I.

Introduction
Definition of language acquisition
Info: Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to
perceive and comprehend language (in other words, gain the ability to be aware of
language and to understand it), as well as to produce and use words and sentences to
communicate. (Though children may be the focus, teens and adults are not exempt
from learning a language through language acquisition.)

II. Stages of Language Acquisition

- A. Prelinguistic Stage
Info: The child is in a pre-speech stage during the first year of life. Developmental
aspects related to speech include the development of gestures, making adequate eye
contact, sound repartee between infant and caregiver, cooing, babbling, and crying.
Examples of such sounds would be dadadada, mamamama and waaaah.
1. Cooing and babbling
Info: By 12 weeks, most infants produce vowel-like sounds called cooing. By 20 weeks,
vocalizations begin to include more consonant sounds, a stage termed babbling.
2. Joint attention and gestures
Info: Joint attention is the act of a person sharing attention with another person towards
a given object or event, and there is understanding between the two people that they
are both interested in the same object or event. In order for an individual to demonstrate
joint attention, he/she must be able to gain, maintain, and shift their attention. While
engaged in joint attention, an individual is able to (non-verbally) communicate to another
by using their eyes and looking at an object, and back at the other person. This shared
moment not only allows for individuals to communicate, but also fosters development of
social skills.

- B. One-Word Stage
1. Holophrases(?) and first words
2. Vocabulary spurt
Info: Holophrase or one-word sentence
The child usually reaches this phase between 10 and 13 months. Although the child
tends to utter a single word at a time, its meaning is supplemented by the context in
which it takes place and nonverbal cues. An example would be a child leaning over the
edge of his cot and pointing to his bottle while saying “botty”. An adult could interpret the
child’s holophrase as meaning, “Give me my bottle immediately.” Another example
would be just saying “Dada,” which could mean “Dad, please come over here.”
- C. Two-Word Stage
Info:Two-word sentence
By 18 months, the child reaches this stage. Their “sentences” now usually comprise a
noun or a verb plus a modifier. This enables the child to formulate a sentence that may
be either declarative, negative, imperative, or interrogative. Examples of such
“sentences” are:

“Doggy big” (declarative)

“Where ball” (interrogative)
“Not egg” (negative)
“More sugar!” (imperative)

1. Telegraphic speech
2. Grammatical development
Info: Telegraphic speech is seen developmentally when a child moves beyond the
two-word, relational stage of language development and begins to express longer,
three-word sentences using a finite set of grammatical categories, such as nouns,
verbs, and adjectives.

- D. Later Stages
1. Language expansion and complexity
2. Pragmatic skills and discourse
Info: The later multiword stage is the last stage a child will go through before achieving
native proficiency in their language. It usually starts at the age of 30 months.
At this stage, children are no longer limited to just content words. Children have now
learned to include articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. They also tend to use proper
grammar more often and can easily form more complex sentences. For example, a child
might say, 'I want to go to the park with my friends,' instead of 'I go park with friends.'

III. Some Theories of Language Acquisition

- A. Behaviorist Theory
Info: B F Skinner was a psychologist who specialised in behaviour in language theory.
He was credited with popularizing the idea of 'radical behaviourism', which took the
ideas of behaviourism further by suggesting that our idea of 'free will' is entirely
determined by situational factors.The behaviourist theory suggests that language is
learned from the environment and through conditioning.
- Skinner's operant conditioning
Info: What is operant conditioning? Operant conditioning is the idea that actions are
reinforced. There are two types of reinforcement that are vital to this theory: positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In Skinner's theory, children alter their use of
language in response to this reinforcement.
For example, a child may correctly ask for food, (eg. saying something like 'mama,
dinner'). They then receive positive reinforcement by receiving the food they'd asked for,
or being told they're clever by their caregiver. Alternatively, if a child uses language
incorrectly, they may simply be ignored, or may be corrected by the caregiver, which
would be negative reinforcement.

- B. Nativist Theory
- Chomsky's Universal Grammar hypothesis
- Innate language acquisition mechanisms
Info: The nativist theory of language is one hypothesis about the way language
develops in humans. According to the nativist theory, language is an innate capacity,
and human beings are born with a set of language rules. This set of language rules is
known as the universal grammar. Furthermore, “universal grammar” is the set of
foundational statutes upon which human languages are formed. The nativist theory
proposes that instead of memorizing a series of phrases and maxims, children
understand language structures and rules that they use to create their own word
sequences. Children do not just imitate language they have learned, but they extend
this knowledge to create new, unique sentences.

- C. Cognitive Theory
- Piaget's cognitive development theory
- Role of cognition in language acquisition
Info: What is cognitive theory? The cognitive theory of language acquisition was first
proposed by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget in the 1930s. Piaget believed that
language learning is closely linked to the maturation and development of the human
brain. He stated that exposure to the world allows a child's mind to develop, in turn,
allowing language to develop. The main principle of cognitive theory is the idea that
children are born with a limited cognitive ability that must develop over time. As the
baby grows into a toddler, then a child, then a teenager, their cognitive ability also
increases due to their life experiences. Cognitive theorists believe that with the
development of cognitive ability comes the development of language.

- D. Social Interactionist Theory

- Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective
- Importance of social interactions and language development
Info:
The social interactionist theory highlights the importance of social interaction between
children and knowledgeable adults in language development. It draws on the
socio-cultural theories of Lev Vygotsky and gained prominence through the work of
Jerome Bruner. Unlike other approaches, it emphasizes feedback and reinforcement in
language acquisition, emphasizing the role of modeling and interaction with parents and
adults who provide instructive correction. The theory differs from behaviorist accounts
by proposing the existence of social-cognitive models and mental structures within
children. Another key concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to
tasks a child can perform with guidance but not independently, including linguistic tasks
that children can learn with assistance from capable adults.

IV. Factors Influencing Language Acquisition

- A. Biological Factors
1. Language acquisition device (LAD)
Info: A Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical tool in the brain proposed
by linguist Noam Chomsky that allows human beings to learn a language. According to
Chomsky, the LAD is an inherent aspect of the human brain that is preprogrammed with
specific grammatical structures common to all languages. It's this device, Chomsky
argued, that explains why children are able to learn a language so quickly and with little
formal instruction.
2. Critical period hypothesis
Info: The critical period hypothesis for language development suggests that in order to
learn a language fluently, people must start learning it before the age of nine. This
theory is still being debated in language acquisition research circles.

- B. Environmental Factors
1. Parental input and language exposure
Info: This factor emphasizes the role of parents or caregivers in providing language
input and creating a language-rich environment for the child. The quantity and quality of
language exposure from parents or caregivers play a crucial role in a child's language
development.
2. Socioeconomic status and language development
Info: Socioeconomic status refers to the social and economic standing of an individual
or family. Research suggests that children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds
often have more access to resources, educational opportunities, and language-rich
environments, which can positively influence their language development.

- C. Individual Differences
1. Learning styles and aptitudes
Info: Learning styles refer to the preferred ways individuals process and retain
information. Some individuals may be visual learners, while others may prefer auditory
or kinesthetic learning. Aptitudes, on the other hand, relate to an individual's innate
abilities or talents in specific areas. Different learning styles and aptitudes can impact
how individuals acquire and process language.
2. Language disorders and delays
Info: Language disorders or delays can affect the typical acquisition and development
of language skills. These conditions can manifest as difficulties in understanding or
using language, which may be caused by neurological, genetic, or environmental
factors. Language disorders and delays require specialized interventions and support to
help individuals overcome or manage these challenges.

V. Importance and relevance of studying language acquisition

Info:
Understanding human cognition: Language acquisition provides insights into how the
mind learns, processes, and expresses language, deepening our understanding of
cognition.
Enhancing education: Knowledge of language acquisition informs teaching methods,
curriculum development, and instructional strategies, promoting effective language
learning.
Facilitating communication and social interaction: Studying language acquisition helps
us understand how individuals develop communication skills, improving practices
across domains.
Supporting language learning: Language acquisition research informs effective
language teaching methods, benefiting both children and adults learning a new
language.
Cultural understanding: Investigating language acquisition enhances comprehension of
the relationship between language and culture, promoting intercultural understanding.

VI. Language Acquisition and Education

- A. Impact of language acquisition on education
- B. Strategies for supporting language development in classrooms
- C. Multilingualism and cultural diversity in educational settings
Info:
A. Impact of language acquisition on education:
Language acquisition's impact on education includes how gaining language skills
influences education. It affects achievement, cognition, and social integration.
Proficiency in language acquisition is vital for effective communication in education.

B. Strategies for supporting language development in classrooms:

Strategies for language development in classrooms: create a language-rich
environment, authentic language experiences, collaborative activities, and adapting
instruction for diverse needs. These enhance proficiency and overall educational
development.
C. Multilingualism and cultural diversity in educational settings:
Multilingualism and cultural diversity in education: diverse students in schools.
Recognizing richness within communities. Embracing diversity values all languages,
cultures, identities, creating inclusive environments fostering exchange, respect, and
learning. Cultivates belonging, cross-cultural understanding, enriches education for all.

VII. Second Language Acquisition

- A. Contrasting first and second language acquisition
- B. Theories and approaches to second language acquisition
- C. Factors influencing second language acquisition
Info:
A. Contrasting first and second language acquisition:
First language acquisition (FLA) and second language acquisition (SLA) differ in several
key aspects. FLA starts/occurs during childhood while SLA typically begins after the
acquisition of the first language, often during later childhood, adolescence, or adulthood.
FLA takes place in a natural linguistic environment through exposure and interaction
with caregivers, while SLA happens in various settings, such as educational programs
or through exposure to speakers of the second/additional language/s. FLA benefits from
a period of rapid cognitive development, while SLA relies on pre-existing cognitive
abilities. Additionally, FLA is not influenced by prior linguistic knowledge, while SLA can
be influenced by the learner's first language, either positively or negatively.

B. Theories and approaches to second language acquisition:

Theories and approaches to second language acquisition refer to specific theoretical
frameworks and instructional approaches used to explain and facilitate the learning of a
second language. Examples include behaviorist theories (such as the Audio-Lingual
Method), cognitive theories (such as the Input Processing Theory), sociocultural
theories (such as the Zone of Proximal Development), and interactionist theories (such
as the Negotiation of Meaning). These theories and approaches provide guidance on
how to design language instruction, assess language proficiency, and promote effective
additional language learning strategies that may be different from how we learn our first
language.

C. Factors influencing second language acquisition:

Factors influencing second language acquisition are specific elements that have an
impact on the process of acquiring a second language in particular contexts. These
factors can include age of acquisition, language input and exposure, learner motivation,
individual differences in cognitive abilities, first language influence, sociocultural factors,
language learning strategies, and educational support.
VIII. Practical Applications
- A. Language acquisition and language teaching methodologies
- B. Language assessment and intervention strategies
- C. Implications for speech and language therapy
Info:
A. Language acquisition and language teaching methodologies:
Language acquisition research informs language teaching methodologies by guiding
educators in effective approaches for second language acquisition. It helps design
instructional materials, activities, and assessments that promote language development.
Understanding how learners acquire language assists in providing optimal language
learning experiences.

B. Language assessment and intervention strategies:

Language acquisition research is crucial for developing language assessment tools and
intervention strategies. It helps professionals evaluate language proficiency, identify
difficulties, and design targeted interventions. Research insights into language
development enable accurate diagnosis, monitoring of language disorders, and effective
intervention techniques to improve communication skills.

C. Implications for speech and language therapy:

Language acquisition research informs speech and language therapy by guiding
therapists in understanding language acquisition processes. It aids in diagnosing and
treating language disorders, and tailoring sessions to address specific difficulties.
Research informs about therapy targets, techniques, and strategies to promote
language learning and communication skills for individuals with speech and language
disorders. It establishes realistic goals and expectations based on an understanding of
language acquisition.

IX. Importance of ongoing research in language acquisition

Info: Ongoing research in language acquisition is of utmost importance for several
reasons. It helps us deepen our understanding of how individuals learn and process
language. It informs and improves educational practices, curriculum development, and
instructional strategies, enabling teachers to tailor their teaching methods to promote
effective language learning. Ongoing research also aids in the identification and
understanding of language disorders and developmental delays, allowing for early
interventions and support. Lastly, it contributes to the advancement of linguistic theory,
leading to a better comprehension of the principles and structures of language.

X. Conclusion
- Summary-ish
Info: In conclusion, language acquisition is a complex and dynamic process that allows
individuals to perceive, comprehend, and effectively communicate using language. It
begins in an individual’s childhood with the prelinguistic stage with the development of
gestures and vocalizations, and progresses through stages of increasing linguistic
complexity. Children transition from using holophrases to forming two-word sentences,
and eventually achieve native proficiency with expanded vocabulary, grammatical
structures, and pragmatic skills.
Language acquisition is not limited to childhood; individuals of all ages can engage in
language learning and acquisition.
Understanding the stages and processes of language acquisition can inform effective
language education and support communication development across diverse
populations.

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I’m just putting these here so I can read it when I have time:
- Cooing and babbling:
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/cooing#:~:text=By%2012%20w
eeks%2C%20most%20infants,sounds%2C%20a%20stage%20termed%20babbli
ng.
- https://www.healthline.com/health/baby/language-milestones-0-to-12-months
- https://www.healthline.com/health/baby/babbling
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4258841/#:~:text=not%20universally%20
supported.-,Joint%20attention%20%E2%80%93%20parents'%20and%20children's%20c
oordinated%20attention%20to%20each%20other,role%20in%20early%20word%20learn
ing. (Joint attention)
-