UBGMY9-15-1
Construction and Environmental Materials
Concrete
Dr Adrienn Tomor
[email protected]
Why is concrete used?
Advantage:
• Strong in compression (e.g. 25-65N/mm2)
Limitation:
• Weak in tension (Ca. 1/10 of the compression strength)
History of concrete
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B9XS5a6ZLs4
How is concrete used?
Mixed on site
Ready mixed
Factory precast
Properties
Steel Concrete Ratio
Density 7850 kg/m3 2500 kg/m3 3.1
Strength 350 MPa 35 MPa 10
Stiffness 200 GPa 30 GPa 6.7
So what?
Concrete is less stiff, therefore it deflects more, or we need a deeper structure
to be as stiff
Concrete ingredients
Cement / + + + Gravel
= Concrete
Water Sand
Lime
Cement / + + = Mortar
Water Sand
Lime
Cement / + = Grout
Water
Lime
Concrete ingredients
~75%
Coarse Fine
Cement + + + Water
aggregate aggregate
Cement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wS0p_gCtM78
Portland Ground granulated Fly ash
cement blast furnace slag Pulverised fuel ash
(GGBS) (PFA)
By-product of By-product of coal
iron manufacture fired power stations
Cements gains strength by chemical reaction and therefore are finely
ground to provide a high surface for reaction.
Cement
Portland cement:
• Most common type of cement (binder)
• Called “Portland” because it looks bit like Portland Stone
Portland Stone, St Paul’s Cathedral, London
Bristol London
Portland
Cement
Cement kgC02/tonne*
Portland cement 913
Fly ash (from coal burning) 4
GGBS 67
*cradle to gate
Cement
• Fly ash looks good
• GGBS looks OK
• But fly ash is a pozzolan – needs Portland cement.
• GGBS is naturally cementitious, so can replace more
Portland cement with it.
• But GGBS gains strength slower.
Cement kgC02/tonne*
Portland cement 913
Portland cement + 35% fly ash 610
Portland cement + 80% GGBS 230
*cradle to gate
Cement
Cement types:
1. Portland cement (General purpose)
2. Sulphate resisting portland cement
3. Rapid hardening portland cement
4. Low heat portland cement
General Purpose Cement Sulfate resistanting Rapid hardening
Cement
BS EN 197-1
Cement Description
CEM I 95% Portland cement
CEM II-S 6-35% GGBS
CEM II-D 6-10% Silica fume
CEM II-V 6-35% Fly ash
CEM II-L 6-35% Limestone
CEM III 36-95% GGBS
CEM IV 11-55% Pozzolan (or fly ash)
Aggregates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5AOkrOLF2Ek
Aggregates
Aggregate weight/density:
Normal weight aggregates: used for most concretes, naturally
occurring gravels (e.g. limestone, granite or basalt)
Lightweight aggregates: low-density artificially produced
aggregates (e.g. sintered pulverised fuel ash) or natural lightweight
materials (e.g. pumice)
Heavy weight aggregates: used for concretes with higher than
normal densities (e.g. radiation shielding or ballast), naturally
occurring dense rocks (e.g. heavy metallic ores)
Aggregates
Rounded Irregular Angular Elongated
Uncrushed aggregates
Crushed aggregates
Independent learning: How does the shape of aggregate affect the
properties of fresh concrete?
Aggregate size
Even distribution of particle sizes for denser concrete (i.e. fewer voids)
Aggregate size
Aggregate
Coarse aggregate
4 mm sieve
Fine aggregate
Aggregate grading
Aggregate grading
50
Nominal BS sieve size, mm
37.5
20
14
10
5
2.36
Cumulative
Nominal BS Cumulative
Mass retained percent
sieve size mass passing
passing
50mm 0 1000 100%
37.5mm 0 1000 100%
20mm 75 925 92.5% % passing by mass plotted
14mm 575 350 35% on a grading curve
10mm 225 125 12.5%
5mm 100 25 2.5%
Limits on grading curve set
2.36mm 10 15 1.5%
- 5 0 -
in standards
Mixing concrete by hand
How to mix concrete by hand?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNb0IbYrK8E
Questions:
- How many parts do you need form each ingredient?
- What is the ideal height for the slump?
- How soon does the concrete start to harden?
Fresh concrete
Workability: Ability of the mix to be placed, compacted and finished
Workability test: Slump test
Factors affecting workability:
• Water Content
• Aggregate
o size
o shape
o surface texture
• Admixtures:
o Plasticiser
o Accelerators
o Retarders
o Air-entraining
o Water resisting
o Water retaining
Water content
Key variable: water content
Water content affects:
Consistency Workability
Strength
Durability
Mass of Water
Water / Cement ratio =
Mass of Cement
Slump test
Slump test
• BS EN 206 - Table 3: Slum test classes
• EN 12360-2 -
Fresh concrete
• Has to stay mixed together
It mustn't segregate or bleed
• Has to fill the mould
Measured by consistence
• Can’t have big air bubbles in it
Remove entrapped air, by compaction
• Must harden!
It needs available water to cure
Segregation and bleeding
Segregation = coarse aggregate sinking Bleeding = water rising to the top
Disaster! Aggregate is the skeleton of Disaster! Water/cement ratio controls
concrete, concrete fails by cracking in concrete strength. Concrete at the top
the cement! is too weak.
Bleeding
Causes: Bleeding results in concrete at
- High W/C ratio surface having a higher
- Inappropriate mix water/cement ratio and poorer
- Insufficiently mixing quality “surface laitance”
Bleed water
trapped
under
aggregate
degrades
bond
Bleed water
trapped under
reinforcement
degrades bond
Compaction
Purpose:
Completely fill formwork
Completely surround reinforcing steel
Remove excess air
Satisfactory finish
1% air voids
reduce the
strength of
concrete by 5%
Hydration
• 7 days & onwards
Capillary void
• After 1 day
Calcium Hydroxide
• After 2 hours
Ettringite
Calcium Silicate
Hydrate
• Freshly mixed
Water
Cement grain
30
Hydration
Curing = Hydration process
• If fresh concrete FREEZES water/ice expands and damages the plastic
concrete
Don’t concrete in/close to freezing conditions!
• If the water EVAPORATES there won’t be enough water for hydration.
Fresh concrete must be covered!
Fresh concrete must be saturated!
• If concrete gets too HOT different chemical reactions occur, weakening
the concrete.
Chill the mix water and aggregate, shade concrete when
casting in hot climate
Mass of Water
Water / Cement ratio =
Mass of Cement
Hydration
W/C ratio= 0.4
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 40
30
W/C ratio= 0.5
20
W/C ratio= 0.6
10
0
1 3 7 28 90 365
Age (Days)
Permeability
Higher water/cement ratio. Lower water/cement ratio.
Lots of capillary pores. Fewer capillary pores.
Interconnected pores. Less interconnection.
Higher porosity & permeability Lower porosity & permeability.
Permeability
• Low permeability improves Permeability
durability (damaging chemicals
can’t penetrate far in to the
concrete.
• Permeability is due to the
capillary pores around
hydrated cement particles being
interconnected.
Lower permeability = improved
durability
Low w/c ratio
Well compacted
Controlled amount of cracking Water/cement ratio
Concrete strength
Strength
Influencing factors:
Water Content
Aggregate
size
shape
surface texture
Cement type
Water/cement ratio
Concrete strength
• Concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension
• Normally the tensile strength of concrete is not relied on
• Where there is tension reinforcement is added
• Steel – steel has the same strength in tension as it does in compression
Concrete strength
Material variability:
• There is always some variability in the strength of materials.
• We need to account for this in the strength we use in design.
• The mean value is unsafe half the time!
• We use the characteristic value:
5% of samples had a lower
strength than this value
Number of samples
Strength, N/mm2
5< 10 < 15 < 20 < 25 < 30 < 35 <
≤10 ≤15 ≤ 20 ≤ 25 ≤30 ≤35 ≤40
Concrete strength
Characteristic strength
Frequency
Strength
Magnitude
5% chance strength smaller than Mean strength
characteristic value
• the characteristic value is unsafe 5% of the time…
• … a factor of safety is also used.
Concrete strength
• Compressive strength: crushing test of cube or cylinder
o Cubes (100x100x100mm)
o Cylinders (Ø1500 X 300mm)
• Tests are repeated several times to defined the material variability and
characteristic strength (fck) (N/mm2).
Concrete strength
• For the same concrete the cube test will report a higher strength.
Why?
Platen
Zone restrained
Concrete by platen
sample
Concrete strength
• For the same concrete the cube test will report a higher strength.
Why?
d
2d
d d
Cylinder Cube
Concrete strength
• The strength of concrete is defined using both the cube and cylinder strength
to avoid confusion.
• Concrete grade:
C32/40
C = normal weight concrete 40 = 40 N/mm2
Characteristic cube strength
(𝑓𝑐𝑘,𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 )
32 = 32 N/mm2
Characteristic cylinder strength
(𝑓𝑐𝑘 )
Concrete strength
• BS EN 206 – Table 12: Compressive strength classes for concrete
Concrete strength
C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C30/37 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 …
Increasing strength
Increasing durability
Increasing cost
Increasing carbon footprint
Mass concrete Columns
Concrete defects
Durability issues
Reinforcement Concrete
• Carbonation • Alkali-silica reaction
• Chloride attack (concrete cancer)
• Sulphate attack
• Frost attack
Corrosion of steel reinforcement
Reasons:
• Permeability of concrete
• Depth of penetration
Corrosion of steel reinforcement
Results:
• Cracking and spalling
• Delamination
Corrosion of steel reinforcement
Protect reinforcement with concrete cover!
Cover, c
Reinforcement Concrete
Cover, c
Cover, c Cover, c
Cross section
Carbonation
CO2 (dissolved in water) is mildly
acidic solution. Reacts within
the cement paste
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0C4WNImb81A
Carbonation
Carbonation
Carbonation
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a mildly acidic solution within
the pores of the concrete. It reacts with the alkaline calcium hydroxide
in the cement paste forming insoluble calcium carbonate.
The pH value then drops from over 12.5 to about 8.5. When the
carbonation front reaches the reinforcing steel, the passive layer decays
(pH value <10.5). The steel is then exposed to ingressing moisture and
oxygen and is susceptible to corrosion. Spalling of concrete follows.
Carbonation does not change the appearance of the concrete – can’t
see it! On site testing for carbonation can be carried out (pH indicator
test).
Chloride attack
Chlorides from
- Deicing salts
- Soils
- Admixtures
- Sea water, …
Chlorides break down the
passive layer around reinforcing
bars
Steel corrodes
Chloride attack
Sodium chloride (e.g. de-icing salts, seawater, admixtures) dissolve in
water. The mobile chloride ions disperse through concrete pores and
attack the passive layer of the reinforcing steel.
Steel oxidises in the presence of air and water and forms rust. The
volume of rust is up to 10 times that of the steel consumed. As concrete
has a low tensile strength it will crack when as little as a tenth of a
millimetre of steel has been consumed.
Alkali-silika reaction (ASR)
(Concrete Cancer)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-E3JFzJGROo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8791WuOd0Po
Conditions
• Portland cement is very alkaline (ph>7)
• Cement reacts with aggregates containing reactive forms of silica
over time
• presence of water
• reaction is expansive, ‘blows’ concrete apart
• Very distinctive crack pattern
Alkali-silika reaction (ASR)
(Concrete Cancer)
Alkali-sensitive SiO2 constituents in the aggregates react with the alkali and
hydroxide ions (K+, Na+ and OH-) in the pore solution of the concrete to
form an alkali silica gel with a tendency to absorb water.
The volume of the alkali silicate gel gradually expands, causes localised
swelling, damages the microstructure of the concrete and leads to cracking
and spalling.
Sulphate attack
• Concrete in contact with water containing sulphates (e.g. soils, seawater) or
containing sulphates in aggregates
• Ettringite formation, expansion, tensile stresses
• Loss of bond between cement paste and aggregate
• Cracks
• https://www.understanding-cement.com/sulfate.html#
Sulphate attack
Frost attack
• Water expands by around 8% on freezing.
• Water freezing in the capillary pores of concrete can generate an internal
pressure that ‘blows apart’ concrete.
• This can be mitigated by provided entrained air bubbles that the freezing
water can expand in to.
• Entrained air is not entrapped air – it does not reduce the strength of
the concrete.
Entrained air bubbles are Entrapped air bubbles are
typically around 0.3 mm > 1 mm diameter
diameter
Standards
Standards
BS EN 206
Framework standard for concrete
BS EN 197 BS EN 12350
Cements Testing fresh concrete
BS EN 1008
Mix water
+……………………
BS EN 12620
Aggregate for concrete
Videos to watch
Construction Revolution—Arches and Concrete - Episode 6 of
Understanding Greek and Roman Technology
https://uwe.kanopy.com/video/construction-revolution-arches-and-
concrete
The Beauty and Versatility of Modern Concrete - Episode 20 of
Understanding the World's Greatest Structures
https://uwe.kanopy.com/video/beauty-and-versatility-modern-concrete
Pyramids:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znQk_yBHre4
