Chapter-8
Human Health and Diseases
Keywords
Health complete physical, mental and social well-being
Disease Abnormal functioning of the body is called a disease
Infection The invasion and growth of the pathogen in the body
Pathogen Disease-causing organisms
Infectious Diseases that are easily transmitted from one person to another
diseases
Immunity The ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms
Interferons Proteins secreted by virus-infected cells and protect non-infected cells
Primary response The encounter of body pathogen for the first time
Allergy The exaggerated immune response to certain antigens presents in the environment
MALT Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
Retrovirus RNA containing virus
Carcinogens Cancer-causing agents
FACTORS AFFECTING HEALTH
• genetic disorders – deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects which the child inherits
from parents from birth;
• infections
• Lifestyle
INFECTIOUS AND NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASE
Infectious Non- Infectious
transmitted from one person to another Not transmitted from one person to
like AIDS another like Cancer
COMMON DISEASES IN HUMAN
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Test- Widal Test
Intestinal perforation Sustain high fever (39-40 0 C), weakness,
stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae Infects the alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs.
Haemophilus influenzae Problems in respiration, fever, chills, cough, headache, lips and
fingernails may turn grey to bluish in colour
Common Rhino Virus Infection of the nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
cold Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness,
cough, headache, tiredness.
Malaria Plasmodium Chill and high fever recurring every three to four days
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Infection of large intestine
(amoebic Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess
dysentery) mucous and blood clots.
Ascariasis Ascaris Infect intestine
internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia and blockage
of the intestinal passage
Elephantiasis Wuchereria (W. bancrofti Infect lymphatic vessels
or Filariasis and W. malayi) Chronic inflammation of the organs like lower limbs and
genitals.
Ringworms Microsporum, The appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the
body such as skin, nails and scalp
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Trichophyton
Epidermophyton
AIDS HIV Syndrome
Dengue Dengue virus high fever, headache, joint pains, chill, rashes, abdominal pain,
Liver disorder, fall in platelets
Chikungunya Virus rashes on limbs and trunk, arthritis of multiple joints, high
fever, conjunctivitis
MALARIA
• Pathogen- Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum). Malignant malaria caused by Plasmodium
falciparum is the most serious and can be fatal.
• Vector- female Anopheles mosquito
• Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form) through the bite of an infected female
Anopheles mosquito.
• The parasites in the liver cells and then rupture the RBCs.
• The rupture of RBCs results in the formation of hemozoin, which is responsible for the chill and high fever
recurring every three to four days.
• When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the mosquito’s body,
undergo further development, and again form sporozoite.
• The sporozoites are stored in their salivary glands.
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AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
•Pathogen –HIV a retrovirus (RNA-containing virus)
•Transmission- occurs by (a) sexual contact with the infected
person, (b) by transfusion of contaminated blood (c) by
sharing infected needles (d) from the infected mother to her
child through the placenta.
• After infection, the virus enters macrophages (HIV factory). In
macrophages, viral RNA replicates to form viral DNA with the
help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
• This viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and
directs the infected cells to produce virus particles.
• Simultaneously, HIV attacks helper T-lymphocytes (TH). Thus,
the number of TH cells decreases significantly. Due to this, the
infected person starts suffering from various infections like
Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi, and Toxoplasma.
• Symptoms- fever, diarrhoea and weight loss, etc.
• Diagnostic test- ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)
• Treatment- Anti-retroviral drugs
IMMUNITY
Ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred by the immune system is called immunity.
Types - (i) Innate immunity and (ii) Acquired immunity.
Non-specific, present at the time of birth
Pathogen-specific, after birth
Barriers of Innate Immunity
Physical barriers Skin, Mucus coating of the It prevents entry of the micro-
epithelium lining organisms
Physiological barriers Acid in the stomach, saliva in the prevent microbial growth
mouth, tears from eyes
Cellular barriers WBC, polymorpho-nuclear Phagocytose and destroy microbes.
leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils)
Cytokine barriers Virus-infected cells secrete protect non-infected cells from
proteins called interferons further viral infection
Acquired Immunity
• It is characterised by memory.
Primary response- When or body encounters a pathogen for the first time produces low intensity response.
Secondary response- Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or
anamnestic response.
The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of lymphocytes
present in our blood- (i) B-lymphocytes and (ii) T lymphocytes.
B lymphocyte- they produce Antibodies (immunoglobin) in response to pathogens
T-cells - help B cells produce antibodies.
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Antibody
• H2L2 structure – Antibodies are composed of four peptide chains, two small
(light chains) and two longer (heavy chains).
• Types of antibodies - IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG.
Humoral IMMUNITY
Cell mediated
(Antibody mediated) (No antibody formation)
Active Passive
Active Immunity – antibodies are produced in the host cell after infection with antigens.
Active immunity is slow and takes time to give its full effective response
Passive Immunity- When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against
foreign agents. e.g. baby receives a mother's antibodies through the placenta or breast milk.
Vaccination and Immunisation
Allergies
• The immune system’s exaggerated response to certain antigens (allergens) present in the environment is called
allergy. Common allergens are - pollen grains, mites in dust, animal dander etc.
• Allergic reactions are due to chemicals like histamine and serotonin released from the mast cells.
• Antibody IgE is produced in response to allergens.
• Symptoms of allergy - sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing.
• Treatment- Antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids
Auto Immunity
• It is an abnormality in which the immune response starts rejecting its own body cell or self-cells and molecules
e.g. Rheumatoid Arthritis. Such diseases are known as an auto-immune diseases.
CANCER
In this, some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably
It shows uncontrolled proliferation of cells without any differentiation.
Contact inhibition- Process that inhibits a normal cell's uncontrolled growth due
to its contact with the surrounding cells. Cancerous cells lost this property
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Tumour- Large mass of cells formed due to the repeated division of cancerous
cells
Benign tumors- Remain Malignant tumors These cells grow
. confined to their original very rapidly, invading and damaging
location, do not spread to the surrounding normal tissues of
other body parts, and cause other organs
little damage.
Metastasis- Cancer cells move from tumour to new sites through blood for forming secondary tumours. This invasion
of cancer cells from one part to another parts by the body fluids is called metastasis.
Carcinogens (cancer-causing agents)
Chemicals nicotine
Biological These are cancer-causing viruses is called oncogenic viruses.
Oncogenic viruses They have genes called viral oncogenes.
ionizing radiation X-rays and y-rays
Non-ionizing radiations UV-rays
Diagnosis- Biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell counts
in the case of leukaemia, Radiography by X-rays, CT scan, MRI, use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens
Treatment of cancer- (a) Surgery (b) Radiation therapy (c) Chemotherapy (d) Immunotherapy- use of biological
modifiers like a-interferon
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
Drug Common name and source Effect
Opoids Heroin (smack) Bind to specific opioid receptors present in our
Source - Latex of poppy CNS and gastrointestinal tract.
(Papaver somniferum) Heroin is a depressant and slows down body
functions
Cannabinoids Examples- marijuana, hashish, Interact with cannabinoid receptors present
charas and ganja. principally in the brain.
Obtained from Cannabis Effects on the cardiovascular system of the body.
sativa.
Coca alkaloid coke or crack interferes with the transport of the neuro-
Obtained from coca plant transmitter dopamine.
Erythroxylum coca. It acts on CNS producing a sense of euphoria and
may cause hallucinations.
Nicotine Tobacco Stimulates adrenal gland raises blood pressure
and increase heart rate
Barbiturates, Amphetamines, Benzodiazepines, and lysergic acid diethyl amides (LSD), are used as medicine to
help patients cope with mental illnesses like depression and insomnia.
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ADOLESCENCE, ADDICTION AND DEPENDENCE
• Adolescence (12-18 years) is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood. It is accompanied by several biological
and behavioural changes. Adolescence thus is a very vulnerable phase of the mental and psychological
development of an individual.
• Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects –such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-
being – associated with drugs and alcohol.
• Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if
the regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Very Short Answer Type Questions/ MCQ
1- Antibodies present in colostrum that protect the new-born from certain diseases iareof
a- IgG type
b- IgA type
c- IgD type
d- IgE type.
Ans: B
2- Malignant malaria is caused by which pathogen?
a- Plasmodium falciparum
b- Plasmodium vivax
c- Plasmodium malignancies
d- None of these
Ans: A
3- Chemically interferons are-
a- Carbohydrates
b- Glycosides
c- Peptides
d- Lipoproteins
Ans: C
4- Which of the following is not lymphoid tissue?
a- Spleen
b-Tonsils
c- Liver
d-Thymus
Ans: C
5- Ig E is released during-
a- Allergy
b- Colostrum secretion
c- Tear formation
d- None of these
Ans: A
6- Give any two molecular diagnosis techniques used to diagnose disease.
Ans: Widal test for typhoid
Biopsy- Cancer
7- Interferons are secreted by which type of cell. What is the chemical nature of interferon?
Ans: interferon is secreted by the virus-infected cell. Interferons are proteins.
8- Name the infective stage of the malaria parasite in humans. In which organ of the mosquito is situated?
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Ans: Sporozoite. Situated in mosquito salivary gland
9- The malaria parasite requires two hosts to complete its life cycle. Identify the host where the following
events take place-
(i)Asexual reproduction and gametocyte formation (ii) Fertilization (fusion of gametocytes)
Ans: (i) Human (ii) Mosquito
10- Name any four types of immunoglobin present in the human immune system.
Ans: IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG
11- Provide two means of passive immunity through which the fetus and newly born baby get protected from
infection.
Ans: The yellowish fluid colostrum is secreted by the mother during the initial days of lactation. The fetus also
receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.
12- Identify the type of immunoglobins in the following-
(i)In colostrum (ii) released during an allergic response
Ans: (I) Ig A (II) Ig E
13- Why it is not possible to treat autoimmune diseases. Give one example of such a disease.
Ans: there is no treatment for such diseases because the immune system of the body attacks self-cells. Example-
Rheumatoid arthritis
14- Mention any two drugs that are used to treat mental illnesses like depression and insomnia.
Ans: Barbiturates, Amphetamines
Short Answer Type Question
1- Give a detailed account of factors that affects disease.
Ans: (i) genetic disorders – deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects which the child inherits
from parents from birth
(ii) Infections
(iii) Lifestyle including food and water we take
2- Explain the disease and its type with two examples of each.
Ans: Complete physical, mental and social well-being is known as health.
Infectious disease – cancer, arthritis
Non-infectious disease- flu, tuberculosis
3- Primary immune response is of slow intensity than secondary immune response. Justify the statement.
Ans: when our body pathogen for the first time it produces a primary response which is of low intensity.
Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen shows a quick and highly intensified secondary or anamnestic
response. This is because in primary response antibodies are formed which have the property of memory.
4- (i) Draw the structure of immunoglobin.
(ii) Why immunoglobins are called H2L2 molecules.
Ans: (i) Fig 8.4, page 151, NCERT
(ii) Because it contains two heavy chains (H2) and two light chains (L2) of polypeptide
5- (i) What is an allergy?
(ii) Name two factors that are responsible for allergy in our body.
(iii) List any two-medicine advised by doctors to reduce the effect of allergy.
Ans: (i) the exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is called
an allergy
(ii) Histamine and serotonin
(iii) Anti-histamine, adrenalin
6- Which cell is known as the factory of HIV and why?
Ans: Macrophages are called HIV factories. After entering the e host body, HIV moves into macrophages where its
RNA replicates to form viral DNA. This viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cells' DNA and directs the infected
cells to produce more viruses. Hence macrophages continue to produce viruses and act as HIV factories.
7- What are the different diagnosis techniques to detect cancer in a patient?
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Ans: CT scan, MRI, Biopsy, Blood and bone marrow tests are done for increased cell counts in case of leukemia, X
ray, Monoclonal antibodies test
8- (i) Name two recent incidences of widespread diseases caused by Aedes mosquitoes.
(ii) Mention the name of two pathogens that are responsible for ringworm disease.
(iii) Which pathogen infects the alveoli (of the lungs that result in severe breathing problems?
Ans: (i) Dengue and Chikungunya
(ii) Microsporum, Trichophyton
(iii) Streptococcus pneumoniae or Haemophilus influenzae
9- Differentiate between two different types of tumors. Which one is lethal and why?
Ans: (i) Benign tumour - tumour remains confined to the place of origin or affected organ. The rate of growth of
tumors is low.
(ii) Malignant tumor- it invades surrounding tissue & spreads throughout the body. The rate of growth of the tumor
is rapid
Malignancy is lethal as it spreads all over the body through the process of metastasis.
10- A person undergoes ELISA testing and tested positive-
(i) ELISA is widely conducted to diagnose which disease.
(ii) Write the causative agent of that disease.
(iii) Which organization in India educates people about that disease?
Ans:
(i)AIDS, (ii) HIV, (iii) NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation)
Long Answer Type Question
1- Describe the different mechanisms by which innate immunity protects the human body since birth.
Ans: Physical barriers - Skin prevents entry of the micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the
respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also helps in trapping microbes entering our body
Physiological barriers- Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from the eyes–all prevent microbial growth.
Cellular barriers- Leukocytes (WBC) like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) and monocytes and
natural killers in the blood, macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes
Cytokine barriers- Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-infected cells from
further viral infection.
2- A disease has symptoms of high fever with chill. The causative agents depend on the red blood cells of the
human body for their life cycle. Based on the statement answer the following questions-
(i) Why do patients suffer from high fever with a chill?
(ii) Name the disease and its causative agent.
(iii) Represent the life cycle of the pathogen diagrammatically.
Ans. (i) due to the release of chemical hemozoin from ruptured RBC
(ii) Malaria, Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. Malariae and P. falciparum).
(iii) Life cycle of Plasmodium: Fig. 8.1 Page 148, NCERT
3- How do addiction and dependence differ from each other? What are the consequences of withdrawal
syndrome?
Ans: Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects –such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-
being – associated with drugs and alcohol.
Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if the
regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
Withdrawal syndrome occurs if the regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This is characterized by
anxiety, shakiness, nausea, and sweating, which may be relieved when use is resumed again. In some cases,
withdrawal symptoms can be severe and even life-threatening and the person may need medical supervision
4- How does the humoral immune system work when our body is infected?
Ans: Humoral immunity is also called antibody-mediated immunity.
In this Immunoglobins (antibodies) are developed from B- lymphocytes.
These antibodies (B-cell) have receptors on their surface that recognize a specific antigen.
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The antibody binds to the antigen- forming an antigen-antibody complex which is later digested by phagocytic cells
like macrophages.
5- By observing the diagram answer the flowing questions-
(i) Mention the group of drugs this structure represents.
(ii) How these drugs are taken by drug abusers?
(iii)Name the source of the plant from which these are isolated.
(iv)Which part of the human body is affected by this drug?
(v) Provide any two common names for this drug.
Ans: (i) Cannabinoids (ii) Oral Ingestion or inhalation
(iii) Cannabis sativa
(iv) Cardiovascular system
(v) Charas, ganja
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