Chapter 2 :

Data Model
Database Systems:
Design, Implementation, and Management,
13th Edition, Rob and Coronel
In this chapter, you will learn:

◎ Why data models are important

◎ About the basic data-modeling building blocks
◎ What business rules are and how they affect database design
◎ How the major data models evolved, and their advantages and
disadvantages
◎ How data models can be classified by level of abstraction
The importance of data
modeling
 1
Data model
• Relatively simple representation, usually graphical, of
complex real-world data structures

• Communications tool to facilitate interaction among the

designer, the applications programmer, and the end user
 2
Good database design uses
an appropriate data model
as its foundation
 3
End-users have
different views and
needs for data
 4
Data model organizes
data for various users
 Data Model Basic
Building Blocks

Relationsh Constraints
Entity Attribute
ip

Is anything / or any Is a restriction placed on

real-world object that can Describe an association the data
Is a characteristic of an
store data entity among entities Eg:
• Book Price must less than
Eg: rm1000
Eg: Eg: • Student CGPA must between
Book, Doctor, 0.00 and 4.00
Student, Book_Title, Doc_Id, 1:1, 1:M, M:N
Student_Name • Each Doctor must have at
least 2 specialization
 Types of Relationship

◎ 1:1 (one-to-one)
has
LECTURER ROOM

◎ 1:M (one-to-many)
has
PERSON CAR

◎ M:N (many-to-many)
served
NURSE WARD
 Business Rules
◎ Is a brief, precise &
Unambiguous description
◎ To define entity, attributes,
of a policy / procedure /
relationship, constraint
within a specific
organization environment.
◎ Must be written /
documented properly.
◎ Is derived from a detailed
description of an
organization’s operation
(activity)
Business Rules
Where to GET? How to know??

◎ Company ◎ Department ◎ Policy makers

manager manager

◎ Written document ◎ End user -

interview
company procedures
Standard & policy
operation manual
 Importance of Business Rules

◎ Allow designer to
◎ Promote creation of an understand the
accurate data model nature, role, and
scope of data ◎ Allow designer to
develop appropriate
◎ Standardize company’s relationship
view of data ◎ Allow designer to participation rules and
understand constraints
◎ Constitute a business
communications tool processes
between users and
designers
RECAP…5 min
Crucial Database Components
Crucial Database Components
 Crucial Database Components

◎ Schema
◉ Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by
the database administrator
◎ Subschema
◉ Defines database portion “seen” by the application
programs that produce the desired information from data
contained within the database
◎ Data Management Language (DML)
◉ Define data characteristics and data structure in order to
manipulate the data
 Data Management Language
Components

◎ Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)

◉ Enables database administrator to define schema
components
◎ Subschema DDL
◉ Allows application programs to define database
components that will be used
◎ DML
◉ Manipulates database contents
The evolution of data model
Hierarchical & Network Model
Relational Model
Entity-Relationship
Model
Object-Oriented Model
The Hierarchical Model—Evolution

◎ GUAM (Generalized Update Access Method)

◉ Based on the recognition that the many smaller parts

would come together as components of still larger
components

◎ Information Management System (IMS)

◉ World’s leading mainframe hierarchical database system
in the 1970s and early 1980s
Hierarchical Structure—Characteristics

◎ Each parent can have many children

◎ Each child has only one parent
◎ Tree is defined by path that traces parent segments to child
segments, beginning from the left
◎ Hierarchical path
◉ Ordered sequencing of segments tracing hierarchical
structure
◎ Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence
◉ “Left-list” path
 The Hierarchical Model

Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES
◉ Conceptual simplicity ◉ Complex implementation
◉ Difficult to manage
◉ Database security
◉ Lacks structural independence
◉ Data independence ◉ Complex applications
programming and use
◉ Database integrity
◉ Implementation limitations
◉ Efficiency
◉ Lack of standards
 The Network Model
◎ Created to
◉ Represent complex data relationships more
effectively
◉ Improve database performance
◉ Impose a database standard
◎ Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL)
◎ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
◎ Database Task Group (DBTG)
 Network Model—Basic Structure

◎ Resembles hierarchical model

◎ Collection of records in 1:M relationships
◎ Set
◉ Relationship
◉ Composed of at least two record types
￮ Owner
● Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
￮ Member
● Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
 The Network Data Model
ADVANTAGES
◉ Conceptual simplicity
◉ Handles more relationship types
◉ Data access flexibility
◉ Promotes database integrity
Disadvantages
◉ Data independence
◉ Conformance to standards ◉ System complexity
◉ Lack of structural
independence
 The Relational Model

◎ Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970

◎ Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
◎ Conceptually simple
◎ Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
◎ Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational
database software
 The Relational Model—Basic Structure

◎ Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

◎ Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and network DBMS
systems, plus other functions
◎ Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to let the
user/designer operate in a human logical environment
◎ Table (relations)
◉ Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections
◉ Related to each other by sharing a common entity characteristic
◎ Relational schema
◉ Visual representation of relational database’s entities, attributes within those entities, and
relationships between those entities
 Relational Table

◎ Stores a collection of related entities

◉ Resembles a file
◎ Relational table is purely logical structure
◉ How data are physically stored in the database is of
no concern to the user or the designer
◉ This property became the source of a real database
revolution
 The Relational Model
ADVANTAGES Disadvantages
◉ Structural independence
◉ Substantial hardware and
◉ Improved conceptual simplicity system software
overhead.
◉ Easier database design,
implementation, management, and ◉ Can facilitate poor design
and implementation
use
◉ May promote “islands of
◉ Ad hoc query capability information” problems
◉ Powerful database management
system
Break……..
 The Entity Relationship Model

◎ Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data

modeling
◎ Introduced by Chen in 1976
◎ Graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in a database structure
 The Entity Relationship Model—
Basic Structure

◎ Entity relationship diagram (ERD)

◉ Uses graphic representations to model database components
◉ Entity is mapped to a relational table
◎ Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table
◎ Entity set is collection of like entities
◎ Connectivity labels types of relationships
◉ Diamond connected to related entities through a relationship
line
 The Entity Relationship Model
ADVANTAGES Disadvantages
◉ Exceptional conceptual simplicity ◉ Limited constraint
representation
◉ Visual representation
◉ Limited relationship
◉ Effective communication tool representation

◉ Integrated with the relational data ◉ No data manipulation

model language
◉ Loss of information content
 The Object Oriented Model

◎ Semantic data model (SDM) developed by Hammer

and McLeod in 1981
◎ Modeled both data and their relationships in a single
structure known as an object
◎ Basis of object oriented data model (OODM)
◎ OODM becomes the basis for the object oriented
database management system (OODBMS)
 The Object Oriented Model (continued)

◎ Object is described by its factual content

◉ Like relational model’s entity
◎ Includes information about relationships between facts
within object and relationships with other objects
◉ Unlike relational model’s entity
◎ Subsequent OODM development allowed an object to
also contain operations
◎ Object becomes basic building block for autonomous
structures
 Developments that
Boosted OODM’s Popularity
◎ Growing costs put a premium on code reusability

◎ Complex data types and system requirements became

difficult to manage with a traditional RDBMS

◎ Became possible to support increasingly sophisticated

transaction & information requirements

◎ Ever-increasing computing power made it possible to

support the large computing overhead required
 Object Oriented Data Model—
Basic Structure

◎ Object: abstraction of a real-world entity

◎ Attributes describe the properties of an object
◎ Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in
classes
◎ Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
◎ Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class
hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of classes
above it
A Comparison of the OO Model
and the ER Model
 The Object Oriented Model
ADVANTAGES Disadvantages
◉ Adds semantic content ◉ Slow pace of OODM
standards development
◉ Visual presentation includes
semantic content ◉ Complex navigational data
access
◉ Database integrity
◉ Steep learning curve
◉ Both structural and data ◉ High system overhead slows
independence transactions
◉ Lack of market penetration
 Other Models
◎ Extended Relational Data Model ◎ Date’s objections to ERDM label
(ERDM) ◉ Given proper support for
domains, relational data models
◉ Semantic data model are quite capable of handling
developed in response to complex data
increasing complexity of
applications ￮ Therefore, capability that
is supposedly being
◉ DBMS based on the ERDM extended is already there
often described as an ◉ O/RDM label is not accurate
object/relational database because the relational data
management system model’s domain is not an
(O/RDBMS) object model structure
◉ Primarily geared to business
applications
 Data Models: A Summary

◎ Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings

of previous models

◎ Common characteristics:
◉ Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic
completeness of the database
◉ Represent the real world as closely as possible
◉ Representation of real-world transformations (behavior) must be in
compliance with consistency and integrity characteristics of any
data model
The Development of Data Models:
A Summary
 Break…

Test 1 (chapter 1-4, Time: 2hours, Date?)

Next subtopic:
Database Models and the Internet
 Database Models and the Internet

Characteristics of successful “Internet age” databases

✔ Flexible, efficient, and secure Internet access that is easily used, developed, and
supported

✔ Support for complex data types and relationships

✔ Seamless interfacing with multiple data sources and structures

✔ Relative conceptual simplicity to make database design and implementation less

cumbersome

✔ An abundance of available database design, implementation, and application

development tools

✔ A powerful DBMS graphical user interface (GUI) to help make the DBA’s job easier
Database Models and the Internet
 Degrees of Data Abstraction
✔ Way of classifying data models

✔ Many processes begin at high level of abstraction and proceed to an

ever-increasing level of detail

✔ Designing a usable database follows the same basic process

✔ American National Standards Institute/Standards Planning and Requirements

Committee (ANSI/SPARC)

✔ Classified data models according to their degree of abstraction (1970s):

Conceptual
External
Internal
Physical
 The Conceptual Model
❖ Represents global view of the database

❖ Enterprise-wide representation of data as viewed by high-level managers

❖ Basis for identification and description of main data objects, avoiding details

❖ Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship (ER) model

• Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment

• Independent of both software and hardware ADVANTAGES
• Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model
• Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model
• Changes in either the hardware or the DBMS software have no effect on the database
design at the conceptual level
The Conceptual Model for Tiny College
 The Internal Model
❖ Representation of the database as “seen” by the DBMS

❖ Adapts the conceptual model to the DBMS

❖ Software dependent

❖ Hardware independent

The External Model

❖ End users’ view of the data environment
❖ Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements and constraints into
functional modules that can be examined within the framework of their external
models
❖ Good design should:
• Consider such relationships between views
• Provide programmers with a set of restrictions that govern common entities
A Division of an Internal Model into External Models
 The External Model

ADVANTAGES
• Use of database subsets makes application program development much simpler
• Facilitates designer’s task by making it easier to identify specific data required to support
each business unit’s operations
• Provides feedback about the conceptual model’s adequacy
• Creation of external models helps to ensure security constraints in the database design
The External Model for Tiny College
 The Physical Model
❖ Operates at lowest level of
abstraction, describing the way data
are saved on storage media such as Levels of Data Abstraction
disks or tapes

❖ Software and hardware dependent

❖ Requires that database designers

have a detailed knowledge of the
hardware and software used to
implement database design
 Summary
✔ A good DBMS will perform poorly with a poorly designed database

✔ A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex real-world data-gathering environment

✔ Basic data modeling components are: Entities, Attributes, Relationships

✔ Hierarchical model:
▪ Based on a tree structure composed of a root segment, parent segments, and child segments
▪ Depicts a set of one-to-many (l:M) relationships between a parent and its children
▪ Does not include ad hoc querying capability

✔ Network model attempts to deal with many of the hierarchical model’s limitations

✔ Relational model

✔ Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented model

✔Data modeling requirements are a function of different data views (global vs. local) and level of data
abstraction