The Data Link Layer

Chapter 3
Data Link Layer Design Issues
P Services Provided to the Network Layer
P Framing
P Error Control
P Flow Control
Functions of the Data Link Layer
P Provide service interface to the network layer
P Dealing with transmission errors
P Regulating data flow
< Slow receivers not swamped by fast senders
Functions of the Data Link Layer (2)

P Relationship between packets and frames.

Services Provided to Network Layer

P (a) Virtual communication.

P (b) Actual communication.
Actual Services
P Unacknowledge connectionless service
P Acknowledge connectionless service
< Frames are acknowledged
< Timers are used
P Acknowledge connection-oriented service
< Connection established
< Counter and timers are used
< Each frame is numbered
< Data link guarantee delivery
< Guarantee only one frame is received
< Received in the right order
Services Provided to Network Layer (2)

P Placement of the data link protocol.

Framing

P Raw bit stream from physical layer are not error free
P The number of bits may be less than, equal to, or more than the
number of bits transmitted
P Data link must detect and correct
P The usual approach
< Break bit stream into frames
< Compute checksum for each frame
< Checksum is recomputed at the receiver and compared
Framing

Character count

P A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.

P Can not resynchronize
Framing
Flag byte with byte stuffing

P (a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.

P When a data is the same as the flag or esc then do byte stuffing
P (b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after stuffing.
< Flag -> Esc Flag
< Esc -> Esc Esc
Framing

P Bit stuffing
P Assume flag : 01111110 (1 zero, 6 ones, 1 zero)
P (a) The original data.
P When a sequence of 5 ones appear then stuff a zero (0)
P (b) The data as they appear on the line.
P (c) The data as they are stored in receiver's memory after
destuffing.
P Resynch -> find flag
Framing
Use redundancy
P Use two bits to transmit 1 bit
P 0 is transmitted as 01
P 1 is transmitted as 10
P No 00 or 11
P 00 or 11 can be used to delimit frames
Error Control and Flow Control

P Error Control:
< Ensure reliability -> need feedback
< Protocol requires somekind of acknowledgement
< Complication: frame can vanish
< Don’t wait forever -> use timer
– Acknowledgement must received before timer expires
< Acknowlegement frame can be lost -> send frame again
< Danger! Multiple frames -> use sequence number for each frame
P Flow Control
< Feedback-based
< Rate-based
Error Detection and Correction
P Error-Correcting Codes
< Include enough redundant information along with data so that the
receiver can correct the error
P Error-Detecting Codes
< Include enough redundant information along with data so that the
receiver can detect an error
Error Type
P Isolated: 0 -> 1, or 1 -> 0

P Burst: errors in consecutive bits

< 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed
Error Detection and Correction
Finding Hamming Distance
P Number of bit positions in which two codewords differs
P Example:
< 10001001
< 10110001
P Hamming distance = ?
< Can use XOR to find it
Hamming Distance Example

P Parity bit
P Error detection
P Added to data so that number of 1 bits in codeword is
P Even (even parity)
P Odd (odd parity)
P E.g., ASCII of ‘H’ is 1001000, its codeword is
P ________ if even parity is used
P ________ if odd parity is used
P Parity code’s Hamming distance = _
Error-Correcting Codes

P Use of a Hamming code to correct

burst errors.
P m-bit of data
P r-bit of redundant check bits
P Total length n = m+r bits or n-
bit codeword
P d single-bit error need d+1
codeword
P d double-bit error need 2d+1
codeword
P How many bit for r?
< (n+1)2 m # 2 n
< (m+r+1)2 m # 2 m+r
< (m+r+1)2 m # 2 m2 r
< (m+r+1) # 2 r
Hamming Code

P Hamming Code (m+r, r)

P For m-bit data we need r-bit redundancy, where (m+r+1) # 2 r
P Redundancy bits are placed in position of 2’s power
P Example: If m = 7, then r = 4
Example
Hamming code (11,4) -> m=7 and r=4

P Wants to send a message (111 0010)

P We need to find the bits for location 1,2,4, and 8

Example (cont)
P Find which redundancy bit will affects which message bits
< Message bit 3 will be affected by redundancy bits 1 and 2 because
3 = 2+1
< 5 = 4+1 (redundancy bits 4 and 1 affects message bit 5)
< 6 = 4+2
< 7 = 4+2+1
< 9 = 8+1
< 10 = 8+2
< 11 = 8+2+1
P To summarize
< Redundancy bit 1 affects message bits 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11
< Redundancy bit 2 affects message bits 6, 7, 10, and 11
< Redundancy bit 4 affects message bits 5, 6, and 7
< Redundancy bit 8 affects message bits 9, 10, and 11
Example (cont.)
P So to get R 1
< Look at M 3, M 5, M 7, M 9, M 11
< They are 0, 1, 0, 1, 1 -> 3 ones
< Assuming even parity then we need to even up the number of ones
< Therefore R 1 is 1
P So to get R 2
< Look at M 6, M 7, M 10, M 11
< They are 0, 0, 1, 1 -> 2 ones
< Therefore R 2 is 0
P So to get R 4
< Look at M 5, M 6, M 7
< They are 1, 0, 0 -> 1 ones
< Therefore R 4 is 1
P So to get R 8
< Look at M 9, M 10, M 11
< They are 1, 1, 1 -> 3 ones
< Therefore R 8 is 1
Example (cont.)
P Sent bits
Error-Detecting Codes
P Calculation of the polynomial code
checksum
P CRC :
< Transmitter and receiver must
agree on generator polynomial
G(x)
< Example
– G(x) = x 4 + x + 1
– 1 0 0 1 1 divisor
– If r is the highest degree of
G(x), append r zero bits to the
lower-end of message
– Divide and the remainder is the
r bit appended to the lower end
of the message
< When received, the message is
divided by G(x). If remainder is
zero 6 no errror
Example of CRC

P CRC-8 : 1 0000 0111

P CRC-16 : 1 1000 0000 0000 0101
P CRC-CCITT : 1 0001 000 0010 0001
P CRC-32 : 1 0000 0100 1100 0001 0001 1101 1011 0111
Elementary Data Link Protocols

P An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

P A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
P A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel
Protocol Definitions

P Some definitions needed in the protocols to follow. These are

located in the file protocol.h.
Protocol Definitions (ctd.)

P Some definitions
needed in the
protocols to follow.
These are located
in the file
protocol.h.
Unrestricted Simplex Protocol
No loss, never damaged

(A) (B)
P (A) transmitter
P (B) receiver
Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
No Error, simplex traffic, but prevent flood

P (A) transmitter
< Need to wait for ack from
receiver
P (B) receiver
< After receiving a data send
an ack

(A) (B)
A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel

P Error in channel
P Transmitter
< A positive acknowledgement
with retransmission protocol.
< Retransmit until correctly
received
P Positive Acknowledgement with
Retransmission (PAR) or
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)
P 1 bit sequence number
P If 0 is the current sequence
number then 1 is the next
sequence number and (1 -> 0)
A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel

P Receiver
< A positive acknowledgement
with retransmission protocol.
Sliding Window Protocols
Bidirectional
P To achieve full-duplex :
< Two channel (one for each direction)
< Same channel (or circuit) for both direction
< Data are intermixed with acknowledgement
P Interleaving data and control are possible
P Piggiback is also possible (wait to send)
P Protocols:
< A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
< A Protocol Using Go Back N
< A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
Sliding Window Protocols

New packet
given the next
highest sequence
number

P n-bit sequence number 0 to 2 n-1

P A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number.
P (a) Initially.
P (b) After the first frame has been sent.
P (c) After the first frame has been received.
P (d) After the first acknowledgement has been received.
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol (ctd.)
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol (2)

P Two scenarios for protocol 4. (a) Normal case. (b) Abnormal case. The
notation is (seq, ack, packet number). An asterisk indicates where a
network layer accepts a packet.
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Pipelining
P Pipelining
< channel capacity b bps
< frame size is l
< round-trip propagation time is R sec
< Time to transmit = l/b

< line utilization

A Protocol Using Go Back N

Pipelining
+ channel capacity b bps
+ frame size is l
+ round-trip propagation
time is R sec
+ Time to transmit = l/b
+ line utilization =

P Pipelining and error recovery. Effect on an error when

P (a) Receiver's window size is 1.
P (b) Receiver's window size is large.
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
(2)

P Simulation of multiple timers in software.

A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective
Repeat
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective
Repeat (2)
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective
Repeat (3)
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective
Repeat (4)
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective
Repeat (5)

P (a) Initial situation with a window size seven.

P (b) After seven frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.
P (c) Initial situation with a window size of four.
P (d) After four frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.
Protocol Verification

P Finite State Machined Models

P Petri Net Models
Finite State Machined Models

P (a) State diagram for protocol 3. (b) Transmissions.

Petri Net Models

P A Petri net with two places and two transitions.

Petri Net Models (2)

P A Petri net model for protocol 3.

Example Data Link Protocols
P HDLC – High-Level Data Link Control
P The Data Link Layer in the Internet
High-Level Data Link Control

P Frame format for bit-oriented protocols.

P Address identify terminal
P Control sequence number or ack or other
P Data
P Checksum uses CRC-16
P Uses Sliding window 3 bit
High-Level Data Link Control (2)

P Control field of
P (a) An information frame.
P (b) A supervisory frame.
P (c) An unnumbered frame.
The Data Link Layer in the Internet

P A home personal computer acting as an internet host.

PPP – Point to Point Protocol

P The PPP full frame format for unnumbered mode operation.

PPP – Point to Point Protocol (2)

P A simplified phase diagram for bring a line up and down.

PPP – Point to Point Protocol (3)

P The LCP frame types.