9/25/2023

4.1 : Introduction to Angle Modulation

 2 forms of angle modulation :
 Frequency modulation (FM)

 Phase modulation (PM)

 Several advantages over AM – noise reduction, improved system

fidelity and more efficient use of power
 Several disadvantages over AM – wider bandwidth requirement,
utilization of more complex circuits.
 used extensively for commercial radio broadcasting, television
sound transmission, cellular radio, microwave and satellite
communications systems

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Introduction to Angle Modulation

 angle modulation results whenever the phase angle, θ of a sinusoidal wave is
varied with respect to time and can be expressed as

m ( t )  V c cos  c t   ( t )  (1)
where m(t) = angle-modulated wave
Vc = peak carrier amplitude
ωc = carrier radian frequency
θ(t) = instantaneous phase deviation

where θ(t) is a function of the modulating signal given by

 ( t )  F V m sin(  m t )  (2)

where ωc = modulating signal radian frequency

Vm = peak amplitude of the modulating signal
-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

1
 9/25/2023

Introduction to Angle Modulation

 FM results when the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by
the modulating signal
 PM results when the phase of the carrier is varied directly by the
modulating signal

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation Representation in Frequency and

Time Domain
 An angle modulated signal in
the frequency domain :

 the carrier frequency, fc is

changed when acted on by
the modulating signal.
 the magnitude and
direction of the frequency
deviation, Δf is
proportional to the
amplitude and polarity of
the modulating signal.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

2
 9/25/2023

Angle Modulation Representation in Frequency and

Time Domain
 An angle modulated signal in the
time domain :
 the phase of the carrier is changing
proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 the phase shift is called phase
deviation Δθ. This shift is also
produces a corresponding change
in the frequency, known as
frequency deviation Δf.
 peak-to-peak frequency deviation
is determine by (as shown in figure
(b)),
1 1 (3)
fp  p  
T min T max

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Mathematical Analysis
 To differentiate between FM and PM, the following terms need to be defined :
 1. Instantaneous Phase Deviation
 the instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier at a given instant of time.
Instantaneous phase deviation = θ(t) rad (4)
 2. Instantaneous phase
 the precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time.
Instantaneous phase = ωct + θ(t) rad (5)
 3. Instantaneous frequency deviation
 the instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the
first time derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation.
Instantaneous frequency deviation = θ’(t) rad/s (6)
 4. Instantaneous frequency
 the precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time and is defined as
the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase.
Instantaneous frequency = ωi = ωc + θ’(t) rad/s (7)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

3
 9/25/2023

Mathematical Analysis
 from the previous 4 terms, PM and FM can be defined as :
 PM : an angle modulation in which θ(t) is proportional to the amplitude of

the modulating signal.

 FM : an angle modulation in which θ’(t) is proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 For a modulating signal vm(t),

θ(t) = Kvm(t) rad (8)

θ’(t) = K1vm(t) rad/s (9)

where K and K1 are constants and are the deviation sensitivities of the phase
and frequency modulators, respectively.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Mathematical Analysis
 substituting a modulating signal vm(t) = Vmcos(ωmt), equation (8) and (9) into
equation (1) yields
PM : m ( t )  V c cos  ct   ( t ) 
 V c cos  c t  KV m cos(  m t )  (10)

FM : as  ( t )    ' (t )

 
m ( t )  V c cos  c t    ' ( t )

 V cos  t  K  V cos(  t ) dt 
c c 1 m m

 K 1Vm 
 V c cos  ct  sin(  m t )  (11)
 m 

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4
 9/25/2023

4.2 : Mathematical Analysis

 Summarized table :

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation

 comparing equation (10) and (11), equation (1) can be rewritten in general
form as

m (t )  V c cos  ct  m cos(  m t )  (12)

where m is called the modulation index.

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation for PM

 for PM, the modulation index is also known as peak phase deviation Δθ, and is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is expressed as

m     KV m ( radians ) (13)
where m = modulation index
K = deviation sensitivity (radians/volt)
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (volt)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

5
 9/25/2023

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation for PM

 therefore, for PM :
m ( t )  V c cos  c t  KV m cos(  m t ) 
 V c cos  c t    cos(  m t ) 
 V c cos  c t  m cos(  m t )  (14)

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation for FM

 for FM, the modulation index is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal and inversely proportional to the frequency of the
modulating signal. K 1V m K 1V m
m   ( unitless ) (15)
m fm
where K1 = deviation sensitivities (radians/second per volt or cycles/second per vol
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (volt)
ωm = radian frequency (radians/second)
fm = cyclic frequency (cycles/second or hertz)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation for FM

 also for FM, the peak frequency deviation Δf is simply the product of the
deviation sensitivity and the peak modulating signal voltage. I.e.
f
 f  K 1V m  m  (unitless ) (16)
fm
 therefore, for FM, equation (11) can be rewritten as
 K 1V m 
m ( t )  V c cos  c t  sin( w m t ) 
 fm 
 f 
 V c cos  ct  sin( w m t ) 
 fm 
 V c cos  ct  m sin( w m t )  (17)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

6
 9/25/2023

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation for FM

 Summarized :

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.4.3 : Percent Modulation

 percent modulation for angle modulation is determined in different manner
than for amplitude modulation.
 with angle modulation, percent modulation is the ratio of frequency deviation
actually produced to the maximum frequency deviation allowed, stated in
percent form
f ( actual )
Percent modulation  100% (18)
f (max)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

7
 9/25/2023

Bessel Function

 from equation (12), the angle-modulated wave is expressed as

m ( t )  V c cos  c t  m cos(  m t ) 
 based on the above equation, the individual frequency components of the
angle-modulated wave is not obvious.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Bessel Function
 Bessel function identities can be used to determine the side frequencies
components

n
cos(   m cos  )  
n  
J n ( m ) cos(   n  
2
) (19)

where Jn(m) is the Bessel function of the first kind.

 applying equation (19) to equation (12) yields,

n
m ( t )  Vc 
n  
J n ( m ) cos(  ct  n  m t 
2
) (20)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

8
 9/25/2023

4.5.1 : Bessel Function

 expanding (20),
   
m ( t )  V c  J 0 ( m ) cos(  c t )  J 1( m ) cos  (  c   m ) t  
  2
  
 J 1 ( m ) cos  (  c   m ) t    J 2 ( m ) cos (  c  2  m ) t 
 2
  Jn ( m )  
where m(t) = angle modulated wave
m = modulation index
Vc = peak carrier ampitude
J0(m) = carrier component
J1(m) = first set of side frequencies displaced from carrier by ωm
J2(m) = second set of side frequencies displaced from carrier by 2ωm
Jn(m) = nth set of side frequencies displaced from carrier by n ωm

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.5.1 : Bessel Function

 in other words, angle modulation produces infinite number of sidebands,
called as first-order sidebands, second-order sidebands, and so on. Also their
magnitude are determined by the coefficients J1(m), J2(m),...Jn(m).
 Bessel function of the first kind for several values of modulation index.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

9
 9/25/2023

Bessel Function
 Curves for the relative amplitudes of the carrier and several sets of side
frequencies for values of m up to 10.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Bessel Function
 Conclusion from the table & graph :
 modulation index m of 0 produces zero side frequencies.

 the larger the m, the more sets of side frequencies are produced.

 values shown for Jn are relative to the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier.

 as the m increases from 0, the magnitude of the carrier J0(m) decreases.

 the negative values for Jn simply indicate the relative phase of that side
frequency set
 a side frequency is not considered significant unless its amplitude is equal

or greater that 1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude (Jn ≥ 0.01).

 as m increases, the number of significant side frequencies increases. I.e. the
bandwidth of an angle-modulated wave is a function of the modulation
index.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

10
 9/25/2023

Bandwidth Requirement
 angle-modulated wave consumes larger bandwidth than an amplitude-
modulated wave.
 bandwidth of an angle-modulated wave is a function of the modulating signal
and the modulation index.
 the actual bandwidth required to pass all the significant sidebands for an angle-
modulated wave is equal to 2 times the product of the highest modulating
signal frequency and the number of significant sidebands determined from the
table of Bessel function.
 I.e. the minimum bandwidth for angle-modulated wave using the Bessel table,
B  2 ( n  f m ) Hz (21)
 Carson’s Rule
 it is a general rule to estimate the bandwidth for all angle-modulated systems
regardless of the modulation index.
 the Carson’s Rule states that the bandwidth necessary to transmit an angle-
modulated wave as twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest
modulating signal frequency.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

Bandwidth Requirement
 Carson’s Rule
B  2 (  f  f m ) Hz
(22)
 for a low modulation index ( fm is much larger than Δf ),
B  2 f m ( Hz ) (23)
 for a high modulation index (Δf is much larger than fm )
B  2  f ( Hz ) (24)

 Carson’s Rule approximate and gives a narrower bandwidth than the

bandwidth determined using Bessel function. Therefore, a system
designed using Carson’s Rule would have a narrower bandwidth but
a poorer performance than system designed using the Bessel table.
 for modulation index above 5, Carson’s Rule is a close
approximation to the actual bandwidth required.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

11
 9/25/2023

4.6 : Deviation Ratio

 Deviation ratio DR is the worst case modulation index and is equal to the
maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating-
signal frequency – producing the widest frequency spectrum.

 f (max)
DR 
fm (max)

where DR = deviation ratio (unitless)

Δf(max) = maximum peak frequency deviation (Hertz)
fm(max) = maximum modulating-signal frequency (Hertz)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 23

4.6 : Deviation Ratio

 Ex : a. Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth for the worst-case (widest
bandwidth) modulation index for an FM broadcast-band transmitter with a
maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum modulating-signal
frequency of 15 kHz.
75 kHz
DR  5
15 kHz
From Bessel Table, a modulation index of 5 produces 7 significant sidebands
Thus, the bandwidth is
B = 2(7 x 15000) = 210 kHz

 Ex : b. For a 37.5 kHz frequency deviation and a modulating-signal frequency

fm = 7.5 kHz, the modulation index is
37 .5 kHz
m 5
7 .5 kHz

and the bandwidth is B = 2(7 x 7500) = 105 kHz

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 24

12
 9/25/2023

4.6 : Deviation Ratio

 From Ex. a & b, although the same modulation index (5) was achieved with 2
different modulating-signal frequencies and amplitudes, 2 different
bandwidths were produced.
 The widest bandwidth will only be produced from the maximum modulating-
signal frequency and maximum frequency deviation.
 The same condition applies in the case of using the Carson’s rule :

B  2 f (max)  f m (max) 

 2 75 kHz  15 kHz 
 180 kHz

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 25

4.7 : FM/PM Modulators

 a phase modulator is a circuit in which the carrier instantaneous phase is
proportional to the modulating signal.
 a frequency modulator is a circuit in which the carrier instantaneous phase is
proportional to the integral of the modulating signal.

PM modulator :  (t )  v (t )

FM modulator :  (t )   v (t )
 considering the FM modulator, if the modulating signal is v(t) is differentiate
before being applied to the FM modulator, the instantaneous phase is now
proportional to the modulating signal (i.e. PM modulator).

dv (t )
Differentiator + FM modulator =  (t )    (t )  v (t ) = PM modulator
 dt

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

13
 9/25/2023

4.7 : FM/PM Modulators

 Meanwhile, if the modulating signal is integrated before being applied to the
PM modulator, the instantaneous phase is now proportional to the integral of
the modulating signal (i.e. FM modulator).

Integrator + PM modulator =  (t )   v (t ) = FM modulator

4.7.1 : Direct FM Modulators
 with direct FM, the
instantaneous frequency
deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude
of the modulating signal.
 schematic diagram of a simple
direct FM generator :

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.7.1 : Direct FM Modulators

 the tank circuit (L and Cm) is the frequency determining section for a standard LC
oscillator.
 Cm is a capacitor microphone that converts the acoustical energy into a mechanical
energy, which is used to vary the distance between the plates of Cm and
consequently change its capacitance.
 as Cm is varied, the resonant frequency is varied. I.e. the oscillator output frequency
varies directly with the external sound forces (i.e. direct FM).

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

14
 9/25/2023

VCO FM Modulator

 when a modulating signal is applied, the frequency is

1
fc  (26)
2 L(C  C )
where f = new frequency
ΔC = change in varactor diode capacitance due to modulating signal

 the change in frequency is  f  fc  f (27)

where Δf = peak frequency deviation (hertz)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

FM Transmitter
Direct FM Transmitter

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

15
 9/25/2023

4.9.1 : Direct FM Transmitter

 also known as Crosby direct FM transmitter (includes an automatic frequency

control –AFC loop)
 the carrier frequency is basically the center frequency of the master oscillator fc =
1.5 MHz, which is multiplied by 18 to produce a final transmission carrier
frequency ft = 98.1 MHz.
 the frequency and phase deviations at the output of the modulator are also
multiplied by 18.

To achieve maximum deviation allowed for FM stations at antenna (75 kHz), the
deviation at the output of the modulator is

75 kHz 75000
f    4166 . 7 Hz
N 18

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.9.1 : Direct FM Transmitter

The modulation index at the output of the modulator,
4166.7
m
fm
For maximum modulating signal frequency allowed for FM (15 kHz)
4166.7
m  0.2778
15000

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

16
 9/25/2023

4.9.2 : Armstrong
Indirect FM Transmitter:

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter

 Indirect FM transmitters produce an output waveform in which
the phase deviation is directly proportional to the modulating
signal.
 Consequently, the carrier oscillator is not directly deviated. As a
result, the stability of the oscillators can be achieved without
using an AFC circuit.
 Block diagram for wideband Armstrong indirect FM
transmitter :
 low frequency sub-carrier fc is phase shifted 90˚ and fed to a
balanced modulator. It is mixed with the modulating signal fm.
 the output from the balanced modulator is DSBSC wave that
is combined with the original carrier in a combining network
to produce a low-index, phase-modulated waveform.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

17
 9/25/2023

4.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter

 Proof : m ( t )  V c cos  c t  m cos(  m t ) 

By using trigonometric function : cos (A+B) =cos A cos B – sin A sin B

m ( t )  V c cos(  c t ) cos( m cos(  m t ))  sin(  c t ) sin( m cos(  m t )) 

For a small modulation index,
cos( m cos(  c t ))  cos( 0 )  1
sin( m cos(  m t ))  m cos(  m t )
Thus,
m ( t )  V c cos(  c t )  V c m sin(  c t ) cos(  m t )

where Vccos(ωct) = original carrier

Vcsin(ωct ) = phase-shifted carrier
cos(ωmt ) = modulating signal

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter

 Ex :
Consider a 200 kHz carrier being phase-modulated with a 15 kHz modulating
signal producing modulation index of 0.00096.
 the frequency deviation at the output of the combining network :

Δf = mfm = 0.00096 x 15000 = 14.4 Hz

 in order to achieve the standard 75 kHz deviation for the FM broadcast at

the antenna, the frequency must be multiplied by approximately 5208.
However, this would produce a transmission carrier at the antenna of

ft = 5208 x 200 kHz = 1041.6 MHz

This value is beyond the limits for the commercial FM broadcast band (30
~ 300MHz).
-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

18
 9/25/2023

4.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter

 Ex : (continue)
 Let the output waveform of the network is multiplied by 72, producing the
following signal,
f1 = 72 x 200 kHz = 14.4 MHz
m = 72 x 0.00096 = 0.06912 rad
Δf = 72 x 14.4 Hz = 1036.8 Hz
 this signal is then mixed with a 13.15 MHz crystal-controlled frequency f0 to
produce a difference signal f2 with the following characteristics :
f2 = 14.4 – 13.15 = 1.25 MHz (down-converted)
m = 0.06912 rad (unchanged)
Δf = 1036.8 Hz (unchanged)
 the output of the mixer is once again multiplied by 72 to produce the transmit signal
with the following characteristics :
ft = 72 x 1.25 MHz = 90 MHz
m = 72 x 0.06912 rad = 4.98 rad
Δf = 72 x 1036.8 Hz = 74.65 kHz

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter

 with Armstrong transmitter, the phase of the carrier is directly
modulated in the combining network producing indirect
frequency modulation.
 the magnitude of peak phase deviation (i.e. the modulation index)
is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal
but independent of its frequency (m = KVm).
 the modulation index remains constant for all modulating signal
frequencies of given amplitude.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

19
 9/25/2023

4.11 : FM Demodulator
 FM demodulator is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an
output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input.
 the overall transfer function for the FM demodulator is nonlinear but when
operating over its linear range,
V (28)
Kd 
f
 the output from the FM demodulator is
vout(t )  Kdf (29)

where vout(t) = demodulated output signal (volts)

Kd = demodulator transfer function (volts per hertz)
Δf = difference between input frequency and the centre frequency of
demodulator (hertz)

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.14 : Angle Modulation vs Amplitude Modulation

 Advantages of Angle Modulation

 Noise immunity – most noise results in unwanted amplitude variations in

the modulated wave (i.e. AM noise). FM and PM receivers include limiters
that remove most of the Am noise from the received signal before the final
demodulation process occurs – a process that cannot be used with AM
receivers because the information is also contained in amplitude variations,
and removing the noise would also remove the information.

 Noise performance and S/N improvement – with the use of limiters, FM

and PM actually reduce the noise level and improve the S/N ratio during
the demodulation process.

 Capture effect - with FM and PM, a phenomenon of capture effect allows

a receiver to differentiate between two signals received with the same
frequency by capturing the stronger signal and eliminate the weaker one.
With AM, both signals will be demodulated and produce audio signals.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 40

20
 9/25/2023

4.14 : Angle Modulation vs Amplitude Modulation

 Advantages of Angle Modulation

 Power Utilization and efficiency

- with AM transmission, (especially DSBFC), - most of the transmitted
power is contained in the carrier while the information is contained in the
much lower power sidebands.
- with AM, the carrier power remains constant with modulation, and the
sideband power simply adds to the carrier power.
- with angle modulation, the total power remains constant regardless if
modulation is present.
- with angle modulation, power is taken from the carrier with modulation
and redistributed in the sidebands – puts most of its power in the
information.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 41

4.14 : Angle Modulation vs Amplitude Modulation

 Disadvantages of Angle Modulation

 Bandwidth
- high quality angle modulation produces many side frequencies, thus
necessitating a much wider bandwidth than is necessary for AM
transmission.

 Circuit complexity and cost

- PM and FM modulators, demodulators, transmitters, and receivers are
more complex to design and build than their AM counterparts.
- At one time, more complex means more expensive.
- However with the advent of inexpensive, large-scale integration ICs, the
cost is comparable to their AM counterparts.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 42

21
 9/25/2023

4.15 Noise and Angle Modulation

 when a constant density of thermal noise is added to an angle-modulated signal,
unwanted deviation of carrier frequency is expected.
 Consider a noise signal with amplitude Vn and frequency fn :
 for PM, the unwanted peak phase deviation due to this interfering noise signal is
given by
Vn (6.13)
  peak  rad
Vc
 for FM, when Vc > Vn, the unwanted instantaneous phase deviation is approximately,
Vn
 (t )  sin(  n t   n ) rad (6.14)
taking derivative, Vc
Vn
  (t )   n cos(  n t   n ) rad / s (6.15)
Vc

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.15 Noise and Angle Modulation

therefore, the unwanted peak frequency deviation is
Vn Vn
  peak   n rad / s  f peak  f n Hz (6.16)
Vc Vc
 when the above unwanted carrier deviation is demodulated, it becomes noise.
- the frequency of the demodulated noise signal is equal to the difference between
the carrier frequency and the interfering signal frequency (fc – fn).
- the signal-to-noise ratio at the demodulator output due to the unwanted frequency
deviation from an interfering signal defined as

S  f signal (6.17)

N  f noise
- the spectral shape of the demodulated noise depends on whether an FM or PM
demodulator is used :
→ noise voltage at the PM demodulator output is constant with frequency.
→ noise voltage at the FM demodulator output increases linearly with frequency.

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

22
 9/25/2023

4.15 Noise and Angle Modulation

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.16 Preemphasis & Deemphasis

 based on the previous figure, noise is distributed non-uniformly in FM.
 noise at the higher modulating signal frequency is greater than noise at lower
frequencies.
 for that, for information signal with uniform signal level, a non-uniform signal-
to-noise ratio is produced as follow :

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

23
 9/25/2023

4.16 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis

 S/Nratio is lower at the high frequency ends of the triangle (figure a).
 to compensate for this, the high frequency modulating signal is emphasized or
boosted in amplitude prior to performing modulation (figure b).
 at the receiver, to compensate this boot, the high frequency signal is de-emphasized
or attenuated after the demodulation is performed.
 pre-emphasis network allows the high frequency modulating signal to modulate
the carrier at a higher level while the de-emphasis network restores the original
amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics to the information signal.
 pre-emphasis network is a high pass filter (i.e. a differentiator).
 de-emphasis network is a low pass filter (i.e. integrator).

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

4.16 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis

 schematic diagrams for pre-emphasis & de-emphasis circuit (a) and their
corresponding frequency response curves (b):

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

24
 9/25/2023

4.16 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis

 the break frequency (the frequency where pre-emphasis & de-emphasis begins) is
determined by the RC or L/R time constant of the network.
1 1
fb   (6.18)
2 RC 2 L / R

-- Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation

25