upstream/Downstream Junction Yes: ____ No: ____ Notes:
Proposed Improvements to Other
Roads (that would impact the
traffic movement at this location)
Geometric Characteristics
Road Geometry on all approaches To be attached in an appendix to this document.
Is design compliant with the
standards Yes: ____
Desirable Stopping Sight Distances Achievable Stopping Sight
Distances
Mainline Horizontal Curvature
Profile gradient on mainline _____________________% Intersecting Roadway _________________%
Other Characteristics
Traffic Management Measures
Impact on Utilities
Impact on Right of Way
Recommendation of Type of
Junction Treatment based on
Functional, Geometric and Other
Characteristics
Scope of Modelling Required Local Junction Modelling Micro-simulation Modelling 
Designer: ____________________ Date:________________

Approved:____________________ Date:________________

Worked example included in Appendix D.

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5. Geometric Design of Priority Junctions &

Vehicular Access to National roads
5.1 General
This Chapter describes the geometric design of priority junctions and direct accesses for application
to new and improved junctions on national roads both dual and single carriageway roads.

5.2 Siting of priority junctions and direct access to national roads

5.2.1 General
A saving in collisions may be achieved, and an improvement made in operational performance, by
reducing the number of lightly trafficked minor road connections onto major roads. The cost
effectiveness of connecting such routes together with a link road before they join a new major road
should always be investigated.

5.2.2 Horizontal Alignment

Ideally, priority junctions and direct accesses onto national roads shall not be sited where the major
road is on a sharp curve (below Desirable Minimum R in accordance with DN-GEO-03031). However,
where the siting of a priority junction or access on a curve is unavoidable, T-junctions should be sited
with the minor road on the outside of the curve and desirable minimum Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
in accordance with DN-GEO-03031 can be achieved for a vehicle on the major road approaching the
junction.

Figure 5.1: Junction located on the inside of a sharp curve

New or altered direct accesses or priority junctions shall not be sited at any location where the
desirable minimum SSD envelope of the national road falls outside the paved surface of the road. The
paved surface includes hard strips if present. It also includes the hard shoulder at accesses where the
stop line is positioned at the back of the hard shoulder.

Direct accesses shall also not be sited within overtaking sections of new single carriageway roads as
defined in DN-GEO-03031.

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Problems have been experienced with priority junctions where the major road is on a curve and the
minor road is at an acute angle, which can be misleading to drivers who perceive that the minor road
retains priority. In such circumstances, the minor road approach should be re-aligned to connect to
the major road at 90˚ in order to eliminate any driver confusion as to which route has priority.

Figure 5.2: Examples of minor road alignment at junctions

The provision of new priority junctions or direct accesses on minor roads shall not be permitted within
90m of a roundabout or priority junction on national roads; this may be reduced to 50m as a relaxation
on Regional and Local roads. See figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Clearance to minor road/junction at roundabout or priority junction

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5.2.3 Vertical Alignment

New or altered junctions and accesses at or near crests should be avoided where the shape of the
junction or access would not be immediately apparent to the driver on the national road, or where
there is restricted forward visibility.

Care should be taken not to provide visibility on minor roads much in excess of the desirable minimum
as this can divert the driver's attention away from road users on the major road in the immediate
vicinity towards those approaching in the far distance.

It is also essential that other road users can equally see oncoming vehicles; particularly where vehicles
cross the raised footway in front of pedestrians/cyclists.

5.2.4 Visibility
At driver's eye level there shall be a clear view from the junction or access over the immediate area
of the junction or access and its connection to the national road.

Direct accesses shall only be sited where they do not encroach on the visibility requirements of
adjoining direct accesses or junctions in regular use. This will determine the minimum spacing of new
accesses. However a minimum staggered distance of 20m shall be provided at all times.

Signs, street furniture and planting should be located and designed so as not to obstruct visibility.

5.2.5 Junctions and Direct Accesses on Climbing Lanes

Priority junctions and direct accesses to national roads shall not be located on climbing lane sections.

5.3 Priority Junction Layouts

Table 5.1 shows the priority junction forms considered suitable for various major road carriageway
types in rural situations. This table should be used as a starting point in choosing the most appropriate
type of priority junction to use at a particular site.

Table 5.1: Possible junction types for different major road carriageway types

Junction/Direct Access Type

Carriageway Type Simple (Fig. 2/1) Ghost Island (Fig. 2/4)

Standard ╦ ╦╩ ╬ ╦ ╦╩ ╬

Single Carriageway Yes Yes No Yes Yes No

Type 1 Dual Yes† No No No No No
Type 2 Dual Yes† No No No No No
Type 3 Dual Yes† No No Yes† No No
Motorway No No No No No No
╦ T-Junction ╦╩ Staggered Junction ╬ Crossroads
† Left in/left out junctions and direct accesses only (see DN-GEO-03031 for more details by road type)
Simple junctions (such as the simple T-Junctions ) are appropriate for most minor junctions on single
carriageway roads but left in/left out junctions are the preferred option as they reduce conflicts on the
national road network. On dual carriageways simple junctions shall be restricted to left in/left out only,
except at single lane sections of Type 3 Dual Carriageways where a right turning facility off the major
road (see Figure 5.28) may be provided as a Departure from Standards. Right turn manoeuvres onto
the major road from the minor road shall not be permitted.

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The decision to provide a right turning facility shall be made in accordance with the guidance contained
in Chapter 4. The choice of type of right turn facility to be used, however, will depend on the particular
site characteristics and results of traffic modelling of the turning movements at the junction.

5.3.1 Simple Priority Junction

Where a simple priority junction is provided on a single carriageway road with no hard shoulders, a
nearside passing bay as detailed in Figure 5.4 shall be provided to allow through traffic on the major
road pass a vehicle waiting to turn right. The total length of the nearside passing may need to be
increased where it is anticipated that HGVs will be turning off the major road.

Figure 5.4: Priority Junction with Nearside Passing Bay for Roads without Hard Shoulders

5.3.2 Ghost Island

Ghost island junctions may be used on new single carriageway roads, or in the upgrading of existing
junctions to provide right turning vehicles with a degree of shelter from the through flow. They are
highly effective in improving safety for turning traffic on the major road.

The use of ghost island junctions on rural single carriageway roads can, in certain circumstances,
pose safety problems. In situations where overtaking opportunity on the major road on either side of
the junction is restricted, the presence of a widened carriageway, albeit with hatch markings, could
result in overtaking manoeuvres which may conflict with right turning movements into and out of the
minor road.

On single carriageway roads where overtaking opportunity is limited, ghost island junctions should be
sited on non-overtaking sections, as defined in DN-GEO-03031.

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5.3.3 Left Diverge Loops

For right turning movements of low volume where signing is not required, an alternative measure is a
left hand diverging lane loop as shown in Figure 5.5. This type of junction should only be used where
the minor road is providing local access only i.e. very low turning movements with users who are
familiar with the layout and where the road layout may lead to overtaking through a simple priority
junction if provided.

Figure 5.5: Priority Junction with Left Hand Diverging Lane Loop for Right Turning movements

5.3.4 Crossroads
The use of a crossroads is not allowed on rural national roads and shall be regarded as a Departure
from Standard.

5.3.5 Staggered Junctions

A staggered junction with a right/left stagger, where minor road traffic crossing the major road first
turns right, proceeds along the major road and then turns left, is preferred to left/right staggers
because traffic turning between the minor roads is less likely to have to wait in the centre of the major
road. The use of left/right staggered junctions is a Departure from Standard.

Figure 5.6: Staggered junctions

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The stagger distance is the distance along the major road between the centrelines of the two minor
roads.

For all staggered priority junctions, the minimum stagger distance between the centreline of the
junctions shall be 50m. It shall be provided on all new staggered junctions, including the upgrade of
rural crossroads. The maximum stagger distance between centreline of the priority junctions
(excluding residential and agricultural accesses) is listed in Table 5.2 below. Junctions with distances
exceeding these values shall be treated as two separate junctions.

Table 5.2: Maximum Stagger Distances for Junctions per Road Speed Limit

Maximum Distance Between

Speed (km/h) Centres of Staggered Junctions
(m)
30 70
50 90
60 110
80 160
100 200

5.4 Provision for Non-Motorised Users

Provision must be made for the specific requirements of non-motorised road users in the design of
priority junctions providing access to National roads.

5.4.1 Priority Junctions with minor road AADT <4,000

At priority junctions, where the AADT of the side road is less than 4,000 vehicles, crossing facilities
shall be a bend out crossing as demonstrated in Figure 5.7. The priority at these junctions should lie
with vehicular traffic. Signs should be provided on the road warning motorists of the upcoming crossing
facility.

The bend out crossing junction increases the space between the cycle track crossing point and the
main carriageway. This allows space for motorised vehicles turning off the major road before they
encounter the cycle crossing facility. The distance between the edge of the main carriageway and the
crossing facility shall be between 10 and 15 metres.

The bend out junction treatment includes a straight approach for cyclists to ensure that cyclists are
provided with full visibility on entry to the junction treatment. The horizontal radii of 10 metres on the
cycle facility shall be introduced to encourage lower cycle speeds on approach to the junction. A colour
contrast treatment should be provided along the cycle route warning cyclists of the upcoming conflict
with motorised traffic as illustrated in Figure 5.7.

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Figure 5.7: Bend Out Crossing (minor road AADT <4,000)

For one-way off road cycle tracks crossing roads with AADT <4,000 it is possible to provide a bend
in junction treatment as a Departure from Standard where the off-road cycle facility is directed on road
at a minimum distance of 30 metres or greater before the junction. The cycle facility continues through
the junction with the same priority as the mainline traffic. A bend-in junction treatment is not acceptable
for two-way cycle facilities as exiting vehicular traffic may not expect cyclists arriving from the opposite
side of the road.

Figure 5.8: Bend in minor road junction (one way cycle track)

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5.4.2 Priority Junctions with minor road AADT > 4000

At priority junctions, where the AADT of the side road is greater than 4,000 vehicles, crossing facilities
shall be a bend out crossing with a central island. This type of facility can be used for both one-way
and two way off road cycle facilities. The priority at these junctions is with vehicular traffic. The
provision of a central island will allow cyclists to cross the side road in two stages improving safety
and convenience for cyclists. The central island shall be a minimum of 3.5 metres in width to
accommodate a waiting cyclist safely. Road markings and signs should be provided on the road
warning motorists of the upcoming crossing facility.

The distance between the edge of the main carriageway and the crossing facility for a bend out
junction shall be between 10 and 15 metres.

The bend out junction treatment shall include a straight approach to cyclists to ensure that cyclists are
provided with full visibility on entry to the junction treatment. The horizontal radii of 10 metres on the
cycle facility shall be introduced to encourage lower cycle traffic speeds on approach to the junction
treatment. A colour contrast treatment should be provided along the cycle route warning cyclists of
the upcoming conflict with motorised traffic. Figure 5.9 demonstrates a bend out crossing with a central
island.

Figure 5.9: Bend Out Crossing with a Central Island

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5.5 Direct Accesses

The overriding principle is that direct vehicular access onto national roads shall be avoided as far as
practicable.

Where direct vehicular access onto national roads cannot be avoided, it shall be provided such that
the visibility envelope from the access does not overlap with the visibility envelope from any other
access/junction. Should an overlap occur, a local road connecting both accesses shall be provided
with a single direct access onto the national road.

5.5.1 Existing Direct Access

Where an existing national road is to be improved on-line, there are likely to be existing accesses.
Where possible these accesses should be relocated to connect to an existing regional or local road
and accesses combined as described above. Where this is not practicable, the layout of the access
onto the new road should be designed in accordance with the geometric standards for a new or altered
access described in the following sections.

Any such layout which does not achieve the geometric standards for a new or altered access shall
require a Departure from Standard.

Any application which results in a material increase in the volume of traffic or a material change in the
type of traffic entering or leaving a national road shall be carefully considered. Generally, a material
increase is considered to be if the turning traffic flows would increase by 5% or more, although there
may be cases when it is important to consider smaller increases.

5.5.2 Geometric Layouts of Small Direct Accesses

Table 5.3 gives a number of basic direct access layout types and their associated approximate levels
of use. Three layouts are proposed for the following circumstances on single carriageway roads.

a) Layout 1: Field access

b) Layout 2: Access to dwellings
c) Layout 3: Left in/Left out
These are illustrated in Figures 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12. All other direct accesses shall be designed as a
priority junction in accordance with this Standard. Field accesses and accesses to dwellings are
regarded as a Departure from Standard on Dual Carriageway Roads.

Table 5.3: Recommended Standard Access layouts

Field Access Access to Dwellings Left in/Left Out

Direct Access Layout 1 2 3
Traffic using the access Less than 10 Less than 150 Less than 150
AADT movements a week movements a week movements a week
Layout suitable for
carriageway Single1 Single Single & Dual
configuration
1
May be used on Dual Carriageways where maintenance access to attenuation ponds and pollution control areas are taken directly off
the mainline.

Note: These figures are recommendations and indicate the approximate level at which alternatives for connections should be considered.
Designers should look carefully at the safety implications involved in providing the alternative connection.

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Figure 5.10: Direct Access Layout 1 – Field Access

Figure 5.11: Direct Access Layout 2 – Access to Dwellings

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Figure 5.12: Direct Access Layout 3 – Left In/Left Out

5.5.3 Entrance Gates Across Direct Access

Entrance gates across a direct access shall be set back to accommodate one vehicle in the access,
clear of the main running lane and preferably clear of the footway/cycle facility. The vehicle to be
accommodated should be of the largest type to use the access on a regular basis, (which in the case
of agricultural vehicles may include a trailer). Wherever possible, gates should open away from the
road and where this is not possible; the set-back should be increased to allow for the gates to open
unimpeded.

5.5.4 Non-Motorised Users at Direct Accesses

In rural situations a cycle facility will need to cross direct accesses such as farm and house entrances.
As a general objective the priority at these crossings should lie with the cyclists and it is preferable
that the alignment of the cycle facility is retained through and past the access.

Visibility requirements for motorised vehicles at direct accesses shall be in accordance with
requirements set out in this document and the ‘x’ distance shall be measured from the nearside edge
of the carriageway without the need to accommodate the cycle facility.

Additionally, the access will require a visibility envelope setback of 2.0 m (‘x’ distance) from the cycle
facility with a stopping sight distance based on the design speed of the cycle facility as set out in Table
5.7.

There will be situations where the cycle facility may need to bend in or bend out to accommodate the
private entrance. The provision of a bend in cycle facility at a private entrance is best suited to one-
way cycle tracks, however it can be applied to a two-way cycle tracks subject to the provision of an
absolute minimum 0.5 m carriageway separation distance Figure 5.13 demonstrates a bend in
crossing associated with a direct access on the public road.

The provision of a bend out cycle facility requires sufficient set back to allow a single vehicle to wait
between the main carriageway and the cycle crossing point. This distance will be based on the
maximum size of the vehicle using the direct entrance and shall be 5.0 metres if the direct entrance
serves a private house and 15.0 metres if serving a farm entrance. Figure 5.14 demonstrates a bend
out crossing associated with a direct entrance on the public road.

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Figure 5.13: Direct Access Bend In Crossing

Figure 5.14: Direct Access Bend Out Crossing

The cycle track pavement construction must be carried across the private entrance to clearly indicate
priority to cycle traffic and the road entrance should be at the same level as the cycle facility. Cycle
symbol road markings should be provided at the crossing to reinforce the arrangement and a colour
contrast treatment should be provided along the cycle route warning cyclists of the upcoming conflict
with motorised traffic.

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5.6 Geometric Design of Priority Junctions on Single and Dual

Carriageway Roads
5.6.1 General
This section outlines the geometric design properties and features to be considered in the design of
priority junctions and accesses associated with single and dual carriageway roads.

5.6.2 Design Speed

Geometric standards for junctions are related to the traffic speed of the major road, and for new roads
this is the design speed as defined in DN-GEO-03031.

5.6.3 Visibility

5.6.3.1 General
Traffic from either a minor road or direct access has to join or cross the major road when there are
gaps in the major road traffic streams. It is therefore essential that drivers emerging from a minor road
or direct access shall have adequate visibility in each direction to see the oncoming major road traffic
in sufficient time to permit them to make their manoeuvres safely. The visibility requirement for drivers
emerging from a minor road or direct access is to the high object (1.05m) on the major road as defined
in DN-GEO-03031. This concept also applies to major road traffic turning right into the minor road or
direct access. For Dual Carriageways, egress out of left in/left out junctions and accesses only
requires visibility to the right.

5.6.3.2 Minor road/direct access

The required visibility parameters to be determined by the designer for drivers approaching a junction
with a single or dual carriageway road from a minor road or direct access are outlined in Figure 5.15a
and b.

Figure 5.15a: Visibility Standards (single carriageway)

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Figure 5.15b: Visibility Standards (dual carriageway)

The designer shall ensure drivers approaching the junction from the minor road or direct access shall
have unobstructed visibility of the junction from a distance corresponding to the desirable minimum
SSD for the design speed of the minor road, as described in DN-GEO-03031. This corresponds to the
‘z’ distance as shown on Figures 5.15a and b. This allows drivers time to slow down safely and stop.
The visibility envelope shall be widened to include any “Yield” or “Stop” sign.

From a point measured 15m along the centreline of the minor road or direct access from the
continuation of the line of the nearside edge of the paved surface (including hard strip or hard
shoulder) of the major road, the designer shall ensure an approaching driver shall be able to see
clearly the junction form, and those peripheral elements of the junction layout as shown in Figures
5.15a and b. This provides the driver with an idea of the junction form, possible movements and
conflicts, and possible required action before reaching the major road.

The distance back along the minor road or direct access from which the full visibility is measured is
known as the ‘x’ distance. It is measured back along the centreline of the minor road or direct access
from the continuation of the line of the nearside edge of the paved surface (including hard strip or hard
shoulder) of the major road. The ‘x’ distances on the minor road for visibility measurements shall be
as defined in Table 5.4. In difficult circumstances the ‘x’ distance may be taken as a Relaxation as
provided in Table 5.4.

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Table 5.4: ‘x’ Distances on the minor road for visibility measurements

‘x’
Major road use Minor road use Standard
Distance(m)
All junctions and accesses, Stop
All roads Desirable Minimum 3.0
control
All roads Cycleway Desirable Minimum 4.0
All roads Cycleway Absolute Minimum 2.0
National roads Simple Junctions, Stop control Relaxation 2.4*
All junctions and accesses, Yield
Regional & Local control (where there are no
Desirable Minimum Max. 9.0
Roads relaxations associated with the
junction layout)
Regional & Local
Accesses, Lightly trafficked Relaxation 2.0
Roads
All roads All junctions and accesses Desirable Maximum 9.0

From the point “x” metres back from the major road a driver approaching the junction along the minor
road shall be able to see clearly points to the left and right on the nearer edge of the major road
running carriageway at a distance given in Table 5.5, measured from its intersection with the centreline
of the minor road. This is called the ‘y’ distance and is defined in Figure 5.15a and b.

Table 5.5: ‘y’ Visibility distances from the minor road

Design Speed of major

‘y’ Distance(m)
road(km/h)
70 120
85 160
100 215
120 295

On national roads the full ‘y’ distance must be achieved to the high object 1.05m.

5.6.3.3 Visibility standards with a curved major road

If the line of vision from the approach road lies partially within the major road paved area, it shall be
made tangential to the nearer edge of the major road paved carriageway (including hard shoulder or
hard strip), as shown in Figure 5.16a and b.

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Figure 5.16a: Visibility standards with a curved single carriageway major road

Figure 5.16b: Visibility standards with a curved dual carriageway major road

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5.6.3.4 Maximum Visibility Envelope

Although the ‘y’ distance shall always be provided, there is little advantage in increasing it, as this too
can induce high approach speeds and take the attention of the minor road or direct access driver
away from the immediate junction conditions. Increased visibility should not be provided to increase
the capacities of various turning movements.

5.6.3.5 One-way major road

If the major road is one way, a single visibility envelope in the direction of approaching traffic will
suffice. If the minor road serves as a one way exit from the major road, no visibility envelopes will be
required, provided that forward visibility for turning vehicles is adequate.

5.6.3.6 Parking
Dangerous conditions arise if vehicles obstruct visibility by parking within visibility envelopes. Where
necessary, parking and access shall be controlled to prevent this. The Designer shall ensure that the
positioning of lay-bys, bus stops, traffic signs, environmental barriers, vehicle restraint systems, and
other street furniture does not interfere with the drivers' visibility requirements

It is important to ensure that developments serviced by a new direct access do not lead to parking on
the major road in the vicinity of the access, to the detriment of the safe passage of vehicles on both
the access and the national road. On developments where this is likely to be an issue should be
installed to prevent such parking.

5.6.3.7 Direct Access Crossing a Footway

Where an emerging vehicle crosses a footway at a lightly used direct access - for example from the
driveway of a single dwelling – pedestrians may not have sufficient warning of its approach where
there is no clearly formed differentiation in the level between the footway and the vehicle crossing
point. Under these conditions, the designer shall provide visibility envelopes to the back of the footway,
2m on either side of the centre of the access, from 2m back from the back edge of the footway along
the centreline of the access as shown in Figure 5.17. The driver's eye height shall be taken as 1.05m
and the object height at the back of footway shall be taken as 0.6m to make clear the presence of a
small child.

Figure 5.17: Visibility at Back of Footway Crossing

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5.6.3.8 Visibility at Cycle Route Junctions

Where the minor road is a cycle route, the required ‘x’ distance on the cycle facility on the approach
to a road shall be as set out in Table 5.6 and Figure 5.18.

The appropriate ‘y’ distance depends on the design speed of the major road, as set out in Table 5.5.

Figure 5.18: Visibility envelopes for junctions with roads and crossings of roads

Table 5.6: Values used as set back distances (X) from edge of carriageway

X – distance (m) Description of Use

Cycle route approach to a road –
4.0
Desirable Minimum
Cycle route approach to a road –
2.0
Absolute Minimum

Where a cycleway or track intersects with another cycle facility the required visibility envelope is
dependent on the design speed of the cycle facility and the ‘Y’ distance is that presented under in
Table 5.7 for Minimum Stopping Sight Distance.

Table 5.7: Stopping Sight Distances

Design Speed (km/h) 50 km/h 30 km/h 10 km/h

Minimum Stopping Sight
60 35 15
Distance (m)

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5.6.4 Approach Gradients

Gradients on minor roads shall be in accordance with DN-GEO-03031. On direct accesses, gradients
greater than 10% approaching the major road are a Departure from Standard. The gradient on the
minor road immediately next to the major road should be considerably less, and a "dwell" area of at
least 15m shall be provided immediately adjacent to the major road carriageway. Where site
conditions are particularly difficult this area may be reduced to 10m as a Relaxation. In the case of a
direct access to dwellings, it may be reduced to 3m as a Relaxation. A combined relaxation in dwell
area and approach gradient is not regarded as a departure.

The gradient for the dwell area shall lie between plus and minus 2.5%. In difficult situations this may
be increased to between plus and minus 4% as a Relaxation.

5.6.5 Corner Radii

It is recommended that the minimum circular corner radius at simple junctions in rural areas where no
provision is made for HGVs should be 10m. Where there is frequent use by large commercial vehicles
(e.g. near a quarry or industry frequently accessed by large vehicles), the minimum circular corner
radius shall be as follows:

a) For vehicles entering the minor road, the corner radii shall be 13m followed by a
1:10 taper for a distance of 25m measured along the line of the minor road from
the nearside edge of the major road.
b) For vehicles entering the major road from the minor road, the corner radii shall be
13m followed by a 1:10 taper for 25m measured along the line of the major road
from the corner line of the minor road. This is shown in Figure 5.19.
c) 13m at ghost island junctions and Type 3 Dual Carriageway priority junctions, with
tapers of 1:6 over a distance of 30m.
d) 13m at simple staggered junctions, with tapers of 1:8 over a distance of 32m.
e) 20m radius for left-in/left-out priority junctions.
f) 40m radius for left in-left out priority junctions forming part of a compact grade
separated junction.
The values in a) to d) above are minimum values and a swept path analysis shall be carried out in
accordance with Chapter 4 at all at-grade junction locations to establish circular corner radii for the
junction appropriate for its use. In addition, the above minimum radii only apply where there are no
nearside diverge lanes.

Where HGVs comprise a significant proportion of the turning movements (e.g. where a quarry or
industry is located on the side road), use of the compound curve is recommended. Details of the
design of a compound curve are included in Appendix C of this document.

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Figure 5.19: Design of Corner Radii for Rural Simple Junctions, Ghost Island Junctions & Simple
Staggered Junctions

5.6.6 Carriageway Widths

A minimum 0.5 metre hard strip shall be provided throughout all junction layouts, corner radii and
associated tapers.

5.6.7 Through Lanes

At ghost island junctions on single carriageways, the through lane in each direction shall not be greater
than 3.65m wide, exclusive of hard strips, but shall not be less than 3.0m wide on rural roads.

5.6.8 Layout at Left In/ Left out Priority Junctions

For Left In / Left out priority junctions, the layout shall be as shown in Figure 5.20. The left turn only
traffic deflection islands should be set back 0.6m from the back of the hard shoulder or hard strip.

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Figure 5.20: Major/minor road Junction for Left Turn Only Manoeuvres

5.6.9 Channelising Islands at priority junctions

On a minor road approach of nominal width 7.0m or less, where a channelising island is provided on
a single carriageway in accordance with 5.6.12, both lanes shall be 4.0m wide at the point where the
hatched markings begin. Channelising islands shall be set back 0.6m from the lane marking. At the
point where the channelising island commences, the widths on either side of each lane shall be as
follows:

a) 4.0m on the approach to the major road, exclusive of hard strips and 0.6m set
back.
b) 4.5m on the exit from the major road, exclusive of hard strips and 0.6m set back.
c) These dimensions are shown on Figure 5.21.

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Figure 5.21: Minor road approaches for right and left turning movements

If there are no channelising islands in the minor road, the nominal approach width should continue up
until the tangent point of the corner radii to join the edge of the major road running carriageway.

At skew junctions the centreline of the minor road shall have a minimum radius of 50m that meets the
major road nearside channel at right angles. Prior to the 50m radius, the minor road centreline shall
be designed in full accordance with DN-GEO-03031 and shall be at an angle of between 50 and 130
degrees to the major road channel. See Figure 5.22.

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Figure 5.22: Skew Junctions

5.6.10 Carriageway Widths around Curves

Around tight radius curves or corners, additional carriageway width shall be provided to cater for the
swept area of large vehicles and the "cut in" of trailer units in accordance with Table 5.8.

Table 5.8: Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Carriageway Widths

Single Lane
Inside Corner Width
Two Lane Width for One Way or Two Way Traffic
Radius or Curve (excluding hard
(excluding hard strip provision) (m)
Radius (m) strip provision)
(m)
Inside Lane Outside Lane Total
10 8.4 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 3.8 3.8 7.6

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5.6.11 Design of Ghost Island Junctions

5.6.11.1 Turning Length

The turning length is provided to allow long vehicles to position themselves correctly for the right turn
off the major road. The turning length shall be 10m long irrespective of the design speed or gradient,
measured from the centreline of the minor road. It is shown on Figure 5.23.

Where capacity calculations indicate that for significant periods of time there will be vehicles queuing
to turn right from the major road, the turning length shall have a queuing length added to it as a
reservoir to accommodate queuing vehicles.

Figure 5.23: Priority Junction with a Ghost Island

5.6.11.2 Taper Length

Central islands, for ghost islands (Figure 5.24) should normally be developed symmetrically about the
centreline of the major road to the turning lane width at the tapers shown in Table 5.9. The maximum
island width should continue through the junction to the tangent point of the corner radius and the
edge of the major road carriageway, downstream of the direction of the right hand turn as shown in
Figure 5.23. In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the taper value by one design speed
step as a relaxation.

Figure 5.24: Ghost Island Development and Taper

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The direct taper length is the length over which the width of a right turning lane is developed. For ghost
island junctions, right turning lanes shall be introduced by means of a direct taper whose length is part
of the deceleration length, and whole length depends on the design speed. This taper length is given
in Table 5.10. In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the taper value by one design speed
step as a Relaxation.

Table 5.9: Tapers for Ghost Islands

Design Speed (km/h) Taper for Ghost Island

50 1:20
60 1:20
70 1:20
85 1:25
100 1:30
Note: In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the taper value by one design speed step as a Relaxation.

Table 5.10: Direct Taper Length

Design Speed (km/h) Direct Taper Length (m)

50 5
60 5
70 15
85 15
100 25
120 30
Note: In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the taper value by one design speed step as a Relaxation.

5.6.11.3 Turning lane width

For new junctions, the width of a ghost island turning lane shall be 3.5m, but a Relaxation to 3.0m is
permissible. On rural roads, with design speeds above 85km/h or where hard strips are present, widths
greater than 3.65m are not permitted.

5.6.11.4 Turning Lanes

The overall length of a turning lane provided at ghost island junctions depends on the major road
design speed and the gradient. It consists of the turning length and the deceleration length, and shall
be provided in accordance with Table 5.11. The gradient is the average for the 500m length before
the minor road. In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the deceleration length by one
design speed step as a relaxation.

Table 5.11: Deceleration Length (m) for Ghost Island

Design Speed Up Gradient Down Gradient

(km/h) 0-4% Above 4% 0-4% Above 4%
50 25 25 25 25
60 25 25 25 25
70 40 25 40 40
85 55 40 55 55
100 80 55 80 80
Note: In difficult circumstances, the Designer may relax the deceleration length by one design speed step as a relaxation.

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5.6.11.5 Ghost Island Junction located on a curve

Where junctions are located on curves, ghost islands should be introduced asymmetrically on the
outside of the curve to suit the circumstances (as indicated in Figure 5.25). Where a Departure from
Standard has been granted for a junction on a climbing lane, the same principles would apply. It is
also appropriate to introduce islands asymmetrically in other circumstances. This can have the benefit
of avoiding expense (for example Statutory Undertakers' works). If the widening is developed to the
minor road side, through traffic will be deflected where crossing movements at the minor road take
place, which may be a benefit.

It should be noted that with asymmetrical ghost islands that the taper ratio will be the same as for a
symmetrical island but the taper length will be considerably greater. Designers shall ensure that with
any design whether, with symmetrical or asymmetrical ghost islands; a smooth flowing alignment is
achieved.

Figure 5.25: Ghost Island Junction with Curve on major road

5.6.12 Channelising islands and Refuges

Merging and diverging movements can usefully be separated by channelising islands so that the
number of traffic conflicts at any point is reduced (as indicated in Figure 5.20, 5.21 and 5.22).

Channelising islands shall be provided in the mouth of the minor road at ghost island junctions, and
may be similarly provided at simple junctions, to:-

a) Give guidance to long vehicles carrying out turning movements.

b) Channelise intersecting or merging traffic streams.
c) Warn drivers on the minor road that a junction is ahead.
d) Provide shelter for vehicles / cyclists waiting to carry out manoeuvres such as
waiting to turn right.
At rural ghost island junctions channelising islands shall be used in the mouth of the minor road. The
recommended layout of channelising islands is shown in Appendix B. This layout shall be designed in
accordance with the step by step approach also provided within Appendix B.

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Rural channelising islands shall be raised and kerbed and constructed in accordance with Standard
Construction Detail CC-SCD-01110.

Channelising islands shall have a width of at least 2.5 metres, and shall be conspicuous in poor lighting
conditions. Smaller islands may be defined by road markings. The risk of overriding the islands can
be reduced by offsetting the approach nose from the edge of the vehicle paths.

Rural crossroads are regarded as a Departure from Standards, however details are also included in
Appendix B for use if considering upgrading existing rural cross-roads.

5.7 Diverging/Merging Tapers and Lanes at Junctions

Merge and diverge auxiliary lanes and tapers shall not be provided on new single carriageway roads.

5.8 Priority Junctions on climbing lanes

The provision of a priority junction on a climbing lane is a Departure from Standards.

5.9 Drainage and Crossfall

From considerations of surface water drainage and road user comfort, the road camber on the major
road shall be retained through the junction and the minor road graded into the channel line of the
major road. Checks shall be made for flat areas at all changes of gradient, superelevation or crossfall
in accordance with DN-GEO-03031.

5.10 Roads with Hard Shoulders

Where hard shoulders are provided on roads with priority junctions, particular care should be taken to
ensure safe designs for the junctions. The layouts should be in accordance with the geometric
requirements described in the preceding paragraphs of this Chapter, together with the following
additional requirements.

5.10.1 Major road requirements opposite a junction

On the side of the major road opposite a simple T- junction, the hard shoulder shall be maintained
through the junction.

On the side of the major road opposite a ghost island junction the hard shoulder shall be tapered to
form a 1.5m hard strip as illustrated in Figure 5.26. On the approach side the taper shall be at an angle
of 1:30 relative to the adjacent lane. This taper shall terminate at the start of the deceleration length.
On the departure side, the hard shoulder may be reintroduced over the length of the ghost island
taper. The running lane should be a constant width through the junction. Where the required paved
width is less than the full paved width away from the junction, the full paved width should be continued
through the junction, with any excess area hatched.

When considering upgrading an existing simple priority junction to provide a ghost island right turn
lane, the hard shoulder may be reduced to 0.5m if the existing pavement is to be used to facilitate
widening through the junction or there are issues with the required visibility splays from the minor
road. If a 1.5m hard strip can be achieved however, this shall be provided.

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Figure 5.26: Treatment of Hard Shoulders at a Ghost Island Junction

5.10.2 Hard Shoulders on the Minor Road

Where the minor road has a hard shoulder, the hard shoulder approaching the major road should be
terminated by tapering to a width of 0.5m to form a hard strip. The taper angle should be 1:30 and the
taper should terminate not less than 15m before the start of the entry widening.

The hard shoulder exiting the major road should not start before the end of the exit widening.

Hard Shoulders crossing minor roads shall be terminated at the intersection of the hard shoulder and
the hardstrip/hard shoulder of the minor road corner radii or taper as appropriate.

5.10.3 Stop Line

In accordance with the Traffic Signs Manual, the edge of the stop line nearest to the major road shall
not be closer than 0.6m to the line of the back of the paved area of the major road including any hard
shoulder or hard strip (see Figures 5.27).

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Figure 5.27: Priority Junction Stop Line with and without Hard Shoulder or Hard Strips

5.11 Specific Geometric Design Layouts for Dual Carriageways

5.11.1 General
This section outlines additional geometric design properties and features to be considered in the
design of priority junctions and accesses associated with dual carriageways.

5.11.2 Auxiliary Merge and Diverge Lanes

On Type 1 dual carriageways and motorways the merge and diverge auxiliary lanes, where
appropriate, shall be detailed in accordance with Chapter 7.

Merge and diverge auxiliary lanes and tapers are not permitted on Type 3 dual Carriageway Roads.
Merge auxiliary lanes and tapers are not permitted on Type 2 Dual Carriageways, however diverge
auxiliary lanes and tapers are permitted on Type 2 Dual Carriageways where deemed appropriate
through traffic assessments and a road safety audit.

5.11.3 Dual Carriageway Junctions

Left-in left-out priority junctions may be used on Type 1, 2 and 3 Dual Carriageways. The upper limit
for minor road flows should be taken as 3,000 vehicles AADT 2-way when considering providing a
priority junction on Type 1, 2 or 3 Dual Carriageway roads in rural areas.

The provision of short lengths of full dualling just to incorporate a junction on an otherwise single
carriageway road is prohibited.

Where there is a change in road type from a motorway or Type 1 Dual Carriageway with full grade
separation to a Type 2 or 3 Dual Carriageway with at-grade priority junctions, a roundabout should
always be used at the first major junction in order to emphasise to drivers the changed character of
the road.

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5.11.4 Permanent Crossings

On Dual Carriageways no permanent crossings of the central reserve are allowed with the exception
of single lane sections of Type 3 Dual Carriageways where a right turn off the major road may be
provided when applied for through a Departure from Standards. Right turns onto the major road are
prohibited. On Type 3 Dual Carriageways, the use of a roundabout or compact grade separated
junction close to left in/left out priority junctions for the purpose of U-turns by the diverted traffic
significantly reduces collisions.

5.11.5 Direct Vehicular Access

Direct Vehicular access from private property or developments onto Dual Carriageways should be
avoided as far as practicable. Where accesses are to be provided, their number should be severely
limited. Accesses for Dual Carriageways shall be Left-in/Left-out. For Type 3 Dual Carriageways, Left-
In / Left-Out accesses shall not be permitted within the length of a critical changeover nor within 150m
on the approach to a critical changeover as defined in DN-GEO-03031.

5.11.6 Junctions at changeover locations on Type 3 Dual Carriageways

Where junctions are provided on either the one-lane or two-lane side on a Type 3 Dual Carriageway,
they shall be restricted to left-in and left-out turning movements only, with no crossing of the central
reserve. This junction type is only suitable for lightly trafficked minor roads or private accesses. Such
junctions shall not be provided within 100m of a critical changeover as defined in DN-GEO-03031.
Where junctions of this type are required on opposite sides of the road, the side roads shall be
staggered by a nominal 10m to avoid the appearance of a through road.

Where it is necessary or desirable to provide a U-turn facility, and a roundabout is not justified, a
mainline U-turn loop can be provided at a minor road as a Departure from Standards, as illustrated in
Figure 5.28. Similar U-turn loops can be provided where there is no minor road or private access, but
it is preferable to combine a loop with a side road or access.

The preferred location for such layouts is at a changeover as defined in DN-GEO-03031. These U-
turn facilities permit right turns into the side road or access but not out and they also only allow U-
turns in one direction. Where it is assessed that minor road traffic at such a junction is likely to want
to turn right onto the major road, a similar junction shall be provided within 2km on the opposite side
of the carriageway to facilitate U-turns in the opposite direction.

Where a U-turn loop is provided at a passing lane length, the loop shall not be provided on the two-
lane side, so as to avoid the need for turning traffic to cross two through lanes.

Careful signing will be required on the approaches to all U-turn facilities (except roundabouts) to alert
drivers to the U-turn loop.

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Figure 5.28: Mainline turning loop at minor road (requires a Departure from Standards)

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6. Geometric Design of Roundabouts

6.1 General
This Chapter describes the geometric design of roundabouts for application to new and improved
junctions on national roads.

The cut-off point between roundabout and link design shall be 50m measured from the yield line which
corresponds to the point at which the entry path radius assessment commences. Geometric design in
accordance with this chapter shall be undertaken from this point. However, full SSD in accordance
with DN-GEO-03031 shall be provided to the yield line on the approach roads to the roundabout.

Figure 6.1: Cut-Off Point between Link Design and Roundabout Design

6.2 Siting
A project appraisal should be carried out in accordance with TII current practices when considering
the provision of roundabouts.

Where several roundabouts are to be installed on the same route, they should be of similar design in
the interests of route consistency and safety to the extent that this is possible with the traffic volumes
concerned.

In addition to its natural function as a junction, a roundabout may usefully:

a) facilitate a significant change in road standard, for example, from dual to single
carriageway or from grade separated junction road to at-grade junction road;
b) facilitate U-turns;
c) facilitate right turning flows.

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The majority of collisions at priority junctions are associated with right turns. The inconvenience of
banning right turns and using left in left out junctions can be mitigated by providing a roundabout
nearby.

For Type 3 Dual Carriageways, roundabouts will be appropriate as major junctions. Two-lane sections
shall start directly at the exit from the roundabout. Similarly, a two-lane section may terminate at a
roundabout with the overtaking lane becoming the right-hand entry lane into the roundabout.

On single carriageway roads where overtaking opportunity is limited, roundabouts may be sited so as
to optimise the length of straight overtaking sections along the route (see DN-GEO-03031).

Where a proposed roundabout may affect the operation of an adjacent junction, or vice versa, the
interactive effects should be examined. Where appropriate, traffic management measures such as
prohibited turns or one-way traffic orders at the adjacent junction may be considered. The effects of
queuing at the roundabout should be examined to check that additional risk is not generated.

Where it is proposed to add an arm to an existing roundabout, the effects shall be examined. If the
proposed arm will adversely affect the roundabouts operation and safety, measures shall be
considered to mitigate and minimise these effects. Adverse effects include the introduction of unequal
flow distribution, roundabout capacity problems and increased risk of collision of vehicular conflicts.

6.3 Landscaping within a Roundabout

Passively safe landscaping is allowable within a national road roundabout and shall only be provided
with TII approval.

Non-passively safe landscaping and any artwork features constructed on a national road Roundabout
shall not be provided in the direct line of a potential errant vehicle that overruns the roundabout. Figure
6.2 illustrates this principal for a typical single lane roundabout; non-passively safe landscaping or
artwork must not be positioned outside the green shaded area within the roundabout. Designers must
assess the potential path an errant vehicle is most likely to take based on the specific design
parameters of the roundabout. Sight lines shall also be considered when landscaping and artwork
features are being designed.

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Figure 6.2: Permitted location for non-passively safe landscaping and artwork within a single lane
roundabout

6.4 Selection of Roundabout Type

The choice of roundabout type is governed by a combination of factors including:

a) whether the approach roads are single or dual carriageway (or grade separated);
b) the speed limit on the approach roads;
c) the level of traffic flow;
d) other constraints such as land-take.

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6.5 Provision for Non-Motorised Users (NMUs)

Provision must be made for the specific requirements of NMUs in the design of roundabouts.

Roundabouts are one of the safest forms of at grade junctions for general motorised traffic, however
they pose safety concerns for cyclists due to high vehicular speeds, particularly leaving the
roundabout.

The preferred crossing facility at a roundabout is a bend out crossing located between 10 and 15
metres from the circulatory carriageway of the roundabout. Where the cycle facility crosses roads with
flows of greater than 4,000 AADT, the crossing should include a central island. The central island
should be a minimum of 3.5 metres in width, however it is possible to reduce the width of the central
island to 2.5 metres should the cycle facility not form part of a greenway and where the number of
cyclists using tandem bikes, recumbents or trailers will be very low.

Figure 6.3 demonstrates the design requirement associated with the provision of off–road cycle
facilities at a roundabout. The indicative layout shown is for a two-way cycle facility provided on one
side of the road along the major road.

Figure 6.3: Roundabout Junction

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6.6 Geometric Design of Roundabouts

6.6.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter
The inscribed circle diameter D of the roundabout is the diameter of the largest circle that can be fitted
into the junction outline. Figures 6.4 illustrates this for a circular roundabout.

The inscribed circle diameter for all roundabouts must be large enough to accommodate the design
vehicle while allowing other requirements in this chapter to be met.

Figure 6.4: Inscribed Circle Diameter of a Roundabout with a Symmetric AL Outline

Where the outline is asymmetric AL, the value in the region of the entry should be used.

A Single Lane Roundabout shall have an Inscribed Circle Diameter between 28m and 36m. The
minimum value of 28m is the smallest roundabout that can accommodate the swept path of the Design
Vehicle (see Figure 6.6).

An Inscribed Circle Diameter between 37m and 100m shall be appropriate for a Multi-lane Roundabout
dependent on the type of carriageway approaching the roundabout.

Inscribed circle diameters between 37m and 50m are unlikely to facilitate the introduction of
channelising islands accommodating a 3.5m refuge for NMUs on all approaches.

The Inscribed Circle Diameter of a Multi-lane Roundabout catering solely for single carriageway
approaches shall not exceed 70m.

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The inscribed circle diameter of a Multi-lane Roundabout catering for single carriageway and dual
carriageway approaches shall not exceed 100m.

The provision of a five or more arm roundabout is not recommended on national roads and if provided
must be applied for as a Departure from Standard.

Where consideration is being given to adding a fifth-arm to a four-arm roundabout it must be shown
that the introduction of the fifth arm;

a) shall not have a negative impact on the operation of the roundabout as a whole;
b) shall not reduce the ultimate capacity of the roundabout;
c) shall be designed to ensure that vehicular flows are reasonably balanced between
the arms;
d) shall not result in high circulatory speeds on the roundabout itself;
e) shall not result in such close spacing of arms that there can be confusion about a
driver’s intended exit.
Traffic modelling shall be undertaken by the designer to demonstrate this using TII’s Project Appraisal
Guidelines.

6.6.2 Circulatory Carriageway

The circulatory carriageway of roundabouts shall generally be circular and of constant width. However,
at complex roundabouts, for example where spiral markings are used, the width should be in line with
traffic demand. Tight bends should be avoided as they can increase the likelihood of load shedding
by HGVs. They can also cause loss of control collisions, particularly for powered two wheelers.

The width of the circulatory carriageway as represented by c in Figure 6.6 must be between 1.0 and
1.2 times the maximum entry width, excluding any overrun area.

At Multi-lane Roundabouts, the width of the circulatory carriageway should not exceed 15m. At Single
Lane Roundabouts, it should not exceed 6m, although an additional overrun area may be required for
small values of inscribed circle diameter, depending on the types of vehicles using the roundabout
(see Figure 6.6).

Short lengths of reverse curve of the inscribed circle, where two consecutive tangential circular arcs
curve in opposite directions, should be avoided between entry and adjacent exits. This can be
achieved by linking the curves with a short straight section. Reducing the size of the inscribed circle
diameter can also eliminate the problem. Where there is a considerable distance between the entry
and the next exit, such as at three-arm roundabouts, reverse curvature is acceptable (see Figure 6.5).

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Figure 6.5: Three-arm Roundabout Illustrating Reverse Curvature

There may be situations where the turning proportions are such that one section of the circulatory
carriageway has a relatively low flow, resulting in an unused area of carriageway, usually adjacent to
a channelising island:

a) For larger roundabouts, the circulatory carriageway can be reduced in width by

extending the channelising island. This method of reducing circulatory width may
also be adopted as an interim measure in the early years of a scheme. At the
same time, the offside entry lane may be taken out of use, for example, by the use
of coloured or textured surfacing or hatched markings.
b) For smaller roundabouts, increasing the size of the central island is a more
appropriate method of interim circulatory carriageway reduction, preferably by
physical means but alternatively using coloured surfacing or hatched markings.
Hatching should not be used to reduce the entry width in areas adjacent to pedestrian facilities.

6.6.3 Central Island

The central island should be circular and at least 4 metres in diameter. The inscribed circle diameter,
the width of the circulatory carriageway and the central island diameter are interdependent: once any
two of these are established, the remaining measurement is determined automatically.

It should be noted that the swept path for the Design Vehicle may impinge slightly (by up to 0.3m) into
either the inner or outer 1m clearance allowance. Given the anticipated frequency of this type of
vehicle, this is not considered to be particularly significant and the dimensions in Figure 6.6 should
not be increased accordingly.

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In order to ensure that light vehicles encounter sufficient entry deflection at Single Lane Roundabouts,
an overrun area (i.e. a raised low profile area around the central island) may be necessary (Figure
6.6). It should be capable of being mounted by the trailers of HGVs, but be unattractive to cars e.g.
by having a slope and/or a textured surface.

The profile dimensions of the overrun area are shown in Figures 6.7a and 6.7b. It should be noted
that these diagrams are not intended to dictate the actual cross sectional shape of an overrun area,
but only to illustrate the dimensions that must not be exceeded. The overrun area does not need to
incorporate any step like projections.

Figure 6.6: Turning Widths Required for Single Lane Roundabouts

(a) = Main central island

(b) = Central overrun area, where provided
(c) = Remaining circulatory carriageway width =
1.0 - 1.2 x maximum entry width
(d) = Vehicle
(e) = 1m clearance minimum
(f) = Inscribed Circle Diameter

Central Island
R1(m) R2(m) Minimum ICD (m)
Diameter (m)
4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0
6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8
8.0 5.0 13.9 29.8
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8
12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0
14.0 8.0 15.6 33.2
16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6
18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0
In these cases no channelising islands should protrude within the inscribed circle diameter.

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Figure 6.7a: Profile of overrun area

Figure 6.7b: Detail of overrun area

It should be noted that these diagrams show an indicative cross sectional shape of an overrun area, developed to illustrate the dimensions
that must not be exceeded.

6.6.4 Channelising Islands

Channelising islands shall be used on each arm, located and shaped so as to separate and direct
traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. They shall be raised and kerbed. Markings may also be
used to extend a channelising island on the approach, the exit or the circulatory carriageway. Kerbed
channelising islands can act as pedestrian or cyclist refuges provided that they are large enough to
give adequate safe standing space for accompanied wheelchair users, and pedestrians with
pushchairs or cyclists. Signs and other street furniture can be sited on kerbed islands provided that
there is sufficient room to maintain the required clearances. The provision of directional signage shall
be considered when designing the size of channelising islands.

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6.6.5 Entries
A number of variables need to be considered in selecting an entry design which is safe and has
adequate capacity. These variables are:
a) approach half width (v);
b) entry width (e);
c) entry flaring (F);
d) entry angle (ϕ);
e) entry kerb radius (r):
f) entry path radius (EPR).

These are described below and shown in Figures 6.8 to 6.19.

6.6.6 Approach Half Width

The approach half width, v, is the width of the approach carriageway, excluding any hatching, in
advance of any entry flare (see Figure 6.8). It is the shortest distance between the median line, or
the edge of the central reserve on dual carriageway roads, and the nearside edge of the road.
Where there is white edge lining or hatching, the measurement should be taken between markings
rather than kerb to kerb.

6.6.7 Entry Width

The entry width, e, is the width of the carriageway at the point of entry. It is measured from the point
A at the right hand end of the yield line along the normal to the nearside kerb (see Figure 6.8). For
capacity assessment, the measurement should be taken as the total width of the lanes which drivers
are likely to use i.e. the effective width, which is normally between any white edge lining or hatching.
Where the alignment of the entry lanes is as described in Section 6.6.8, the entry width and the
effective entry width are the same.
Entry width is a key factor affecting capacity, in conjunction with length and sharpness of flare. One
or two extra lanes may be added to the approach at a roundabout. However, as a general rule not
more than two lanes should be added and no entry should be more than four lanes wide.

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Figure 6.8: Approach Half Width and Entry Width

Lane widths at the yield line (measured along the normal to the nearside kerb, as for entry width) must
be not less than 3m or greater than 4.5m, with the 4.5m value appropriate at single lane entries and
values of 3 to 3.5m appropriate at Multi-lane entries.

On a single carriageway approach to a roundabout, the entry width, e, must not exceed 10.5m. On a
dual carriageway approach to a Multi-lane roundabout, the entry width must not exceed 15m.

If flaring is provided, tapered lanes should have a minimum width of 2.5m.

On a single carriageway road, where predicted flows are low and increased lane width is not
operationally necessary, a Single Lane Roundabout with single lane entries shall be used. The entry
may need to be closed to carry out any form of maintenance so the design of traffic management for
maintenance should be discussed at an early stage in the design process with the Maintaining
Organisation.

The development of entry lanes must account for the anticipated turning proportions and possible lane
bias, since drivers often have a tendency to use the nearside lane. The use of lane bifurcation where
one lane widens into two should maximise use of the entry width. The use of very short offside lanes
is not recommended as they tend to be used infrequently in practice with the result that debris collects
on the road surface and forms a safety hazard, particularly for two-wheeled vehicles.

For road improvement schemes on national roads, forecast design year flows sometime after opening
will be considered. This can result in roundabout entries with too many lanes for initial flows,
subsequently leading to operational problems. A layout based on projected flows will determine the
eventual land requirements for the roundabout, but for the early years of operation it may be necessary
for the designer to consider an interim layout. This approach can result in reduced entry widths and
entry lanes.

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6.6.8 Alignment of Entry Lanes

The alignment of entry lanes is critical. The kerb line of the channelising island (or central reserve in
the case of a dual carriageway) should lie on an arc which, when projected forward, meets the central
island tangentially (see Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.9: Arc Projected Forwards from the Channelising Island and Tangential to the Central
Island

6.6.9 Design of Multi-lane Entries

On Multi-lane entries, it is important to ensure that entries are configured in order to avoid the situation
where some lanes exceed capacity and others are underused. On flared entries, the queue from an
overused lane may back up and block access to other lanes.

6.6.10 Entry Flaring

Entry flaring is localised widening at the point of entry. Roundabouts usually have flared entries with
the addition of one or two lanes at the yield line to increase capacity. Single lane entries should be
slightly flared to accommodate HGVs. Even a small increase in entry width may increase capacity.

The average effective flare length, l', is the average length over which the entry widens. It is the length
of the curve CF', shown in Figure 6.10.

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Figure 6.10: Average Effective Flare Length

Notes:

AB = e (entry width).
GH = v (approach half width at point G which is the best estimate of the start of the flare).
GD is parallel to AH and distance v from AH (v is measured along a line perpendicular to both AH and GD and, therefore, the length of AD
is only equal to v if AB is perpendicular to the median at A).
CF' is parallel to BG and distance ½ BD from the BG.

To determine the average effective flare length, l':

a) construct curve GD parallel to the median HA (centre line or edge of central

reserve or channelising island) and distance v from it;
b) construct curve CF' parallel to curve BG (the nearside kerb) and at a constant
distance of ½ BD from it, with F' the point where CF' intersects line DG;
c) the length of curve CF' is the average effective flare length l'.
In cases where the line AB is not perpendicular to the median, the length AD will differ slightly from v.

The total length of the entry widening (BG) will be about twice the average effective flare length.

The capacity of an entry can be improved by increasing the average effective flare length. Similar
levels of capacity can be obtained with a variety of flare lengths and entry widths. A minimum average
effective flare length of 25m in rural areas is desirable, but capacity will be the determining factor.

Effective flare lengths greater than 25m may improve the geometric layout but have little effect in
increasing capacity. If the effective flare length exceeds 100m, the design becomes one of link
widening. Where the design speed is high, entry widening should be developed gradually with no
sudden changes in direction.

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The sharpness of flare, S, is defined by the relationship:

S = 1.6 [e-v] / l'

It is a measure of the rate at which extra width is developed in the entry flare. The value of S depends
on the available land-take and the capacity required. Values of S greater than unity correspond to
sharp flares and smaller values (0 ≤ S ≤ 1) to gradual flares. Long gradual flares are most efficient as
they make better use of the extra width but sharp flares have a smaller potential of land take. Sharp
flares can still give significant increases in capacity and may be appropriate where there is cyclist /
pedestrian crossing demand.

The entry width and the average effective flare length are related. The capacity of a wide entry
combined with a short flare can be similar to that of a narrow entry combined with a long flare. There
are many intermediate combinations of e and l' that will have the same capacity.

Although entry width and sharpness of flare (which is a function of flare length and widening) have the
largest effect on capacity, other variables such as entry angle and entry radius are also important.
When capacity is at a premium, small changes in these variables can sometimes provide a bigger
increase in capacity than making a large change in a single variable.

6.6.11 Entry Angle

The entry angle, ϕ, serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict angle between entering and circulating
traffic streams. There are two different methods for its measurement, depending on the size of the
roundabout.

For a large roundabout where the arms are well separated, the angle measured is in effect that
between the projected path of an entering vehicle and the path of a circulating vehicle (see Figure
6.11). To determine the entry angle:

a) construct the curve EF as the locus of the mid- point between the nearside kerb
and the median line (or the edge of any channelising island or central reserve);
b) construct BC as the tangent to EF at the yield line;
c) construct the curve AD as the locus of the mid- point of (the used section of) the
circulatory carriageway (a proxy for the average direction of travel for traffic
circulating past the arm);
d) the entry angle, ϕ, is the acute angle between BC and the tangent to AD.

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Figure 6.11: Entry Angle at a Larger Roundabout

For Single Lane Roundabouts, the entry angle is measured as shown in Figure 6.12. This construction
is also used when there is insufficient separation between entry and adjacent exit to be able to define
the path of the circulating vehicle clearly. In this case, circulating traffic which leaves at the following
exit will be influenced by the angle at which that arm joins the roundabout. The angle between the
projected entry and exit paths is measured and then halved to find ϕ:

a) construct line BC as in Figure 6.11;

b) construct the curve JK in the next exit as the locus of points midway between the
nearside kerb and the median line (or the edge of any channelising island or
central reserve);
c) construct the line GH as the equivalent of line BC i.e. the tangent to the curve JK
at the point where JK intersects the border of the inscribed circle;
d) the lines BC and GH intersect at L. The entry angle, ϕ, is half of angle HLB.
ϕ = [angle HLB]/2

Note that if angle GLB exceeds 180 degrees, ϕ is defined as zero.

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Figure 6.12: Entry Angle at a Smaller Roundabout

If it is not clear which of the two methods should be used, the following procedure should be
implemented. All three vehicle paths (entry, exit and circulatory carriageway medians) should be
constructed, and the entry and exit paths projected towards the roundabout centre. The choice of
construction for ϕ depends on where these projections meet: if the meeting point is closer to the centre
of the roundabout than the arc of the circulatory carriageway median, then the construction shown in
Figure 6.11 should be used; if they meet outside that area, then the construction illustrated in Figure
6.12 should be used. In the limiting case where all three medians intersect at a point, the circulatory
carriageway median approximately bisects the angle between the other two medians, so that the two
methods become equivalent.

The entry angle, ϕ, shall lie between 20 and 60 degrees. Low entry angles force drivers to look over
their shoulders or use their mirrors to merge with circulating traffic. Large entry angles tend to have
lower capacity and may produce excessive entry deflection which can lead to sharp braking at entries,
accompanied by shunt collisions, especially when approach speeds are high.

6.6.12 Entry Kerb Radius

The entry kerb radius, r, is the radius of curvature of the nearside kerb line over the distance from 25m
ahead of the yield line to 10m downstream of it (see Figure 6.13). It is the radius of the best fit circular
curve over a length of 25m.

The entry kerb radius should be not less than 10m. (Except at Single Lane Roundabouts), If the
approach is intended for regular use by HGVs, the value should be not less than 20m. However, entry
kerb radii of 100m or more will tend to result in inadequate entry deflection and should not be used.

Although entry capacity can be increased by increasing the entry kerb radius, once its value reaches
20m, further increases only result in very small capacity improvements. Reducing the entry kerb radius
below 15m reduces capacity.

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Figure 6.13: Entry Kerb Radius

6.6.13 Entry Path Radius

The entry path radius is a measure of the deflection to the left imposed on vehicles entering a
roundabout. It is the most important determinant of safety at roundabouts because it governs the
speed of vehicles through the junction and whether drivers are likely to yield to circulating vehicles.

To determine the entry path radius, the shortest path allowed by the geometry is drawn. This is the
smoothest, flattest path that a vehicle can take through the entry, round the central island and through
the exit (in the absence of other traffic) (see Figures 6.14 to 6.17). This path represents the actual
vehicle path and must not include instantaneous transitions between circular curves of different radii,
including straights.

The path is assumed to be 2m wide so that the vehicle following it would maintain a distance of at
least one metre between its centreline and any kerb or edge marking. The path starts 50m in advance
of the yield line.

The smallest radius of this path on entry that occurs as it bends to the left before joining the circulatory
carriageway is called the entry path radius. Note that this is different to, and should not be confused
with, the entry kerb radius as described earlier. The entry path radius can be measured by applying
suitable templates to the curve in the vicinity of the yield line (see Figures 6.14 to 6.17). It is the radius
of the best fit circular curve over a length of 25m.

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Figure 6.14: Determination of Entry Path Radius for Ahead Movement at a 4-arm Roundabout

a Entry Path Radius

b Commencement Point

Figure 6.15: Determination of Entry Path Radius for the Left Turn where the Approach Curves to
the Left

a Entry Path Radius

b Commencement Point

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Figure 6.16: Determination of Entry Path Radius for the Left Turn where the Approach Curves to
the Right

a Entry Path Radius

b Commencement Point

Figure 6.17: Determination of Entry Path Radius for the Left Turn at a Roundabout at a Y-junction

a Entry Path Radius

b Commencement Point

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A method for creating entry deflection at a roundabout is to stagger the arms as shown in Figure 6.18.
This will:

a) reduce the size of the roundabout;

b) minimise land acquisition;
c) help to provide a clear exit route with sufficient width to avoid conflicts.
Sharp curves on the link road design should not be introduced to increase entry deflection, although
a gentle curve to the right preceding left hand entry deflection may be used.

The design of Single Lane Roundabouts is similar to that for Multi-lane Roundabouts, but the single-
lane entries, circulatory carriageway and exits are retained.

6.6.14 Exits
Exit Width
The exit width is the width of the carriageway on the exit and is measured in a similar manner to the
entry width. It is the distance between the nearside kerb and the exit median (or the edge of any
channelising island or central reserve) where it intersects with the outer edge of the circulatory
carriageway. As with entry width, it is measured normal to the nearside kerb. Values are typically
similar to or slightly less than entry widths.

Where the downstream link is a single carriageway road with a long channelising island, the exit width
of the roundabout should be between 7m and 7.5m and the exit should taper down to a minimum of
6m (see Figure 6.19), allowing traffic to pass a broken down vehicle. Where the link is an all-purpose
two-lane dual carriageway, the exit width should be between 10m and 11m and the exit should taper
down to two lanes wide.

The width should be reduced in such a way as to avoid exiting vehicles encroaching onto the opposing
lane at the end of the channelising island. The width should reduce at a taper of 1:15 to 1:20. Where
the exit is on an up gradient, the exit width may be maintained for a short distance before tapering in.
This helps reduce intermittent congestion caused by slowly accelerating HGVs by giving other drivers
an opportunity to overtake them. If the exit road is on an up gradient combined with an alignment
which bends to the left, it may be necessary to maintain the exit width over a longer distance to help
ensure that overtaking manoeuvres can be completed before the merge is encountered.

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Figure 6.18: Staggering of Arms to Increase Deflection

Figure 6.19: Typical Single Carriageway Exit at a roundabout with a Long Channelising Island

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At a Single Lane Roundabout, the exit width should be similar to the entry width.

On exits, the edge line should continue along the projected line of the kerbing once this is terminated
(see Figures 6.29 and 6.30).

Exit Kerb Radius

The exit kerb radius (a) is shown in Figure 6.19. Values for the exit kerb radius should exceed the
largest entry radius (except at Single Lane Roundabouts, where they should be equal).

At a Single Lane Roundabout, the value of the exit kerb radius should be between 15m and 20m.

At other roundabouts, the exit kerb radius should not be less than 20m or greater than 100m. A value
of 40m is desirable, but for larger roundabouts on high speed roads, a higher value may suit the overall
junction geometry. A compound curve starting with a 40m radius and developing to a larger radius, of
up to 100m, will usually offer the best solution. Larger values of exit radii may lead to high exit speed,
which will not be appropriate if there are significant numbers of cyclists using the junction or where
pedestrian/cyclist crossing facilities are located immediately downstream.

The shortest distance possible between an entry arm and the next exit is governed by the minimum
entry radius (10m) and the minimum exit radius for the type of roundabout in question (15m at a Single
Lane Roundabout, otherwise 20m).

If a roundabout is to be modified to include an additional arm, care should be taken to ensure that this
does not affect safety at the preceding entry and following exit. It may be necessary to redesign the
whole junction if adequate spacing and deflection between entries and adjacent exits cannot be
achieved.

Exits should be checked to ensure that vehicle paths are smooth and vehicles are not directed towards
channelising islands. Channelising islands should end at a tangent (or, at least, parallel) to the centre
line and be long enough to prevent an exiting vehicle from crossing the centre line into oncoming
traffic.

If the peak exit volume approaches the capacity of the downstream link, tapers longer than 1:20 may
be needed to merge the traffic as the traffic density in each lane will be high.

If circulatory speeds are high sharp turns into exits can increase the likelihood of load shedding by
HGVs and decrease the traffic capacity of the junction.

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6.7 Visibility
6.7.1 General
Except for visibility to the right at entry and across the central island as set out in this Chapter, the
envelope of visibility for the measurement of stopping sight distance on the approaches to the
roundabout shall be in accordance with DN-GEO-03031.

Where signs are to be erected on a central reserve, verge or channelising island within the envelope
of visibility, including to the right, the mounting height must not be less than 2m above the carriageway
surface.

6.7.2 Forward Visibility on Approach (Stopping Sight Distance)

Visibility on the approach (Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for the design speed of the
road) must be measured to an object at the yield line as indicated in Figure 6.20. Visibility shall be
measured and meet the requirement stated in DN-GEO-03031.

Chevron signs on the central island must also be visible to approaching drivers in all lanes from a
distance equal to the Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance. Chevron signs should not be
stacked. If conspicuity of the signs is a problem, grey backing boards or larger signs should be used.
If the approach to the roundabout is over a crest, a higher mounting height may be necessary. Refer
to the Traffic Signs Manual.

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Figure 6.20: Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach

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6.7.3 Forward Visibility at Entry

Drivers of all vehicles approaching the yield line must be able to see objects on the roadway for the
full width of the circulatory carriageway for the Visibility Distance given in Table 6.1 (measured along
the centre of the circulatory carriageway as shown in Figure 6.21). The height of objects shall be
consistent with those used for measurement of stopping sight distance as outlined in DN-GEO-03031.
The visibility must be checked from the centre of the nearside lane at a distance of 15m back from the
yield line, as shown in Figure 6.21.

6.7.4 Visibility to the Right

Drivers of all vehicles approaching the yield line must be able to see the full width of the circulatory
carriageway to their right, from the centre of the offside lane at the yield line, for the Visibility Distance
given in Table 6.1 (measured along the centre of the circulatory carriageway), as shown in Figure
6.22.

Table 6.1: Roundabout Minimum Visibility Requirement

Visibility Distance (m) (‘a’ in

Inscribed Circle Diameter (m)
Figures)
<40 Whole junction
40 – 60 40
60 – 100 50
>100* 70
*ICD >100m shall require a Departure from Standards.

Visibility to the right must also be provided from the centre of the offside lane at a distance of 15m
back from the yield line, as shown in Figure 6.23.

The envelope of visibility to the right must be obtainable from a driver’s eye height of between 1.05m
and 2m to an object height of between 1.05m and 2m. Object height is adjusted for this visibility check
and is expected to be for oncoming traffic and not objects on the roadway.

Excessive visibility to the right can result in high entry speeds, potentially leading to collisions. On dual
carriageway approaches where the speed limit is greater than 60km/h, limiting visibility to the right by
screening until the vehicle is within 15m of the yield line can be helpful in reducing excessive approach
speeds. The screening should be at least 2m high, in order to block the view of all road users.
Screening can also be used on flared approaches on high speed single carriageway roads where
there is a long channelising island.

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Figure 6.21: Forward Visibility Required at Entry

Figure 6.22: Visibility to Right along Circulatory Carriageway Required at Entry (from Yield Line)

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Figure 6.23: Visibility to Right along Circulatory Carriageway in Advance of Yield Line

6.7.5 Circulatory Visibility

Drivers on the circulatory carriageway shall be able to see the full width of the circulatory carriageway
ahead of them for the Visibility Distance given in Table 6.1. This visibility must be provided at a
distance of 2m in from the central island, as shown in Figure 6.24. The envelope of visibility must be
obtainable from a driver’s eye height of between 1.05m and 2m to an object height of between 1.05m
and 2m.

The circulatory visibility needs to be checked to ensure it is not obstructed by landscaping or other
features. Normally, at least the outer 2m of the central island should be hard standing or planted with
grass or similar low level vegetation.

Figure 6.24: Circulatory Visibility Required

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6.7.6 Pedestrian/Cyclist Crossing Visibility

Drivers approaching a roundabout with a pedestrian/cyclist crossing across the entry shall be able to
see the full width of the crossing so that they can see whether there are pedestrians/cyclists wishing
to cross. The visibility required is the Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for the design speed
of the link included in DN-GEO-03031.

Pedestrians must be able to see and be seen by the approaching traffic. The visibility should not be
obscured or restricted by parked vehicles, trees or street furniture etc. This is particularly relevant at
roundabouts with two lane entries, where there are stationary vehicles in lane 1; these can obstruct
the visibility of pedestrians and cyclists.

At the yield line, drivers must be able to see the full width of a pedestrian/cyclist crossing across the
next exit if it is within 15m of the yield line on that arm.

6.7.7 Exit Visibility

On the circulatory carriageway, the exit visibility shall conform to Table 6.1. Once a vehicle has
crossed the inscribed circle at the exit from the roundabout, the Stopping Sight Distance shall conform
to DN-GEO-03031.

The provision of new priority junctions or direct accesses shall not be permitted within 90m of the exit
from a roundabout.

6.7.8 Visual Intrusion

Signs and street furniture should be located and designed so as not to obstruct road users’ visibility.
However, isolated objects less than 550mm wide such as lamp columns, sign supports or bridge
columns within the visibility envelopes are acceptable.

6.7.9 Visibility at Grade Separated Junctions

At roundabouts on grade separated junctions in particular, care is needed to ensure that the yield line
is clearly visible to approaching drivers. This shall be achieved by the provision of a section of level
approach road, with a maximum longitudinal gradient of 2%, from 25m prior to the yield line (subject
to the requirements for minimum crossfall and longitudinal gradient for drainage set out in DN-GEO-
03031 and as outlined in the following paragraphs). Visibility can also be impacted by the position of
safety barriers and parapets. Designers shall ensure that the design of safety barriers and parapets
does not reduce the visibility requirements outlined in this Chapter.

6.8 Crossfall
6.8.1 Crossfall and Longitudinal Gradient
Steep gradients should be avoided at roundabout approaches or flattened to a maximum of 2% for a
minimum distance of 25m before entry. Crossfall and longitudinal gradient combine to provide the
necessary slope to drain surface water from the carriageway. The minimum resultant gradient of any
part of the road surface within 50m of the roundabout shall be 1% in accordance with DN-GEO-03031.
This may be reduced locally to 0.5% at the direct interface between the approaching road and the
circulatory carriageway in difficult circumstances.

On the approaches and exits, superelevation can assist drivers in negotiating the associated curves.
It’s value, when used, should be appropriate to the speed of vehicles, and equal to or greater than
those necessary for surface drainage, but should not exceed 5% (1 in 20). Superelevation should be
reduced to 2% at 20m from the yield line, since with adequate advance signing and entry deflection,
speeds on approaches should be reducing. The minimum longitudinal gradient of the circulatory

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carriageway shall be 0.5%. The maximum longitudinal gradient shall be 2.5%. Gradients outside these
limits will require a Departure from Standard.

6.8.2 Crossfall on the Circulatory Carriageway

Crossfall is required to drain surface water on circulatory carriageways. The normal value is 2% (1 in
50). It should not exceed 2.5% (1 in 40). To avoid ponding, longitudinal edge profiles should be graded
at not less than 0.67% (1 in 150), with 0.5% (1 in 200) considered the minimum. The design gradients
do not in themselves ensure satisfactory drainage, and, therefore, the correct siting and spacing of
gullies is critical. Gullies shall not be located at any pedestrian crossing location.

At roundabouts on high speed roads, shall be arranged for crossfall to assist vehicles. To do this, a
crown line is formed. This line can either join the ends of the channelising islands as shown in Figure
6.25, or divide the circulatory carriageway in the proportion 2:1 internal to external (Figure 6.26). In
some cases a subsidiary crown line may assist in achieving appropriate values of crossfall without
giving excessive changes at the main crown line (Figure 6.27).

Figure 6.25: Using One Crown Line to Join Channelising Islands

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Figure 6.26: Using One Crown Line to Divide the Carriageway in the Ratio 2:1

Figure 6.27: Using Two Crown Lines

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The conflicting crossfalls at the crown lines have a direct effect on driver comfort and may also be a
contributory factor in load shedding and HGV roll-over collisions. Over a given section, the maximum
recommended arithmetic difference in crossfall is 5%. Lower values are desirable, particularly for
roundabouts with a small inscribed circle diameter. There should be no sharp changes in crossfall and
a smooth crown is essential.

At Single Lane Roundabouts, it is more appropriate to apply constant crossfall in one direction across
the full width of the circulatory carriageway where the design speed within 100m from the yield line
does not exceed 60km/h on any approach. This crossfall should slope outwards to ease drainage
and help keep speeds down. It also makes the central island more conspicuous.

6.8.3 Crossfall at Exits

At exits, superelevation should be provided where necessary to allow vehicles to accelerate safely
away from the roundabout. However, as with entries, crossfall adjacent to the roundabout should not
exceed 2%. If the exit leads into a right hand curve, superelevation should be introduced in accordance
with DN-GEO-03031.

6.9 Road Marking and Signing

A well-designed roundabout with balanced traffic movements will operate effectively under the
marking shown in the Traffic Signs Manual. However roundabouts with high flows and inscribed circle
diameters close to the recommended maximum will need additional markings and signs on the
approaches and circulatory carriageway.

The use of right pointing arrows on lane dedication signs or as markings on the road is not permitted
on roundabout approaches. This is to avoid confusing drivers, particularly those from overseas, over
which way to proceed around the roundabout. Where a right hand lane is dedicated to a specific
destination, it should be associated with an ahead arrow on the approach.

Turn Left signs should only be used with caution on the circulatory carriageway, to avoid drivers
mistakenly turning into roundabout entries. They should be used only on the central island of the
roundabout in conjunction with the Chevron board as per Chapter 6 of the TSM.

The Traffic Signs Manual provides guidance on the signs to be used at roundabouts. Where additional
road markings are used to designate lanes on the approaches and circulatory carriageways,
complementary signs are used. On wide approaches and circulatory carriageways where tall vehicles
could obscure post mounted signs, gantry mounted signs are recommended.

Chevron signs can impinge on circulatory visibility but the effects can be minimised by positioning the
signs 2m back from the central island kerb line.

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6.10 Kerbing and Verge Width

Roundabout entries and exits should be kerbed, and hard strips or hard shoulders on each approach
should terminate where entry widening begins. Where kerbs are not present on approach links, the
kerbs shall start on the approach at the back of the hardstrip and then terminate the hard strip edge
line in a short smooth curve or taper (see Figures 6.28 and 6.29). On the exit, the kerbing should
terminate where the hard strip starts.

The verge width should be at least 2.5m and should generally be consistent around the roundabout.
Further advice is given in DN-GEO-03036. Factors that should be taken into account in determining
verge width include:

a) visibility requirements;
b) space required to accommodate buried services, road signs and other street
furniture;
c) maintenance access;
d) any likely future traffic increases that could require an increase in carriageway
width.

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Figure 6.28: Method of Terminating Edge Strips on a Single Carriageway Approach to a

Roundabout

Figure 6.29: Method of Terminating Edge Strips on a Dual Carriageway Approach to a Roundabout

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6.11 Heavy Goods Vehicles

The problem of HGVs overturning or shedding their loads at roundabouts has no obvious solution in
relation to layout geometry. Whilst this type of collision may infrequently cause personal injury, there
are considerably more damage only incidents. Load shedding often results in congestion and delay,
and is expensive to clear, especially if occurring at major junctions. Experience suggests that
roundabouts where these problems persist usually exhibit one or more of the following features:

a) Inadequate entry deflection leading to high entry speeds;

b) Long straight sections leading into deceptively tight bends;
c) Excessive visibility to the right;
d) Low circulating flow past the entry;
e) Tightening of the line on circulation;
f) Sharp turns into exits;
g) Excessive crossfall changes;
h) Excessive adverse crossfall on circulatory sections;
i) Double or reverse curvature.
A problem for some vehicles may be present even if speeds are not high. Research has shown that
an articulated HGV with a centre of gravity height of 2.5m above the ground can overturn on a 20m
radius bend at speeds as low as 25 km/h. Layouts designed in accordance with the recommendations
in this standard should avoid the problems listed above. However, designers should recognise that
each site will be different and designs should be specifically checked to ensure that such problems
are avoided. During construction, particular attention should be paid to ensure that pavement surface
tolerances are complied with and that abrupt changes in crossfall are avoided.

6.12 Segregated Left Turn Lanes at Roundabouts

6.12.1 General
This section outlines the criteria for the provision of segregated left turn lanes at roundabouts and the
geometric features to be considered in their design.

Segregated left turn lanes should only be considered where there is a significant left turn movement
at a particular entry.

Segregated left turn lanes shall not be used at single lane exits unless they form the introduction of a
lane gain arrangement.

Segregation shall be provided by physical separation as shown in Figure 6.30. Vehicles are
channelled into the left hand lane by road markings, supplemented by advance direction signs. They
proceed to the first exit without having to yield to other vehicles at the entry onto the roundabout.

All traffic signs and road markings shall be designed and applied in accordance with the Road Traffic
Acts, the Road Traffic (Signs) Regulations, the Road Traffic (Traffic and Parking) Regulations and the
Traffic Signs Manual.

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Figure 6.30: Generic Physical Left Turn Lane (No provisions made for cyclists)

6.12.2 Traffic Flows and Capacity of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

When considering the use of segregated left turn lanes, vehicle composition and the total inflow at the
roundabout entry, the proportion of left turning vehicles and the number of entry lanes should all be
examined. The following procedure can be used as an initial assessment to determine whether the
provision of a segregated left turn lane merits further consideration.

The inclusion of a segregated left turn lane should be considered if:

F
L≥
E

Where:

L is the flow of left turning vehicles;

F is the total entry arm inflow in vehicles per hour;

E is the number of proposed entry lanes onto the roundabout including the segregated left turn lane.

The following examples illustrate the use of this initial assessment process. In Example 1, a
segregated left turn lane is being considered at an existing roundabout and in Example 2, as an
addition to a new roundabout layout.

Example 1
An existing roundabout currently has a 3-lane entry, a left turn flow of 500 vehicles per hour and a
total entry inflow of 1200 vehicles per hour. The provision of a left turn lane will result in the loss of
one entry lane onto the circulatory carriageway. L is 500, which is greater than F/E (1200/3 = 400),
indicating that further examination is worthwhile.

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Example 2
A new roundabout is proposed, the left turn flow is 250 vehicles per hour, the total inflow is 1000
vehicles per hour and the left turn lane can be provided in addition to two entry lanes. L is 250, which
is less than F/E (1000/3 = 333), indicating that a segregated left turn lane may not improve the capacity
of the roundabout entry. Designers should therefore consider alternative measures such as additional
entry width (i.e. a three lane entry) or a longer flare length.

For marginal cases where the value of F/E is close to L, the provision of a segregated left turn lane
may merit further consideration where other factors such as safety need to be considered.

The composition of the turning proportions at the entry, the number of exit lanes and the capacity of
the approach road should also be examined when considering the provision of a segregated left turn
lane.

The capacity of a segregated left turn lane is dependent on the entry and exit treatments and lane
width. To ensure maximum capacity a dedicated lane on the approach and exit shall be provided with
a minimum lane width of 3.5m.

The impact of introducing a segregated left turn lane should be assessed taking into account the entry
and exit treatments. A traffic micro-simulation program shall be used by the designer to assess the
impact of introducing a segregation.

The relevant peak periods for the junction being analysed should be used, and should include forecast
commuter, development usage and other peak periods. The effect of the lane on traffic flows at
different periods of the day should also be considered. The results of any assessment should be
carefully examined to ensure that the provision of a segregated left turn lane is the most appropriate
form of improvement, compared with alternatives such as modifications to flare lengths or entry widths.

The use of segregated left turn lanes on roundabouts forming part of grade separated junctions shall
be considered where queuing at roundabout entries becomes a problem.

6.12.3 Geometric Design Standards of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

Segregated left turn lanes should not be designed to induce high speeds. Any desirable speed
reduction should be achieved on the approach to the lane rather than within it. Where the segregated
left turn lane follows a tight radius relative to the approach speed, the use of “slow” road markings to
TSM Chapter 7 is recommended in conjunction with associated Bend Ahead warning signs (W 051),
plated with a Max Speed (RUS 041, RUS 042, RUS 043 or RUS 044) per Chapter 5 of the TSM. Care
should be taken to ensure that these signs are located to avoid “sign clutter” or confusion to drivers
not using the segregated left turn lane.

Countdown markers to TSM Chapter 4 should only be provided on the approach to the roundabout
when there is no risk of confusion between the distance to the commencement of the segregated left
turn lane and the distance to the roundabout yield line.

The curve radius used for the segregated left turn lane will be dependent on both the design speed of
the approach road and site constraints. The driver’s perception of the approach and segregated left
turn lane radii will be a determining factor in their approach speed. The designer should therefore
consider the need for speed reduction measures on the approach depending on the minimum curve
radii used. Inside curve radii of less than 10m are not recommended. The exit radius used should be
greater than, or equal to, the entry radius.

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Where segregated left turn lanes are considered on grade separated junctions, designers shall
provide a 3.75V m distance between the mainline and the segregated lane diverge noses, where V is
the design speed in km/h. Distances that are less than 3.75V m will require a Departure from
Standards. Refer to Chapter 7 for further information.

Superelevation along the segregated left turn lane shall be applied in accordance with Table 1.3 of
DN-GEO-03031 subject to a maximum value of 5%.

The Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) on the segregated left turn lane shall be the
lesser of (a) the SSD obtained from DN-GEO-03031 Table 1.3 for the design speed of the approach
or (b) the SSD given in Table 6.2 in this standard appropriate to the maximum nearside curve radius.
The D6/3esirable Minimum SSD shall be applied to the section of segregated left turning lane between
the end of the entry taper and the start of exit taper.

The maximum curve radius used to determine the SSD from Table 6.2, shall be the greater of either
the entry or exit radius of the segregated left turn lane, these being defined as the radius that occurs
immediately after the entry taper and immediately before the exit taper in the direction of travel. See
Figure 6.31 for definition of entry and exit tapers.

Figure 6.31: Dedicated approach and exit for segregated left turn lane introducing a lane gain

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The carriageway widths specified in column 2 of Table 6.3 shall be used to accommodate the swept
path of a HGV and hatch markings provided on the inside of the curve to reduce the marked lane
width to a minimum of 3.5m.

As physical segregation is to be provided, this shall permit a left turn at the roundabout in the normal
way from the non-segregated part of the approach as shown on Figure 6.30. Where a channelising
island in excess of 50m in length is proposed, the lane widths specified in Column 3 of Table 6.3 shall
be used.

For roundabouts ≤ 50m inscribed circle diameter, the segregated left turn lane width used shall be
based on the minimum curve radius on the entry or exit. For roundabouts with an inscribed circle
diameter > 50m, the designer shall have discretion to reduce the segregated left turn lane width on
the section of segregated left turn lane between the entry and exit, depending on the radius used on
that section. The widths specified in Table 6.3 shall be used.

The use of two-lane segregated left turn lanes is not permitted, as these can result in high vehicle
speeds and potential conflict at the exit or merge point. Where left turn flows are very high, alternative
junction forms or methods of junction control shall be considered.

1m hardstrips shall not be provided on segregated left turn lanes. They shall be terminated at the start
of the entry taper and recommenced at the end of the exit taper.

Table 6.2: Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distances

Desirable Minimum Stopping

Maximum Curve Radius (m)
Sight Distance (m)
less than or equal to 20 35
21 to 40 70
41 to 80 90
81 to 100 120
Greater than 100 215

Table 6.3: Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Carriageway Widths

Segregated Left Turn Lane Segregated Left Turn Lane

Minimum Inside Corner
Carriageway Width (for Carriageway Width (for
Radius or Curve Radius (m)
channelising island lengths channelising island lengths
≤ 50m) (m) > 50m) (m)
(1)
(2) (3)
10 8.4 10.9
15 7.1 9.6
20 6.2 8.7
25 5.7 8.2
30 5.3 7.8
40 4.7 7.2
50 4.4 6.9
75 4.0 6.5
100 3.8 6.3
> 100 3.5 6.0

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Channelising islands shall be a minimum width of 4 m, to facilitate the safe crossing of NMU and the
requirements for bollards and signs. Channelising islands shall extend a minimum of 1.5m and 6m
into the entry and exit roads respectively where no pedestrians are expected, as shown on Figure
6.32.

Figure 6.32: Generic Physical Left Turn Lane with no provisions made for cyclists

Segregated left turn lanes shall not be used at the end of steep downhill gradient approaches, this
being defined as a longitudinal gradient in excess of 4% within the immediate approach to the junction
as defined in DN-GEO-03031, applicable to the design speed of the approach measured back from
the start of the entry taper. The longitudinal gradient along the segregated left turn lane shall not
exceed 4%.

Traffic signs and street furniture may be placed on channelising islands. Their number should be
limited however, as proliferation can create confusion, distract, reduce visibility, add to sign clutter and
have significant maintenance implications. Reference should be made to DN-REQ-03034 for vehicle
restraint system details for protection from roadside hazards.

The use of physical segregated left turn lanes at unlit junctions is not permitted.

Where a channelising island is to be provided, a retroreflective or transilluminated bollard shall be

installed at the start of the island. A minimum clearance of 0.6m between the edge of the sign or
bollard and edge of the island shall be provided.

6.12.4 Approach Layout of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

The approach arrangements shall consist of a dedicated lane. Dedicated lanes on approach, see
Figure 6.31, provide the highest capacity entry to a segregated left turn lane. They require careful
design of signing and road markings such as the use of lane destination signs and Bifurcation Arrow
markings in accordance with TSM chapter 4 on the approach, to avoid driver confusion that may result
in lane changing manoeuvres occurring adjacent to the segregated left turn lane entry.

The entry arrangements consist of an entry taper as shown on Figure 6.31.

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The entry taper length for the segregated left turn lane shall be provided in accordance with Table 6.4.
The segregated left turn lane width shall be a minimum of 3.5m at the start of the entry taper, as shown
on Figure 6.31.

Any widening required to accommodate the swept paths of HGVs shall be developed along the length
of the entry taper. The length of the entry taper shall be calculated using the following method:

The length of the entry taper shall be dependent on the widening required to accommodate either the
segregated left turn lane island width, subject to a minimum width of 1.0m for a non-physical and 2.1m
(1.5m island width plus 0.3m marking offset on each side) for a channelising island, or the widening
required to accommodate the swept path of a HCV (Table 6.3). The larger of the two values shall be
used to calculate the entry taper length using the factors contained in Table 6.4.

Figure 6.34 shows an example of how to calculate the entry taper length for a 1.5m wide physical
island less than 50m in length, for a 70km/h single carriageway approach.

The taper for the hatching shall be developed asymmetrically on the segregated left turn lane side of
the entry taper as shown on Figure 6.34 and shall terminate in a position offset 0.3m from the edge of
a channelising island as shown on Figure 6.33. The 0.3m offset may be reduced to 0.15m where the
speed limit is 70 km/h or less.

Figure 6.33: Termination of Taper Hatching at Physical Island

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Figure 6.34: Calculation of Entry/Exit Taper Lengths

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Table 6.4: Desirable Minimum Entry/Exit Taper Length Factors

Design Speed (km/h) Entry/Exit Taper Length Factor

50 20
60 20
70 20
85 25
≥100 30

6.12.5 Exit Layout of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

The exit layout from a segregated left turn lane shall be a dedicated lane consisting of an exit taper
as shown on Figure 6.31.

The dedicated exit lane (see Figure 6.31), provides a free running exit for traffic from the segregated
left turn lane.

The exit taper for the segregated left turn lane shall be provided in accordance with Table 6.4. The
segregated left turn lane width shall be a minimum of 3.5m at the end of the exit taper, as shown on
Figure 6.31. Any widening required to accommodate the swept paths of HGVs through the segregated
left turn lane shall be removed along the length of the exit taper. As with the entry taper, the length of
the exit taper shall be calculated by using the larger value when comparing the width of the segregated
left turn lane island with the width reduction required between the start and end of the exit taper, as
shown on Figure 6.34.

The taper for the hatching shall be developed asymmetrically on the segregated left turn lane side of
the exit taper as shown on Figure 6.34 and shall terminate in a position offset from the edge of a
channelising island in accordance with the details provided in the previous section of this Chapter.

The Entry Flaring section of this Chapter recommends that at the beginning of a roundabout exit, its
width should allow for an extra traffic lane over and above that of the link downstream. This extra width
should be reduced on the nearside, normally at a taper of 1:15 to 1:20. Where a segregated left turn
lane is present, the exit width reduction must be completed upstream of the end of the segregated left
turn lane exit taper. This may require extending the segregated left turn lane exit taper to
accommodate the roundabout exit width reduction.

The end taper will be dependent on site constraints and the use of the minimum taper values contained
in Table 6.5 is recommended.

Table 6.5: Minimum End Tapers

Design Speed Minimum Taper

 60 km/h 1:10
> 60 km/h 1:15

Where signs and street furniture are placed on the channelising island in the vicinity of the exit, they
should be located so as not to obstruct intervisibility between the segregated left turn lane exit and
adjacent roundabout exit lane.

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6.12.6 Signage of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

The presence of a segregated left turn lane shall be signed on the approach using an advance
direction sign.

The use of road markings to supplement Advance Direction Signs may also be considered.

6.12.7 Kerbing of Segregated Left Turn Lanes

The kerb height above the carriageway for raised and kerbed channelising islands should be 125mm.

6.12.8 Traffic Signs and Road Markings of Segregated Left Turn Lanes
The layout of the approaches to physical segregated left turn lane islands shall be marked using
Chevron markings detailed for the particular road type in Chapter 7 of the TSM but with 100mm line
widths for entry taper road markings.

Reflecting road studs shall comply with Chapter 7 of the TSM but with 100mm solid line width in
conjunction with Chevron markings to Chapter 7 but with 100mm lines, 800 min parallel width and
shall be used only when laid on the nearside. Guidance on the use of reflecting road studs is contained
in Chapter 7 of the TSM.

Designers should ensure that where the segregated left turn lane has been widened to accommodate
the swept paths of HGVs, the widened lane does not encourage high vehicular speeds or two vehicles
to attempt to use the lane side by side. The operational lane width shall be narrowed down on the
nearside to a minimum of 3.5m width through the use of suitable hatching to Chapter 7 of the TSM
but with 100mm solid line width. Hatching shall be a minimum width of 1.0m.

6.12.9 Straight ahead movements

Designers considering the use of a segregated lane for a straight ahead traffic movement should be
aware that there are a number of issues that could result in unsafe layouts. They are:

a) High entry speed;

b) Higher speed of vehicles exiting the straight ahead lane compared with slower
traffic leaving the roundabout, which can result in merging problems;
c) The use of reverse curves both on the approach and through the roundabout and
abrupt changes in crossfall;
d) Difficulties in signing the layout;
e) Difficulties presented to Non-Motorised Users.
Designers should exercise particular caution in the design of segregated lanes for straight ahead
traffic movements in order to avoid these problems, and if necessary consider alternative layouts.

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7. Layout of Grade Separated Junctions

7.1 General Principles
The main objective of grade separated junction design is to provide a junction which is safe for the
forecast traffic flows. Certain layouts are not recommended for safety reasons and shall not be used.

These are:

a) grade separated junctions on single carriageways, Type 2 and 3 dual carriageways

(see DN-GEO-03031 and Chapter 8 of this standard dealing with compact grade
separated junctions);
b) grade separation on dual carriageways within 0.5 km of a changeover to single
carriageway standard, measured from the end of the merge taper to the beginning
of the right hand lane hatching that removes the offside lane or lanes (see the
Traffic Signs Manual and Chapter 5 of this standard);
c) offside merges and diverges;
d) priority junctions, particularly those with right turning movements, on an otherwise
grade separated route.
Full grade separation is not permitted on single carriageway roads and Type 2 and 3 dual
carriageways due to driver perception and therefore reduced safety and shall be avoided in design.
However, DN-GEO-03031 permits the introduction of compact grade separation on these road types.
Refer to Table 6.1 of DN-GEO-03031.

Junction and Interchange design is an iterative process which is a key part of the overall design
process for schemes. Figure 7.1 is a flowchart for junction and interchange design. Figure 7.2 outlines
the connector road design process.

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Figure 7.1: Flow Chart Showing the Junction/Interchange Design Process

Figure 7.2: Flow Chart Showing the Connector Road Design Process

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7.2 Design Process

The first stage is to decide on an initial network and junction strategy, including the connections to be
made, for example whether the junction should be omni-directional.

Having made those starting decisions, it is possible to derive hourly flows to be used in the design
process following the guidance in the TII Project Appraisal Guidelines. An examination of these flows,
applied to the network strategy adopted, will enable a decision to be taken (or confirmed) that the
route should be Motorway or All- Purpose national road. Reference to DN-GEO-03036 will give a
starting point on the level of carriageway provision for the links on the network assumed.

The next stage, and the first step that could lead to iteration, is to assess the likely lane provision on
the mainline and the connector roads. If the basic scheme cannot be tailored to cope with demands,
including those likely to arise when maintenance work needs to be undertaken, then network and
junction strategy will need to be reviewed and alternatives investigated; for example – reducing the
number of junction accesses or using link roads. Link roads reduce the frequency of direct access
points along the mainline in order to eliminate sub-standard weaving lengths thus promoting free flow
to minimise the potential for collisions and to preserve the high capacity of the mainline. They can also
be used where it is unsafe or not possible to make direct connections. Link roads can be useful for
maintenance and diversions.

The following stage may also lead to iteration. This is to determine the merge and diverge facilities
and to check that weaving sections at or above the desirable minimum length can be provided. If these
cannot be achieved, then the junction strategy should be reviewed.

The next stage is to check that desirable geometric standards can be achieved with the junction
spacing, and any lane gains or drops proposed, and that an effective and economic signing system
can be provided. Again the strategy may have to be adjusted. Figure 7.2 is a flowchart showing the
connector road design process. It refers to the particular paragraphs, figures and tables of this
standard applicable to connector road design and to DN-GEO-03036. Interchanges may be also be
justified and where required shall be designed in accordance with DN-GEO-03041.

If the junction and interchange designs pass these stages, the scheme can then be taken to the next
stage in its preparation which is likely to be a cost/benefit assessment. Analysis may not be sufficiently
fine to evaluate the performance of individual junction elements. The best means of ensuring that a
junction is effective is to carry out the operational check outlined above and in Figure 7.1. With the
exception of the interchange these junctions have merge and diverge slip roads which, where
absolutely necessary, may be signalised at their junction with the side road or roundabout.

7.3 Layout Options

7.3.1 General
The most efficient form of grade separation is that which presents the driver with the minimum number
of clear unambiguous decision points as they drive through the junction and in merging and diverging.
Additionally, on a Motorway or Type 1 Dual Carriageway national road that is generally grade
separated, consistency of design for successive junctions is an important consideration involving the
adoption of the same Design Speed. This need for consistency also applies to the signing and road
markings to be adopted particularly at the boundary of responsibility between different road
authorities.

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7.3.2 Siting
The siting of a grade separated junction on a hill top should be avoided if possible as approach
gradients can cause operational problems in the diverge area, even when the percentage of HGVs
is small. Hill top locations could be environmentally damaging to the skyline and might present difficulty
to drivers in comprehending road signs which are silhouetted against the sky. There is also the risk of
drivers being blinded when the sun is low in the sky.

7.3.3 Recommended Layouts for Grade Separated Junctions

Recommended layouts for consideration in order of increasing traffic flow level are:

a) dumb-bell roundabout – junctions with the minor road are provided by two
roundabouts which are connected by a central link road either under or over the
mainline;
b) half clover-leaf – use of two quadrants and roundabout junctions with the minor
road;
c) interchange – a junction between major roads with all movements catered for by
free flowing connector roads (Refer to DN-GEO-03041).

7.3.4 Dumb-Bell Roundabout

The dumb-bell roundabout layout has the advantages of reduced cost (only one bridge required) and
less land take than other grade separated junctions.

For the dumb-bell layout, it is possible that the distance between the two roundabouts may be less
than the desirable minimum SSD for the design speed of the connecting link road. In that case, a low
(0.26m) object at the yield line of the next roundabout must be visible from a vehicle as it leaves the
circulatory carriageway of the previous roundabout. Attention must be given to the needs of future
maintenance of the connecting link road to avoid the need for closure of the road. One lane dual
carriageways should, therefore, be avoided and single carriageways would often be preferable.

7.3.5 Half Cloverleaf

A half-cloverleaf is used where site conditions are difficult and the use of all four quadrants is not
possible (see Figures in Chapter 2). A roundabout junction shall be provided at the junctions with the
minor road.

7.3.6 Variants
Variants on the two basic types of grade separated junctions (half cloverleaf and dumb-bell
roundabout) can be provided if:

a) the junction is 3 way i.e. a T junction;

b) not all movements need catering for
c) traffic signals, either full-time or part time, are included to remove congestion on an
existing grade separated junction. It is recommended that they should only
normally be considered as an alternative to a priority junction;

7.3.7 Provision for Non-Motorised Users

Generally, non-motorised road users do not need to be catered for along the mainline of a grade
separated interchange. However, should NMU facilities be required to cater for a particular demand,
the NMU’s are to be directed to the at grade junction and away from both the merge and the diverge
lanes serving the grade separated interchange from the mainline.

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7.4 Design Principles

7.4.1 General
Where lane drops and lane gains occur, the lane configurations ahead should be made clear to drivers
by the consistent use of signs and road markings as outlined in the Traffic Signs Manual. These
principles have been incorporated in the recommended layouts.

The signing of junctions and interchanges should give clear and timely information to drivers. This is
particularly important at lane gains and lane drops and at other decision type locations or in situations
where the driver’s view may be obstructed by high traffic volumes or tall vehicles. At these locations,
consideration should be given to the provision of gantries to mount the signs. Where these are
proposed the design of the junction should take the siting of the gantries into account.

It may also be that the predicted turning flows are not realised in the proportions expected in the
design year and the consequences of being wrong should be examined. Sensitivity testing of differing
flow proportions should be undertaken.

Correction factors to take account of gradients and proportion of HGVs, as detailed in Table 7.5, may
need to be made to the flows to be entered in Tables 7.4, and Figures 7.3 and 7.5.

7.5 Merges – General Principles

It is important on safety grounds and to limit interference to mainline traffic that joining traffic is
channelled into the merging area (i.e. from the tip of the nose to the end of the taper(s) and arrives
there in an orderly fashion to perform a safe and comfortable merge with the mainline.

If joining flows are greater than one lane capacity then an additional lane should normally be added
to the mainline as a lane gain. The individual merging area for each joining lane within a merge should
be separated from the previous one and there should be space between them for mainline traffic to
adjust to the new traffic flow.

Where design flows are close to capacity on both the connector road and on the mainline it is important
to ensure that there is adequate provision for those merging. If the availability of merging opportunities
is estimated to be low for long periods of the day, improved merging opportunities shall be provided
by auxiliary lanes. By providing auxiliary lanes at merge locations, the conditions and opportunities for
merging are improved.

There may be occasions when the merge flow is greater than the mainline flow. The junction should
nevertheless be set out so that mainline traffic has priority over traffic entering from the left, except at
a lane gain.

There are many sites throughout the network that have a two-lane taper merge layout; such layouts
are not now recommended. When junctions that contain these features are to be improved, the layout
must be altered to a standard layout as appropriate for the merge and mainline flow levels. Figure
7.4.3, Layout C which incorporates a lane gain is the preferred option.

7.5.1 Choosing a Merge Layout (Refer to Figure 7.3)

Hourly flows for the merge and the mainline upstream must be inserted in Figure 7.3 to select a merge
layout as shown in Figures 7.4.1 to 7.4.5. Where design flows lie close to, or on, a boundary between
the flow regions, the probability of the particular flow actually occurring should be carefully reviewed.
The provision of a layout that differs from that derived from the use of Figure 7.3 is a Departure from
Standard, whether the proposed design is an under or over provision.

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Figure 7.3 provides a number of layouts to cater for anticipated flows. Layout A (Figure 7.4.1) provides
a basic parallel merge. Layout B (Figure 7.4.2), Layout C (Figure 7.4.3) and Layout D (Figure 7.4.4)
are required where flows justify a lane gain arrangement. Layout E (Figure 7.4.5) may be considered
as a Departure from Standard where it is not possible to use Layout C (see also Section 7.9).

Ghost island road markings at merges should be designed in accordance with Chapter 7 of the Traffic
Signs Manual.

The minimum width of a ghost island at a merge lane is 2.0 m at its widest point and the minimum
width of a chevron is 0.5m. If the ghost island marking is less than 1.2m wide it will be too narrow to
mark with chevrons. The length of ghost island that is unmarked with a chevron could extend over a
long distance. In order to prevent this problem, the minimum width of a ghost island must be 1.2m at
a distance of 50m from the tip of the ghost island head or tail. It should be noted that ghost island
layouts can require significant length to comply with the standard and this may be reflected in the land
requirement especially where the layout is being provided within an existing road boundary.

Gap finding is assisted when the merging traffic has the opportunity to match the speed of the mainline
traffic. For all connector roads, a near straight at least equal in length to the nose length given in Table
7.1 column (3) for the appropriate Road Class must be provided upstream of the back of the merge
nose. This requirement will enable merging traffic to achieve a matching speed.

Platoons of traffic can enter a merge slip road if junctions upstream are signal-controlled. This traffic
can have a significant effect on the mainline flow especially at peak times when available gaps in the
mainline traffic flow are few. Turbulence and congestion are the result. Care should be taken to
program such traffic signals with a view to reducing their impact on the mainline flow.

In circumstances where traffic modelling shows significant delays incurred during peak periods as a
result of high entry flows, it may be appropriate to use non-standard layouts that are not included in
this Standard. Use of layouts not included in this Standard shall require a Departure from Standards.

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Figure 7.3: Merging Diagram

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Figure 7.4.1: Merge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.3 (Layout A)

Figure 7.4.2: Merge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.3 (Layout B)

Notes to Figures 7.4.1 and 7.4.2:

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.1.

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Figure 7.4.3: Merge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.3 (Layout C)

Notes to Figure 7.4.3:

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.1.

2. Option 1 is preferred due to the likely usage of Lane 1 of the connector road by the majority of large and/or slow vehicles and Lane 2 predominantly by light vehicles. Option 2 may be used in
circumstances where traffic modelling indicates it is appropriate.

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Figure 7.4.4: Merge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.3 (Layout D)

Notes to Figure 7.4.4:

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.1.

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Figure 7.4.5: Merge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.3 (Departure from Standard)

Notes to Figure 7.4.5:

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.1.

2. This layout is for use where Layout C would be used but is not possible to implement because of site restraints. To use requires approval as a Departure from Standards.

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7.6 Diverges – General Principles

Diverging traffic should be able to leave the mainline easily and without impeding the progress of
through traffic.

There is potential for collisions on diverge connector roads if the capacity of the connection to the local
road network is insufficient and causes queuing on the connector road. Drivers leaving the mainline
should have sufficient time to react and brake safely before the end of any queue. The designer must
therefore ensure that the downstream cross-section (designed in accordance with DN-GEO-03036)
and junctions do not cause queues that approach the back of the diverge nose. This will allow drivers
to use the diverge area and length of nose to decelerate in reasonable comfort, as intended.

7.6.1 Choosing a Diverge Layout (Refer to Figure 7.5)

Hourly flows, as determined from the traffic flows section of this Chapter, for the diverge and the
mainline downstream of the back of the diverge nose must be inserted in Figure 7.5 to select a diverge
layout as shown in Figures 7.6.1 to 7.6.4. Where design flows lie close to, or on, a boundary between
the flow regions, the probability of the particular flow actually occurring should be carefully reviewed.
The provision of a layout that differs from that derived from the use of Figure 7.5 is a Departure from
Standard, whether the proposed design is an under or over provision.

The minimum length of a diverge slip road to be provided will normally be dictated by the requirements
in the preceding paragraphs in relation to capacity and the topographical layout of a junction. Where
this is not the case, as for instance at the diverge slip road leading into a service area, then the
minimum length diverge slip provided shall be equal to the Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight
Distance (SSD) for the mainline from the tip of the diverge nose to the stop or yield line at the end of
the connector road.

For all connector roads, a near straight at least equal in length to the nose length given in Table 7.2
column (4) for the appropriate Road Class must be provided downstream of the back of the diverge
nose. This requirement will enable drivers to comprehend the layout ahead and adjust their speed
accordingly.

The minimum length of a diverge slip road from a motorway shall be Desirable Minimum Stopping
Sight Distance (SSD) for the mainline from the tip of the diverge nose to the stop or yield line at the
end of the connector road.

Where the required length of Near Straight cannot be achieved, it may be appropriate to provide an
auxiliary lane instead or in combination. An application must be made for a Departure from Standard.

For diverges, the layout of the edge line must incorporate the radii shown on Figures 7.6.1 to 7.6.4.

In circumstances where traffic modelling shows significant delays incurred during peak periods as a
result of high exit flows, it may be appropriate to use non-standard layouts that are not included in this
Standard. Use of non-standard layouts shall require a Departure from Standards.

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7.6.2 Single Lane Parallel Diverge

The single lane parallel diverge is only applicable to diverging lane cross-sections of 1 x 4.0m or 2 x
3.0m lanes, as shown in Table 7.2.

The layout of the single lane parallel diverge is shown in Figure 7.6.1 (Layout A) and Figure 7.6.2
(Layout B). This layout is a Taper Diverge incorporating a single auxiliary lane. Point A is the
intersection between the single lane parallel diverge and the taper diverge.

The method of construction for the single lane parallel diverge (as described above and shown in
Figure 7.6.2) will be the same for all applicable Road Classes.

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Figure 7.5: Diverging Diagram

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Figure 7.6.1: Diverge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.5 (Layout A)

Figure 7.6.2: Diverge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.5 (Layout B)

Notes to Figures 7.6.1 and 7.6.2

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.2.

2. Point A for the 1 x 4.0m diverging lane is generally located close to the tip of the nose.

3. Point A for the 2 x 3.0m diverging lane generally occurs 2/3 of the way along the auxiliary lane.

4. The extent of the single lane parallel diverge carriageway will always encompass the full extent of a Taper Diverge.

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Figure 7.6.3: Diverge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.5 (Layout C)

Figure 7.6.4: Diverge Lane Layouts for use with Figure 7.5 (Layout D)

Notes to Figures 7.6.3 and 7.6.4

1. Figures in brackets refer to columns in Table 7.2.

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7.7 Geometric Design Parameters

The geometric parameters applicable to merges and diverges must be those in Tables 7.1 and 7.2
respectively. Figures 7.4 and 7.6 illustrate their use in typical layouts. Lengths are measured along
the left edge of the carriageway. For merges, the layout of the edge line shown on Figure 7.4 does
not require the use of larger radii. For diverges, the layout of the edge line should incorporate the radii
shown on Figure 7.6.

Table 7.1: Geometric Design Parameters for Merging Lanes

Length of Length Length

Nose Nose Minimum Reduction Taper (See
Road Class entry taper of of
Ratio Length auxiliary Note 2) (7)
(m) (1) auxiliary Ghost
(see (see lane
lane Island
4m 3.65m Note Note 1) length (m) Absolute
taper (m) Tail (m) Preferred
lane lane 1) (2) (3) (4) Min
(5) (6)
Motorway
Rural Motorway
Mainline 220 205 1:40 115 230 75 180 n/a
Within
150 130 1:25 75 160 55 150 n/a
Interchange

Type 1 Dual Carriageway National roads

100 km/h 140 130 1:25 75 160 55 150 n/a
80 km/h n/a see
80 75 1:12 40 100 40 1:40 1:30
speed limit Note 3
Note 1 Nose ratio is the ratio of nose back width to nose length for minimum angle at nose. The maximum angle will be limited by
the ability of vehicles to negotiate the change in direction.

Note 2 Table to be read in conjunction with Figures 7.4.1 to 7.4.5

Table 7.2: Geometric Design Parameters for Diverging Lanes

Length of exit taper (m) Minimum

Nose Length of
Nose auxiliary
Ratio (See aux lane
Road Class 4.00m 2x3.65m 2x3.00m length (m) lane
Note 1) taper (m)
lane (1) lane (2) lane (2) (4) length (m)
(3) (6)
(5)
Motorways
Rural Motorway
Mainline 180 185 150 1:15 80 200 75
Within
130 130 110 1:15 70 150 55
Interchange

Type 1 Dual Carriageway National roads

100 km/h 130 130 110 1:15 70 150 55
80 km/h
80 90 75 1:12 40 100 40
speed limit
Note 1 Nose ratio is the ratio of nose back width to nose length for minimum angle at nose. The maximum angle will be limited by
the ability of vehicles to negotiate the change in direction.

Note 2 Table to be read in conjunction with Figures 7.6.1 to 7.6.4

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Where, in a merge on a rural motorway, it is anticipated that the connector road and mainline will
frequently be carrying traffic flows approaching their design capacities, it is desirable to extend the
minimum auxiliary lane length of 230 m (Table 7.1) to 370 m. As a guide, this should be considered
when connector road and mainline flows reach 85% of capacity, as defined in the Traffic Flows section
later in this chapter, for more than 1,000 hours per year. Figure 7.7 shows an example for the layout
of a ghost island merge with lane gain. Within larger interchanges, the length may be increased to
500 m. The auxiliary lane should be extended to the next diverge if this is close and the termination
of the auxiliary lane is considered as a safety hazard.

In order to allow merging drivers using an auxiliary lane to match their speed with those on the mainline
where there is an uphill section of road, the auxiliary lane must be extended beyond the crest
sufficiently to enable the end of the auxiliary lane to be clearly visible to drivers when:

a) the uphill section of road would be sufficiently steep to require a climbing lane; or
b) the proportion of HGVs is greater than 10% and the uphill mainline gradient is in
excess of 2% and within 0.5 km of the crest.

For extended auxiliary lanes in merges, of length greater than that given in column (4) of Table 7.1, a
sign showing the number of lanes ahead, also that traffic in the slip road must merge into the mainline
nearside lane with a distance plate ‘200m’, should be placed 200m from the start of the taper. For very
long auxiliary lanes in merges consideration should be given to additional signs with the appropriate
distance plates, see Traffic Signs Manual.

Emergency telephones and other equipment that requires vehicles to stop for assistance or road
maintenance must be sited a minimum of 100m from the termination of merges where vehicles may
overrun onto the hard shoulder or hard strip.

Where a diverge connector road has a single lane, a single auxiliary lane is appropriate.

7.8 Successive Merges or Diverges Within Interchanges

Where there are closely spaced successive merges or diverges on mainlines and connector roads
within a junction or interchange (Figure 7.8), the minimum spacing between the tips of noses must be
3.75V m, where V is the design speed in km/h, subject to the minimum requirements for effective
signing and motorway signalling. If the merges or diverges are on a connector road, the design speed
must be that for the connector road. This paragraph applies to successive merges (merge followed by
a merge) or successive diverges (diverge followed by a diverge). It also applies to a diverge followed
by a merge but not to a merge followed by a diverge (the latter is a weaving section).

At a fork within an interchange link, the taper must be developed as shown in Table 7.3 and Figure
7.9.

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Figure 7.7: Extended Auxiliary Lanes for Rural Motorways

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Figure 7.8: Example of Successive Merges/Diverges

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Figure 7.9: Development of Taper at Fork

Table 7.3: Geometric Design Parameters for a Fork within an Interchange Link

Interchange Link Length of Taper, L (metres) Nose Length

Nose Ratio
Design Speed 1 lane 2 lane (metres)

70/85km/h 75 90 1:12 40
Note: Nose Ratio is the ratio of nose back width to nose length for minimum angle at nose. The maximum angle will be limited by the
ability of vehicles to negotiate the change in direction.

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7.9 Designing Weaving Sections

The principle of calculating weaving sections is that the length is fixed using Section 7.9.1 and the
width is calculated from the formula outlined later in this Section. This determines the number of lanes
and can indicate the addition of one or two lanes. The formula shows that the minor weaving flow has
an impact on the traffic demand of up to 3 times its numerical value.

An actual weaving length Lact less than the desirable minimum must not be entered into the formula.

Weaving lengths for taper layouts must be measured between the end of the merge and start of the
diverge tapers, see Figure 7.11A. For auxiliary lane layouts, the auxiliary lane is ignored and the length
between the end of the notional merge and the start of the notional diverge must be measured as
illustrated in Figure 7.11B. In the case of lane gains and lane drops, the methods set out in Figures
7.12, 7.13 and 7.14 must be used.

In the case of ghost island merges and diverges, the examples in Figure 7.15 show the two points
which must be used for the two connector road lanes to provide the averaged weaving lengths
between junctions. Similar techniques must be applied for diverges.

In the case of wide (5 lane or more) carriageways, there should be no reduction below the desirable
minimum weaving length. A vehicle on a 5-lane carriageway requires at least 1km to cross between
Lanes 5 and 1 safely so as to leave at a diverge and the driver will need advance warning.

For weaving sections on motorways and dual carriageway roads, design flows must be calculated as
per this Chapter. In measuring Lact it will be necessary to consider whether distance is available to
adequately sign the second junction and allow adequate visibility to the sign from all lanes. To
calculate the number of traffic lanes required for weaving the following equation must be used (see
Figure 7.10):

1
N= (Qnw + Qw1 + Qw2 (2 Lmin / Lact + 1))
D
Where:
N = Number of traffic lanes
Qnw = Total non-weaving flow in vph
Qw1 = Major weaving flow in vph
Qw2 = Minor weaving flow in vph
D = Maximum mainline flow from Section 7.10 in vph per lane
Lmin = Desirable Minimum weaving length for the road
Lact = Actual weaving length available

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In calculating the number of traffic lanes required a fractional part will inevitably require a decision to
round up or down. If it is possible to vary the position of the junctions and thus increase or decrease
the weaving length, the fractional part will converge approximately to a whole number of lanes and
the decision is simplified. However, if this is not possible the decision becomes more difficult. Where
the fractional part is small and is combined with a low weaving flow rounding down is suggested,
whereas a high fractional part with a high weaving volume suggests rounding up. For example the
addition of a fourth lane would have operational advantages in releasing the two middle lanes for
weaving traffic. Other factors which may influence the decision are:

a) the number of lanes required for merging and diverging (Sections 7.7 and 7.8);
b) when the fractional part is about 0.5 the number of lanes shall be rounded up;
c) on recreational routes there can be a high proportion of drivers who are not local
and therefore behave less efficiently than commuters would at the same flow
levels;
d) the consequences of under provision should be borne in mind, as the acquisition of
land at a later date could be costly or impossible;
e) relevant environmental factors should be taken into account.

Figure 7.10: Terms used in Weaving

7.9.1 Weaving Lengths

Weaving lengths must be measured as shown in Figures 7.11 to 7.15.

For Rural Motorways and Type 1 Dual Carriageway national roads, the Desirable Minimum weaving
length shall be 2 kilometres. However, when the design flow on the main line is not greater than 50%
of the capacity (AADT) for level of service D as given in DN-GEO-03031 for rural motorways, a
weaving length of 1 kilometre can be provided as a Relaxation. The weaving formula must not be
used for weaving lengths above 3 kilometres. The requirements for MSAs on rural motorways are as
for rural motorway junctions.

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Figure 7.11: Definition of Terms used in Weaving and Measurement of Weaving Length for Taper
and Auxiliary Lane Layouts

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Figures 7.12 to 7.14: Definition of Terms used in Weaving and Measurement of Weaving Length for
Lane Gain and Lane Drop Layouts.

Figure 7.12: Lane Gain/ Lane Drop

Figure 7.13: Lane Gain only

Figure 7.14: Lane Drop Only

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Figure 7.15: Measurement of Weaving Length for Ghost Island Layouts

Total Weaving Length Lact is the distance to point 2 plus half the distance between 1 and 2.
Figures in brackets refer to Table 7.1

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7.10 Traffic Flows

7.10.1 Hourly Design Flow
Hourly Design Flows shall be calculated using an appraisal method agreed with TII. For Inter-Urban
road types, the 50th and 200th highest hourly flows respectively shall be used. The highest value of
the total design flow, corrected for HGVs and gradient as described later in this Section, projected to
the 15th year after opening, shall be taken as the basis of design for merges, diverges, and weaving
sections.

7.10.2 Mainline Traffic Capacity

For the purpose of designing junctions and interchanges, the maximum lane capacity for Type 1 Dual
Carriageway national roads should be taken as 1,600 vehicles per hour (vph) and for Motorways as
1,800 vph. These values have been used in Figures 7.3 and 7.5 in this Standard. If higher values have
been used in the design of the mainline carriageways, then the equivalent number of lanes should be
used, instead of design flows, for that part of Figures 7.3 and 7.5 that relate to the mainline.

7.10.3 Design Flows and Connector Road Cross Sections

Connector road cross sections corresponding to design traffic flow ranges are given in Table 7.4.
Further details of the cross sections are given in Section 7.11.

Table 7.4: Connector Road Cross Sections for Design Flows

For Mainline Road Type Connector Road Cross Section for:

Type 1 Dual Interchange
Slip Road
Motorway Carriageway Link/Loop
National road Merge Diverge Merge/Diverge
Single Lane - 4.00m
0-900 0-800
Carriageway Single Lane -
Single Lane - 4.00m
Two Lane -
Peak Corrected Design 900-1350 800-1200 4.00m Carriageway
6m
Flow on Connector Road: Carriageway
Carriageway
Vehicles per hour 1350-2700 1200-2400
Two Lane - Two Lane -
Two Lane -
7.3m 7.3m
2700-3600 2400-3200 7.3m
carriageway carriageway
carriageway
Notes:
Cross-sectional details for Connector Road verges and hard strips are given in the relevant tables of DN-GEO-03036.

7.10.4 Flow Corrections for Uphill Gradients and for LCVs

Corrections for uphill gradients and for the presence of HGVs as set out in Table 7.5 shall be made to
the predicted hourly flows before corresponding values are read off from Table 7.4 and from Figures
7.3 and 7.5.

To establish the mainline gradient a one kilometre section shall be used, 0.5 km either side of the
merge or diverge nose tip, and the average gradient determined. The merge connector road gradient
shall be based on the average of the 0.5 km before the nose tip.

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Table 7.5: Percentage Correction Factors for Gradients and the presence of HGVs

Mainline Gradient Merge Connector Gradient

%HGV
<2% >2% <2% 2%-4% >4%
5 - +10 - +15 +30
10 - +15 - +20 +35
15 - +20 +5 +25 +40
20 +5 +25 +10 +30 +45

7.11 Geometric Standards

7.11.1 Cross Sections
For the purpose of designing grade separated junctions, Table 7.4 gives the required number of lanes
and widths for the running carriageway for a range of design flows and road types. Details of other
components such as hard shoulders, hard strips and verges that make up the cross section for slip
roads and interchange links are detailed in DN-GEO-03036. Values for the appropriate widths of such
components can be found in the relevant tables of DN-GEO-03036.

7.11.2 Maximum Lengths of Slip Roads and Interchange Links

A Slip Road longer than 0.75 km must be designed as an Interchange Link.

Single Lane Interchange Links must only be provided:

a) when their length does not exceed 1 km and they are on an average uphill grade
of up to 3%, are level or on a downhill grade; or
b) where their length does not exceed 0.5 km and they are on an average uphill
grade of 3% or steeper.
Where two lane interchange links are proposed, care will be needed to ensure that any subsequent
merge can be designed in accordance with this standard. Layout A and Layout B merges are not
permitted for two lane slip roads.

7.11.3 Design Speed

Design speeds for the mainline must be determined from DN-GEO-03031. The design speeds of
connector roads must be as given in Table 7.6. The design speed for link roads should normally be
one design speed step below that of the mainline, as shown in Table 7.6 and this reduced design
speed will need to be made clear to the vehicle driver. To help achieve this, link roads should be
subject to an appropriate speed limit, either mandatory or advisory. Where the proposed link road
design speed is one design speed step below that of the mainline and this cannot be made obvious
to the driver, the higher design speed should be used. Where the link road is a connection to a
motorway, motorway merge parameters apply, regardless of the design speed.

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Table 7.6: Connector Road Design Speed

Rural Type 1 Rural Type 1

Rural Motorway Dual Dual
Mainline Design Speed
120km/h Carriageway Carriageway
120km/h 100km/h
Interchange Link 85 85 85
Slip Road 70 70 70
Connector
Link Road 120 or 100 120 or 100 100 or 85
Road Design
Dumb-bell Link
Speed km/h 70 70 70
Road
Loops 50 50 50

Any transition curves at locations where the design speed changes must be designed to the higher
design speed value.

7.11.4 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

The geometric standards for horizontal and vertical alignment and stopping sight distance for the
mainline through a grade separated junction and for the connector roads must be provided in
accordance with DN-GEO-03031. The maximum gradient for connection roads shall be 6%.

Low radius connector roads must be widened on curves in accordance with DN-GEO-03031.

7.11.5 Vertical Alignment for Merges and Diverges

Vertical design of merges and diverges (see Figure 7.16) shall provide:

a) At the start of nose, a constant crossfall shall be maintained across the main
carriageway, the tip of the nose and the slip road carriageway (Section A-A on
Figure 7.16).
b) At the back of the nose either:
i. a constant crossfall across the main carriageway, the back of the nose and the
slip road carriageway (Section B-B on Figure 7.16) or;
ii. a separate crossfall for the mainline and the slip road with a single change in
crossfall by a maximum of 3%, located on either edge of the nose or within the
nose (Section B-B on Figure 7.16).
c) From the back of the nose to the point where both slip road and mainline verge
widths have been fully developed (shown as point V on Figure 7.16), the crossfall
of the un-paved verge shall be a maximum of 5% (Section C-C on Figure 7.16).

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Figure 7.16: Vertical Alignment for Merges and Diverges

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7.12 Loops
In the case of the horizontal curvature and superelevation for loops (as defined in Chapter 1), there is
evidence to suggest that the radii of loops can safely be much less than for curves turning through
lesser angles, provided that adequate warning is given to drivers and clear sight lines are maintained.
For loops the minimum radii may therefore be those given in Table 7.7. Within the loop, successive
radii of the same hand must not reduce in radius. The standards for superelevation for loops are set
out in DN-GEO-03031. Superelevation greater than 7% and up to 10% may be provided as shown in
DN-GEO-03031 but superelevation greater than 7% should be used with caution where there is a risk
of prolonged icy conditions. Where loops leave or join the mainline, crossfall alongside the nose must
be the minimum required for drainage design as laid down in DN-GEO-03031. Widening on loops
must be as set out in Chapter 5 of this document.

Table 7.7: Minimum Loop Radii – (m)

Motorway / Type 1 Dual Carriageway All-Purpose

(120 km/h)
On to Mainline Off Mainline
On/Off Mainline
75 40 50

Research into loops carried out from 1985 to 1994 did not reveal any systemic safety problems.
Collision levels at sites surveyed were generally low with approximately a third of the sites having no
personal injury collisions over the study period.

The research looked at whether non-compliance with existing standards gave rise to safety problems
and a variety of non-complying loops were examined. The study examined the following loops which
are shown in Figure 7.17:

Basic merge
A loop that passes through approximately 270o where traffic merges with the mainline flow. This Basic Merge,
when combined with the Hook Diverge, forms the layout in Figure 7.20b.

Basic diverge
A loop that passes through approximately 270o where traffic diverges from the mainline flow. This Basic
Diverge, when combined with the Hook Merge, forms the layout in Figure 7.20a.

D merge
The loop commences at a T-junction or roundabout and merges with the mainline flow. The angle turned is
typically approximately 180o.

D diverge
The loop commences at a diverge from the mainline flow and ends at a T-junction or roundabout. The angle
turned is typically approximately 180o.

Hook merge
This layout is classified as a loop and the notional total angle is between 180o and 270o. This Hook merge,
when combined with the Basic diverge, forms the layout in Figure 7.20a.
Hook diverge
This layout is classified as a loop and the notional total angle is between 180 o and 270o. This Hook diverge,
when combined with the Basic merge, forms the layout in Figure 7.20b.

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Figure 7.17: Types of Loop

Note: A near straight is required beyond the back of each nose (see Sections 7.7 and 7.8)

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The average speed of approach to a loop may have an impact on its safety record. It is possible that
the higher speeds on motorways on the approach to loops may be a contributory factor to collisions,
particularly on diverge loops. Measures to maintain safety are necessary, and measures to consider
include:

a) provision and maintenance of clear visibility over the whole of the loop on the
approaches, especially beyond an underbridge (see Paragraph 7.13.3);
b) advisory speed limits and/or bend signs and “chevron” warning signs;
c) widening of lanes on the loops as appropriate for lower radii in accordance with
Chapter 5 of this standard;
d) the provision of vehicle restraint systems on the outside of the curve;
e) physical separation of opposing traffic streams (see Section 7.17 Connector Roads
for mandatory requirements);
f) lighting;
g) high skid resistant surfacing.
The provisions for loops in this document must apply only to the layouts shown in Figure 7.17, which
may be used in combination as shown in Figure 7.18.

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Figure 7.18: Examples of Combinations of Different Types of Loop

Note: A near straight is required beyond the back of each nose (see Sections 7.7 and 7.8)

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7.13 Sight Distances

7.13.1 Merges
The Stopping Sight Distance on the connector road must be that related to the design speed selected
for that road (see Table 7.6). This will apply until the driver reaches the Stopping Sight Distance from
the back of the merge nose. From that point forward, the Stopping Sight Distance must be that for the
mainline design speed as illustrated in Figure 7.19A. There must be no obstruction to sight lines
between the connector road and the mainline and vice versa for the length of the merge nose. There
is a minimum approach angle at which drivers can merge on direct sight. Below this minimum
approach angle drivers will be moving nearly parallel to the mainline carriageway and will have to
merge using mirrors. It follows that there is a minimum width of merge nose and this can be derived
from geometric parameters (Section 7.7). The width of the back of the nose must be sufficient to
accommodate the mainline hardshoulder/hardstrip and the connector road off side hardstrip.

7.13.2 Diverges
The Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for the mainline design speed shall be maintained
until the driver reaches the tip of the diverge nose. The stopping sight distance can then be reduced
to the Desirable Minimum for one design speed step below the mainline design speed (but not below
70km/h). When the driver reaches the back of the diverge nose, the stopping sight distance can then
be reduced to the Desirable Minimum for the design speed of the connector road as illustrated in
Figure 7.19B. On lengths where two sight distances overlap, the requirements of the longer Stopping
Sight Distance shall be met. If the length of the connector road between the back of the nose and the
stop or yield line of the at-grade junction at the end of the connector road is less than the mainline
Stopping Sight Distance, then a 0.26m object at the stop or yield line must be visible from a distance
equal to the mainline Stopping Sight Distance from either the connector road or the mainline
carriageway. See Figure 7.19C.

7.13.3 Loops
In addition to the general stopping sight distance requirements, there must also be no obstruction to
sightlines across the full extent of loops of low radius. This includes where the loops connect to the
main carriageway as shown in Figure 7.18. This is to ensure that drivers are able to perceive the
whole of the loop layout on their approach from upstream and adjust their speed and conduct
accordingly. The only available relaxation to these requirements is when the necessary vehicle
restraint systems obstruct the view to the 0.26m object height, in which case a clear sightline must be
available above the vehicle restraint system to the 1.05m object height.

At connections to the local road system and where at-grade junctions form part of the grade separated
junction, the sight distance requirements for various junction types as outlined in this standard shall
be adopted for roundabouts, traffic signals and priority junctions respectively. Approaching drivers
shall have unobstructed visibility of the at-grade junction from a distance corresponding to the relevant
Stopping Sight Distance on the approach road.

7.14 Hardstrip and Hardshoulder

Where the hard shoulder has to taper into a connector road hard strip or vice versa, this shall be done
over the length of the diverge or merge taper.

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Figure 7.19A: Illustration of Stopping Sight Distance on Merge Slip Road

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Figure 7.19B: Illustration of Stopping Sight Distance on Diverge Slip Road

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Figure 7.19C: Illustration of Stopping Sight Distance on Slip Road

For measurement of Stopping

Sight Distance to the yield line of
a roundabout, as described in
this standard

Notes:
This figure shows the situation when the distance from the back of the nose to any stop or yield line is less than the Desirable Minimum
Stopping Sight Distance for the mainline (SSD1).
This figure does not apply to loop roads.

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7.15 Lane Drop/Lane Gain and Through Carriageway

Where a 3-lane carriageway is reduced to 2 lanes by means of a lane drop at a junction as shown in
Figure 7.20, provision must be made on the link between the lane drop and a subsequent lane gain
for maintenance activities, incident management and temporary traffic management systems.
Therefore the pavement must be constructed to a width of 3 lanes (plus hardshoulder if a motorway)
and the pavement adjacent to the nearest paved edge must be hatched out to leave a normal width
of hardstrip (or hardshoulder if a motorway) adjacent to the running lane as shown in Figure 7.20. The
diverge and merge areas must be designed to provide sufficient pavement to allow conversion of the
junction from a lane drop/lane gain to a 3-lane link with taper diverge and merge.

Advice on the signing of lane gains and lane drops is given in the Traffic Signs Manual.

Figure 7.20: Lane Drop to Two Lanes and Subsequent Lane Gain Showing Hatched Pavement for
Maintenance and Traffic Management

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7.16 Interchanges
An interchange does not involve the use of an at- grade junction and so provides uninterrupted
movements for vehicles moving from one mainline to another, by the use of connector roads with a
succession of diverging and merging manoeuvres. Good design minimises conflict points and ensures
that the path between them is easily understood by drivers, by effective signing and road marking.
This design objective should be assessed within the overall framework of the points below:

a) efficiency;
b) safety;
c) consistency;
d) location;
e) maintenance;
f) environmental effects;
g) land take;
h) capital cost;
i) economic assessment;
j) provision for non-motorised users (crossing the junction)

Figure 7.21 shows three different 4 way interchanges.

a) The 4 level interchange layout has the advantages of reduced land take, absence
of loops and low structural content, but is visually highly intrusive, has the greater
number of conflict points and has therefore been used infrequently. See Figure
7.21.1a.
b) The 3 level interchange introduces two loops and reduces conflict points but
increases both structural content and cost, whilst still being visually intrusive. A
disadvantage is that it requires separate diverge points for left and right
movements from one of the mainlines, which can be difficult to sign. See Figure
7.21.1b.
A variant of Figure 7.21.1b is shown at Figure 7.22 and is an example of how environmental impact
and structural content can be substantially reduced without a great increase in land take, by taking
advantage of the skew of the intersecting mainlines.

The three way ‘trumpet’ interchange (Figure 7.21.2c) should be designed to enable future conversion
to a four way. It has a 2 way slip road which requires careful design for safety. Figure 7.21.2d shows
a three way interchange with restricted movement. This enables high vehicle speeds to be maintained
with low land take, but it requires a skew structure and prohibits any future conversion.

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Figure 7.21.1: Typical Layouts of Interchanges

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Figure 7.21.2: Typical Layouts of Interchanges

Figure 7.22: Variant of Figure 7.21.1b Restricted in Height to Reduce Environmental Impact

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Merges with a flow imbalance, where the merging traffic flow is greater than the mainline traffic flow
can occur within an interchange. Priority should still be given to traffic on the mainline. If the merging
flow is over a lane capacity, there will need to be a lane gain. HGVs must be given an opportunity to
join the mainline safely. Operational problems have occurred where the left hand link has been on a
long downhill section and the right hand link uphill, with consequential disparity in vehicle speeds at
the merge, and this particular layout is not recommended.

Loops and certain links may require advisory speed limits (which should be discussed and agreed
with TII) to warn the driver of the safe negotiating speed for reasons of alignment and visibility. This
speed limit should be used in conjunction (where appropriate) with a bend warning sign and ‘chevron’
warning signs to reinforce the hazard warning. Only one level of speed limit should be used within an
interchange as steps down in speed limits may confuse the driver.

Single lane interchange links can have advantages in cost over 2 lane interchange links for
interchanges which contain structures of substantial length. However, where the predicted flows are
near the top of the range (Table 7.4) the uncertainty of the prediction should be recognised, as it may
be prohibitively expensive to convert later to a two-lane interchange link. A disadvantage is that single
lane interchange links may require closure during certain maintenance activities. Consequently, a
whole life cost assessment (including costs during maintenance) should be carried out to confirm the
cost effectiveness of proposed single lane links.

7.17 General
7.17.1 Maintenance
Designers should allow within their designs for facilities to maintain areas within interchanges which
are not readily accessible. Locations for access should be chosen having regard to visibility to and
from the proposed access location and the need to maintain traffic flow through the works. Any lay-by
should not be sited in an exposed position on the inside of connector roads on left hand curves with
radii below Desirable Minimum. They should be located on straights or right hand curve sections with
at least desirable minimum radius.

7.17.2 Connector Roads

Two way slip roads must be dual carriageway with opposing traffic separated by a physical central
reserve with vehicle restraint system. Two way single carriageway slip roads are not permitted. Two
way slip roads only occur at half-cloverleaf and trumpet junctions. Studies into the safety of tight loops
for 2 way slip roads, as compared to one way, indicated that a physical barrier will improve safety and
reduce cross-over collisions.

For motorway interchanges emergency telephones should not be sited in an exposed position on the
inside of connector roads on left hand curves with radii below Desirable Minimum. They should be
located on straights or right hand curve sections with at least desirable minimum radius.

The collision risk for slip roads is similar whether the mainline is carried over or under. However, the
preferred treatment is to design diverge slip roads uphill and merge slip roads downhill, with the side
road over the mainline. This assists vehicles on the slip roads in matching their speeds to those of
mainline vehicles on merging and reducing their speeds at the approach to the side road junction on
diverging.

Private means of access and junctions on connector roads are not permitted.

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7.17.3 Merging and Diverging Lanes

Mainline lane drops within a junction on a 3-lane mainline (3 lanes prior to the diverge, 2 lanes between
diverge and merge and then back to 3 lanes) are not generally recommended on operational and
safety grounds. They severely impair future maintenance, especially at interchanges where no
reasonable diversion route is available. However, if such a layout becomes necessary the
requirements of Section 7.15 should be followed.

A lane drop at a junction diverge must be used when changing carriageway standards from 4 lanes
to 3 or 3 lanes to 2. Similarly, a lane gain at a junction merge must be used when changing carriageway
standards from 2 lanes to 3 or 3 lanes to 4. The layout of the diverge or merge should be selected
corresponding to the leaving or joining flow but under light flow conditions could be Figure 7.6.3
(Layout C) and Figure 7.4.2 (Layout B). Removal of a lane (excluding climbing lanes) must not take
place on the link between junctions.

7.17.4 On-line Service Areas

On-line Service Areas should be provided in accordance with the guidance in DN-GEO-03028, The
Location and Layout of Service Areas. Generally all vehicle types are permitted to enter an On-line
Service Area via a connector road directly from the mainline or as an integral part of a grade separated
junction. On-line Service Areas shall be designed in accordance with the merge and diverge layout
designs, including minimum length of diverge slips, and junction spacing parameters in this chapter.
Measures must be taken to reduce any ‘see-through’ effects when looking from a diverge slip to the
merge such as slip or internal road system of the On-line Service Area.

7.17.5 Other Service Areas

The merge and diverge layout design of all-purpose road service areas should be based on the
geometric parameters within this standard as set out in this Chapter or Chapter 5 of this Standard, as
appropriate for each site.

7.17.6 Emergency and Maintenance Accesses

Where an emergency or maintenance access is required, a suitable layout must be chosen from
Chapter 5 of this standard. The preferred layout is that shown as Direct Access Layout 1 but the
designer must check that this would be adequate for its likely use. The access must be gated and
locked to prevent unauthorised use. The entrance gate or gates must be set back to accommodate,
behind the hardstrip or hardshoulder, one vehicle of the largest type expected to use the access. For
a maintenance access, provision must be made for two vehicles of the largest type expected to use
the access to pass in opposite directions in the vicinity of the access. The design of the emergency or
maintenance access must comply with the requirements of Chapter 5 of this standard with respect to
avoiding steep gradients on the access road in the immediate vicinity of its connection to the national
road.

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7.18 Safety
The consequences of an incident can be severe if hazards are present within the verge area
immediately downstream of the diverge nose at a junction. It is therefore desirable to provide a clear
zone at the back of diverge noses such that the physical nose is free from all hazards, including safety
barriers, to minimise the risk to errant vehicles. Creating a clear zone will normally require the vertical
alignment for the connector road to follow that of the main carriageway for a short distance to allow
the cross-section to be reasonably level. If creation of a clear zone is not achievable due to site
constraints, the risk needs to be reduced to as low as is reasonably practical.

For example, if a safety barrier is required to protect errant vehicles from any hazards, including height
differences between adjacent carriageways, the use of full height terminals or crash cushions with
appropriate performance levels is recommended as end treatments to barriers. Sufficient space
should be allowed for any safety barriers and end treatments.

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8. Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions

8.1 Design Procedure
8.1.1 General Principles
The introduction of design standards for compact grade separation is primarily aimed at improving
safety for all road users. At all stages in the design and construction of the junction it is of paramount
importance that safety aspects are fully investigated and considered.

Compact grade separation can be used on single carriageways and Type 2 and 3 Dual Carriageways
as defined in Table 6.1 of DN-GEO-03031.

This Chapter sets out the level of provision to be considered for low traffic flow situations on the minor
road and effectively extends downwards the range of flows and conditions over which grade
separation could be justified economically to around 12,500 AADT on the major road.

On existing dual carriageways the provision of compact grade separation may be applied to a route
which consists of a number of grade separated junctions and roundabouts interspersed with priority
at grade priority junctions. Introduction of compact grade separation on a route such as this is intended
to remove all of the right turn manoeuvres associated with the mainline resulting in a fully grade
separated route. Some left-in/left-out junctions may be retained or introduced.

Where a compact grade separated junction or junctions are being considered the following shall be
taken into account:-

a) the closure of certain minor road junctions which have very low flows and for which
there are alternative routes. The additional journey length, delay and
inconvenience resulting from the closure of a route must be considered in the
context of the improved safety which will be achieved by the removal of all the right
turn manoeuvres;
b) limiting remaining at grade junctions to left in left out only;
c) where there is no alternative route it may be necessary to reconsider the location
and number of junctions;
d) improvements to the network to assist the closure of certain junctions;
e) the provision of accommodation roads, and NMU facilities;
f) the removal of agricultural accesses from the mainline;
g) collecting a number of minor roads into a single compact grade separated junction;

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8.1.2 Flow Standards

On Type 3 Dual Carriageways with relatively high traffic flows, it may be appropriate to provide
compact grade separated junctions. On a length of Type 3 Dual Carriageway with compact grade
separated junctions there shall be no breaks in the central reserve. All major junctions shall be
compact grade separated, or roundabout, while minor ones shall be left-in/left-out only. U-turns will
only be possible at the compact grade separated junctions, or at roundabouts. Accesses should be
severely limited or avoided altogether.

Where practicable, layouts should be designed so that merging occurs on two-lane sections, thereby
avoiding the problems of merging into a single lane. This can be achieved if the junction is at a non-
critical changeover. Roundabouts may be provided at the most significant junctions on a length with
compact grade separated junctions.

Analysis indicates that for the improvement of an existing priority junction to compact grade separation
standards an increase in capacity of 70% for some movements can be achieved at the mainline
junctions.

The layout of the compact grade separation should be chosen to suit the traffic movements. In certain
conditions the redistribution of the turning traffic can result in significant turning flows at the minor road
junction entry and exits. It is important therefore to assess the capacity of these junctions when
considering the layout to be adopted.

8.1.3 Provision for Non-Motorised Users

Provision must be made for the specific requirements of non-motorised users in the design of compact
grade separated junctions.

To assist cyclists, gradients would ideally be limited to 5%, however the objectives of compact grade
separations will in many instances prevent this being achieved. Gradients should only be increased
above this figure with careful consideration of all factors in accordance with Section 8.2.6.

At junctions, where the NMU facility along the mainline crosses a connector road, the geometric
requirements as prescribed for major priority junctions should be provided for NMU’s, including the
provision of a 3.5 metre central island if traffic flows warrant it.

8.2 Geometric Standards

8.2.1 General
This standard provides a geometric standard for compact grade separation incorporating established
design standards for priority junctions.

The geometric standards for the mainline and for those minor roads which pass directly through a
compact grade separation shall be provided in accordance with DN-GEO-03031.

The standards for compact grade separation in this standards have been set in order to minimise the
variation in designs to prevent confusion for the road user. Those items which do permit a degree of
variation at the discretion of the designer are:

a) Junction configurations;
b) Horizontal radii on compact connector road (desirable minimum radius with a
relaxation of one design speed step);

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c) Vertical Curvature (desirable minimum radius with a relaxation of one design

speed step);
d) Carriageway Width (three options and a one step relaxation);
e) Curve Widening (three options are permitted for each radius).

8.2.2 Design Speed

Design speeds for the mainline and the minor road shall be determined from DN-GEO-03031.

As a general principle it is intended that the speed of a vehicle through the compact connector road
shall be limited by its speed through the entry and exit junctions with the mainline and the minor road.
For this reason long straight sections within the compact connector road shall be avoided.

The design standards for compact grade separated junctions relate to a single design speed of
approximately 30km/h. Junctions shall only be designed to this design speed, higher or lower
standards shall not be used. A range of standards would result in driver confusion and uncertainty
and problems of perception of the junction with consequent safety implications.

If speeds markedly in excess of this do occur or are anticipated then speed limits within the junction
may need to be considered.

8.2.3 Compact Connector Road

Compact connector roads shall be designed in accordance with Table 8.1 except for the special
conditions when the stopping sight distance may be relaxed further as outlined in Section 8.2.5. The
stopping sight distances in Table 8.1 are not related to the design speed but are based upon the
requirements to provide adequate stopping sight distance through the compact connector road to
show the shape of the junction clearly to the driver leaving the mainline. The design parameters
provided in this section are for the compact connector road only, junctions either end of the connector
road shall be designed in accordance with the relevant chapter of this standard and DN-GEO-03031.

Table 8.1: Design Standards for Compact Connector Roads

Stopping Sight Distances

Desirable Minimum (m) 70
Relaxation of One Design Speed Step (m) 50
Horizontal Curvature
Desirable Minimum Radius (m) with 5%
40
Superelevation
Relaxation of One Design Speed Step(m) with 5%
32
Superelevation
Vertical Curvature
Desirable Minimum Crest K 3.3
Relaxation of One Design Speed Step Crest K 2.3
Absolute Minimum Sag K with lighting 2.3
Absolute Minimum Sag K without lighting 3.2

8.2.4 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Horizontal radii shall comply with Table 8.1. In normal circumstances the Desirable Minimum Radius
should be used, however in difficult circumstances e.g. space constraints or environmental issues
exist, a Relaxation of one design speed step may be used at the discretion of the Designer.

Given the low design speed and the nature of the compact connector road, transition curves are not
required within the compact grade separated junction.

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In the design of vertical curves consideration is given to stopping sight distance and driver discomfort,
which requires the vertical rate of change of grade to be kept within tolerable limits. For the low design
speed adopted for compact connector roads the stopping sight distance criterion over the summit is
not critical because larger changes of grade do not obstruct stopping sight distance and the comfort
criterion overrides. Wherever possible, vertical curvature on bridge decks should be avoided.

8.2.5 Sight Distances

For Compact Connector roads of low radii where it is necessary to provide for vehicle restraint
systems, an obstruction in Stopping Sight Distance to the 0.26m object height may occur. In this case
a relaxation to Stopping Sight Distance to the 0.26m object may be provided but SSD shall be
maintained above the vehicle restraint system to the 1.05m object height.

Guidance on sight distance and visibility standards are given in Chapter 5 of this standard for the
connections to the major and minor roads. In the case of compact grade separation these shall be
taken as mandatory.

Where minor roads or accommodation roads are connected to the compact connector road then the
visibility standards at the junction shall be in accordance with Chapter 5 and Table 8.1 of this standard.

8.2.6 Gradients
The desirable maximum gradient for compact connector roads shall be 8%, although relaxation to
10% shall be permitted in difficult locations. In selecting the gradient, the needs of cyclists should be
considered and the risk of occurrence of icy conditions.

8.2.7 Superelevation
Normal standards for superelevation, set out in DN-GEO-03031, would require excessive
superelevation for all compact grade separations. Icy conditions can cause slow moving vehicles to
slide to the inside of the curves with excessive superelevation, this effect can be exacerbated by steep
gradients.

The geometric layout of the compact connector road will require successive application and removal
of the superelevation between the connector road and the junction mouths. The need to maintain
consistent steering requirements through the compact connector road is an important design
consideration which shall be taken into account in the application of superelevation.

Superelevation on compact connector roads shall be limited to 5%.

Designers shall ensure that adverse camber is avoided at the entry to and exit from compact junctions.
Accordingly, where practical, compact grade separated junctions should not be located on mainline
transition curves, as this can result in difficulty in the avoidance of adverse camber.

8.2.8 Drainage
All drainage within the compact grade separated junction should be of a positive nature via kerbs and
gulleys to facilitate the removal of surface water. Factors to consider and which may influence the
decision are:-

a) the geometric standards for the junction are likely to result in steep gradients
combined with successive application and removal of superelevation up to 5%;
b) surface water from the compact connector road should be prevented from flowing
onto or across the major and minor carriageways.

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8.2.9 Cross Sections and Curve Widening

For the purpose of designing junctions and interchanges, cross-sections for the mainline and typical
connector roads are given in DN-GEO-03031 and Chapter 7 of this standard. Different lane marking
details and widths of construction for connector roads are specified in this Standard. Compact
connector roads may be widened on curves in accordance with Table 8.2, the widening shall be
applied in the form of central hatched markings as illustrated in Figure 8.1. The width of curve widening
shall be chosen to suit the anticipated level of usage by HGVs. Designers shall take into account the
probability of HGVs regularly meeting on the curve.

Where no curve widening is applied HGVs will cut across into the oncoming lane, where the minimum
curve widening is applied HGVs will cut across into the whole of the hatched area. Where the normal
curve widening is provided there will be sufficient width for two large vehicles to pass in opposite
directions. Regulatory signs shall be provided when appropriate in accordance with the requirements
detailed later in this Chapter.

Figure 8.1: Application of Curve Widening

Table 8.2: Curve Widening on Compact Connector Roads

Inner Channel Radius

Width WH of Hatching at Apex on Curve (m)
(m)
Minimum Curve Normal Curve
No Curve Widening
Widening Widening
40 0.6 1.90 3.40
32 0.6 2.54 3.74

Carriageway widths for the compact connector road shall be such that they provide a transitional
change in standards from the major carriageway width to the minor carriageway width in accordance
with Table 8.3.

The minimum width of carriageway for a compact connector road shall be 6.6m and the maximum
shall be 7.9m, excluding curve widening. Where the traffic volumes are particularly low and the
proportion of HGVs is correspondingly low a relaxation to 6m may be permitted, by either reducing
the carriageway width or omitting the central hatched markings.

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Table 8.3: Compact Connector Road Widths

Major Carriageway Compact Connector Road Minor Carriageway

Lane Standard
Lane Width Lane Width
Width (W) Width of Central Hatch
(m) (m)
(excluding hatching) (m) Markings (m)
3.0 0.3 per lane < 3.0
All Widths 3.3 0.3 per lane 3.0 to 3.65
3.65 0.3 per lane 3.65

8.2.10 Hardstrips
The use of hardstrips is associated with high speed roads, they shall not be used within the compact
connector road. Where hardstrips are included on the mainline they shall be terminated within the
junction.

8.2.11 Junctions
Priority Junction entries and exits with the mainline shall be in accordance with Chapter 5 of this
standard with the exception that diverge auxiliary lanes or tapers may be provided at compact
junctions on all purpose dual carriageways where necessary. At compact grade separated junctions
the entry and exit radius as detailed in Chapter 5 shall be increased to 40m for left in-left out junctions.
Further design details specific to left in-left out junctions forming part of compact grade separated
junctions are provided in Figure 5.20.

Slip roads shall not be used at compact grade separation since compact connector roads are 2 way.

8.3 Layout Options

8.3.1 General
In some cases, underbridges could be considered as an alternative where they may prove practical
and justifiable economically. There may be situations, where, due to local topography, this would be
preferable in landscape terms. In level and treeless landscapes, overbridges can be visually intrusive
and planting may be out of character. Environmental Design is addressed further in the TII
Environmental Planning Guidelines.

Detailed examples of alternative layouts for junctions are indicated in Figures 8.2 to 8.4 and an
example of a layout for a 3 arm junction is indicated in Figure 8.5. Schematic representations of other
layouts are indicated in Figures 8.5 to 8.9.

Compact grade separation can be used effectively on a section of carriageway which has a series of
priority junctions in close proximity to remove right turn manoeuvres. For example, where a compact
junction is incorporated, the junctions adjacent to the compact grade separation can be restricted to
left in left out requiring right turning traffic from these junctions to divert to the compact grade
separation to complete their manoeuvre. Another option may be to close the adjacent priority junctions
and divert these routes to connect into the compact grade separated junction.

The preferred locations for the junction of the compact connector road to the mainline are in the 1st
and 3rd quadrants as indicated in Figures 8.2 as this facilitates the provision of required visibilities
without the need to widen under the structure.

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8.3.2 Typical Sketch Layouts

Figure 8.2: Detailed layout of 4 arm compact junction with compact connector roads in preferred
location. Diverges and merges are to be designed in accordance with Chapter 5 for priority junctions.
Layout suitable for junctions with substantial minor road through traffic. At grade junctions with a single
carriageway mainline must be staggered to avoid “see through” issues.

Figure 8.3: Detailed layout of 3 arm compact junction with compact connector roads in preferred
location. Diverges and merges are to be designed in accordance with Chapter 5 for priority junctions.
At grade junctions with a single carriageway mainline must be staggered to avoid “see through” issues.

Figure 8.4: Detailed layout of a single quadrant link at single carriageway road with major road Ghost
Island and roundabout (or simple priority junction) at minor road. Single quadrant links with a ghost
island junction on the mainline can be considered for single carriageway roads with lower flow turning
movements. The link should be located in the quadrant that will ensure the larger turning movements
are left turns onto and right turns off the major road.

Figure 8.5: A selection of schematic layouts indicating 4 arm compact grade separations on dual all-
purpose carriageways.

Figure 8.6: A schematic example layout indicating 4 arm compact grade separations on single all-
purpose carriageways.

Figure 8.7 A schematic example layout indicating 3 arm compact grade separations on dual all-
purpose carriageways.

Figure 8.8: A schematic example layout indicating 3 arm compact grade separations on single all-
purpose carriageways.

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Figure 8.2: Example of Compact Grade Separation for 4 Arm Junction

Figure 8.3: Compact Grade Separation for 3 Arm Junction

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Figure 8.4: Single quadrant link with a ghost island junction on the single carriageway mainline

Figure 8.5: Schematic Examples of 4 Arm Compact Grade Separation on Dual Carriageway

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Figure 8.6: Schematic Example of a 4 Arm Compact Grade Separation Single Carriageway

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Figure 8.7: Schematic Example of 3 Arm Compact Grade Separation on Dual Carriageways

Figure 8.8: Schematic Example of 3 Arm Compact Grade Separation on Single Carriageways

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8.4 Safety
8.4.1 General
One of the principal objectives of compact grade separated junction design is to improve safety by the
elimination of right turn manoeuvres between the mainline and the side road, by providing left in left
out turn only priority junctions and the closure of central reserve gaps.

It is intended that compact grade separation shall be used to provide a safe means of crossing high
speed routes for all road users. The geometrical standards for the compact connector road have been
established at a level of provision intended to maintain slow vehicular speeds through their length
thereby improving safety for other road users.

Other positive factors which improve safety as a result of compact grade separation are;

a) removing the possibility of large vehicles which cross central reserve gaps
protruding into the offside lane;
b) removal of U turns on the mainline.

8.4.2 Collisions
Collision statistics for 3 arm priority junctions indicate that the severity of collisions is dependent upon
the classification of the mainline and the mainline speed limit and that generally collision severity
decreases as speed decreases. Compact grade separation will transfer the right turn manoeuvres
from the higher speed, higher classification road to the lower speed, lower classification road. The
effect of this should be to reduce the number of fatal and serious collisions. There may be a
corresponding increase in minor injury collisions at the minor road junction, however the use of
roundabouts at the junctions between the minor road and compact connector road may reduce the
number of collisions at these locations also.

8.4.3 Traffic Signs

On the approach to the junction from the major road, the junction must be clearly defined by means
of appropriate signing indicating the junction as a priority T junction and not as a slip road. On the
approach to the junction from the minor road, the junction must be clearly defined as a roundabout or
priority junction appropriate to the layout used, and not as a slip road.

Where normal curve widening is not provided, as described earlier in this Chapter and in Table 8.2,
then regulatory signs shall be provided on the compact connector road to advise motorists in one
direction that they should give way to vehicles proceeding in the opposite direction. Statutory
requirements for regulatory signs are contained in the Traffic Signs Manual.

Within the compact connector road it is recommended that signing be restricted to warning signs
indicating the nature of the alignment, and the proximity of junctions.

8.4.4 Road Markings

The application of special surface treatments may be provided as an additional means of highlighting
the nature of the geometrical standards for the compact connector road. This can be achieved by the
application of a contrasting surface colour (red) within the hatch markings to emphasise the nature of
the curve, this should reinforce the meaning and presence of the markings to the driver.

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8.5 Specific Road User Requirements

8.5.1 Use by Drivers of Agricultural Vehicles
It is intended that compact grade separations shall be used to accommodate the requirements for
large, slow-moving agricultural vehicles. Careful consideration must be given to the combined effect
of the gradient and superelevation to ensure that high loads are not subject to sudden shifts caused
by rapid changes in crossfall.

Where farm or field accesses on the mainline are situated close to the compact grade separated
junction consideration should be given to joining them to the compact connector road.

8.5.2 Use for Farm Animals

Where farms are adjacent to compact grade separated junctions it may be necessary to provide cattle
grids on the minor road approach or on the accommodation road approach to the junction.

8.5.3 Requirement for Hardened Verges

Where there is expected usage by a combination of equestrians, agricultural vehicles and farm
animals, hardened verges should be considered on the compact connector road to prevent damage
to the verge and drainage and to encourage these users to travel more safely and comfortably off the
main carriageway.

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9. References
9.1 TII Publications (Standards)
a) DN-STR-03005, Design Criteria for Footbridges
b) DN-GE0-03030, Guidance on Minor Improvements to National Roads
c) DN-GEO-03031, Rural Road Link Design
d) DN-GEO-03040, Subways for Pedestrians and Pedal Cyclists – Layout and
Dimensions
e) DN-GEO-03041, The Design of Major Interchanges
f) DN-GEO-03044, The Geometric Layout of Signal-Controlled Junctions and
Signalised Roundabouts
g) DN-REQ-03034 Safety Barriers
h) DN-GEO-03036, Cross Sections and Headroom
i) DN-GEO-03046, L The Location and Layout of Lay-bys and Location Markers
j) DN-GE0-03047, Rural Cycleway Design (Offline)
k) DN-LHT-03038, Design of Lighting for the Strategic Motorway and All Purpose
Trunk Road Network
l) AM-PAV-06045, Management of Skid Resistance
m) DN-PAV-03023, Surfacing Materials for New and Maintenance Construction, for
Use in Ireland

9.2 Transport Infrastructure Ireland Publications

a) Guidelines on Traffic Calming for Towns and Villages on National Routes; 1999
b) Road Collision Facts; Ireland; 2004

9.3 Traffic Sign Regulations

c) Traffic Signs Manual. Department of Transport.

9.4 UK, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Standards

9.4.1 Volume 6 – Road Geometry, Section 2 - Junctions
a) TD 16/07 Geometric Design of Roundabouts
b) TD 22/06 Layout of Grade Separated Junctions
c) TD 40/94 Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions
d) TD 42/95 Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions
e) TD 41/95 Vehicular Access to All-Purpose Trunk Roads

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9.4.2 Volume 6 – Road Geometry, Section 3 – Highway Features

a) TD 51/03- Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts

9.4.3 Miscellaneous
b) https://www.google.ie/maps

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Design Vehicles

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Design of Channelising Islands

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Design of Channelising Islands

This appendix outlines the methodology for deigning channelising islands at priority junctions and is
subdivided into:

 T-Junctions or staggered junctions;

 Skew junctions; and
 Rural Crossroads.
T-Junctions or Staggered Junctions
The recommended layout for T-junctions or staggered junctions, where the minor road centreline is
inclined to the major road at an angle of between 70° and 110°, is shown in Figure B.1. This figure
should be read in conjunction with Tables B.1 and B.2.

Figure B.1: Design of Rural Channelising Island (Dimensions in Metres)

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Table B.1: Channelising Island Offset

Minor road inclination (°) Offset d (m)

70 1.5
80 2.0
90 2.5
100 2.0
110 1.5

Table B.2: Design of Radius R1

Width of major road carriageway at junction

Radius R1 (m)
(m)
9.5 12
10.0 12
11.0 14
Note: Radius R2 is normally the same value as R1 but should be designed to ensure that the channelising island nose is
positioned between 2m to 4m from the edge of the main carriageway and that the width of the island lies between 2m and 5m.

The methodology for designing channelising islands of this type is described in the following sections
and represented in Figures B.2a to B.2f.

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Figure B.2a: Channelising Island Development Steps 1 to 4

1. Draw an offset, d, from the centreline of the minor road. Values for d are given in Table B.1.
2. Draw circular arc, R1, tangential to the offset d from the minor road centreline and tangential
to the offside edge of the through traffic lane on the major road into which right turning traffic
from the minor road will turn. Values for Radius R1 can be found in Table B.2.
3. By striking a circular arc of radius (R1 + 2) metres from the same centre point as arc R1 to
intersect the edge of the major road carriageway, Point X is established.
4. Point Y is located where a straight line drawn from the centre point of arc R1 to Point X
crosses arc R1.

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Figure B.2b: Steps 5 and 6

5. Draw an arc, R2, through Point Y and tangential to the offside edge of the major road offside
diverging lane and of an equal radius to R1. (Note: Radius R2 is typically the same size as
R1 but should be designed to ensure that the channelising island nose is positioned between
2 to4m s from the edge of the main carriageway and that the overall width of the
channelising island is between 2m to5m.)
6. Draw a point, Z, 40m from the edge of the major road on the centreline of the minor road.

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Figure 9.1 Figure B.2c: Step 7

Figure 9.2

7. Draw 2 lines, A-A & B-B, from this point, Z, which are tangential to the Arc’s R1 and R2.

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Figure 9.3 Figure B.2d: Steps 8 to 10

8. Offset these lines A-A and B-B by 0.3m inwards creating A1-A1 and B1-B1.
9. R1s and R2t are then created tangential to these offset lines A1-A1 and B1-B1.
a) Arc R1s is created with radius equal to R1 and is tangential to B1-B1 along the
minor road and the through traffic lane on the major road into which right turning
traffic from the minor road will turn
b) Arc R2t is created with radius equal to R2 and is tangential to A1-A1 and the offside
edge of the major road offside diverging lane.
10. Draw another line, C-C, which starts at a distance 25m up from the edge of the carriageway
on the centre line of the minor road and is tangential to the Arc R1s.

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Figure B.2e: Steps 11 to 12

11. Draw a 0.75m radius, R3, where R1s and R2t intersect near the major carriageway.
This is the bottom of the channelising island. R3 will be tangential to R1s and R2t.
12. Draw another 0.75m to1m radius, R4 between line A1-A1 and line C-C. R4 will be
tangential to the Line A1-A1 and C-C.

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Figure B.2f: Finalised design

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Skew Junctions
The design of channelising islands for skew junctions is similar to that outlined above, but the following
points should be noted:-

a) The centreline of the minor road is turned with a radius of at least 50m to meet the
edge of the major road at right angles.
b) For left hand envelope junctions, the channelising island should be about 15m
long. The right hand side of its tail (viewed from the minor road approach) should
touch the curved minor road centreline and be rounded off at a radius of 0.75m to
1.00m.
c) The offset, d, for left hand envelope junctions is 4.5m.
d) For right hand envelope junctions, the circular arc R1 touches the curved minor
road centreline and is tangential to the offside edge of the through traffic lane on
the major road into which right turning traffic from the minor road will turn.
e) The channelising island should be about 15m long. The tail is offset about 1m to
the right of the curved minor road centreline (viewed from the minor road
approach) and rounded off with a radius of 0.75m to 1.00m.

Crossroads
The use of rural crossroads is regarded as a Departure from Standard. However for upgrading of rural
cross-roads the following details may be used.

The recommended layout of channelising islands at rural crossroads where long vehicles are
predicted, and where the minor road centreline is inclined to the major road at an angle between 70°
and 110°, is shown in Figure B.3.

There are similarities in the design to that outlined previously, but the following points should be
noted:-

a) The long axis of the channelising island is inclined at 5° to the minor road
centreline and the island is always 3m wide.
b) The circular arc R1 has a radius of 11m and is tangential to the left hand side of
the channelising island (viewed from the minor road approach) and the centreline
of the major road. (In some cases where the minor road is inclined to the major
road at angles between 100° and 110°, R1 will have to be reduced to 8m to create
a suitable island.)
c) The circular arc R2 has a radius of 11m and is tangential to the major road
centreline and the minor road centreline.
Where the minor road centreline is inclined to the major road at angles less than 70°, R1 will normally
be 12m and R2 8m.

Where the minor road centreline is inclined to the major road at angles greater than 110°, R1 will
normally be 8m and R2 12m.

Where two envelope minor roads meet at a crossroads, the minor road centrelines should be offset
relative to one another by approximately the width of one channelising island.

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Figure B.3: Design of Rural Crossroads Channelising Island (Dimensions in metres)

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Design of a Compound Curve

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Figure C.1: Design of a Compound Curve

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Junction Analysis Procedure

Worked Example

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Table D.1: Junction Analysis Procedure Worked Example

Date: 01/04/17

Junction Analysis Procedure Project: N200 Junction Upgrade

Location: N200 / R999 Junction
AADT Design Posted
Classification and
Data Collection Current Year Design Year Speed Speed
Name
(2016) (N/A) (Km/h) (Km/h)
Major Road National Secondary 4,000 6,000 100 100
Road N200
Intersecting Road Regional Road R999 3,200 4,500 100 80
Junction Type New Existing 
Site Visit Yes:  No: ____ Date of Site Visit (if applicable): 01/10/2017
Functional Characteristics Part 1 (General Information for all Intersections)
Collision Analysis
Table 1 presents a summary of the accidents which have occurred at the N200/R999
Junction. This information is also shown graphically in Figure 1.

Table 1: N200/R999 Junction Collision Data

Number Accident Time Location Description Severity
date
1 2010 11:30 R99 (S) 80 kph zone, Car, Rear Minor
Saturday end, straight, Dry
2 2010 15:35 N200/R999 100 kph zone, Minor
Friday Goods vehicle, Other
circumstances, Dry
3 2009 01:05 R999 (S) 80 kph zone, Car, Single Minor
Thursday vehicle only, Dry
4 2008 18:00 N200/R999 100 kph zone, Bus, Head- Minor
Tuesday on right turn, Wet
5 2007 16:00 N200 (W) 100 kph zone, Car, Single Minor
Saturday vehicle only, Dry
6 2005 16:30 N200/R999 100 kph zone, Other Serious
Friday vehicle, Angle, both
straight, Dry

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separated and compact grade separated junctions)

Figure 1: Accident statistics at the N200/R999 junction

Access Requirements (Including No pedestrian or cycle facilities required at the junction.

NMU Requirements and Level of
Usage)
Access Control Priority controlled junction
Future Development No planned future development in the area. Surrounding lands are zoned agricultural.
Vehicle Design Type (Include any Junction designed to accommodate a maximum vehicle size equating to a standard
Special Design Vehicle Details) articulated vehicle.
% HGV’s 4%
Part 2 (Specific Information for More Detailed Analysis)

R999

29
125 195 265 25 224 16
28
N200 182
150 146
140 N200

19 150 5 175 271 15

106
R999 19

Junction Layout & Turning Figure 2: Friday morning peak hour junction turning movements
Movement Diagram

R999

30
119 282 165 27 130 8
20
N200 169
218 130
171 N200

38 240 3 281 157 11

153
R999 7

Figure 3: Friday evening peak hour junction turning movements

Notable Constraints due to

Upstream/Downstream Junction Yes: ____ No: __ Notes:
Proposed Improvements to Other
Roads (that would impact the
traffic movement at this location) None
Geometric Characteristics
Road Geometry on all approaches To be attached in an appendix to this document.
Is design compliant with the
standards Yes: ____

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)

Desirable Stopping Sight Distances Achievable Stopping Sight

200m Distances 300m
Mainline Horizontal Curvature
Profile gradient on mainline __________________2% Intersecting Roadway _____________2%
Other Characteristics
Traffic Management Measures n/a
Impact on Utilities n/a
Impact on Right of Way n/a
Recommendation of Type of
Junction Treatment based on
Functional, Geometric and Other
Characteristics

The option to introduce a roundabout at the N200/R999 junction is considered to be the

emerging preferred option at this location. The assessment shows that this upgrade would
operate well within capacity, and is appropriate considering the relatively balanced flows
along each of the N200 and R999. In particular, this option allows for the safe movement of
vehicles along the R999 travelling across the, which in the staggered arrangements would be
required to undertake two movements to pass through the junction. A roundabout option
would also provide safety improvements.
Scope of Modelling Required Local Junction Modelling Micro-simulation Modelling 
Designer: Jane Smith Date: 01/04/17

Approved:____________________ Date:________________

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Geometric Design of Junctions (priority junctions, direct accesses, roundabouts, grade April 2017
separated and compact grade separated junctions)