UNIT 2B

Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil
environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage
tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata,
leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other
heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.

1. What is Soil
● Thin layer of organic and inorganic material that covers the earth rocky in face.
● Organic layer is made up of sand / silica and decayed remains of plants/animals. This “top
soil” is the upper dark coloured layer.
● Inorganic layer is made up of rocks formed over several billions of years due to weathering
of bedrock.
● Top soil – Most important for agriculture. It has to be conserved for sustaining agriculture on
earth.
● Top soil pollution is a major problem due to entry of substances, chemicals and
microorganisms that results in changes in the quality of soil.
● As a result it endangers agriculture, public health (due to entry of pathogenic
microorganisms- bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae and protozoa) and the environment.

2. How does soil get polluted?

- Soil gets polluted largely due to anthropogenic factors.
- Sources of soil pollution are:
a) Industrial wastes
⮚ They are the major cause of soil pollution. On an average more than 50% of industrial raw
materials end up as waste in one form or the other. Of these around 20% of the wastes could
be extremely harmful to soil fertility.
⮚ Newer industrial technologies generate newer types of toxic and non –biodegradable wastes.

⮚ Thermal, atomic and electric power plants contribute to soil pollution. Thermal power plants
generate fly ash that pollutes soil, air and water.
⮚ Industrial pollutants enter human food chain and cause serious health problems.

⮚ Coal – fired power plants produce sulphur dioxide which is trapped( not released to
atmosphere) by means of addition of lime( calcium hydroxide) or lime stone forming what
 are called sludges which represent calcium salts and toxic elements such as As, Se, Hg, Pb
and Cr- all detrimental to the environment.
b) Urban Wastes

Urban wastes

Commercial Waste Domestic Waste

Includes garbage, rubbish – plastics, glasses, tin containers, fibre glass, paper, rubber, vegetable/
animal residues, oil drippings, fuel wastes, leaves, abandoned toys, paints/varnishes and metallic
objects
c) Agricultural Sources
⮚ Fertilizers: excessive usage of N.K.P leads to eutrophication.

⮚ Pesticides, Chlorinated hydrocarbons – DDT, BHC(Benzene Hexa Chloride),

Aldrin, Endrin, dieldrin, lindane, chlordane etc.
Organic phosphates: Malathion, Parathion
These can get absorbed in root crops posing a health risk
⮚ Soil conditioners, fumigants, and chemical agent
They are used to increase soil fertility to get higher yields and kill insects.
These substances may contain several toxic metals such as Pb, As, Cd, Hg and Co which
get
Introduced into the crops through the soil and ultimately enter the human food chain.
⮚ Farm Wastes
Cattle, Pigs, Poultry contribute to soil pollution.
Raw sewage from animal sheds has very high BOD > 200 ppm, COD > 400 ppm, N (40
ppm)
Feed lot run-offs have BOD 1000 ppm, COD 8000 ppm and N 700 ppm
Methods of treating domestic sewage cannot be applied to farm sewage.

d) Metallic Pollutants
⮚ Most industries (textiles, dyes, paints and pigments, pharmaceuticals, oil, soap and
detergents, cement, batteries, petroleum, paper and pulp, steel, glass, plastic and
electroplating) dump their solid wastes on soil with disastrous consequences to living
organisms.
⮚ Fertilizers and soil conditioners leave behind traces of metal residues in soil.
 ⮚ Hazardous metals As, Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr

⮚ Minor changes in Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, V has effect on plant life/ agricultural

⮚ Production..

e) Biological agents

⮚ Soil gets polluted by large quantities of human, animal and bird excreta.

⮚ Biological agents naturally occurring in soil- bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and
actinomytes, earthworms, mollusks (snails, clams, squid, octopuses, and anthropods
(spiders, mites, insects, centipede, millipede and crustaceans- all contribute to soil
fertility.
⮚ Biological agents excreted by man are enteric bacteria, protozoa and viruses. These
pathogens are transmitted to soil by animals and from soil to man.

f) Mining
⮚ Surface mining or open pit mining generates large quantities of wastes (top soil, rocks)
leads to loss of land for grazing, soil erosion, sedimentation and soil pollution.
⮚ Effluents from mines may be highly acidic or alkaline or metal-rich containing cyanide
containing pollutants depending on the circumstances.

g) Salt Stress in Soil

⮚ Due to evaporation of water salinity increases.

⮚ TDS > 2100 mg/l makes soil unsuitable for growing crops except for the most
salt-tolerant crops.
h) Radioactive elements
⮚ Nuclear explosion or face out from nuclear tests or dumping of nuclear wastes

⮚ Radiation wastes contain such as radio nuclides as Sr-90. Cs- 137, I-129.

⮚ All emit of γ radiation.

i) Effects of soil pollution

⮚ Leads to ground water pollution
 ⮚ Hazard to public health due to entry of chemicals and/or microorganisms into food chain.

⮚ Generate fowl odour, cause air pollution and impact on clean and healthy living.

Health effects
The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact
with soils such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include
contamination of drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized. There
is a very large set of health consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on
pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and
many of the pesticide and herbicide formulations are carcinogenic to all populations. Lead is
especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a high risk of developmental
damage to the brain and nervous system, while to all populations kidney damage is a risk.
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher
incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of
kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.
Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular
blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the
central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache,
nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient
dosages a large number of soil contaminants cause death.
Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for
ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many
hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can
manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a
given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain,
which in turn has major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical
effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien
chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food
chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT
materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and
potentially species extinction.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants
typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary
effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the earth's soil mantle
from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other
cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.
Technology to combat soil Pollution

Bioremediation is the use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can

be generally classified as in situ or ex situ.In situ bioremediation involves treating the
contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material
to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation technologies
phytoremediation,bioventing,bioleaching,landfarming, bioreactor,composting, bioaugmentation,
rhizofiltration, and biostimulation.Bioremediation can occur on its own (natural attenuation or
intrinsic bioremediation) or can be spurred on via the addition of fertilizers to increase the
bioavailability within the medium (biostimulation). Recent advancements have also proven
successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident
microbe population's ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms used to perform the
function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators.

Not all contaminants, however, are easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. For
example, heavy metals such as cadmium andlead are not readily absorbed or captured by
organisms. The assimilation of metals such as mercury into the food chain may worsen
matters.Phytoremediation is useful in these circumstances because natural plants or transgenic
plants are able to bioaccumulate these toxins in their above-ground parts, which are then
harvested for removal. The heavy metals in the harvested biomass may be further concentrated
by incineration or even recycled for industrial use.The elimination of a wide range of pollutants
and wastes from the environment requires increasing our understanding of the relative
importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular
environments and for particular compounds, and they will certainly accelerate the development
of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

Genetic engineering approaches

The use of genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for bioremediation has
great potential. The bacteriumDeinococcusradiodurans (the most radioresistant organism
known) has been modified to consume and digest toluene and ionic mercuryfrom highly
radioactive nuclear waste.Most commonly, the process is misunderstood. The microbes are
ever-present in any given context and are generally referred to as "normal microbial flora".
During bioremediation (biodegradation) processes, fertilizer/nutrient supplementation is
introduced to the environments in efforts to maximize growth and production potential. Common
misbelief is that microbes are transported and dispersed into an unadulterated environment.

Mycoremediation
Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the
area. The term mycoremediation refers specifically to the use of fungal mycelia in
bioremediation. One of the primary roles of fungi in the ecosystem is decomposition, which is
performed by the mycelium. The mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break
down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are organic
compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, structurally similar to many
organic pollutants. The key to mycoremediation is determining the right fungal species to target a
specific pollutant. Certain strains have been reported to successfully degrade the nerve
gasesVX and sarin.In one conducted experiment, a plot of soil contaminated with diesel oil was
inoculated with mycelia of oyster mushrooms; traditional bioremediation techniques (bacteria)
were used on control plots. After four weeks, more than 95% of many of the PAH (polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons) had been reduced to non-toxic components in the mycelial-inoculated
plots. It appears that the natural microbial community participates with the fungi to break down
contaminants, eventually into carbon dioxide and water. Wood-degrading fungi are particularly
effective in breaking down aromatic pollutants (toxic components of petroleum), as well as
chlorinated compounds (certain persistent pesticides; Battelle, 2000).Mycofiltration is a similar
process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste and microorganisms from water in soil.

Advantages
There are a number of cost/efficiency advantages to bioremediation, which can be employed in
areas that are inaccessible without excavation. For example, hydrocarbon spills
(specifically, petrol spills) or certain chlorinated solvents may contaminate groundwater, and
introducing the appropriate electron acceptor or electron donor amendment, as appropriate, may
significantly reduce contaminant concentrations after a long time allowing for acclimation. This
is typically much less expensive than excavation followed by disposal elsewhere, incineration or
other ex situ treatment strategies, and reduces or eliminates the need for "pump and treat", a
practice common at sites where hydrocarbons have contaminated clean groundwater.

Monitoring bioremediation
The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation
Reduction Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH,
temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of
breakdown products (e.g.carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological
breakdown rate as function of the redox potential.
Process Reaction Redox potential (Eh in mV)
aerobic: O2 + 4e− + 4H+ → 2H2O 600 ~ 400

anaerobic:

denitrification 2NO3− + 10e− + 12H+ → N2 + 6H2O 500 ~ 200

− + 2+
manganese IV reduction MnO2 + 2e + 4H → Mn + 2H2O 400 ~ 200
− + 2+
iron III reduction Fe(OH)3 + e + 3H → Fe + 3H2O 300 ~ 100
sulfate reduction SO42− + 8e− +10 H+ → H2S + 4H2O 0 ~ −150
fermentation 2CH2O → CO2 + CH4 −150 ~ −220
This, by itself and at a single site, gives little information about the process of remediation.
1. It is necessary to sample enough points on and around the contaminated site to be able to
determine contours of equal redox potential. Contouring is usually done using
specialised software, e.g. using Kriging interpolation.
2. If all the measurements of redox potential show that electron acceptors have been used up, it
is in effect an indicator for total microbial activity. Chemical analysis is also required to
 determine when the levels of contaminants and their breakdown products have been reduced
to below regulatory limits.

Organic farming
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green
manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pestson
a farm. Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers,
pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators such
as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and genetically modified organisms.

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations,
based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations
established in 1972.

IFOAM defines the overarching goal of organic farming as:"Organic agriculture is a production
system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological
processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the
shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved."

Since 1990, the market for organic products has grown from nothing, reaching $55 billion in
2009 according to Organic Monitor (www.organicmonitor.com). This demand has driven a
similar increase in organically managed farmland. Approximately 37,000,000 hectares
(91,000,000 acres) worldwide are now farmed organically, representing approximately 0.9
percent of total world farmland (2009)

Nutrient leaching
Excess nutrients in lakes, rivers, and groundwater can cause algal blooms, eutrophication, and
subsequent dead zones. In addition, nitrates are harmful to aquatic organisms by themselves. The
main contributor to this pollution is nitrate fertilizers whose use is expected to "double or almost
triple by 2050". Organically fertilizing fields "significantly [reduces] harmful nitrate leaching"
over conventionally fertilized fields: "annual nitrate leaching was 4.4-5.6 times higher in
conventional plots than organic plots".The large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico is caused in
large part by agricultural runoff: a combination of fertilizer and livestock manure. Over half of
the nitrogen released into the Gulf comes from agriculture. This increases costs for fishermen, as
they must travel far from the coast to find fish. Nitrogen leaching into the Danube River was
substantially lower among organic farms. The resulting externalities could be neutralized by
charging 1 euro per kg of released nitrogen.Agricultural runoff and algae blooms are strongly
linked in California.
Green house effect, global warming and climate change
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere
that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infraredrange. This process is the
fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect.[1]The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's
atmosphere are water vapor,carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Greenhouse
gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth's surface would be on
average about 33 °C colder than at present.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has contributed to
the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 280ppm to 390ppm, despite the uptake of
a large portion of the emissions through various natural "sinks" involved in the carbon
cycle. Carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of carbonaceous fuels such ascoal, oil,
and natural gas. CO2 is a product of combustion of carbon although burning coal for example,
also produces carbon monoxide.
The governments of most countries in the world have agreed that deep cuts in global GHG
emissions are required, and that the future increase in global mean temperature (i.e., global
warming) should be limited to below 2 °C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level.
Since 2000 fossil fuel related carbon emissions have equaled or exceeded the IPCC's "A2
scenario", except for small dips during two global recessions. In 2010, global CO2 emissions
exceeded the IPCC's worst case scenario, leading to concerns over whether dangerous climate
change can be avoided.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are those that can absorb and emit infrared radiation. [1] In order, the most
abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:
▪ water vapor

▪ carbon dioxide

▪ methane

▪ nitrous oxide

▪ ozone
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources
(emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the
gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound.[19] The proportion of
an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "Airborne fraction". More
precisely, the annual AF is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year’s
total emissions. For CO2 the AF over the last 50 years (1956–2006) has been increasing at 0.25 ±
0.21%/year.
Impact of a given gas on climate sensitivity
When these gases are ranked by their direct contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most
important are:
Gas Formula Contribution
(%)
Water vapor H2O 36 – 72 %
Carbon dioxide CO2 9 – 26 %
 Methane CH4 4–9%
Ozone O3 3–7%
In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include sulfur
hexafluoride, hydro fluorocarbons andperfluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases).
Some greenhouse gases are not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global
warming potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities.[27]
Proportion of direct effects at a given moment
It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect.
This is because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so
that the total greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher
ends of the ranges quoted are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the
other gases.[22][23] In addition, some gases such as methane are known to have large indirect
effects that are still being quantified

Per Capita and Global Carbon Foot Printing

Today, the stock of carbon in the atmosphere increases by more than 3 million tonnes per annum
(0.04%) compared with the existing stock.

Per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average
in developing countries (Grubb, 2003, p. 144).]Due to China's fast economic development, its per
capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto
Protocol (PBL, 2009).[83] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran,
and Australia. On the other hand, per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the USA are gradually
decreasing over time. Emissions in Russia and the Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due
to economic restructuring in these countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[84]

Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized
countries. For China's annual emissions in 2008, PBL (2008) estimated an uncertainty range of
about 10%.

Top emitters
Top-5 emitters for the year 2005
% of global total Tonnes of GHG
Country or region
annual emissions per capita
Chinab 17 % 5.8
United Statesa 16 % 24.1
European Union-27a 11 % 10.6
Indonesiac 6% 12.9
India 5% 2.1
▪ These values are for the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production.
Calculations are for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and gases
containing fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, PFCs and SF6).
▪ These estimates are subject to large uncertainties regarding CO2 emissions
from deforestation; and the per country emissions of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are
also other large uncertainties which mean that small differences between countries are not
 significant. CO2 emissions from the decay of remaining biomass after biomass
burning/deforestation are not included.
▪ Industrialized countries: official country data reported to UNFCCC.

▪ Excluding underground fires.

▪ Including an estimate of 2000 million tones CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of peat
soils after draining. However, the uncertainty range is very large.

Embedded emissions
One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded
emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed.
Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption (Helm et al.,
2007, p. 3).[87] Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on
imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a
consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are
attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.
Effect of policy
Rogner et al. (2007) assessed the effectiveness of policies to reduce emissions (mitigation of
climate change They concluded that mitigation policies undertaken by UNFCCC Parties were
inadequate to reverse the trend of increasing GHG emissions. The impacts of population growth,
economic development, technological investment, and consumption had overwhelmed
improvements in energy intensities and efforts to decarbonize (energy intensity is a country's
total primary energy supply (TPES) per unit of GDP (Rogner et al., 2007). TPES is a measure of
commercial energy consumption (World Bank, 2010, p. 371)).

Relative CO2 emission from various fuels

One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide,
a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (172.65 cubic feet)
Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[
CO2 emitted
Fuel name CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu)
(g/106 J)
Natural gas 117 50.30
Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59.76
Propane 139 59.76
Aviation gasoline 153 65.78
Automobile gasoline 156 67.07
Kerosene 159 68.36
Fuel oil 161 69.22
Tires/tire derived fuel 189 81.26
 Wood and wood waste 195 83.83
Coal (bituminous) 205 88.13
Coal (subbituminous) 213 91.57
Coal (lignite) 215 92.43
Petroleum coke 225 96.73
Coal (anthracite) 227 97.59

Natural processes
Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence
of:
▪ A physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the
atmosphere).
▪ A chemical reaction within the atmosphere. For example, methane is oxidized by reaction
with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH·and degraded to CO2 and water vapor
(CO2 from the oxidation of methane is not included in the methane Global warming
potential). Other chemical reactions include solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in
atmospheric aerosols.
▪ A physical exchange between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An
example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.
▪ A chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of
the planet. This is the case for CO2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which,
after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate andcarbonate ions
(see ocean acidification).
▪ A photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and
F· as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are
generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).

Negative emissions
There are a number of technologies that remove emissions of greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere. Most widely analyzed are those which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
either to geologic formations such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage and carbon
dioxide air capture, or to the soil as in the case with biochar. It has been pointed out by the IPCC,
that many long-term climate scenario models require large scale manmade negative emissions in
order to avoid serious climate change

Carbon Footprint
A carbon footprint is defined as:The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and
indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide
(CO2).
In other words: When you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which creates a certain amount of
CO2, depending on its fuel consumption and the driving distance. (CO2 is the chemical symbol
for carbon dioxide). When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, then you also generate CO2.
Even if you heat your house with electricity, the generation of the electrical power may also have
emitted a certain amount of CO2. When you buy food and goods, the production of the food and
goods also emitted some quantities of CO2.
Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which was
induced by your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated for
the time period of a year.
The best way is to calculate the carbon dioxide emissions based on the fuel consumption. In the
next step you can add the CO2 emission to your carbon footprint. Below is a table for the most
common used fuels:
Examples:
● For each (UK-) gallon of petrol fuel consumed, 10.4 kg carbon dioxide (CO2) is emitted.
● For each (US-) gallon of gasoline fuel consumed, 8.7 kg carbon dioxide (CO2) is emitted.
● If your car consumes 7.5 liter diesel per 100 km, then a drive of 300 km distance consumes 3
x 7.5 = 22.5 liter diesel, which adds 22.5 x 2.7 kg = 60.75 kg CO2 to your personal carbon
footprint.
CO2 emitted per
fuel type unit
unit

Petrol 1 gallon (UK) 10.4 kg

Petrol 1 liter 2.3 kg

Gasoline 1 gallon (USA) 8.7 kg

Gasoline 1 liter 2.3 kg

Diesel 1 gallon (UK) 12.2 kg

Diesel 1 gallon (USA) 9.95 kg

Diesel 1 liter 2.7 kg

Oil (heating) 1 gallon (UK) 13.6 kg

Oil (heating) 1 gallon (USA) 11.26 kg

Oil (heating) 1 liter 3 kg

To calculate the above contributions to the carbon footprint, the current UK mix for electricity
and trains was taken into account.
Carbon dioxide is a so called greenhouse gas causing global warming. Other greenhouse gases
which might be emitted as a result of your activities are e.g. methane and ozone. These
greenhouse gases are normally also taken into account for the carbon footprint. They are
converted into the amount of CO2 that would cause the same effects on global warming (this is
called equivalent CO2 amount).
Few people express their carbon footprint in kg carbon rather than kg carbon dioxide. You can
always convert kg carbon dioxide in kg carbon by multiplying with a factor 0.27 (1'000 kg CO2
equals 270 kg carbon). The carbon footprint is a very powerful tool to understand the impact of
personal behavior on global warming. Most people are shocked when they see the amount of
CO2 their activities create! If you personally want to contribute to stop global warming, the
calculation and constant monitoring of your personal carbon footprint is essential.
For registered users, there is a carbon footprint calculator on this website, which allows to store
individual activities like, e.g. travelling by car, train, bus or air plane, fuel consumptions,
electricity bills and so on (we call the individual contributions "carbon stamps"). You can then
see the amount of CO2 created for each individual activity. You can do this either in advance and
use it as a help for decisions or afterwards to continually sum up your carbon dioxide emissions.

An off-line carbon footprint and primary energy consumption calculator (Excel sheet) is
already available in the download section.

There are graphs available on this site for the CO2 emissions per capita by country (average
carbon footprint by country). In the medium- and long term, the carbon footprint must be
reduced to less than 2'000 kg CO2 per year and per person. This is the maximum allowance for
a sustainable living

Carbon footprinting measures the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organisation,
event or product. To measure carbon footprints is the first step towards managing your carbon
footprint.

A carbon footprint has historically been defined as "the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person". However, calculating a carbon
footprint which conforms to this definition is often impracticable due to the large amount of data
required, which is often costly and time consuming to obtain. A more practicable definition has
been suggested, which is gaining acceptance within the field:

"A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions of a
defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within
the spatial and temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest. Calculated as
carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2) using the relevant 100-year global warming
potential (GWP100)."
The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint discussion. The
carbon footprint is a subset of the ecological footprint and of the more comprehensive Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA).

Global-warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse

gas traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of
the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide. A GWP is
calculated over a specific time interval, commonly 20, 100 or 500 years. GWP is expressed as a
factor of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is standardized to 1). For example, the 20 year GWP
of methane is 72, which means that if the same mass of methane and carbon dioxide were
introduced into the atmosphere, that methane will trap 72 times more heat than the carbon
dioxide over the next 20 years.
The GWP depends on the following factors:
▪ the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species

▪ the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths

▪ the atmospheric lifetime of the species

Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use
of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to
understand the impact of human activities on global climate change.

Ecological Footprint
The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It is a
standardized measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the
planet's ecological capacity to regenerate.[1] It represents the amount of biologically productive
land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and
to mitigate associated waste. Using this assessment, it is possible to estimate how much of
the Earth (or how many planet Earths) it would take to support humanity if everybody followed a
given lifestyle. For 2006, humanity's total ecological footprint was estimated at 1.4 planet Earths
– in other words, humanity uses ecological services 1.4 times as fast as Earth can renew
them.[2] Every year, this number is recalculated — with a three year lag due to the time it takes
for the UN to collect and publish all the underlying statistics.

Life-cycle assessment
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance,
[1]
and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with
all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through
materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or
recycling). LCA’s can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
▪ Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;

▪ Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
▪ Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision.
Four main phases

Goal and scope

An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the
context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is a
key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and
consistent with the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes
technical details that guide subsequent work:
▪ the functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service
delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be
related;
▪ the system boundaries;

▪ any assumptions and limitations;

▪ the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several
products or functions share the same process; and
▪ the impact categories chosen.

Life cycle inventory

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature
for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and
releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is
constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow
chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and
gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and output data needed for the
construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including
from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the technosphere).
Life cycle impact assessment
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating
the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical Life
Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
▪ selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;

▪ the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific
impact categories; and
▪ impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many
possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to
provide an overall impact category total.

Interpretation
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate
information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment.
The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the
interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and
recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:
▪ Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an
LCA;
▪ Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and

▪ Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.

There are two basic types of LCA tools:
▪ dedicated software packages intended for practitioners; and

▪ Tools with the LCA in the background intended for people who want LCA-based results
without have to actually develop the LCA data and impact measures.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS), alternatively referred to as carbon capture and
sequestration, is a technology to prevent large quantities of CO2 from being released into the
atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries. [1] It is often
regarded as a means ofmitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global
warming. [2] The process is based on capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources,
such as fossil fuel power plants, and storing it in such a way that it does not enter the
atmosphere. It can also be used to describe thescrubbing of CO2 from ambient air as a geo
engineering technique. Although CO2 has been injected into geological formations for various
purposes, the long term storage of CO2 is a relatively new concept. The first commercial example
was Weyburn in 2000.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an
internationalenvironmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilization ofgreenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system."

The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force
on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol.

Countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990
level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in
addition to the industrial gases,chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the
1987Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC
(decision 2/CP.3) were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second
Assessment Report.[5] These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gas
emissions into comparable CO2equivalents (CO2-eq) when computing overall sources and sinks.

Each country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic

greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto
Protocol.

Objective
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference was to establish a legally binding
international agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the
issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target agreed upon was an average
reduction of 5.2% from 1990 levels by the year 2012.

The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission
reduction commitment periods, with negotiations on second period commitments that were
scheduled to start in 2005
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system."
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
▪ Commitments to the Annex-countries. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing
commitments for the reduction of greenhouse gases that are legally binding for Annex I
countries. Dividing the countries in different groups is one of the key concepts in making
commitments possible, where only the Annex I countries in 1997, were seen as having the
economic capacity to commit themselves and their industry. Making only the few nations in
the Annex 1 group committed to the protocols limitations.
▪ Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries are
required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their
 respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases
and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development
mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow
more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
▪ Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate
change.
▪ Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.

▪ Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the

commitments under the Protocol

Paris Agreement:TheParis Agreement (French: Accord de Paris), Paris climate accord or

Paris climate agreement, is anagreement within the United Nations Framework Conventionon
Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gasemissions mitigation, adaptation and
finance starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by
representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and
adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. As of August 2017, 195 UNFCCC members have
signed the agreement, 159 of which have ratified it In the Paris Agreement, each country
determines, plans andregularly reports its own contribution it should make in order to mitigate
global warming. There is no mechanism to force a country to set a specific target by a specific
date but each target should go beyond previously set targets.

In 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the United States
from the agreement, causing widespread condemnation in the European Unionand many sectors
in the United States. Under the agreement, the earliest effective date of withdrawal for the U.S. is
November 2020.
Aims
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the
UNFCCC through:
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above
pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above
pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate
resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten
food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and
climate resilient development." Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of
greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible". The agreement has been described as an
incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment. The Paris deal is the world's first
comprehensive climate agreement.
Nationally determined contributions
The contributions that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide
goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined
contributions" (NDCs).Article 3 requires them to be "ambitious", "represent a progression over
time" and set "with the view to achieving the purpose of this Agreement". The contributions
should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Each
further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known asthe principle of
'progression'.Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions.The
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change
Conference serveunless provided otherwise—as the initial Nationally determined
contribution.The level of NDCs set by each countrywill set that country's targets. However the
'contributions' themselvesare not binding as a matter of international law, as they lack the
specificity, normative character, or obligatorylanguage necessary to create binding
norms.acountryto set a target in their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a set target in
an NDC is not met.Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to forceThere will be only a "name
and shame" systemor as JánosPásztor, the U.N. assistant secretary-general onclimate change, told
CBS News (US), a "name and encourage" plan.As the agreement provides noconsequences if
countries do not meet their commitments, consensus of this kind is fragile. A trickle of nations
exiting the agreement may trigger the withdrawal of more
governments, bringing about a total collapse of the agreement.

:Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the
activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is
mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles engines, aircraft, and
trains.[1][2] Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning
may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result
in noise pollution in the residential areas. Documented problems associated with urban noise go
back as far as Ancient Rome.[3]
Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, construction activities, and music performances,
especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g. trains)
or inside (e.g. music) noise.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence
of coronary artery disease.[4] In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator
or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to
permanent hearing loss
Causes of Noise pollution
Noise pollution can be caused by several phenomenon including industrial activity, and social
activity (such as explosion of fire crackers, loud parties), and surface travel. The many causes of
noise pollution are discussed below:
1. Fire crackers: Fire crackers are exploded to make huge sound during celebrations and festive
occasions. It is common sight to witness the firing of crackers at live concerts.
2. Transportation vehicles: Noise pollution is severest in the cities. The different modes of
transportation (land, air and water), such as motor-cars, buses, trains, trams, airplanes, etc.
produces sound that disturbs the human mind.
3. Microphones: The unrestricted use of microphones during social and political events.
4. Loud speakers: During social events and other festive occasions, people use loud speakers in
unjustified manner.
5. Factories and industries: In large cities, there are large number of factories, mills and
industries. These industrial sites produce immense environmental noise to disturb the habitats of
nearby residential areas.
6. Domestic appliances: Even at homes, people use large number of domestic appliances such
as grinder, mixer, juicer, etc.
7. Loud music: Playing music in high volume,
8. Television: Television also causes sound and watching television for long hours in just as
harmful for ears as they are for eyes.
9. Building and construction sites near residential areas: The building and construction
activity involves use of sound producing equipment such as cement-mixer, road-roller, crane, etc.
All the above activities produce enough noise to disturb the health and mind of human-beings
and other living bodies.
Also read:
1. What are the Causes of Noise Pollution?
2. Sources of Noise Pollution
Effects of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution affects the human mind and body negatively. The ill-effects of noise pollution
are many. It is the major cause for several ailments. The quality of human life gets disrupted. The
lives of the children, the aged or the ailing people become miserable.
1. Loss of hearing and deafness: Noise above the tolerable threshold is the leading cause for
loss of hearing and deafness.
2. Cardiac disturbance: Noise increase the risk of cardiac disturbance including coronary artery
disease or ischemic heart disease (IHD).
3. Sleeplessness: Noise may make people restless and tired. It may cause disrupted sleeping
pattern or may keep people away from sound sleep. In the long-term, due to tiredness and lack of
sleep, the immune system may get compromised.
4. Headache: Human mind can tolerate sound only to a limited extent. Excess noise causes
headache.
5. Stress, tension and aggressiveness: Loud noises can be very stressful. Constant exposure to
irritating sound may cause stress and tension. The behavior of people often becomes aggressive.
Other than psychological imbalance, is causes physical illness such as increased blood pressure,
cardiac disturbance and insomnia.
6. Irregular blood pressure: For good health, it is very important to maintain normal pressure
in the arteries both during the heartbeat and between the heartbeat. Noise may contribute
to fluctuations in the levels of blood pressure.
7. Mental imbalance and nervous debility: Mental illness is among the worst negative effects
of noise pollution. People may find it difficult to cope with their normal routine life.
Human mind cannot accept sound beyond a certain level. Excess sound may lead to mental
imbalance and nervous disability.
8. Psychological imbalance: It may also cause psychological imbalance.
9. Difficulty in talking: Due to excessive noise, it becomes very difficult to talk on roads or
inside malls.
Also read: Negative Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health
Prevention of Noise Pollution
Some effective measures should be taken too solve the problem. The following measures can be
taken to prevent noise pollution:
● To prevent and control noise pollution it is necessary to create public awareness. Only
law is not sufficient. People must be made aware of the harmful consequences of noise
pollution.
● People should be made aware that excessive noise beyond certain limits may cause
deafness.
● They should know that injuries caused by sound pollution are often irreversible.
● There should be minimum use of sound producing instruments. There should be proper
regulations for the use of loudspeakers and other devices that produce noise beyond that
are beyond the toleration limits of human-beings.
● The Pollution Control Board and the High Court have already taken effective measures to
bring sound pollution under control. Adequate measures should be taken to ensure that
noise related restrictions are not violated.
● Anti-pollution laws should be enacted and enforced.
● Ban of fire crackers should be imposed and electric horns should be replaced by bulb
horns.
● The use of microphones should be controlled and regulated.
Conclusion
Noise pollution is real. It is not just a mild annoyance. It can negatively effect the lives of both
humans and animals. It poses severs threats such as environmental hazards, health problems,
habitat loss, etc. It also changes in the ways in which people cohere. As such, we should all make
sure that we do not contribute to noise pollution.

What Is Land Pollution?

The basic definition of land pollution is the destruction and contamination of the land through
the direct and indirect actions of humans. The pollution results in changes to the land, such as
soil erosion. Some of the changes are irreversible, while others are not.
The effects of land pollution do not necessarily appear overnight. It is the result of long-term
destruction from human activities. For instance, the damage from chemicals from an oil spill can
take months or even years to be fully realized.
Causes of Land Pollution
There are several known causes of land pollution. Of those, there are six factors that contribute
more than others.
1. Deforestation and soil erosion
When forests are cleared for development and to meet the demand for wood supply, the soil is
loosened in the process. Without the protection of the trees, the land becomes barren over time
and starts to erode.
2. Agricultural chemicals
Part of the farming process often involves the use of harmful pesticides and insecticides to
protect crops. However, the chemicals can cause the land to become barren. The once-fertile soil
is then more susceptible to environmental elements, such as the wind.

3. Industrialization
The Industrial Revolution may have resulted in significant positive changes to the economy and
society, but it also led to significant pollution of the land. Through unsafe disposal practices for
chemicals used in manufacturing, poor regulation, and the overwhelming number of industries
and factories that are polluting the land daily, industrialization has become one of the main
contributors to the pollution problem.
4. Mining
The mining process can lead to the creation of large open spaces beneath the surface of the earth.
This can result in the land caving in, which compromises the integrity of the land. Mining also
results in harmful chemicals, such as uranium, being disturbed and released into the
environment.
5. Landfills
The garbage found at landfills is filled with toxins that eventually seep into the earth. During
rains, the toxins are washed into other areas and the pollution is spread. As the population grows,
the amount of garbage filling landfills also grows.
6. Human sewage
Untreated human waste can produce toxic gases that can seep into the ground. As with air
pollution, the soil quality is negatively impacted, and land nearby can be contaminated. In
addition to this, the probability of human illnesses occurring increases.
Effects of Land Pollution
The contamination of the land has far-reaching consequences that can be catastrophic for water,
soil, and animals. There are several possible consequences of land pollution to the environment
and animals, including these top five:
1. Ground water poisoning
Depending on the soil and whether the chemicals were improperly disposed of on the land, the
chemicals could end up in the ground water. The process is known as leaching. It can occur on
farms, industrial sites, and landfills.
2. Water nutrient enrichment
Chemicals, such as nitrogen, are used frequently on farms. Only a small portion of the nutrients
end up benefitting the crops. The remainder usually ends up in water that is populated by fish,
algae, and other lifeforms. The nutrient-heavy water saps up most of the oxygen in the water,
which leaves little for fish and other life. When this happens, the water is unable to support most
lifeforms. For more information on water pollution.
3. Loss of topsoil
As chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used to maintain crops, the topsoil’s composition
becomes altered. The soil becomes more susceptible to harmful fungus species and begins to
erode. It is important to conserve our soil to maximize land productivity.
4. Shifting habitat
As deforestation and soil erosion progress, animals are forced to move to find shelter and food.
For some animals, the change is too traumatic, and this has led to some dying. As a result, some
species are at a greater risk of extinction.
5. Increased risk of wildfires
The dry conditions created by pollutants in the soil help to create the perfect environment for
wildfires. The fires can grow quickly because of the dry conditions and widening area of polluted
land.
Effects of Land Pollution on Humans
The impact of land pollution is not limited just to the earth and animals. Humans can also
experience negative consequences that can influence quality of life and health.
Some of the potential consequences include birth defects, the development of breathing
disorders, skin diseases, and cancer. Most of these develop after exposure to waste from water
poisoning and soil contamination.
Land pollution has also been linked to developmental deficits in children. Chemicals that are
commonly found in contaminated soil and water, such as lead, have can impact a child’s
cognitive development even if the exposure is very low.
Solutions to Land Pollution
There are several possible solutions to land pollution, including conservation. Conservation
focuses on preserving natural resources, such as soil and plants. The efforts to conserve resources
can start with utilizing sustainable practices.
For instance, leaving some of the trees in a forest to naturally die and decay. This not only leaves
the cover needed for the soil and other vegetation, but it helps to provide the nutrients that the
soil needs to remain fertile. Other solutions include:
● Proper waste disposal that focuses on treating waste and disposing it in the safest manner
possible.
● Reusing materials to reduce the need for harvesting of resources. Products that are not
reusable can likely be recycled.
● Reducing the usage of non-biodegradable materials, such as plastic shopping bags. The
simple act of switching to a reusable cloth bag for groceries can help cut down on the need
 for non-biodegradable materials.

● Organic gardening can reduce the usage of pesticides and insecticides. Non-gardeners can
help by buying organic food.
Conclusion
The negative consequences of land pollution can be greatly reduced with the cooperation of
everyone. By making a conscious effort to contribute to a safer environment, the health and
well-being of all can be protected.
Many of us who live in big cities enjoy a carefree lifestyle with 24 hours of running taps,
swimming pools and decorative fountains. Sheltered by this layer of comfort, many of us remain
unaware of the impact of these water-intensive activities on our environment. Rapid urbanization
and water pollution has widened the supply and demand gap, putting enormous pressure on the
quality of surface and groundwater bodies. Clean water is destined to become one of the rarest
commodities soon, if the general public is not educated about the significance of storing,
recycling and reusing water.
In India around 83% of available fresh water is used for agriculture. Rainfall being the primary
source of fresh water, the concept behind conserving water is to harvest it when it falls and
wherever it falls. The importance of storing rainwater through different techniques can be
understood by an example of the desert city of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan which is water
self-sufficient despite experiencing meager rainfall as against Cherrapunji, which is blessed with
the highest rainfall in the world, but still faces water shortage due to lack of water conservation
methods.
Water Conservation Practices from Past and Present
Since ages, people across different regions of India, have experienced either excess or scarce
water due to varied rainfall and land topography. Yet, they have managed to irrigate their
agricultural fields using localized water harvesting methods. Their traditional ways, though less
popular, are still in use and efficient. They are enriched with knowledge to manage water in
communal ways. Let’s learn about a few traditional water conservation methods in India.
Katta
Katta is a temporary structure made by binding mud and loose stones available locally. Built
across small streams and rivers, this stone bund slows the flow of water, and stores a large
amount (depending upon its height) during the dry months. The collected water gradually seeps
into ground and increase the water level of nearby wells. In coastal areas, they also minimize the
flow of fresh water into the sea.
It is a cost effective and simple method, used widely in rural areas. Series of stone bunds built
one behind the other have proved to be more effective than modern concrete dams in some
villages, as these local structures can be easily repaired by farmers themselves. Although they
require many skilled laborers during construction, the cost is mostly shared by all the villagers as
it is a common structure. However, with more people opting for personal borewells and
handpumps, the water level in open wells has gone down severely, taking a toll on marginal
villages. Thus, rejuvenating these community Kattas can go a long way in sustainable water
management.
Sand Bores
Sand bores provide a safe alternative for farm irrigation without affecting groundwater. This
technique uses the concept of extracting water retained by sand particles. Sand particles act as
great water filters by retaining the salt content at bottom and gushing pure water out. White sand
is believed to yield water clean enough for drinking too. Sand deposits (as high as 15-30 feet) left
along banks of rivers is dug using a manual soil cutter. Casing PVC pipes is inserted to act as
filter and an electric or diesel motor is used to pump sweet water out.
The entire set-up costs around INR5,000-7,000 and requires less maintenance when sand
deposits are fine and clean. The sand bore technique has been used in Karnataka since decades.
The only drawback is that it can only be practiced in coastal areas or in areas with high sand
deposits.
Madaks/ Johads/ Pemghara
Johad in Thathawata village
These water soak pits called as Madakas in Karnataka, Pemghara in Odisha and Johads in
Rajasthan, are one of the oldest systems used to conserve and recharge ground water.
Constructed on an area with naturally high elevation on three sides, soil is excavated to create a
storage area and used to create a wall on fourth side to hold water. Johads collect monsoon water,
which slowly seeps in to recharge groundwater and maintain soil moisture. Sometimes, many
Johads are interconnected with a gulley or deep channels with a single outlet in a river or stream
nearby to prevent structural damage. This cost-efficient and simple structure requires annual
maintenance of de-silting and cleaning the storage area of weed growth.
Water from Johads is still been widely used by farmers to irrigate fields in many parts of India. In
fact, the arid state of Rajasthan has seen a drastic improvement in water conservation due to the
efforts of Rajendra Singh of Tarun Bharat Sangh to revive Johads. What needs to be done today
is revival of old Johads, many of which have fallen into disrepair due to growth of weed plants
and dumping of waste.
Bawdi/Jhalara
These step-wells are grand structures of high archaeological significance constructed since
ancient times, mainly in honor of kings and queens. They are typically square shaped step-wells
with beautiful arches, motifs and sometimes rooms on sides. Apart from storing water for basic
needs, they at times also served for water sports.
Located away from residential areas, the water quality in these Bawdis is considered to be good
for consumption. The typical lifespan of Jhalaras is around 20-30 years. Built with large
investment of money and numerous skilled laborers, these magnificent structures today stand
discarded by society.
Bamboo Drip Irrigation
Innovated by tribes of north eastern states, this technique economically uses water during dry
seasons. It is practiced in hilly areas where construction of ground channels is not possible due to
sloppy and stony terrain. This arrangement taps spring water to irrigate fields. A network of
channels made by bamboo pipes of various diameters (to control flow), allows downward flow
of water by gravity. An efficient system can reduce around 20 liters of inflow water running over
kms to 20-80 drops per minute in agricultural fields.
Construction material such as bamboo and fiber is locally available. It is cost effective requiring
less maintenance and only 1-2 labourers, who use tools to create a network of bamboo pipes to
irrigate one hectare of land in 15 days. The system lasts for around three years after which the
wood rots and decomposes to become nutrient-rich soil.
Farmers of Khasi and Jaintia tribes have successfully used this unique technique to irrigate fields
of black pepper, betel etc. It has been replicated in urban areas too, where water stored on roof
top tanks is flown through bamboo channels to irrigate fields and back gardens. Main advantage
of the system is that it does not pollute like plastic counterparts and is very economical and
simple to construct.
Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting
All of us who directly consume water are the most important stakeholders in managing water.
While many of us urbanites use or waste a lot of water, we rarely make an effort to conserve it.
Fortunately, the rainwater harvesting method has provided a solution that can be practiced easily
in every household. It is a simple model where the roof acting as a catchment for rainfall, which
after flowing through a series of filters and pipes is stored in ground-level containers for direct
use or recharged into ground water. Given below is a simple formula to calculate the water that
can be collected from your rooftop.
Tech Specs Table
An area of 1,000 square feet with 1 inch of rainfall is estimated to yield 550 gallons of water. For
an existing building, the cost of water harvesting systems can range from Rs 10,000 to Rs
30,000. Designs have been formulated for both pukka and kutcha houses to make it a household
activity. In a running model, the stored water has been widely used for irrigation, domestic usage
as well as animals. D&D Ecotech services, Jalprapat drillers, water harvesters and NirmalJal are
some of the reliable service providers of this technology. For new buildings (with more than 100
sq meter area), rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory by few state governments like
Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.
Ferro-cement Tanks
This is a low cost alternative for expensive water harvesting containers made of masonry, plastic
and RCC. It has proved highly effective in high rainfall regions where large amount of water
need to stored in clean form. These tanks requiring materials like sand, cement, mild steel bar
and galvanized iron wire mesh, can be easily constructed by semi skilled labours. It’s light in
weight and can be moulded into any shape required. It is believed to last for around 25 years
with little maintenance. Picture alongside shows a ferro-cement tank under construction.

Joy Pumps
Ever imagined filling up an overhead tank by just kids playing around? This innovation was
designed to mitigate water scarcity problems in villages with no clean surface water source, no
electricity and poor monetary capacity. Attached below a merry-go-round wheel or a see-saw, is
an arrangement similar to a conventional hand pump. As children ride on these wheels,
groundwater is drawn and tank (around 8-10 meters above ground) is filled. It can also be used to
pump water from bore wells and large storage tankers. It can be installed even at far off places
and has easy maintenance. It is basically a community structure and can be set up in schools,
parks, villages and relief camps. It has been used in developing countries like India and Africa.
Span pumps pvt limited, a Pune based company is designing such pumps in India.
Cycle Run Water Pumps
A saver of time and cost of electricity and fuel, this technology utilizes human power generated
by pedalling a bicycle to lift water from streams, ponds, canals and wells. Whenthe cycle is
pedalled, it creates an up and down motion of pistons which pressurizes water flow to outlet. A
portable model which can be installed on site has also been developed. Designed for small scale
farmers who don’t have capacity to afford costly diesel run motors, this arrangement can bring a
flow of 100 litres per minute. The complete unit made of cast iron and aluminium costs from
rupees 2500 to 7000. These pumps have also supported women, kids and old people who at times
found operating hand pumps in bend position a strenuous task. Some models have replaced
bicycle by steppers, making pumping water a healthy and fun activity. In India, it was
conceptualized by poor farmer from a village of West Bengal, NasiruddinGayen in 1980s. Xylam
water solutions, a Vadodra based company is also designing and selling this innovation. If made
applicable in urban areas, this concept can do wonders in making people realize importance of
water and lose some calories too.
Rain Water Syringe
Most of the open wells and tube wells in coastal areas contain salty water due to seepage of sea
water. Rainwater harvesting is a viable option for solving the issue of drinking water, but
construction of rainwater overhead tanks is unaffordable for marginal farmers. Antoji in Kerala
has innovated a cost effective method for harvesting rainwater in coastal areas. Rainwater is
collected from the roof tops of houses and stored in a pressure tank on the ground and with the
help of PVC pipes, water is lowered below sea level (16-24 feet). The water is retained in the
underground water column which is then harvested during summer by a simple piston pump or
motor by constructing a tube well in the vicinity. It has proved successful in diluting recharging
ground water in coastal areas of Kerela and Antoji has installed 150 tanks in different parts of
Kerala.
Water Wheel
This innovation comes from a foreign visitor who was inspired by women from villages of
Rajasthan, who carried round earthen matkas on their heads for long distances in hot weather.
This invention has made carrying water not only an effortless but fun activity. It is a round wheel
shaped storage tanker with an attached handle on top to provide painless mobility. It has already
become popular in villages of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Designed to reduce the
drudgery and save time of working women, water wheel can store upto 10 to 50 litres of water in
hygienic conditions. It’s designed for lasting on rough terrains and made from high quality
plastic. It’s affordable too costing around 2000 rupees. It was innovated by a US based social
entrepreneur, Cynthia Koeing under an organisation called Wello.

Water Induced Disease:

Various disorders can be related to water quality problems. Deterioration in water quality will
affect the entire aquarium population, resulting in rapid fish mortalities.
Water quality problems are still the major cause of death of fish in aquariums. Various categories
of common toxic conditions will be discussed below in relation to water quality deterioration in
the aquarium.
Nitrogen Compounds:
Ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate formed during the process of nitrification can all have serious
consequences for the health of fish.
As ammonia, nitrates, nitrites accumulate in the bloodstream and in the tissues:
Affected organisms are unable to transport oxygen properly.
ii. Decrease the normal uptake of oxygen
Fish affected by ammonia poisoning will appear listless, will show an increased respiration rate,
and can develop other opportunistic bacterial infections. An ammonia test must be performed if
any of these signs are observed in the aquarium.
In the event of abnormal concentrations, you should make an immediate water change to reduce
the ammonia concentration. If the source is overcrowding, you should move some of the fish to
another holding aquarium.
Although nitrite is less toxic than ammonia, fish can still be harmed by the accumulation of this
toxin. Sensitive fish such as butterfly fish will not tolerate nitrite.
Nitrate ions present in the water are harmful to human health. From nitrogen fertilizers, nitrate
ions seep into water bodies from where these may bio-accumulate in the bodies of the
consumers. In the stomach nitrate is reduced to nitrite and is responsible for blue baby syndrome
and stomach cancer.
Chlorine and Chloramines:
All municipal water supplies are treated either with chlorine or chloramines to purify the water
for human consumption. Chlorine has been the most widely used for water purification, but in
recent years chlorination has been replacing chlorination.
Detoxifying tap water to destroy chlorine has been easily accomplished by simply adding a
chlorine remover or multipurpose water conditioners. When these are added, chlorine is
destroyed and the water can be used safely for the aquarium.
However, the situation is more complicated when municipal water is treated with chloramine.
Both chlorine and chloramine are toxic to fish, but chloramines differ in many respects from
chlorine. Chloramines can be thought of as a combination of ammonia and chlorine.
Chemically, they are very stable in water. In addition, they pass readily through the gills of fish,
compared with chlorine, which does not easily enter the bloodstream. When a water conditioner
is added to water containing chloramines, the chloramine is destroyed, but what is left is
ammonia, also toxic to fish.
Fish affected with chloramine poisoning will show abnormal swimming behaviour. They tend to
remain motionless or rock in a side-to-side motion. Some fish will also rest on the bottom of the
aquarium and cease feeding. Death from chloramine or chlorine toxicity is rapid. To avoid
poisoning by either chlorine or chloramine, always use a water conditioner to prepare the water
for use.
Generally activated carbon & ammonia removing chemicals are used to overcome this problem.
Heavy Metals
Copper, lead, aluminium and others are very toxic to fish. Heavy metals can be introduced to the
aquarium by the use of contaminated water, the introduction of decorative items that contain
heavy metals, or the addition of chemicals.
Municipal water supplies can also be a source of copper (some municipalities add copper to their
reservoirs to control the growth of algae). Copper and other metals can also be introduced when
water is passed through metal piping or stored in galvanized buckets.
Fish affected by heavy metal poisoning generally show similar signs of poisoning with other
toxins in the water. The fish will become lethargic, develop increased respiration, cease eating,
and die rapidly. In order to prevent metal poisoning of aquarium fish, always use water
conditioners that contain special chemicals to render heavy metals non-toxic
Pesticides
A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying,
repelling or mitigating any pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such
as a virus or bacterium), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include
insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and
microbes that destroy property
A pesticide poisoning occurs when chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target
organisms such as humans, wildlife, or bees. Pesticide use raises a number of environmental
concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than
their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.
Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to
other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution,
and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.
In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation, contributes to decline,
destroys habitat (especially for birds), and threatens endangered species.
Waterborne diseases
Waterborne diseases are caused by a variety of microorganisms, biotoxins, and toxic
contaminants, which lead to devastating illnesses such as cholera, schistosomiasis and other
gastrointestinal problems. Outbreaks of waterborne diseases often occur after a severe
precipitation event (rainfall, snowfall). Because climate change increases the severity and
frequency of some major precipitation events, communities—especially in the developing
world—could be faced with elevated disease burden from waterborne diseases. In addition,
diseases caused by Vibrio bacteria such as cholera and other intestinal diseases may pose a
greater threat due to the effect that rising sea temperatures will have on the growth and spread of
bacteria. Climate change is likely to increase diarrheal disease incidence worldwide, and extreme
weather conditions may also complicate already-inadequate prevention efforts. Although the
United States has prevention and treatment strategies for waterborne diseases, surveillance is still
spotty, diagnoses are not uniform, and understanding of the impact of climate change on these
diseases is not well established.
Health Impacts
Droughts can cause increased concentrations of effluent pathogens, overwhelming water
treatment plants and contaminating surface water. Older water treatment plants are particularly
at risk.
Changes in ocean and coastal ecosystems, including changes in pH, nutrient and contaminant
runoff, salinity, and water security, that can cause degradation of fresh water, particularly in areas
where much of the population uses untreated surface water for daily consumption and activities.
Increased frequency of intense extreme weather events can cause flooding of water and sewage
treatment facilities, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.
Indirectly, the lack of water can cause pressure on agricultural productivity, crop failure,
malnutrition, starvation, population displacement, and resource conflict.
Changes can occur in the distribution and concentrations of chemical contaminants in coastal and
ocean waters through the release of contaminants previously locked in polar ice sheets, or in
runoff from coastal and watershed development.
Mitigation and Adaptation
Carbon sequestration,
Water reuse and recycling
Protecting wetlands to reduce damage to water quality from severe storms
Increasing green space and decreasing paved surfaces in urban areas to reduce runoff, slow the
rate of water table depletion, and reduce the impact of extreme precipitation events
Increasing the use of air conditioning is associated with an increased demand in electricity,
which can impact water availability and regional water ecology.
Changing weather patterns and decreased food availability in the developing world can lead to
increased desertification, and increase the need for above-ground irrigation. Such projects, if
done in areas where waterborne parasitic diseases are present, can change the regional transport
of the parasite and impact human exposure to disease.
Research Needs
Evaluating and monitoring exposures and health risks of chemical contaminants likely to be
increasingly released and mobilized due to climate change
Improving understanding of harmful algal blooms including their initiation, development, and
termination, as well as the exact nature of the toxins associated with them
Understanding how toxins, pathogens, and chemicals in land-based runoff and water overflow
interact synergistically and with marine species, especially those important for human
consumption, and the potential health risks of changing water quality

Ground Water Quality Scenario in India

Indian Sub- Continent is endowed with diverse geological formations from oldest Achaeans to
Recent alluviums and characterized by varying climatic conditions in different parts of the
country. The natural chemical content of ground water is influenced by depth of the soils and
sub-surface geological formations through which ground water remains in contact. In general,
greater part of the country, ground water is of good quality and suitable for drinking, agricultural
or industrial purposes. Ground water in shallow aquifers is generally suitable for use for different
purposes and is mainly of Calcium Bicarbonate and Mixed type. However, other types of water
are also available including Sodium-Chloride water. The quality in deeper aquifers also varies
from place to place and is generally found suitable for common uses. There is salinity problem in
the coastal tracts.
Ground water in major parts of the country is potable. However some water quality issues are
reported from isolated pockets from various parts of the country. Higher level of the constituents
like Arsenic , Fluoride, Iron ,Salinity in ground water are due to the natural geological
phenomena. These are the geogenic contaminants found in ground water. Manmade activities
like mining activity, disposal of industrial wastes and untreated domestic wastes are responsible
for contamination like nitrate and heavy metal.
Fluoride in ground water
As per BIS, the maximum permissible limit for F in drinking water is 1.5 mg/l.Main source of
fluoride in groundwater is considered to be fluoride-bearing minerals such as fluorspar (CaF2),
fluorapatite [Ca5(PO4)3F], cryolite, and hydroxyapatite in rocks. Some anthropogenic activities
such as use of fertilizers, pesticides and sewage and sludge etc. for agriculture have also been
indicated to cause an increase in fluoride concentration in ground water.
Fluoride if consumed in excess of 1.5 mg/L over long periods of time produces severe effects on
human health, such as dental and skeletal fluorosis (crippling bond), osteoporosis, hip fracture,
arthritis, mental retardation etc .Fluoride above permissible limit in ground water has been
reported from parts of 20 States (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat,
Haryana, Jharkhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
Arsenic in ground water
As per the recommendations of the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS:10500,2012), the permissible
limit of Arsenic in drinking water is 0.01mg/l with no relaxation.
Chronic exposure to drinking water having arsenic contamination beyond permissible limit may
cause several skin problems including arsenicosescharacterised by dark spots on body and limbs,
thickening of palms and soles etc, Bowen’s disease ,non healing ulcers etc.
Elevated levels (>0.05 mg/l) of Arsenic in ground water was reported from parts of 10 States of
West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka
& Manipur .
A recent survey by CGWB has has shown Arsenic concentration in excess of 0.01 mg/l from
patches from additional 11 States. In these areas arsenic occurrence is reported from only limited
samples and resampling is envisaged.
Salinity in ground water
Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt contents of a water body. It is mostly influenced by
aquifer material, solubility of minerals, duration of contact and factors such as permeability of
soil, drainage facilities, quantity of rainfall and above all, the climate of the area. The salinity of
ground water in coastal areas may be due to air borne salts originating from air water interface
over the sea and also due to over pumping of fresh water which overlays saline water in coastal
aquifer systems.
Problem of salinity (EC>3000 micro siemens/cm) has been observed in 15 states (Andhra
Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharsahtra, Odisha,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.)
High concentration i.e. (above BIS norm of 45 mg/l) of nitrate in ground water has been
observed in 21 states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana , Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, U.P, Uttarakhand, West Bengal.
Iron in ground water
High concentration of Iron above the BIS permissible limit of 1mg/l in ground water has been
observed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa,
Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, U.P, West
Bengal & Andaman & Nicobar.
Advanced Waste Water Treatment Methods
The effluent from a typical secondary treatment plant still contains 20-40 mg/L BOD which may
be objectionable in some streams. Suspended solids, in addition to contributing to BOD, may
settle on the stream bed and inhibit certain forms of aquatic life.
The BOD if discharged into a stream with low flow, can cause damage to aquatic life by
reducing the dissolved oxygen content. In addition the secondary effluent contains significant
amounts of plant nutrients and dissolved solids. If the waste water is of industrial origin, it may
also contain traces of organic chemicals, heavy metals and other contaminants.
Different methods are used in advanced waste treatment to satisfy any of the several specific
goals, which include the removal of
1. Suspended Solids
2. BOD
3.Plant nutrients
4. Dissolved solids
5. Toxic substances
These methods may be introduced at any stage of the total treatment process as in the case of
industrial waterways or may be used for complete removal of pollutants after secondary
treatment.
1. Removal of suspended solids:
This treatment implies the removal of those materials that have been carried over from a
secondary treatment settler. Many methods were proposed of which two methods were
commonly used.
The two methods are micro staining and chemical coagulation followed by settling and
mixed media filtration:
Micro staining:
It is a special type of filtration process which makes use of filters oven from stainless steel wires
with very fine pores of 60-70 microns size. This filter helps to remove very fine particles. High
flow rates and low back pressures are achieved
Coagulation and flocculation:
The object of coagulation is to alter these particles in such a way as to allow them to adhere to
each other. Most colloids of interest in water treatment remain suspended in solution
because they have a net negative surface charge that causes the particles to repel each other. The
intended action of the coagulant is to neutralize that charge, allowing the particles to come
together to form larger particles that can be more easily removed from the raw water.
The usual coagulant is alum [AI2(S04)2‘ 18H20], though FeCI3, FeS04 and other coagulants,
such as polyelectrolytes, can be used. Alum when added to water, the aluminium in this salt
hydrolyses by reactions that consume alkalinity in the water such as:
Al (HO)6] + 3 3HC03 — AI(OH)3(s) + 3Co2 + 6H2o …………………….. (1)
The gelatinous hydroxide thus formed carries suspended material with it as it settles. Metal ions
in coagulants also react with virus proteins and destroy upto 99% of the virus in water.
Anhydrous ion (III) sulphate can also act as effective coagulant similar to aluminium sulfate. An
advantage with iron (III) sulfate it that it works over a wide range of pH.
Filtration:
If properly formed, the addition of chemicals for promoting coagulation and flocculation can
remove both suspended and colloidal solids. After the floes are formed, the solution is led to a
settling tank where the floes are allowed to settle.
While most of the flocculated material is removed in the settling tank, some floe do not settle.
These floes are removed by the filtration process, which is usually carried out using beds of
porous media such as sand or coal. The current trend is to use a mixed – media filter which
consists of fine garnet in the bottom layer, silica sand in the middle layer and coarse coal in the
top layer which reduces clogging.
Ultra Filtration:
a. Selectively filters only molecules of a specified size and weight.
b. Removes e.g. various viruses.
c. Used for sterilization, clarification, wastewater treatment.
d. Membrane size 1 _ – 0.01 µm. is used
This is a dynamic filtering process with a predominance of physical (mechanical) phenomena in
which chemical phenomena are also involved. The membranes used, polymeric or mineral, allow
dissolved salts to pass while they reject high molecular weights selectively.
The selectivity depends on the membrane structure and is defined as the cut-off of molecular
weight, which the membrane can separate with an efficiency of 90 % (although this definition
may not be rigorous depending on the molecular shape)
Commercial membranes applied in ultra filtering can separate substances with a molecular
weight between 1.000 and 10.000. Ultra filtering systems generally work in a pressure range
between 1.5 and 7 bar With industrial discharge waters the fluxes of permeate generally fluctuate
between 0.5 and 1 – 5 m3 / h / m2 surface, depending on the concentration of the substances to
be separated, with energy consumptions varying between 2 and 20 KWh per m3 of permeate.
The single pass ultra filtering process is the simplest and most commonly used process for water
treatment because it allows the recovery of high percentages of permeate (approximately 90-95
%).
There has been a relatively recent application of this technique in the metal finishing sector for
the recovery of degreasing baths (the first cleaning bath in metal-finishing processes, for pieces
which are still dirty with lubricating substances).
The solution to be treated is passed through the membrane at a certain speed and under
hydrostatic pressure, obtaining a concentrated fraction of oils and grease for disposal, while the
filtrate is recovered and reused to prepare new baths.
Nano Filteration:
The nano filtration technique is mainly used for the removal of two valued ions and the larger
mono valued ions such as heavy metals. This technique can be seen as a coarse RO (reversed
osmosis) membrane. Because nano filtration uses less fine membranes, the feed pressure of the
NF system is generally lower compared to RO systems. Also the fouling rate is lower compared
to Ro systems.
2. Removal of Dissolved Solids:
The dissolved solids are of both organic and inorganic types. A number of methods have been
investigated for the removal of inorganic constituents from waste water.
Three methods which are finding wide application in advanced waste treatment are
ion-exchange, electro dialysis and reverse osmosis. For the removal of soluble organics from
waste water the most commonly used method is adsorption on activated carbon. Solvent
extraction is also used to recover certain organic chemicals like phenol an d amines from
industrial waste waters.
Ion exchange:
This technique has been used extensively to remove hardness, and iron and manganese salts in
drinking water supplies. It has also been used selectively to remove specific impurities and to
recover valuable trace metals like chromium, nickel, copper, lead and cadmium from industrial
waste discharges. The process takes advantage of the ability of certain natural and synthetic
materials to exchange one of their ions.
A number of naturally occurring minerals have ion exchange properties. Among them the
notable ones are aluminium silicate minerals, which are called zeolites. Synthetic zeolites have
been prepared using solutions of sodium silicate and sodium aluminate.
Alternatively synthetic ion-exchange resins composed of organic polymer with attached
functional groups such as (strongly acidic cation exchange resins), or – COO – 3 -SO H+~
H+ (weakly acidic cation exchange resins or -N+(CH3)3OH~ (strongly basic anion exchange
resins) can be used.
In the water softening process, the hardness producing elements such as calcium and magnesium
are replaced by sodium ions. A cation exchange resin in sodium form is normally used. The
water-softening capability of cation exchange can be seen when sodium ion in the resin is
exchanged for calcium ion in solution
Reverse osmosis:
In the reverse osmosis process, de-mineralization water is produced by forcing water through
semi permeable membranes at high pressure. In ordinary osmosis, if a vessel is divided by a semi
permeable membrane (one that is permeable to water but not the dissolved material), and one
compartment is filled with water and other with concentrated salt solution, water diffused
through the membrane towards the compartment containing salt solution until the difference in
water levels on the two sides of the membrane creates a sufficient pressure to counteract the
original water flow. The difference in levels represents the osmotic pressure of the solution.

Industrial effluent treatment, using reverse osmosis, can be applied in the following main
sectors:
a. Treatment of outflows containing colorings with their possible recovery.
b. Treatment of outflows containing oily emulsions, latex and electro phoretic paints.
c. Treatment of outflows from the metal-finishing industry with recovery of concentrated
solutions of metal salts and reuse of the water in cleaning
d. Treatment of waste water from organic chemical, in organic chemical and pharmaceutical
industries
The application of reverse osmosis for wastewater treatment is significantly different from
general process water purification. This is primarily due to the fact that wastewater generally
contains higher levels and a more diverse range of contaminants. In addition, industrial
wastewaters have a high degree of variability. Wastewaters vary from industry to industry and
can change with hour to hour operation at any individual plant.
The most important factor in treating industrial wastewater with RO is the against organic
fouling, mineral scaling and chemical degradation. Before RO should even be considered, a
complete cation/anion balance is required and possible flocculants must be identified.
Potential inorganic foul-ants and sealants of RO membranes include calcium, iron, aluminium,
and other insoluble heavy metals. Possible organic foulants include surfactants, color bodies,
flocculants, and bacteria. High BOD and COD levels can also contribute to membrane fouling.
A wide range of pretreatment technologies is available. Specifically in the metal finishing,
printed circuit board and microelectronics industries, rinse-waters from fabrication operations are
normally treated to remove heavy metals and are then discharged to the sewer.
The effluent discharged to the sewer typically contains between 200 to 10,000 parts per million
(ppm) total dissolved solids (TDS). With the proper pretreatment technology followed by RO,
this effluent can be treated and recycled. Ion exchange treatment of the RO product water can
further polish the water and make it suitable for all rinses.
To design a successful and cost-effective system, it is necessary to evaluates each individual
application because the pH, oxidizing potential and concentration of soluble salts of the
wastewater effluents often exceed the operating limits of RO systems. After the detailed
evaluation of the wastewater is complete, one need to determine the optimum preconditioning
chemistry and selects the best pretreatment technology for the application.
Reverse Osmosis process generates high TDS waste stream reject. Approximately 25-40% of
waste reject with high TDS concentration will be generated from feed water. This waste needs to
be evaporated in forced evaporation systems to concentrate and remove the in organic impurities
from it.
3. Thermal Evaporation:
Evaporation can take the form of vacuum distillation, atmospheric evaporation, and thermal
evaporation. Vacuum distillation is accomplished by drawing a vacuum on a chamber and
evaporating water at reduced temperatures, typically in the range of 90-150 degrees Fahrenheit.
This technology is characterized by low energy cost, moderate to high manpower requirements,
and very high capital cost.
Atmospheric evaporation involves spraying the wastewater across a high surface area medium
and blowing large volumes of air across the medium. This type of evaporation is characterized
by moderate energy cost, moderate capital cost, high manpower requirements due to the
tendency for fouling and reduced throughputs caused by changes in atmospheric conditions.
Thermal evaporation/distillation is accomplished by heating the wastewater to a boiling
temperature and evaporating the waste stream at various rates based on the amount of energy
(BTU’s) input into the system. This type of evaporation is characterized by moderate to high
energy cost, low manpower requirements, moderate capital cost, high flexibility and high
reliability. This system has the ability to exhaust water as clean water vapor or recover water as
distilled water.
The advantages of Thermal Evaporation over Chemical Treatment are as follows:
Zero Discharge:
Evaporation completely eliminates your discharge effluent. This eliminates accountability to
your pollution control Board as well as the hassle and expense associated with potential
discharge violations.
Total Solution:
Chemical treatment does not completely address parameters such as emulsified oils, Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), or dissolved solids in the
discharge wastewater. This becomes more important each year as Pollution control discharge
limits become increasingly strict
Lower Disposal Cost:
Due to the addition of chemistry, the sludge volume being generated will be greater for chemical
treatment compared to evaporation which typically does not require the addition of chemistry.
This translates to lower disposal liability and cost for evaporation.
4. Removal of Dissolved Organic Compounds:
One of the most commonly used techniques for removing organics involves the process of
adsorption, which is the physical adhesion of chemicals on to the surface of the solid. The
effectiveness of the adsorbent is directly related to the amount of surface area available to attract
the particles of contaminant.
The most commonly used adsorbent is a very porous matrix of granular activated carbon, which
has an enormous surface area (~ 1000 m2/g). Adsorption on activated carbon is perhaps the most
economical and technically attractive method available for removing soluble organics such as
phenols, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surfactants, and colour and odour producing substances from
waste water.
Granular activated carbon treatment systems consist of a series of large vessels partially filled
with adsorbent. Contaminated water enters the top of each vessel, trickles down through
granulated activated carbon, and is released at the bottom.
After a period of time, the carbon filter becomes clogged with adsorbed contaminants and must
be either replaced or regenerated. Regeneration of the carbon is accomplished by heating it to
950 °C in a steam air atmosphere. This process oxidises surface, with an approximately 10% loss
of carbon (Table 9.3).