IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO.

10, OCTOBER 2022 12741

A Comprehensive Review on Small Satellite

Microgrids
Mohammad Yaqoob , Student Member, IEEE, Abderezak Lashab , Member, IEEE,
Juan C. Vasquez , Senior Member, IEEE, Josep M. Guerrero , Fellow, IEEE,
Marcos E. Orchard , Member, IEEE, and Angelina D. Bintoudi , Student Member, IEEE

Abstract—The small satellite (SmallSat) industry has recorded Index Terms—Battery technologies, converter topologies, cube
incredible growth recently. Within this class, among mini-, micro-, satellite (CubeSat), electrical power system (EPS), NanoSat,
and nanosatellites, the cube satellite (CubeSat) is primed for an microgrid, photovoltaic (PV) technologies, small satellite
explosion of growth. These satellites are fascinating for remote (SmallSat), switches.
sensing, Earth observation, and scientific applications. Remarkable
attention from the space operators makes it valuable because of its
low cost, cubic shape, less manufacturing time, lightweight, and
modular structure. Among the various subsystems comprising the I. INTRODUCTION
SmallSat, the electrical power system (EPS) is the most crucial
HE small satellite (SmallSat), i.e., mini-, micro-, nano-,
one because unreliable power supply to the rest is most of the
time detrimental to the mission. The EPS is formed by electrical
sources, storage units, and loads, all interconnected via different
T pico-, and femtosatellites, industry in recent years has
geared up and is in the state of continuous growth. Because of the
power converters, the operation of which must be closely orches- recent progress and developments in SmallSat subsystem tech-
trated to accomplish efficient use of photovoltaic power, optimal nologies, i.e., integrated circuits (ICs), digital signal processing,
battery management, and resilient power delivery. At the same
time, the EPS design must address a series of challenges such as microelectromechanical systems, additive built-up, accessibility
size restrictions, high power density, and harsh space environments of affordable and innovative commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
(e.g., atomic oxygen, radiation, and extreme temperatures), which technologies, smaller mass, volume, least development time, and
significantly impact the EPS electrical and electronic equipment. cheaper cost have been achieved [1], [2]. Future roadmaps for
In terms of power systems, a SmallSat EPS can be considered a NanoSat applications include the creation of constellations of
space microgrid owing to coordination and control of distributed
generation, storage, and loads in a small-scale electrical network. such satellites to form space-based telecommunication network-
From this point of view, this article reviews and explores SmallSat ing exploited for mobile communications and global internet
microgrid’s research developments, energy transfer and architec- coverage [3]–[6]. Therefore, an ignition to the NanoSat market
tures, converter topologies, latest technologies, main challenges, is expected in the upcoming years. The increased growth of
and some potential solutions, which will enable building a more interest for the NanoSats has also been boosted by the incre-
robust, resilient, and efficient EPS. The research gaps and future
developments are underlined before this article is concluded. mental rise of a particular kind of NanoSats, the cube satellites
(CubeSats). CubeSat has gained the attention of diverse vendors
Manuscript received January 11, 2022; revised March 31, 2022; accepted and consumers like governments, educational scientists, and
May 4, 2022. Date of publication May 13, 2022; date of current version commercial organizations, since 2003 when the first satellite
June 24, 2022. This work was supported by VILLUM FONDEN under the was launched [7]. The CubeSat took its name due to the cubic
VILLUM Investigator Grant (25920): Center for Research on Microgrids. The
work of Mohammad Yaqoob was supported by the Balochistan University shape of its main building block, which is a unit (U) weighing
of Engineering and Technology Khuzdar, Pakistan. Recommended for pub- 1.33 kg, 1 L of volume, and 10 × 10 × 10 cm dimensions
lication by Associate Editor F. Freijedo. (Corresponding author: Josep M. [8]. CubeSats are extendable for higher payload demands, via
Guerrero.)
Mohammad Yaqoob is with the Center for Research on Microgrids, De- the addition of multiple cubic units, as shown in Table I. It is
partment of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark, noteworthy that, although Nanosats can weigh from 1 kg up
and also with the Electrical Engineering Department, Balochistan University to 10 kg of mass, as shown in Table II, CubeSats, although
of Engineering and Technology Khuzdar, Khuzdar 89100, Pakistan (e-mail:
[email protected]). classified within the NanoSat class, are not restricted within
Abderezak Lashab, Juan C. Vasquez, and Josep M. Guerrero are with the this range (e.g., the heaviest reported CubeSat is comprised of
Center for Research on Microgrids, Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg 27 U and weights 40 kg) [3]. To address this high interest, a
University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark. (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]). specific standard for CubeSats, a project, was started in 1999 by
Marcos E. Orchard is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Univer- California Polytechnic State University and Stanford University
sity of Chile, Santiago 1058, Chile (e-mail: [email protected]). in the USA as a collaborative effort [9]. Although CubeSats are
Angelina D. Bintoudi is with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece, mainly considered an educational tool for the students [10], their
and also with the Information Technologies Institute, Centre for Research and applications are not limited to this, since CubeSats have been
Technology Hellas, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece (e-mail: [email protected]). deployed to serve several Earth observations, astronomical, and
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2022.3175093. communications applications where short revisit times or even
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2022.3175093 continuous monitoring is required [13], [14].
0885-8993 © 2022 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 12742 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

TABLE I presented an overview of SmallSats, where a comprehensive

CUBESAT CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MASS AND VOLUME [11]
review of the latest missions is presented, especially focusing
on NanoSat launch history, classification, origin, and utilization.
Davoli et al. [24] surveyed different aspects of CubeSats, includ-
ing mission goals, structure, and hardware components, focusing
mostly on network and communication aspects. Sweeting et
al. [25] presented a broad overview of SmallSats evaluation,
applications, capabilities, and future technology trends.
In terms of EPS, the available recent research is underlined
TABLE II in the following works. Timothy et al. [26] presented a modular
SPACECRAFT CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MASS AND MANUFACTURING EPS for SmallSats, discussed operational aspects and control
COST [12] issues, and encouraged future work regarding the EPS design.
Johnston-Lemke et al. [27] gave the concept of a modular,
scalable, and highly efficient EPS, which is deployable to the
satellites for the power demand spans of 1 W to 1 kW require-
ments. Khan et al. [28] proposed a comprehensive design and
control methodology for SmallSats EPS, where a method is
specified for sizing key elements of the EPS, i.e., photovoltaic
(PV) array and battery. The proposed design takes into account
the irradiance forecasting, the PV array geometry, the PV cell
characteristics, round trip efficiency, and state-of-charge (SOC)
of the battery. Edpuganti et al. [29] presented a review article
Nanosats are mostly designed to be placed in low Earth orbit on conventional and emerging CubeSats EPS architectures. The
(LEO) for several types of missions [15]. These satellites are EPS architectures are identified and grouped into 17 categories
required to perform several complex tasks in education, scientific based on the PV panels interfacing, conversion stages, and dc-
research, space exploration, Earth observation, space weather, bus regulation. In addition, based on a qualitative comparison,
high-resolution imagery, ship tracking, airplane tracking, etc., the merits and demerits of the different EPS architectures are
[16]–[18] while maintaining the cost low. However, the harsh illustrated. On the other hand, Yost et al. [30] presented a report
radiation environment, size limitations, high power density re- on state-of-the-art SmallSat EPS technologies that offer valuable
quirement, and low-cost components (especially COTS) make insight into the major EPS components available from differ-
their design challenging. ent commercial manufacturers. To address the EPS subsystem
The electrical power system (EPS) is one of the critical holistically, Bintoudi et al. [31] proposed its characterization
components in all satellites generally. This claim is backed up as a microgrid. More specifically, an introduction to the space
by the reliability analysis performed in [19], and [20], which microgrids has been addressed by Lashab et al. [32], where
reveals that in earlier stages (in the prior 4 weeks of launch), the authors presented an overview of EPS for satellite-based
the EPS leads to the second most fatal failures, whereas after microgrids, the energy generation, energy storage system (ESS),
the preliminary 4-week period, it leads to the most fatal failures. and insight on protection schemes, followed by the sizing guide-
Whereas EPS failures result in 25% of all spacecraft failures. lines. However, this work is limited and does not cover EPS
The SmallSat EPS on the other hand is a small-scale remote energy transfer systems, EPS architectures, recent technological
electrical network, which operates in islanded mode and is advancements, design, and operation challenges of SmallSat
regarded as a space microgrid. Microgrids are an assembly of EPS. Therefore, even though there are individual pieces of work
distributed generation (DG), autonomous distribution networks, regarding various topics of the EPS of a SmallSat (architectures,
storage units, and loads that work in a controlled and coordinated topology, converters, controllers, etc.), to the best of the authors’
way [21], [22]. However, the SmallSats are mostly custom-built knowledge, no review papers are offering a system level and a
with COTS components, Here, the EPS may be the most scalable comprehensive literature review regarding the latest develop-
of the subsystems yet demanding high reliability, efficiency, and ments on the most critical aspects of SmallSat EPS.
resiliency to sustain and supply full power during the mission. To that end, this article treats the SmallSat EPS as a whole,
Compared to the terrestrial, space microgrids are compact and from the perspective of an isolated microgrid, to provide a
redundant and they demand high design and testing require- comprehensive review of several different perspectives of the
ments. Therefore, significant research is placed on the robust EPS. More specifically, this article reviews the EPS topologies,
design of the EPS. Although the SmallSat research fields have the state-of-the-art regarding converter topologies, PV array, and
attracted a significant portion of the already published research, electrochemical battery technologies used in SmallSats. The
it is noteworthy that only a handful of review papers exist inclusive structure of the SmallSat, which has been reviewed,
regarding a satellite’s EPS in general. This fact is contradicting is described in Fig. 1. Moreover, the most unique feature of
the criticality and importance of the EPS. It should be noted this article is the detailed analysis of realistic technologies and
however that some general research review publications handle converter topologies, which are applied in the latest and modern
the topic of SmallSat subsystems holistically. Kopacz et al. [23] actual SmallSat projects. The rest of this article is organized as

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12743

Fig. 1. Inclusive structure of the SmallSat, important subsystem including energy generation module, storage module, and converter topologies.

follows. Section II is an overview of the SmallSat EPS structure, EPS design and operations. Finally, Section VII concludes this
architectures, and important energy transfer methods. Regarding article.
power generation, distribution, and management, the latest non-
isolated and isolated converter architectures, switches, and suit-
able protocols are described in Section III. Section IV includes II. EPS AND ARCHITECTURES
an overview of the latest developments in space-qualified solar The EPS is essentially the lifeline of the other subsystems
cells and panels along with the PV architecture for SamallSat in any satellite which incorporates the power generation, en-
applications. The state-of-the-art power storage and different ergy storage, and power distribution and management system
battery technologies available for SmallSats are discussed, fol- (PDMS), including the loads. The EPS comprises approximately
lowed by the battery charge regulation in Section V. Section VI one-third of the total satellite mass [30]. The prime function of
is a discussion of the challenges and some potential solutions in the EPS is to maintain a continuous power supply to the satellite

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 12744 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

bus during its mission life, including adequate power even TABLE III
POWER CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT SUBSYSTEMS AND PAYLOADS FOR SOME
during the eclipse when no power is generated from solar panels NANOSATS
and protection under fault conditions. The EPS manages the
power input from the solar panels, charges/discharges onboard
batteries, and distributes the electrical power to the subsystem
elements of the satellite at their required voltage levels. Ad-
ditionally, the monitoring, operation status, and health of the
EPS subcomponents are communicated to the onboard computer
[33], [34]. Indicatively, the power budgets for some SmallSats
subsystems are given in Table III. As mentioned, the spacecraft
EPS can be regarded as a microgrid, since it is the composition
of modular dc–dc microconverters, distributed energy resources,
and several loads [31], [32], [35]. The block diagram of a
comprehensive EPS with the two basic architectures is shown
in Fig. 2(a) and (b).
Depending on the exploitation mode of the solar power,
two well-known topologies are derived, i.e., the direct energy
transfer (DET) and the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
architectures, as shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively. The
DET architecture operates at a fixed voltage point on the I–V
characteristics, distributes the necessary power to the loads in a
regulated or unregulated form, and shunts unnecessary power.
This conversion method is simple yet. DET architectures are
mostly encountered in applications with power budgets less than
100 W [36]. However, the PV I–V curve is a direct function of
the solar cell temperature, irradiation, and degradation therefore,
DET architectures are not exploiting the full potential of the
harvested solar power by the solar arrays. To overcome this
limitation, the MPPT-based architecture is proposed [37], which
essentially forces the solar array output voltage to be always
set at the value which results in the maximum power transfer
from the array to the aggregated load, regardless of the solar
cell temperature and degradation degree. MPPT architectures
demand at a minimum one dedicated dc–dc converter in series
with the PV array to drive the PV cell operating voltage and
it demands at a minimum 4%–7% of the solar array nominal
output power to operate [36].
The main dc power bus can either be regulated or unregulated
to dispatch power to the loads. In the case of an unregulated
topology, the main bus follows the battery voltage, whereas
regulated bus architectures demand the usage of dc–dc con-
Fig. 2. Two basic architectures of EPS: (a) DET solar power conversion and
verters to achieve full regulation of the main bus voltage. In (b) MPPT solar power conversion topologies with unregulated buses.
Fig. 2(a) and (b), both DET and MPPT topologies are shown
with unregulated bus voltages which can be regulated with
the addition of dc–dc regulators illustrated by dashed lines. A
task priority, the maximum and minimum duration of the task,
comparison of the peak power tracking EPS architectures in [38]
and execution time [47].
demonstrates that EPS architecture with series-connected MPPT
converters and unregulated dc-bus has greater reliability, lower
component count, good battery life, and the highest efficiency III. POWER DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT
for all operating modes. The PDMS of the EPS distributes the flow of the power
In terms of EPS sizing, the SmallSat power budget is defined pertaining dc–dc converters at different distribution levels to
according to the worst-case scenario, which is the simultaneous regulate, control the generated power, and supply power to var-
operation of the loads, and not according to the installed load ious analog and digital loads [48], [49]. The PDMS component
capacity. Therefore, task scheduling strategies in SmallSats can blocks are bus regulators, battery charge/discharge dc–dc con-
be strongly related to energy harvesting from PV, optimal power verters, various switches for EPS branches, loads, and, batteries,
management, efficiency, and quality-of-service assurance [46]. the respective converter digital controllers, sensors circuitry, and
Moreover, tasks are formulated based on the number of duties, point-of-load (POL) dc–dc converters. However, the embedded

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12745

designers face challenges in design that operate in space is the

limited pool of components that were designed to operate in
this environment. It results in EPS failure at the early stage
of the deployment or during the mission. To withstand the
effects of radiation semiconductors that operate in space need
to be “hardened.” The available semiconductors are not exactly
leading edge or “state-of-the-art” and there is not a huge portfolio
of components to choose from. The space version components
tend to be very expensive, on the other hand. Therefore, the
cost has been limited by using properly selected COTS devices,
whereas reliability has been achieved by design diversity and
redundancy.

A. DC–DC Converters
SmallSat dc–dc converters are core building blocks of the
EPS that ensure reliable and efficient power delivery. The con- Fig. 3. Distributed power architecture—DiPA.
verter design must be able to maintain constant output voltage
regardless of input disturbances, while power quality must be
high so that sensitive onboard equipment operates seamlessly.
At the converter power stage, the switching devices are mostly
high-efficiency field-effect transistors (FETs) due to small gate
charge, ON-state resistance, and less complicated drive circuit,
which can more efficiently switch at higher frequencies [50]–
[52]. Most of the typical voltages required for the CubeSat
onboard equipment are in the range of 3–6 V. The EPS is
highly segmented, each segment of which is usually supplied
through a dedicated buck or boost dc–dc converter and necessary
switching gear [53]. These sections are well fragmented to
overcome the noises and ripple creeping since the nature of the
loads can be RF, analog, or digital [54]. Depending on system
architecture, isolation and voltage regulation are required at
different stages of power conversion. Moreover, for interfac-
ing low voltage renewable sources, galvanically isolated dc–dc
converters are the best suitable solutions [55]. Regarding distri-
bution in modern satellites, two basic design approaches prevail:
distributed power architecture (DiPA) and decentralized power
architecture (DePA) [56]. The DiPA approach is very popular for
ensuring dynamic, efficient, and reliable system performance.
This approach uses an isolated dc–dc converter and multiple
POL converters, as shown in Fig. 3. An isolated converter, called
an intermediate bus converter (IBC), supplies an intermediate
fully regulated, semiregulated, or simply unregulated voltage to
the subsequent nonisolated voltage regulators, namely the POL
converters. The IBC is usually physically distanced from the
main digital devices board, due to mechanical considerations
and cooling. However, every POL converter is mounted on a
board near the corresponding loads to minimize the parasitic
impedances. Overcoming the disadvantages of the greater num-
ber of conversion stages and losses in DiPA, the DePA has
been proposed [56]. As shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), there are
two main variations of DePA: in the first one [see Fig. 4(a)],
a single isolated converter with multiple outputs followed by
several load switches is responsible for the power distribution to
the loads, providing fully regulated voltage levels of 1, 1.5, 2.5,
3.3, 5 V, etc., whereas in the second one [see Fig. 4(b)], several Fig. 4. Decentralized power architecture—DePA. (a) Single input with mul-
independent isolated converters are operated for the provision tiple outputs. (b) Multiple isolated converters.

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 12746 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

Fig. 5. State-of-the-art converter topologies reviewed and categories for space mission applications in this article.

of different outputs of fully regulated voltages required for the

operation of the satellite loads. This architecture is advantageous
due to its lower losses and lighter weight, compared to DiPA
where power is lost in each conversion step.
The high reliability requirements in the design of EPS for
space applications are hard to quantify relatively applying COTS
components. Space converters deal with many constraints such
as electromagnetic interface (EMI) compatibility, vacuum envi-
ronment, radiation effects, shock, and vibrations. Additionally,
the reduced mass, high efficiency, and provision of high-power
quality are strictly required. These stringent requirements have
narrowed down the choices to conventional converter topologies
due to their inherent simplicity and the minimum number of
components [57], [58]. To overcome these barriers selection of Fig. 6. Differentially connected two-buck converters topology.
radiation hardened components, their mechanical dimensions
and thermal analysis to withstand in a vacuum environment must
be considered. Selection of the converter topologies to withstand controllability and extreme losses [60]. These converters are
and support radiation effects is significantly considered. usually used in nano and CubeSat applications at different stages
Converters can be classified into different categories based on for conversion and regulations of power.
the configurations and types of components used. Various factors 1) Buck-Derived Converter Topologies: A new converter for
are considered to form these categories, such as single-stage common-mode noise reduction is introduced in [61], as illus-
and multistage power processing, inductor or transformer-based trated in Fig. 6. The common-mode noise reduction architecture
configurations, and types of switches. The converter clusters are interfaces the PV panels to the power bus of the satellite with
shown in Fig. 5. minimum leakage currents avoiding unpredicted ground bounc-
ing conditions. While ground bounce in high-density digital
circuits is a delay in reaching the ground in a transistor after
B. Overview of the Nonisolated DC–DC Converters
a signal transition. The ground bounce can produce transients
This section focuses on the performance analysis of different with amplitudes of volts; most often changing magnetic flux is
nonisolated dc converters dc for space applications. The main the cause. The proposed converter connects two buck-derived
benefits of the converters covered in this section are design converters differentially ensuring zero common mode current
simplicity and, therefore, greater reliability, a fewer number of in the ground which makes the converter safe at slight ground
components, and, consequently, dry mass [59]. Nevertheless, the bouncing, improves the converter electromagnetic compatibil-
extreme duty cycle operation of conventional converters leads ity, and negates the parasitic effects at normal operation. In this
to high voltage and current stress, hence, it suffers from reduced converter, two inductors are cumulatively coupled at the output

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12747

Fig. 7. Load-side redundant buck converters topology.

stage for reduction of phase current ripple while increasing the

efficiency by reducing the component count of the EPS. The
coupled inductors offer a moderate transient handling capability
and more power density [62]. For the CubeSat application, the
load-side redundant buck converter topology has been proposed
in [63], as shown in Fig. 7. This converter consists of two inde-
pendent half-bridge switching modules and a common inductor.
The half-bridge module and inductor are connected through a
fuse for over-current protection. In the fault conditions, the re-
dundant module activates based on the designed fault diagnostic
system. However, the feasibility of redundant components in
smaller satellites needs some special efforts due to the restricted
satellite weight and volume.
2) Boost-Derived Converter Topologies: The low output
voltage of the PV with a parallel-connected structure makes
it very high demanding to achieve high efficiency, low cost,
and high-step-up dc–dc conversion [64]. In satellite applications
where the bus voltage is greater than the solar array one, for the
implementation of MPPT a boost power converter is applied.
Garcia et al. [65] compared and analyzed some boost-based
topologies for space applications that use a 100 V voltage bus, as
shown in Fig. 8(a)–(f). These boost dc–dc converters are: con-
ventional, boost converter with a switch near-ground topology,
two inductor boost converter, boost converter with ripple can-
cellation, common damping two-inductor, and interleaved boost.
Depending on the satellite’s requirements in terms of operational
voltage range, the capability of power handling, operational
voltage, conduction emission, and solar array output impedance
the topologies are designed and optimized. The analysis has been
carried out from the viewpoint of the control loop bandwidth,
mass, and power losses. From these topologies, the conventional
boost topology requires fewer components and therefore it is
characterized by high reliability. However, it leads to high power
losses due to its reverse recovery diode. Table IV gives a compar-
ison based on reliability, mass, bandwidth frequency, and input
Fig. 8. Boost dc–dc converter topologies: (a) conventional, (b) boost con-
current ripple. Moreover, the bandwidth efficiency of (d) and verter with a switch near ground, (c) two inductor boost converter, (d) boost
(e) is better compared to other given topologies. In SmallSat converter with ripple cancellation, (e) common damping two-inductor, and
applications, (a)–(c) look feasible with a good tradeoff between (f) interleaved.

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 12748 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT BOOST CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES

Fig. 10. Circuit diagram of B2 R topology.

Fig. 9. Two-input, multioutput interleaved dc–dc boost converter.

reliability, efficiency, and the component count of the topologies.

For the switch near-ground topology shown in Fig. 8(b), the
implementation of the driving circuit is easier compared to the
rest of the same category given the fact that the power transistor is
grounded. In addition, this converter topology combined with a
DET EPS architecture offers good efficiency [65]. Furthermore,
the two-inductor boost converter in Fig. 8(c) has the merit of
operating at continuous conduction mode and therefore, this Fig. 11. Circuit diagram of B3 R topology.
converter requires a small output capacitor to achieve reduced
output current ripple.
Another effective solution to step-up the voltage level is of the onboard batteries, based on the monitored SOC [68].
the interleaved structure, which improves transient response, A high-efficiency step-up and step down-conversion with the
decreases output current ripple, and can reduce the passive buck–boost regulator (B2 R) is presented in [69], which is shown
component size [66]. Gorji et al. [67] presented an interleaved in Fig. 10. The use of the converter has been applied in DET
dc–dc boost converter with two-input/multioutput capabilities architectures of unregulated or regulated bus voltages with the
for spacecraft applications represented in Fig. 9. The main task battery directly connected to the main dc bus. In case the
of this converter is MPPT power supply, bus voltage regulation, MPP architecture is selected, the usage of B2 R assists toward
and battery charge control. The proposed converter replaces maintaining the main bus voltage close to the MPP solar array
three separated converters through the usage of one compact voltage level, a fact that ensures better performance, as shown in
circuit and operates in three different operation modes. In the the practical application of such configurations in SmallSat [70].
first operation mode, the loads are supplied directly by the PV This is an advantage that is not offered by a single buck or a single
without requiring any battery operation, in the second mode, the boost converter alone. B2 R topology has been improved in [70].
loads are supplied directly from the battery power, while in the A multiport dc–dc converter is drawn by merging two inductors,
third operation mode, the converter supplies the loads through a topology known as buck–buck–boost regulator (B3 R). All the
the combined operation of the PV and the battery. One of the discussed operations of B2 R are performed by B3 R topology,
prominent features is the converter battery base is grounded including step-up, step-down of the solar array power to the
avoiding the noise of battery damage, hence, increasing the battery level, and step-down battery power to the regulated bus
battery’s useful life. Therefore, this topology is characterized level. Thus, this topology gives mass and cost savings as com-
by reduced size, low losses, and high efficiency. pared to B2 R, since the passive and protection components are
3) Buck–Boost Based Converter Topologies: The converters reused for PV array and battery regulations as appears in Fig. 11.
described here can step up or down the input voltage to a Conventional bidirectional converters are very challenging at
regulated output voltage level and they support bidirectional extreme duty cycle operation, which is required to bridge the
power flow, enabling the fully controlled charge and discharge high voltage gap between battery cells and the main dc bus.

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12749

Fig. 12. New proposed interleaved PWM bidirectional converter.

Fig. 14. New ACF topology with a continuous current waveform.

Before the final load voltage, multiple stages of power conver-

sion are accomplished. Regulation and isolation are required
to be implemented [56]. In the past decade, isolated converters
are widely employed in various formats in SmallSat applica-
tions. In addition, instead of using multiple converters working
independently, one multiport converter can be used instead,
offering several advantages, such as fewer conversion stages
Fig. 13. Improved Weinberg topology for bidirectional power flow.
and a smaller number of components, however, at the cost of
reliability given that it can be proven a single point of failure.
Additionally, the battery’s low voltage side increases current 1) Single-Input Single-Output Converter Topologies: The
stress on the converter, which is associated with more losses. conventional active-clamp-forward (ACF) converter topology is
In SmallSat applications, a bidirectional interleaved pulsewidth comparatively due to its less component count, simple structure,
modulation (PWM) converter with high voltage-conversion and and regarding its switch voltage stress, the good clamping com-
current balancing ability is proposed [71]. This converter is petence is a good candidate for SmallSat applications. However,
derived from the conventional interleaved PWM three-phase the high switching stress, large di/dt, and pulsating input current
converter by adding two additional capacitors C1 and C2 as are the drawbacks of this converter [73]. To overcome the
given in Fig. 12. Thus, by adding the capacitors, the voltage disadvantages, a new ACF, shown in Fig. 14, with a continuous
conversion ratio is tripled at a given duty cycle, which relieves the current waveform, is proposed in [58]. In the presented topology,
stresses on the switches, and inductor current is balanced by the two series-connected switches are utilized for relieving the stress
added capacitors. This procedure contributes to efficient power on the main switch of the converter. For the turn-OFF time, a
conversion for a single-cell battery SmallSat EPS. This converter clamping circuit and a turn-OFF delay are applied to prevent
operates at step-up and step-down at charge and discharge of the an imbalance of switch voltage. The voltage stress of both the
battery, respectively. However, analysis is performed based on switches is always clamped to VCL and Vin , respectively. Thus,
ideal circuit elements with large capacitors, and parasitic com- the low voltage stress on the switches and low drain to source
ponents are not considered. Finally, in [72], a new bidirectional resistance results in a converter with high power density and
converter is proposed, being an improved Weinberg topology. A reliability.
conventional buck circuit is placed on one side and a Weinberg 2) Single-Input, Multioutput (SIMO) Converter Topologies:
boost topology circuit on the other side. It has a simple structure, A decentralized multioutput magnetic feedback forward con-
high power density, and efficiency. This topology adds the diode verter for space applications is demonstrated in [74]. This
and switches to realize the function of the bidirectional power converter is a galvanically isolated topology, with a magnetic
flow, as shown in Fig. 13. This topology works on two modes, feedback system implemented instead of the classic optocou-
i.e., buck and boost modes, thus, achieving bidirectional power pler feedback, which is sensitive to radiation and temperature
flow and, consequently, higher energy density within a smaller fluctuations. The magnetic feedback and PWM controller are
mass. insensitive to the radiation effects and are in general insensitive
to temperature deviations, increasing thus reliability [75]. This
converter has simpler circuitry compared to other multioutput
C. Isolated Converter Topologies converters and is more efficient because of the self-resonant
Specific satellite digital loads operate at higher currents (5– reset mechanism. Compared to some popular converter topolo-
10 A or more) while demanding a low voltage supply, which gies such as half-bridge, full-bridge, and push-pull, the flyback
should be characterized by minimized ripple and fluctuations. multioutput converter is usually selected in SmallSat given the

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 12750 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

Fig. 17. Half-bridge three-port modified converter topology.

TABLE VI
Fig. 15. Multioutput magnetic feedback forward converter. COMPARISON OF INTEGRATED MULTIPORT AND CONVENTIONAL
MULTICONVERTER

multiport converter is compact, more reliable, and has a lower

mass compared to the independent port converters. Besides,
Fig. 16. Multioutput low drop-out flyback converter. there are no communication requirements, and the centralized
TABLE V control system enhances the dynamic performance of the con-
ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATION OF MULTIOUTPUT MAGNETIC FEEDBACK AND verter. Qian et al. [77], [78] present the power and control strat-
FLYBACK CONVERTER egy of an integrated three-port converter for satellite applications
as shown in Fig. 17. Table VI gives a comparative overview
between conventional and three-port converters. The three ports
correspond to the solar input, the battery, and an isolated output
port. During the illumination period, the converter operates at
MPPT, while the battery is being charged and the loads receive
fully regulated power. The three circuit stages are based on the
half-bridge converter control which operates on modified PWM
with a constant switching cycle and results in two independent
control variables d1 , and d2 duty cycles for operating switches
fact that it’s less complex. This transformer-based converter M1 and sM2 respectively, which tightly regulates two ports of
enhances the topology with multiple output channels, with some the converter, whereas the third port offers balance to the circuit.
minor additional circuitries [74]. The decentralized multioutput However, the control design is more complicated and demands
magnetic feedback forward converter is shown in Fig. 15. more modeling efforts as compared to classic two-port convert-
Another like the previous SIMO converter is presented in [76], ers. Further analysis and operation of the circuit are reported
as given in Fig. 16. This converter is a low drop-out (LDO) in [79] and [80]. For more insights, the main features of the
fly-back converter for the spacecraft power subsystem. This reviewed dc–dc converter topologies for spacecraft applications
converter topology is implemented for the high-power auxil- are summarized in Table VII.
iary output of the converter based on strict voltage regulations.
Multiple outputs can be generated with some additional circuits
D. Converter Switches
since energy is stored in the transformer before transferring to
the converter output. Through the transformer’s turn ratio, the While previously silicon-based switching technologies (Si)
output voltages can be selected. Both converters are compared dominated the space industry, by mid 2010s gallium nitride
in Table V, in terms of electrical input and output, switching (GaN) switches have dominated over the Si ones. GaN devices
frequency, and efficiency. are radiation tolerant, and sustainable for the high-temperature
3) Multi-Input Multioutput (MIMO) Converter Topologies: space environment. Additionally, these devices offer higher effi-
Integrated multiport converters have fewer conversion stages, ciencies with lower cost, mass, and volume, therefore achieving
fewer component count, and switching devices. As a result, a higher power densities. The radiation tolerance of this switching

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12751

TABLE VII
SUMMARY OF THE REVIEWED CONVERTER STRUCTURES FOR SPACECRAFT APPLICATIONS

device is due to the high bandgap energy of 3.4 eV for GaN [50], comparison to the traditional radiation-hardened switches, GaN
[81], [82]. Additionally, enhancement-mode GaN (eGaN) tran- technology offers significant cost reduction, high switching fre-
sistors are more suitable for high-efficiency converter designs quency with smaller component packages, and introduces fewer
due to ON-state resistance, output capacitance, and small gate losses [85].
charge [50]. The soft-switching capability of GaN transistors
along with their improved output power density under resonant
IV. ENERGY GENERATION
operation has been evaluated in [83], [84]. In these papers,
the benefit of replacing Si-MOSFET with eGaN-FET has been The available energy sources in space are naturally of solar
experimentally demonstrated for a POL printed circuit board or nuclear origin. In recent years, a massive surge in the use of
(PCB). The GaN FETs with low parasitic packaging need a PV cells has been seen in satellites regardless of their size, with
low parasitic PCB layout for the device capability utilization. a total ∼85% of all SmallSat spacecraft using solemnly solar
Based on this assessment, an optimal layout with eGaN FETs panels as the primary power-generating source [86]. The solar
is suggested to attain the best performance and this design has cells used in space applications, compared to the terrestrial ones,
offered a 10% decrease in total power loss, 40% reduction in harvest energy from a broader spectrum of solar irradiation [87].
high-frequency loop inductance, and 35% voltage overshoot More specifically, space-qualified solar cells are designed for the
minimization, compared to the classical PCB scheme [84]. In spectrum AM0 (ASTM E-490), with an integrated power density

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 12752 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

Fig. 19. NanoSat solar panel “NanoPower P110” [Courtesy: GOMSpace].

Fig. 20. Space solar cell technologies and their efficiencies [91], [92].

Fig. 18. Standard sunlight spectrum for (a) terrestrial and (b) space solar cells.
power generation branches to escape from the overall failure of
the panel.

of 1366.1 W/m2 [88], whereas terrestrial cells correspond to

A. Space-Qualified Solar Cells
the direct and global spectrums AM1.5D and AM1.5G (ASTM
G-173), respectively, with the corresponding integrated power The more all-electric satellites are expanding, the need
densities of 900 W/m2 and 1000 W/m2 . For reference, the for electric propulsions will keep significantly increasing the
terrestrial and LEO spectra are given in Fig. 18(a) and (b). It power/energy budgets, a fact that will impact significantly and
is therefore evident that there is increased potential for elevated directly the solar panel design in terms of sizing and power
solar energy harvesting and that different technique is necessary density. Therefore, the increase in the number of solar panels
for space-qualified solar cells. The power generating compo- significantly raises the overall mission cost in terms of mass and
nents are selected from the available COT components available volume, thus high efficiency, small size, and lightweight solar
from different producers. However, power generation-related panels are desired. An example of this is shown in Fig. 19. There
failure is the major among the other EPS elements, in which are various types of solar cells with different efficiencies. In ter-
cell, solar array, cell interconnection, array mechanical failures, restrial applications, the most common solar cells are Si-based,
and darkening of solar reflectors or glass has been reported which can reach up to ∼20% conversion rates. However, such
[89]. Some cell degradation and failure are due to unexpected cells perform even worse when in orbit, not only due to their
radiation-induced degradation caused by energetic solar flare inherent low conversion rates but most importantly because they
and others are due to manufacturing defects. But, since the solar experience severe efficiency degradation over time deriving from
array is sized for the end-of-life power, a large enough margin the radiation environment. Thus, Si solar cells are not preferred
is added in the design to mitigate the impact of degradation. for modern satellite applications. To overcome the limitations of
Conventionally, two solar cells are serially wired in the CubeSat Si-cells, multijunction solar cells (MJSC) have been developed
solar panel with no redundancy in case of solar string failure for space applications. MJSCs are well over 10% more efficient
which can cause a serious threat due to loss of electric energy compared to Si-based ones [93]. Some available space solar cell
from one solar panel. To address the reliability in the case of technologies for SmallSat applications are shown in Fig. 20.
solar string failure or following switched power regulator failure, More specifically, recent studies have demonstrated that MJSCs
a redundant architecture is proposed in [90]. In the proposed under concentrated sunlight reach energy conversion efficiencies
architecture, a greater number of the cells are applied for ad- of 44.4% for 3-junction (3-J) and 46.1% for 4-junction (4-J) [94],
vanced interconnection in a single panel to form independent [95].

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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12753

TABLE VIII
SPACE VERSION SOLAR PANELS WITH THEIR EFFICIENCIES AND PRAGMATIC
SOLAR CELLS

Fig. 21. Design layers of 3-J Ge/GaAs/InGaP solar cells.

Regarding SmallSat missions, mostly 3-J solar cells are used,

however, in the past five years, 4-J cells are growing fast in
applications [92]. The prevalent 3-J commercial COTS space-
qualified PV cell technologies designated for SmallSats are sum-
Fig. 22. Wavelength spectrum covered by the base layers of the structure.
marized and listed in Table VIII, as to their reported efficiencies
and solar cell types [96]–[104].
the most radiation-sensitive subcell photocurrent [107]. The
B. Design and Construction of MJSC conversion efficiency of the 3-J solar cell has been steadily
The MJSC are manufactured by the combination of several improved to approximately more than 30% at the beginning
layers of gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium phosphate of life (BOL) [108]. The base layers of the PV cell cover a
(InGaP), and germanium (Ge) or Si to capture the largest possi- wavelength spectrum, which is shown in Fig. 22, at an air-mass
ble spectrum of sunlight. The architecture of the 3-J solar cell is zero (AM0) illumination and a temperature of 28 °C.
shown in Fig. 21, which highlights the design layers of the 3-J Recent research has suggested a new cell architecture called
Ge/GaAs/InGaP solar cell. Such cells are easier to manufacture inverted metamorphic multijunction (IMM). IMM cells are
compared to other higher-order MJSC, which achieve better lighter in terms of mass and are more efficient compared to
performance [105]. Moreover, this solar cell is super radiation 3-J cells [109], [110]. Yamaguchi et al. [109], [111] proposed
tolerant and owes a higher cell MPP voltage (VMPP). The 3-J space solar sheets with inverted 3-J cells. The authors carried
solar cell consists of three p-n junctions arranged one on top out detailed reliability tests, which eventually lead to the I–V
of another, connected via tunnel junctions for the addition of characteristic improvement of IMM-3J space solar sheets. An-
subvoltages and maintaining the overall polarity of the device. other 3-J film type solar sheet has been proposed in [109], which
For a single-junction GaAs, the nominal cell voltage is 0.89 V poses 10% higher efficiency than previous Ge/GaAs/InGaP 3-J
and the temperature coefficient is 2 mV/°C at VMPP [106]. solar cells and is lighter in weight. A comprehensive reliability
In addition, the radiation response of the cell is controlled by test for the space environment has been conducted including
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 12754 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

Fig. 25. Architecture of PPT for a mission with wide solar and temperature
variations.

The representation of the mathematical expression of the

current generated by each subcell is given as follows:
Fig. 23. Equivalent circuit of a 3-J PV cell.  
q·(v i +I i Rs
i)
(v i + I i Rsi )
I i = I i PV − I i sh e ai ·K·T − 1 − i
(1)
Rsh
where I is the current of subcells and i is the number of subcells
[(top: i = 1), (medium: i = 2), and (bottom: i = 3)]. IPV is
the subcell photocurrent, Is is the subcell inverse saturation
current of the diode, a is symbolize Boltzmann constant, T is
the temperature of the subcell, K is the electron charge, q is the
diode ideality factor, V is the total voltage across the cell, and
Rs and Rsh are series and shunt resistances [115].
The sum of the voltages of all subcells is equal to the total
voltage of the cell as follows:
3

V = V i. (2)
i=1
Fig. 24. I–V curve for three subcells and their sum.
The total current is limited to the subcell that generates the
minimum, from the three cells connected in a series configura-
a successful thermal cycling test, which has shown sensible tion, which can be expressed as
performance in outdoor field testing. I = min(I i ). (3)
For the I–V model of the panels, as the shunt current Ish is
C. Electrical Circuit Model of MJSC minimum, shunt resistance Rsh may be neglected [116].
Theoretically, an ideal solar cell could be modeled as a current
source in anti-parallel with a diode. A direct current is generated D. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
with solar radiation, and it accordingly varies when the cell is In MPPT architectures, a switch-mode converter is placed
subjected to light. The improvement in the model embraces the in series with the solar array to dynamically regulate the ar-
effects of shunt and series resistors [112]. The Ge/GaAs/InGaP ray output impedance to match the loads. The majority of the
3-J solar cells can be modeled as the circuit in Fig. 23 where SmallSats utilize MPPT architecture [38]. It manipulates either
each subcell is representing a single independent solar cell. The the operating current or voltage of the solar array and drives the
three equivalent solar cells are arranged in a way that enables operating point of the solar array by controlling the operation of
them to be shrinking the gaps and be connected in series from the switching converter between the rest of PDMS and the solar
top to bottom. The electrical performance (I–V diagram) of 3-J array. The MPP calculation depends on a number of parameters
solar cells can be derived from the three subcells and the sum such as relative positioning to the Sun, PV cell type, operating
of total cells, which is shown in Fig. 24, whereas each subcell temperature, and total solar irradiation [117], [118]. The block
possesses the same current because all subcells are connected diagram of MPPT architecture is shown in Fig. 25. There are
in series [113], [114]. Similarly, 4-J cells can be modeled as a several MPPT calculation techniques, to name a few perturb and
four-level equivalent circuit. observe (P&O), constant voltage, artificial neural networks, and
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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12755

the temperatures fluctuate from −20 to −100 °C which greatly

affects the rate of charge and discharge. Also, thermal runaway
can occur if a battery gets too hot [125]. Thus, it must be made
certain that the batteries can function at these temperatures where
batteries need to undergo intense testing under several different
conditions to be approved for use. Also, to protect batteries from
the extreme fluctuations of space, heaters are added throughout
the battery’s cells to regulate their temperature.

A. State-of-the-Art Battery Technologies

A survey made in [126] reveals that for nanosatellite ap-
plications batteries used are 4% lithium-chloride (Li-Cl), 12%
lithium-polymer (Li-po), 16% nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), and 2%
other chemistries, whereas the rest of 66% Li-ion batteries have
been applied. The Li-Cl is one of the highest energy content
carrier batteries, however, the high energy capability makes it
very sensitive from the designing point of view [127]. Previously,
Fig. 26. Energy densities of different batteries for nanosatellite applications. battery technologies including nickel-hydrogen (Ni-H2) have
been employed in different space missions [128]. The Ni-Cd up
incremental conductance, each characterized by different accu- to the 1990s was a good solution for LEO space applications
racy degrees and complexity [119]. P&O algorithm is mostly due to their high reliability and long-life cycle, whereas Ni–H2
used in LEO SmallSats due to its easy implementation, low battery was the choice for flights requiring high charge rates,
complexity, and accurate tracking of MPP [120]. However, it varied operating temperatures, and resiliency to disturbances
suffers from plenty of drawbacks such as steady-state oscillation [129]. However, Ni-Cd battery has a relatively low energy
around the maximum power [121], therefore there are several density while Ni-H2 holds a reduced cycle. Striving to over-
efforts, i.e., incremental perturbation and observation (IP&O), come the drawbacks, Li-ion technology has emerged, and it has
the optimal P&O toward improving it, without compensating several benefits such as a long-life cycle, low self-discharge rate,
them completely [122]. improved working life, and no memory effect. The li-ion cells
are extensively applied in CubeSats because of their right size,
tolerance in the space environment (±100°C). These cells are
V. ESS IN SMALLSAT
available cylindrical 18650 in an improved form of 3500–3600
To maintain the continuous operation of the satellite under mAh, an average voltage of 3.6 V, and 50 g of weight. The
eclipse and peak load periods, all SmallSat require an ESS that energy density of 18650 cells is 762 Wh/l and 252 Wh/kg [123].
includes batteries. The cell is the elementary unit of the battery Moreover, Li-ion batteries have low volume and mass and are
and multiple cells are series, parallel, or both combined as a available in a variety of forms [130]. The available cells are
battery pack. The onboard batteries are differentiated based on 65mm in length and 18-mm diameters bearing efficiency of up
their usage as the primary and secondary batteries: the primary to 97% at BOL [131], [132]. Another similar battery technology
batteries (e.g., pyro batteries) are not rechargeable; they are used is polymer Li-ion (Li-Po) which is available in a pouch instead
for short mission requirements (approximately from a single of a cylinder, which gives freedom to develop lighter and thin
day to a week), after usage they are disposed-off [123]. On cell designs for achieving advanced specific energy. Therefore,
the other hand, the secondary batteries are rechargeable and Li-Po cells are suitable for high power and energy SmallSat
are an essential, permanent part of the EPS. In this review, applications; however, they are exposed to temperature and
we focus only on the secondary batteries, which are for long external mechanical destruction of the space environment for
period applications (rechargeable) and are the main storage their thin cell casings [133]. This problem has been solved by
devices required for the mission life. The secondary batteries wrapping each cell in a thin copper layer and soldering the
according to their volumetric and specific energy densities for copper substrate to the battery cells with the power conditioning
nanosatellite applications are shown in Fig. 26. Another vital board [134]. Generally, a Li-ion cell has a larger capacity,
step in any satellite design is the correct sizing and right selection but Li-Po has a gravimetric energy capacity of 1.2–1.6 times
of the battery type, capacity, and technology, which are made larger and only 17% volume of Li-ion. Some available latest
according to each mission’s requirements. The most prominent battery technologies for SmallSat applications are presented in
aspect in sizing and right selection is the mission lifetime, Table IX [30]. Supercapacitors (SCs) or ultracapacitors can be
the power/energy budgets, and the operating temperature range considered an alternative ESS for SmallSats because of their
along with the available thermal management strategy [124]. high power density, long charge/discharge life, and operation
Moreover, the space extreme conditions need intense design and in wider temperature ranges [135]. SC could be used as the
component selection strategies because batteries are chemical sole ESS for CubeSat that overcomes some of the disadvan-
reaction-based energy-releasing devices and operating environ- tages of Li-ion batteries like limited lifetime, high cost, and
mental conditions affect their performance. In some missions, stable temperature requirements [136]. However, the low energy
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 12756 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

TABLE IX
COTS BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE FOR SMALLSAT APPLICATIONS

density of SC makes it limited as the main ESS. Therefore,

a hybrid ESS of SC and Li-ion offers the advantages of each
technology for the challenging mission requirements. Chin et
al. [137] proved an onboard Li-ion battery and SC technologies,
a hybrid ESS in 2U CubeSat flight. The primary and secondary
phases of the mission have been completed. The results have
shown an excellent agreement between the two technologies
and the performance characteristics in different conditions. The
ground test results have sufficiently met, particularly concerning
the percent of capacity contributions between the Li-ion cell and
the SC. A feasibility study in [138] demonstrated that the SCs can
qualify in a radiation environment, high cycles life (>100 K),
testing, and launching process for SmallSat applications. The
characterization of different battery technologies suitable for Fig. 27. Integrated battery charger and array controller.
SmallSat applications is examined in [139], which has reported
procedures and results of several environmental-related tests of
performance degradations for Li-Po cells. boost converter is used to feed the solar array power to the load
and after processing, to the battery. The control functionalities
are accomplished by varying the duty cycle with the current of
B. Battery Charge Regulator
the battery as a controlled variable. Moreover, the array voltage
The battery charge regulator is responsible for harnessing is linearly varied across different power generating points to
solar power to sufficiently charge the battery cells. The battery support the variations in power requirements. The integrated
charging system interfaces the battery and solar panels. It is controller efficiently charges the battery with constant current
a programmable buck–boost converter and can operate in the to the setpoint and protects the battery by turning OFF to zero
constant voltage or current mode depending on the battery state. thereafter. This is performed by controlling the converter duty
Modern battery technologies are characterized by improved Wh cycle. For implementation, a PWM controller in conjunction
efficiency and extraordinary power density. However, batteries with an analog-based two-loop control scheme is applied.
including Li-ion or Li-Po are not tolerant to overcharging. In the first loop known as, battery charge controller loop, the
An integrated array controller battery charger is proposed for charge reference signal is compared with battery current by the
SmallSat in [140], which can be seen in Fig. 27. The circuit integrated controller and generates a control signal to control
is placed between array bus and battery/load, ducking a direct the duty cycle of the converter. The current controlled boost
contact of bus voltage and the battery voltage to clamp. With converter with an additional outer voltage loop is involved in this
this approach, the battery charging with available power or fully scheme to cut the overcharging current of the battery. In the sec-
powering the bus is possible, which on the other hand results in ond loop, the detected output battery voltage is compared with
more efficiency in battery charging [141]. The control function the set battery charge reference voltage. The voltage loop senses
is carried out by a single PWM system, where a current control the set voltage, and the battery charge current is minimized to
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 YAQOOB et al.: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON SMALL SATELLITE MICROGRIDS 12757

zero indicating the required SOC. Similarly, the battery current infusion and the lack of testing, possibly related to low budgets in
reference point is pulled down to zero by the battery voltage the hobbyist and academic sectors. The electronic components
loop active pull-down. used must be designed and tested to withstand the shocks, vac-
uum, required temperature, and radiation hardened. The Small
Spacecraft Systems Virtual Institute NASA in [143], presents
VI. CHALLENGES AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS IN EPS DESIGN state-of-the-art small spacecraft technologies for EPS applica-
AND OPERATIONS
tions. Potential and less expensive fabrication tools and testing
Recently, the SmallSat missions have been transformed to facilities for vacuum and high-thermal gradient are reported in
commercial ventures instead of academic and experimental [149]. Moreover, the analysis of thermal, degradation and man-
projects changing the prospect of specifications and reliability agement for the EPS equipment are very important in the design
of the CubeSat. The specific orbits have been extended to larger process.
and mission lifetimes have been extended from months to years.
The main challenge in SmallSat design is the requirement of A. Thermal and Degradation Analysis of Solar Cell
highly reliable and capable components, efficient and simple
When exposed to this radiating environment, the semiconduc-
EPS architecture, low power, low mass, and size constraints.
tors and mainly, the solar cell electrical performance degrades.
Whereas the space-capable and reliable systems require greater
This effect is very dangerous and can lead to mission failures.
resources of power, volume, and mass [142]. While COTS
Hence, the radiation response of the solar cells employed in the
components are used in the design of the SmallSats, which
spacecraft is extremely important for mission life prediction. For
are primarily not dedicated to the space weather. Typically,
the prediction of the degradation level of the solar cells particu-
the COTS components better perform than space rated parts
larly some electrical parameters, e.g., open-circuit voltage, short
but lacking the harsh environments survivability [143]. On the
circuit current, and the maximum power reaction in the radiation
other hand, military version aerospace and avionics electronic
environment are necessary to be identified. Xin et al. [150]
components are crafted to sustain space radiation, vacuum,
and Sato et al. [151] have presented performance evaluation
vibration, and extreme temperatures encountered in the upper
and prediction of InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3-J solar cells under the
atmosphere and at the lift-off process. The extreme temper-
irradiation environment. By calculating the open-circuit voltage
atures at the surface of the spacecraft fluctuate up to ±100
and the short-circuit current, the degradation curves show an
°C at LEO [13], which shortens the life span of the casual
accuracy of 5%, which is a good agreement with experimental
electronic components but also mangles the usual operational
data. For satellite applications, Meng et al. [152] have presented
functionality of the satellite. According to the standard in [144],
a degradation model of the orbiting current for GaInP/GaAs/Ge
for SmallSat extreme temperatures (i.e., hot, and cold cases) and
3-J solar cells. The performance parameter, which is crucial for
rate of change of temperatures, testing in a vacuum is mandatory.
describing the degradation of a solar cell model, is the output
Eight thermal cycles shall be performed between maximum and
current. To model the variation tendency of the output current,
minimum temperature limits. However, the temperature is not
a mathematical model is established. The results of the applied
the only factor, but cosmic rays also pose an additional chal-
degradation model for lifetime prediction of 3-J solar cells con-
lenge which is a constant bombardment of the highly energetic
tribute to the life expectancy of the cells for space applications.
particles carrying energy ions with the capability to energies
On the other hand, high temperatures extremely degrade the
electronic components of the spacecraft, resulting in damages
performance of the solar cell. To obtain better performance,
and malfunctioning. The satellites orbiting low altitudes are
passive treatment method such as back surface coatings and
more vulnerable to these radiations [145]. There are two types
paint is applied [153]. Furthermore, the solar array backside
of effects to the satellite electronics from the radiations: single
thermal surface treatment showed temperature reduction to a
event effects (SEEs) and total ionizing dose (TID). SEE, is an
great extent, increasing the efficiency of the solar cells broadly.
instantaneous failure mechanism expressed in terms of a random
Some thermal analysis, control, and the design of SmallSats are
failure rate and TID is a long-term failure mechanism that is
reported respectively in [154] and [155].
rated by mean time to failure. Also, there is less structural mass
shielding the electronics, but the TID radiation effect can be
reduced and the tolerance to this radiation is improved with B. Electronic Equipment and Battery Management
thinner oxides and finer IC geometries [146]. The vacuum of The design of the satellite must be validated with all contem-
outer space produces whiskers. Whiskers are spider-web-thin plations of the environmental conditions from launch to opera-
conductive filaments that grow on cadmium, zinc, and metal tion in orbit. The satellite is designed to sustain in the permissible
surfaces of the tin. Tin seems to be more likely to grow over time temperature range and space vacuum atmosphere. To ensure the
whiskers in a vacuum, providing a short circuit path between satellite functionality and survivability in space harsh weather
metal-plated surfaces [147]. However, many dedicated Small- for the mission lifetime span, suitable thermal management and
Sats of this category are offering an incredible job to explore design are mandatory to keep all the onboard equipment to their
space environments, which will enable building more robust acceptable scaled temperatures. There are two thermal control
and reliable systems [148]. In addition, at the time of left-off techniques excessively discussed, active and passive but the
vibration is the sudden application of 9.2 million pounds of thrust latter one is referred to as the best solutions for NanoSats and
to the satellite [146]. There have been many reasons cited for CubeSats [156]. Passive thermal control generally relies on mul-
the high failure rate of SmallSat, such as ambitious technology tilayer insulations to shield the spacecraft from the incident heat
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 12758 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

fluxes of the space environment. These multilayers are coatings 3) In future assessments for small spacecraft applications, the
and surface finishes, heat sinks, and thermal insulations. Surface 4-J GaAs solar cells have emerged with more efficiency
finishes are applied on both the exterior and interior surfaces and reliability. Another advanced solar cell is IMM, which
of the NanoSats and CubeSat. To obtain acquired emissivity is lighter in weight and is a more efficient solar cell.
and absorptivity two or more layers are combined and applied Thus, 4-J GaAs and IMM solar cells are recommended
[157]. Excessive cooling can damage and degrade the battery for CubeSat analysis.
module. For active control, a major technique is the application 4) In recent literature Li-ion battery technologies are mainly
of a thin film heater. The heaters are resistors and are part of the focused on the design, for the future perspective, Li-po, LI-
closed-loop system of the controller and sensors. Cl and SC technologies can be more critically analyzed for
SmallSat applications due to their flexibility, less volume,
and the high energy density compared to Li-ion.
VII. CONCLUSION
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 12762 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 37, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2022

Mohammad Yaqoob (Student Member, IEEE) re- Josep M. Guerrero (Fellow, IEEE) received the
ceived the B.S degree in electrical engineering from B.Sc. degree in telecommunications engineering, the
the Balochistan University of Engineering and Tech- M.Sc. degree in electronics engineering, and the
nology Khuzdar, Khuzdar, Pakistan, in 2006, and Ph.D. degree in power electronics from the Technical
the M.S degree in telecommunication engineering University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain, in 1997,
from the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, 2000, and 2003, respectively. He is currently working
Thailand, in 2012. He is currently working toward toward the M.Sc. degree in psychobiology and cog-
the Ph.D. degree working in design, control, and nitive neuroscience with the Autonomous University
power management of small satellite microgrids with of Barcelona, Barcelona.
the Center for Research on Microgrids, Department Since 2011, he has been a Full Professor with
of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, AAU Energy, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark,
Denmark. where he is responsible for the Microgrid Research Program. In 2019, he became
He has been a principal investigator of PNSS-1 (Pakistan National Student a Villum Investigator by The Villum Fonden, which supports the Center for
Satellite) Electrical Power System at Balochistan University of Engineering and Research on Microgrids at Aalborg University, being the founder and Director
Technology Khuzdar, where he has been affiliated since 2007. From 2007 to of the same center. He has authored or coauthored more than 800 journal papers in
2013, he was a Lecturer where he tutored several courses and supervised projects the fields of microgrids and renewable energy systems, which are cited more than
to the undergraduate students. From 2013 onward, he was an Assistant Professor 80 000 times. His research interests include oriented toward different microgrid
at the same University, and he has also worked on the key administrative position frameworks in applications such as microgrid clusters, IoT-based and digital
of the Director and Quality Enhancement Cell for two years (2017–2018) in the twin, maritime microgrids for electrical ships, vessels, ferries and seaports, and
same Institution. space microgrids applied to nanosatellites and closed ecological systems.
Prof. Guerrero is an Associate Editor for a number of IEEE transactions.
For eight consecutive years, from 2014 to 2021, he was awarded by Clarivate
Analytics (former Thomson Reuters) as Highly Cited Researcher with 55 highly
cited papers. In 2021, he was the recipient of the IEEE Bimal Bose Award
for Industrial Electronics Applications in Energy Systems, for his pioneering
Abderezak Lashab (Member, IEEE) received the contributions to renewable energy based microgrids.
bachelor’s and master’s degrees in electrical engi-
neering from Université des Frères Mentouri Con-
stantine 1, Constantine, Algeria, in 2010 and 2012,
respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in developing and
investigating new converter topologies and control Marcos E. Orchard (Member, IEEE) received the
methods of photovoltaic systems with and without Ph.D. and M.S. degrees in electrical and computer
storage from the Department of Energy Technology, engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology,
Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark, in 2019. Atlanta, GA, USA, in 2005 and 2007, respectively.
From 2013 to 2014, he was an Engineer in High He is currently a Professor with the Department
Tech Systems. From 2014 to 2016, he was a Lecturer of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Chile and
Assistant with the Université des Frères Mentouri Constantine 1, where he helped an Associate Researcher at the Advanced Center for
in teaching several electrical engineering courses for undergraduate students. Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universidad
From April to July 2019, he was a Visiting Researcher at the Chair of Power Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile. He
Electronics, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany. He is currently a Postdoctoral has authored and coauthored more than 100 papers
Researcher with Aalborg University. His current research interests include power on diverse topics, including the design and imple-
electronics topologies, modeling, and control for photovoltaic systems with and mentation of failure prognostic algorithms, statistical process monitoring, and
without storage. system identification. His research work at the Georgia Institute of Technology
Dr. Lashab is a Reviewer with the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL was the foundation of novel real-time failure prognosis approaches based on
ELECTRONICS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, IEEE TRANS- particle filtering algorithms. His current research interests include the study of
ACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE theoretical aspects related to the implementation of real-time failure prognosis
ENERGY, IET Power Electronics, IET Electronics Letters, and several IEEE algorithms, with applications to battery management systems, electromobility,
conferences. mining industry, and finance.
Dr. Orchard is a Fellow of the Prognostic and Health Management Society.

Juan C. Vasquez (Senior Member, IEEE) received

the Ph.D. degree in automatic control, robotics, Angelina D. Bintoudi (Student Member, IEEE) re-
and computer vision from Barcelona Tech-UPC, ceived the Diploma degree in electrical and computer
Barcelona, Spain, in 2009. engineering in 2013 from the Faculty of Technol-
In 2019, he became a Full Professor with the De- ogy of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessa-
partment of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, loniki, Greece, where she is currently working to-
Aalborg, Denmark. He was a Visiting Scholar with ward the Ph.D. degree with the Electrical Machines
the Center of Power Electronics Systems, Virginia and Power Electronics Laboratory, Department of
Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA, and a Visiting Professor Electrical Energy, School of Electrical and Computer
at Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan. He is cur- Engineering.
rently the Vice-Director of the Center for Research From July 2014 to June 2015, she worked in an
on Microgrids. He has published more than 500 journal articles in the field of Italian private company as designer of power supplies
microgrids, which in total are cited more than 30 000 times. His current research and power processing units for aerospace applications, under projects of the
interests include operation, advanced hierarchical and cooperative control, opti- European Space Agency. Her dissertation topic is the design and control of
mization, and energy management applied to DG in ac–dc microgrids, maritime space microgrids. Since June 2017, she has been with the Informatics and
microgrids, advanced metering infrastructures, and the integration of the Internet Technology Institute of the Centre for Research and Technology Hellas. She
of Things and energy Internet into the smart grids. has participated as a Senior Engineer in more than six H2020 projects, three
Dr. Vasquez is also an Associate Editor for IET Power Electronics, the of which she has technically managed. Her research interests include space
IEEE SYSTEM JOURNAL, and a Guest Editor of a Special Issue in the IEEE microgrids, stand-alone power systems, ac and dc microgrids, optimization, and
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS ON ENERGY INTERNET. In 2017, multiagent systems.
Thomson Reuters awarded him as a Highly Cited Researcher. He was the Dr. Bintoudi is a Reviewer in several IEEE, IET, and Elsevier journals.
recipient of the Young Investigator Award in 2019.

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