Background of study

In Ghana and world wide, road traffic accidents continue to be a major public health
and development challenge in Ghana. Road accidents contribute to the top 10 causes of deaths,
draining 2.54% of its gross domestic product annually. Some recent reports suggest that between
January and July 2021, about 8 deaths and 43 injuries were recorded daily on Ghana’s roads.
(Boakye, 2021)

Every year the lives of approximately 1.3 million people are cut short as a result of a road traffic
crash. Between 20 and 50 million more people suffer non-fatal injuries, with many incurring a
disability as a result of their injury. Road traffic injuries cause considerable economic losses to
individuals, their families, and to nations as a whole. These losses arise from the cost of
treatment as well as lost productivity for those killed or disabled by their injuries, and for family
members who need to take time off work or school to care for the injured. Road traffic crashes
cost most countries 3% of their gross domestic product (UN, 2022)

More than 60% of road traffic fatalities occured in children and young persons under 35
years of age.2 Aside the mortality and morbidity associated with the road crashes, Ghanaian
households spend an average of US$ 1687.65 in direct and indirect cost on severe injuries
associated with road crashes, while many suffer considerable degrees of psychological dis-
tress. (PK, et al., 2019)

The recent surge in road deaths and injuries has ignited demands for a sharper policy focus on
road carnage. The conversation, however, appears to be heavily oriented towards doing more of
the existing control measures. These are the so-called 3Es: education; enforcement and
engineering. The burden of road crashes in Ghana require a conscientious and multi-sectorial
approach to reduce its occurrence and impact, while policies need strengthening and enforcing at
all levels. The impact of RTAs may be mitigated by efficient emergency systems as well as
policies which support care of victims. However, at the primary level, implementation of traffic
rules and regulations is key, as discussions on road and vehicle safety are broadened. Road safety
should be of concern to all stakeholders, as both motorists and pedestrians are at risk of the
hazards of road crashes (Blankson & Lartey, 2020)
Failure to increase vehicle inspection facilities in Ghana over the years, coupled with rapid
increase in number of vehicles, has resulted in a situation where demand for mandatory vehicle
inspection has surpassed the capacity of the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) of
Ghana. Congestion and long delays are experienced at the vehicle inspection centers. Greater
Accra Region (GAR) comprises of Accra Metropolitan Assembly and fifteen districts. Accra is
the national capital and the largest city in Ghana with an estimated urban population of 2.3
million (Odoi, 2013). GAR, with a population of about 3.9 million people, is the largest
settlement in Ghana, by population. Consequently, the inspection centers are characterized by
long queues and congestion, which are worsened by other activities of the DVLA, as the centers
are shared with other DVLA departments for new registration, change of vehicle ownership,
national and international driving licenses.

Ghana operates a Periodic Motor Vehicle Inspection (PMVI) as pertains in Sweden, United
Kingdom and Australia. Random roadside inspections (Zaney , 2011) by police and DVLA
complement the PMVI. The schedule for PMVI in Ghana as given by (Adoko, 2015) indicate
that all vehicles are inspected once every year except commercial passenger vehicles which are
inspected at six (6)-month intervals. Hence, the purpose of this work is to ascertain the standard
criteria for vehicle evaluation and inspection, aside reinvestigating the major causes of road
accidents here in Ghana.

Problem Statement
Africa is the globe’s least motorized region, accounting for just 2% of the world’s vehicles. Yet
Africa records the highest rate of road deaths with the world health organization pegging the rate
in Africa at 26 deaths per 100,000 people, with South East Asia’s , the second highest rate in the
world, hovers around 20.7 deaths per 100,000 people (Festival, 2022). This statistic indicates the
loophole that has been created with regards to the road safety in Africa, Ghana to be precise.
From the lack of vehicle inspection facilities over the years coupled with the rapid increase in the
number of vehicles, there seems to be no hope to the improvement of road safety in the country.
Much more, the standard criteria for ensuring accident vehicles are well evaluated and assessed
are not followed properly as the majority of road users do not have the right attitude towards
road safety.
Another major challenge is the lack of private vehicle testing centers. The greatest challenge in
privatization of vehicle inspection is in the ability of the regulator to ensure that inspection
centers apply the guidelines uniformly. Results coming from Thailand (Taneerananon, et al.,
2005) indicate that motorists may opt to have their vehicle inspected at stations that have less
stringent testing routines, where the standards are not so well, and this is a major factor which
contributes to road accidents. Even though statistics indicate that road safety is a major problem
in Ghana, studies to investigate and understand issues of road traffic collision and associated
factors have been insufficient. Meanwhile understanding the physiology of road traffic crashes is
critical to policy formulations and directions, as well as a priority in any decision-making efforts
related to public safety and welfare (Odonkor, et al., 2020).

The road safety challenges in Ghana include high fatality rates, poor driving knowledge, skills
and capabilities, poor maintenance of vehicles, inadequate capacity for vehicle inspections,
inadequate capacity for traffic safety engineering and poor road traffic enforcement capacity and
tactics. In addition to this the national vehicle fleet appears to be quite old and poorly
maintained, vehicle examination, licensing and driving training are poor. This research tends to
explore all these areas, but shedding more light on accident vehicle examination.

Research Objectives.
The main objective is to investigate road accidents in Ghana and ascertain the standard criteria
for vehicle evaluation and inspection

Specific Objectives.
 To investigate issues with road traffic collisions
 To identify the number of vehicle testing centers that meet the national demand.
 To understand the physiology of road traffic crashes critical to policy formulations.
 To find out the level of awareness among people on vehicle valuation
 To find out whether poor maintenance of vehicle contribute to road accident occurrences
 To examine how effective vehicle valuation can reduce road accident occurrences
 To identify the constraints faced by people in evaluating their vehicle.
Research Question
The researchers posed some questions with respect to the subject matter. The questions are as
follows:
i. What is the level of awareness among people on vehicle valuation?
ii. How does poor maintenance of vehicles contribute to road accident occurrences?
iii. Can effective vehicle valuation reduce road accident occurrences?
iv. What are the constraints faced by people in evaluating their vehicle?

Significance of the Study

The study will serve as a reference material for researchers, Motorist, Ministry of transportation,
FRSC and other organizations that are interested in traffic management. The importance of this study
cannot be over emphasized it will help to determine the awareness level of people about vehicle
valuation. The study will help to reveal the level of vehicle valuation on reduction of road accident
occurrences. Findings from the study will help to serve as a source of comparison to other. An
estimate of the total national cost of road accidents will help Governments realize the heavy
economic losses being incurred annually. This will encourage them to invest in road safety
improvements to reduce these losses.

This study equally served as a platform for further enquiries in related subject matters and as a
resource material for researchers who intend to carry out studies in this and other related areas.
LITERATURE REVIEW
History of road traffic accidents in the world
Road traffic accidents (RTAs) affect populations all over the world; different local factors
influence the causes of RTA in specific regions. The causes of RTAs’ among others include
human or driver errors, vehicle characteristics, traffic infrastructures including engineering
design, road maintenance and traffic regulation Driver attitude including road courtesy and
behavior r driving under the influence of drugs especially alcohol, male sex, use of seat belts,
driver age (teenage drivers and elderly drivers) etc. (Bjerre, et al., 2006), are among recognized
human factors.

Globally the economic impact of RTAs is relatively huge. It is estimated that US $518 billion is
spent globally on RTAs’, with US $65 billion being spent in low and middle income countries,
this amount being reported as spent in low and middle income countries being bigger than what
these countries receive per year, in development aid (Perden, 2007) The public heath impact of
RTAs’ prompted the world health organisation (WHO) to focus attention in 2004 on a global
campaign to curb this growing public health burden (WHO & World Bank, 2004). Road Traffic
Accidents (RTA) keep increasing every year in Ghana. In 2012 alone, 2,249 Ghanaians lost their
lives while 14,169 got injured through RTA (Road Safety Commission 2012). The increasing
population in Ghana coupled with the increasing vehicle ownership and the use of defective
tyres, poor road user attitudes are among the reasons accounting for the alarming rate of RTAs in
the country. For instance, according to World Report on Injury prevention (2011), the increasing
population in most low-income countries including regions in Africa and Asia, coupled with the
increasing vehicle ownership, poor surveillance on road users, human, technical errors are
among the several reasons accounting for the alarming rate of RTA. In Africa and particularly in
Ghana, mortalities and morbidities associated with road transport injuries are most often among
pedestrians, passengers, cyclists, users of motorized two-wheels, and occupants of buses and
mini buses (National Road Safety Commission and (Lopez & Murray, 2001).

The economic loss in terms of GDP to this country in addition to other burdens such as the
trauma, disabilities, high cost of treatment, long period of hospitalization and the fact that there
are often permanent loss of lives makes the high incidence of RTAs a public health and
developmental concern in Ghana. There is thus an urgent need to bring to the fore the shattering
nature of road transport injuries and its associated burdens and to create awareness for its
prevention (Siaw, et al., 2013). In Ghana, statistics show that between 2002 and 2008, 13,166
people were killed in road accidents. Of that figure, 42% were pedestrians, 23% were passengers
in buses, and 12% were car occupants, while the remaining 23% consisted of riders (National
Road Safety Commission, 2008). Road transport accident have been identified to be the second
cause of death in the country y. With the first being malaria (Building and Road Research
Institute, 2009). Among the major global efforts aimed at reducing road traffic injuries is the
adoption of the UN Decade of Action of Road Safety which encourages governments to be
committed to road safety action plan that address the ‘five pillars’ in good practices: Better road
safety management, safer roads, safer vehicles, safer road user behavior and better post-crash
response. It was expected that after the Government of Ghana has promulgated the National
Road Safety Commission Act (NRSC Act 567) in 1999 and mandated the commission to provide
strategic leadership for developing and implementing interventions and measures towards a
sustainable management of road safety in Ghana, road traffic accidents would decrease. But a
study conducted (Siaw, et al., 2013) saw that there has been continuous increase in RTAs from
years before the Act, and after the Act. The study found that after the promulgation of the Act,
RTAs cases have rather increased and have almost doubled from about 8500 in 1999 to about
1600 in 2012 over a period of 13 years which is too short a time. If the causes of increasing road
traffic accidents are mainly attitudinal and emanating from indiscipline by road users then there
is the need to refocus attention on behavior change education so as to have safer road user
behavior

Road traffic accidents in Africa

Currently, road traffic accidents worldwide are estimated to claim the lives of 1.4 million people
per year and injure an additional 20–50 million. By 2050 the International Futures (IFs)
forecasting model anticipates that global traffic deaths will surpass 3 million people per year.
This forecast shows that Africa will be particularly hard hit and will account for over 1 million of
these deaths, or 35 per cent of the global total, this is to say by 2050, traffic accidents in Africa
will kill almost the same number of people annually as now die from HIV/ AIDS in East and
Southern Africa combined. And, for every 20 Africans who die in 2050, one will be killed in a
traffic accident (Eshbaugh, et al., 2012).
The first UN report on the nature and dynamics of road safety was published in 1962 and was
followed by a traffic accident prevention resolution in 1966. The following decades saw the
proliferation of national traffic safety institutions, regulations and strategies in the developed
world. The success of such interventions has led Europe and North America to experience an
overall improvement in road safety, while still increasing the number of vehicles on the
road. As such, the push by the UN Secretary General for all countries to implement national
traffic strategies and build monitoring institutions is a good step toward dealing with traffic-
related mortality.
The risk of a road traffic death varies significantly from region to region, and there has been little
change in regional road traffic death rates of since 2010. Globally, the highest rates are still
found in the African region, while the European region has a rate far below the global average at
9.3 per 100,000 population, relative to the global rate of 17 (WHO 2018).
Road Traffic accidents are also a development issue. Generally speaking, as gross domestic
product (GDP) per capita rises and households earn more disposable income, countries
experience a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the road. Very often, such increases
in road traffic are not matched by adequate improvements in infrastructure and road safety
legislation. This results in a lag between private expenditure on vehicles and the public
expenditure necessary to accommodate increased motorization. (Eshbaugh, et al., 2012). expects
that for every 100 000 people in Africa, 48 will die in traffic accidents in 2050. However, by
simulating best practices in road traffic policies, our improved scenario expects that, for every
100 000 people in Africa only 32 will die in traffic accidents in 2050. Through the Global Plan
for the Decade of Action (2011-2020), the African Road Safety Action Plan, the African Road
Safety Charter, and the targets set out in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Africa has
made strong commitments to improve road safety outcomes on the continent (Gomez, et al.,
n.d.).
The current ranking of road injuries in Sub-Saharan African countries is similar to those for other
developing countries, which have already begun to prioritize road safety in their development
agenda through increased political attention and financial commitments. This is not the case yet
in sub-Saharan Africa. Instead, the health agenda in sub-Saharan Africa remains focused
primarily on infectious diseases, maternal health, and childhood diseases. However, it has been
findings show that more people die in road crashes in Africa than from tuberculosis and maternal
disorders. (Gomez, et al., n.d.) showed that road injury death rates in sub-Saharan Africa are
amongst the highest in the world. Six countries from the region rank among the ten least safe
countries in the world. Three regions of sub-Saharan Africa (Western, Eastern and Central) have
the highest death rates of any regions in the world. In two regions (Western and Southern), the
road death toll has more than doubled since 1990. RTIs cost governments approximately 3% of
GDP. In spite of this massive – and largely preventable – human and economic toll, action to
combat this global challenge has been insufficient. Africa continues to have the most dangerous
roads in the world, with the risk of death from road traffic injury being highest on the continent
(26.6 per 100,000 population) and the lowest in Europe (9.3 per 100 000 population) while the
global average is 17.4 per 100,000 population.
The adoption of Agenda 2063 by the African Union as the blueprint for the continent’s long-term
development agenda signals the continent’s commitment to transform its economies. Yet, this
growth trajectory could be threatened if African countries continue to experience economic and
social drains from RTIs1. This growth has also increased the number of vehicles on Africa’s
roads which increases the risk of crashes and death from traffic injuries, especially in countries
with inadequate traffic management and road safety management in general. (Anon., n.d.).
Taking road safety into consideration in African countries’ development frameworks will, reduce
the economic and social burdens imposed by road crashes on African economies and create the
required fiscal space to implement African Union’s Agenda 2063

Road traffic accidents in Ghana

The total estimated population of Accra in 2019 and 2020 was 2,116,268 and 2,173,4076
respectively. Figure 1 shows the sex distribution of Accra’s estimated population for 2019 and
2020. The total number of estimated registered vehicles at the Accra office of the Driver and
Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) for 2019 and 2020 was 710,971 and 915,391 respectively.
More than half of the estimated number of registered vehicles in 2019 (62%) and 2020 (58%)
were cars/SUVs/pickups (Assembly, 2021).

Data compiled the motor traffic and transport department of the Ghana Police Service indicated
that the total number of commuters killed in road traffic accidents recorded a 12.76% jump from
2017, This means persons killed rose from 2,076 in 2017 to a total 2341in 2018.
Accra, the capital city of Ghana, like other urban areas in the country, experiences daily
interactions between the urban elements and human activities due to high agglomeration of
commercial activities. These interactions cut across different urban land use zones, commercial,
residential, recreational and industrial areas and often cause severe conflicts between the use of
space for pedestrians and motorists which frequently leads to vehicular accidents (Agyakwa,
2018). Accidents materialize when traffic moves and WHO (2015) attested that, 85% of road
traffic deaths occur in low to middle income countries where 81% of the world population lives,
but owns just about 20% of the world’s vehicles. Accordingly, 60% of all road traffic accidents
in Ghana is attributed to speeding which is the primary cause of collisions (Coleman, 2014).

Human factors are aspects which cannot be ignored in road safety analysis. Three human factors
that influence the occurrence of RTA have been recognized in Ghana. First drivers actions,
Ignorance affecting the absence of or inadequate understanding and deliberate negligence of
driving codes, driving under the influence of narcotic drugs or alcohol, unlicensed drivers and
conscious overloading highly influence road traffic injuries in Ghana (GNA, 2007). Another
cause of road accident is over speeding. Motorists who go beyond or below the prescribed speed
limits on road could hit other vehicles and they could be hit as well. Statistics show that about
30% of accidents on the roads are caused because of speeding (Akongbota , 2011). four persons
daily in Ghana. In 2001, Ghana was rated as the second highest road traffic accident prone
nation among six West African countries, with 73 deaths per 1000 accidents (Sarpong, 2011).
Some drivers disregard road rules since they are more concerned of getting to their destination
than of how they would get there especially in the festive seasons as there are always many
passengers and they want to travel as many times as they can to take advantage of the increasing
number of passengers. Such drivers would violate road rules and laws just to get to where they
are going. All these, would definitely cause serious road accidents. As much as accidents are
caused by various factors, there are always preventive measures or steps that can be taken to
prevent them. Road accidents have great effect on any country's economy especially, a
developing country, like Ghana. Statistics from the National Road Safety Commission shows
that, Ghana loses about 1.7 per cent of its Gross Domestic Product which is over 230 million
dollars every year beside the loss of lives to road accidents (Agency, 2010). Fortunately, the
government and donor community have reacted quickly and increased funding to the National
Road Safety Commission (NRSC), enabling the NRSC to expand and implement new targeted
road safety initiatives.

Vehicle valuation
Valuation of a motor vehicle or piece of equipment is the process of determining how much a
used vehicle or piece of equipment is worth on the open market. It's the standard approach used
by industry experts when determining how much anything used is worth (Miles, 2015). An
automobile valuation is a procedure for determining an automobile's market value. The process
of determining how much a car is worth. A motor vehicle's worth may be estimated with the help
of expert technical knowledge and judgment in the field of engineering valuation and evaluation
(Miles, 2015).
A property's worth may be estimated by discounting the expected future revenue from the
property based on its known historical valuation. Simply put, a valuation is the estimate of the
price at which a piece of property may be expected to change hands on a certain date.
Furthermore, the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors states that valuation is a made-up deal.
By requesting an estimate of valuation, you are effectively putting the property up for sale.
Simply by requesting an estimate of valuation, the owner has indicated his intention to "sell,"
despite the fact that he is well aware that the current market is unfavorable (Damodaran, 2012).
Simply because he is unhappy with the price does not give him permission to become
uncooperative (valuation figure). The purchase price is the sole relevant consideration in any
value. Another definition of valuation is an estimate of the price at which an asset may be
expected to be sold. An appraisal combines a computation of value, which determines how much
an investment would bring to a certain buyer or seller, with an analysis of the investment's
historical performance. " A valuation appraisal is "an objective analysis, opinion, or conclusion
that estimates the value of an identified parcel of real estate or real property at a particular point
in time," which is the same thing as saying that the act or process of estimating value is the same
thing as a valuation appraisal. Valuation, as demonstrated by the definitions provided above, is
the procedure of estimating the value of an item or property at a certain point in time. It's crucial
to get an unbiased valuation of the property's worth. A rise in both vehicle ownership and use has
coincided with a rise in vehicle complexity. The need to have accurate valuations for these cars
for insurance, sales, purchases, bookkeeping, etc., has grown steadily throughout the years
(Shapiro et al., 2019).
The Methods Of Valuation
First, there's "book valuation," which involves depreciating a car or piece of equipment over a
certain period of time until its worth is reduced to zero. Typically, this is seen in the yearly
financial reports of businesses and other organizations.
The second step is the replacement cost valuation, in which the time, money, and other inputs
needed to return the vehicle to a safe and functioning condition are determined. If more money
has to be spent on materials, then the vehicle or piece of equipment isn't worth as much. In cases
when the vehicle or piece of equipment is so broken that it is destined for junk, this technique
may be used to remove any remaining usable parts. Commonly, just the chassis and a few broken
parts remain (Wyatt, 2009).
The third kind of valuation, known as "market/economic valuation," involves using standard
methods and techniques to arrive at an estimate of a vehicle or piece of equipment's worth. In
commercial or corporate contexts, this is the best way to determine the value of a vehicle or
piece of equipment (Chaudhry et al, 2007).
Institutional valuation is when a business or government agency sets the value of a pre-owned
car based on its own internal guidelines. Institutions inside corporations have their own unique
approaches to internal valuation. The lack of a clear and consistent corporate policy on value is a
major problem (Templeton, 2015).
Finally, computer-aided valuation This kind of valuation should be used as a rough estimate
only. The program may provide an estimate of the vehicle or piece of equipment's residual value
after the user enters basic information about the vehicle or piece of equipment, such as its miles,
hours of use, age, VIN, and model. Realistic assessments depend entirely on on-site inspection
(Erarslan, 2012).
Aspects That Determine A Vehicle’s Valuation
 The Vehicle's Age/Service Life
A vehicle's lifespan is affected by a wide variety of variables. Vehicle use and national
regulations vary widely. In the United States, a commercial vehicle has an average lifespan of 15
years, a salesman's vehicle lasts an average of 10 years, and a personal vehicle lasts an average
of 20 years.
Figure 1: Depreciation based on vehicle age
It is well-established that a car's age has a significant impact on its market value.
Value declines precipitously in the first decade after purchase.
After 10 years, the car is only worth 20% of what you paid for it, and after 20 years, it's only
worth 10% of what you paid.
 Mileage
Most cars may be driven for roughly 250,000 kilometers before serious maintenance is required.
The moving mechanical elements of an automobile degrade over time when the car is driven.
The engine and transmission train are the two most expensive mechanical components of a car.
This whole assembly has an estimated 250,000-kilometer lifespan.
The dollar worth of your car decreases with every kilometer driven, a factor known as "mileage
depreciation."
Figure 2: Depreciation based on vehicle mileage
After the first 10,000 miles, a car loses its value slowly, but after 50,000 miles, it goes off
sharply, eventually dropping to around 75% of its initial price. The reason for this is that
automotive depreciation varies from year to year. It has been shown that a car's resale value can
never drop below 50% due to its mileage.
The condition of the engine and transmission train is crucial in establishing the worth of a
vehicle, as was mentioned before. Cracked or damaged engine block, knocked, resurfaced
crankshaft to 02 or 04, smoky exhaust, leaky engine oil, faulty gearbox, faulty braking systems,
etc. The condition of a vehicle's exterior has a significant impact on its market value. Body issues
may include paint that has faded or been scratched, damage to the trunk, hood, or bonnet from an
accident, or corrosion on the roof, floors, or other structural elements. Tires, while being readily
replaced, will be considered, and their condition at the time of appraisal may also tell a narrative.
New tires, good tires, and worn tires are the three standard categories for describing tire
conditions. The longevity and resale value of a vehicle is directly proportional to how well it has
been cared for and maintained during its lifetime. The value of a vehicle rises if all of its
attachments are in good working order, and its functionality is a good proxy for its age and the
kind of care it has received.
CHAPTER THREE
STUDY LOCATION
Accra is the hub of the Greater Accra Region and the administrative and economic center

of Ghana. There are 2.27 million people that live in the city (Ghana Statistical Services,

2019). Over its 238,533 km2 territory, its projected population is 4,010,054 (World

Population Review, 2019). It is the most populated and one of the most urbanized cities in

Ghana. There are ten different governmental subdivisions in Accra. These include nine

different municipal districts and the Accra metropolitan region. The only part of the capital

to be officially recognized as a city is the Accra metropolitan district. The Gulf of Guinea

borders Accra on the south, while the Great Hall of the University of Ghana borders it on

the north. Accra's eastern boundary is marked by the Nautical University. The western

boundary of Accra is defined by the confluence of the Lafa Stream and the Mallam

Junction (World Population Review, 2019). It serves as the political and commercial center

of the Greater Accra Area. Accra's key economic drivers include the banking and retail

industries, as well as fishing, food processing, and textile and apparel production. 50.9% of

Accra's population consists of men, for women, it's 49.1 percent (National Center for

Health Statistics).

ZA2RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design specifies the steps to be taken in gathering and analyzing the study's data.

The study's quantitative and qualitative approaches are decided by the research design. The

study used a quantitative technique, characterized by a systematic and objective approach

to measuring variables and discovering relationships (Walker, 2005). Relationships

between variables were examined using quantitative approaches. Data collected from both

primary and secondary sources were descriptively and inductively analyzed to shed light on
the topic. Explanatory techniques were used to quantitatively examine the relationships

between the variables of interest, while descriptive methods were utilized to identify and

characterize the variables of interest (Mohajan, 2020). The data was gathered using a

survey. Prospective participants who were interested in taking part in the study filled out

their questionnaires at their own pace.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

Primary and secondary data collection techniques are the two most common approaches to

collecting data. Researchers utilized a survey method and structured questionnaires to

gather information for this investigation (Nardi, 2018). The survey relied on self-

administered questionnaires to collect the necessary information (Afolayan & Oniyinde

2019). Primary data was obtained from a survey carried out by administering

questionnaires randomly to vehicle vendors, owners, and drivers of some vehicle types

which are mostly engaged in an accident. This was complemented by secondary data of

reported vehicular accidents as its main data source.

PRIMARY
The primary data collection was undertaken after the secondary data analysis. Essentially, the

primary data collection was embarked on to reinforce the understanding and interpretations of the

outcomes of the secondary data analysis. It also aided in identifying ways of improving accident

occurrences data collection in Ghana and how the vehicle valuation aspects of accident analysis can

be incorporated into current accident studies in Ghana. This was achieved through questionnaire

administration. These shed light on how to advance accident data collection techniques and ways

of analyzing it, find potential causes, and means of minimizing the number of accidents
 SECONDARY SOURCE
The vehicular accident data available, is f r o m a two-year period, from 2021 to 2022. This

was collected through a joint initiative of the Building and Road Research Institute (BRRI)

of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghana in collaboration with the Motto

Traffic and Transport Unit (MTTU) of the Ghana Police Service, Greater Accra Region,

Ghana, the Vehicle Licensing Department (DVLA) and the National Road Safety

Commission (NRSC). It should be noted that the WHO and other international bodies who

needed information on traffic accidents fall on this source. The data included regional

statistics, age, and sex differentials in road accidents over the period. The collection process

for these data includes the recording of details about the accident, together with the type of

vehicles involved in the accidents. BRRI is among the thirteen research institutes of CSIR

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research), Ghana. The data contained those accidents

that had occurred in the region within the period under consideration. The data collected

included the year, month, time, and place of the accident, the number of vehicles, the

amount and types of vehicles involved in the accident, the accident category, and the

mechanism of the accident. The total number of casualties and possible fatalities per each

accident episode were also elicited. Data were collected on whether the vehicle was

licensed or not.

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The instrument used for data collection was questionnaires. The researcher used mainly

structured questionnaires to gather data from respondents. Questionnaires were used

because they are the cheapest means of gathering data from a larger number of respondents

at a time or within a short period of time. Also, questionnaires give the researcher the

opportunity to administer the questions to the respondents and allow them to read through
and understand them before they answer them. An interview provides the same results as

structured questionnaires but unlike structured questionnaires, an interview guide provides

more details. Structured questionnaires are mostly closed-ended questions while interviews

are open-ended in nature (Kothari, 2004). The questionnaires were semi-structured with

open-ended and close-ended questions. According to Bryman (2012), a close-ended

question is pursued to restrict the interviewee to select predefined fixed options such as

using the Likert scale while the open-ended allows respondents to give their own opinions

to the specified question. This mostly comes with an extensive variety of responses. With

open-ended questions, the researcher had the responsibility of making meaning out of them

to facilitate better interpretation.

DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis is an integral part of a study and in this study; a quantitative research approach was

adopted to analyze data. Prior to data analysis, data were categorized, summarized, and

regrouped to give a definite pattern and structure to the data before analyzing the data (Kent,

2015). The researcher further checked for mistakes, non-responses, errors and spelling, and

others before codding and entering the data into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS) version 26 and MS. Excel. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were featured in the

analysis. The descriptive analysis comprised means and standard deviations, frequencies, and

percentages while the inferential statistics included correlations and regressions.

THE ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

The ethical issues thought-out are with respect to the secondary data acquisition and use

and the primary data collection. The recorded vehicular accident data is anonymous by

reason of not containing any personal information about the victims. This kind of

information is very confidential and sensitive to distribute without restrictions. All the
secondary data used for the research gained informed consent before it was procured from

lawful institutions. Also, in connection with the primary data collection, Fox et al., (2006)

attested to some ethical etiquettes to be carried out. First, the objective of the data being

collected is to be explained; then informed consent is sought from anyone directly involved

with the survey. Finally, any consequences in connection with the data being obtained

should be explained to all respondents. These protocols were followed in all aspects of the

data collection. These ethical etiquettes were also followed during the questionnaire

administration. The researcher also adhered to the confidentiality, anonymity, and privacy

of the respondents where necessary. Also, all online books and publications used have been

rightfully acknowledged.
CHAPTER FOUR

Age of a vehicle has been established to have great influence on the value of motor vehicle.

The value of a vehicle drops rapidly during the first 10 years. At the end of 10 years, the

vehicle is worth only 20% of its original value and at the end of 20 years it is worth only

10% of this original value. The demand for used vehicles in Ghana could be determined by

factors such as population growth, average price of used cars, increase in wealth, average

lending rates from banks and financial institutions, increase in rural-urban migration, etc. In

Ghana both new and used vehicles are imported into the country. However, imports of the

used vehicles far exceed that of the new vehicles (Baba, 2018).

Below is a summary of both new and used vehicles imported into the country for the past

three years.

YEAR NEW USED TOTAL NEW % USED %

2015 28,514 58,183 86,697 32.89 67.11

2016 35,816 76,283 112,099 31.95 68.05
2017 51,521 86,630 138,151 37.29 62.71
GRAND 115,851 221,096 336,947 34.38 65.62
TOTAL
Table : (Baba, 2018)

About Three Hundred and thirty-seven Thousand (337,000) vehicles of all types were

imported into Ghana between 2015 and 2017, out of which Two Hundred and Twenty-One

Thousand (221,000) are used, an average of about Sixty Six percent (66%) used Vehicles.
Most of these used Vehicles that find their way into Ghana are Salvage vehicles, seriously

accidented and more so have less efficient engines compared to newer vehicles. They are

often refurbished by our local mechanics to look as good as new vehicles. The influx of

these salvage vehicles cause traffic congestions in all major cities like Accra (the capital),

Kumasi and Secondi Takoradi. The situation has become so deplorable that in order to

avoid being caught in traffic for hours, workers leave their homes very early in the morning

for work and stay late in the evenings after work before leaving for home.

CRITERIA AND METHODS, INCLUDING THE PROVISION OF INFORMATION

FOR INSPECTION OF VEHICLE

The system should ensure that no vehicle that cannot be used safely and in roadworthy

condition leaves the exporting country as a minimum criterion.

Inspection record

The vehicle examiner shall carry out the necessary inspections and tests to determine

whether the vehicle conforms to this Ghana Standard and he/she shall record his/her

findings in an inspection record.

 In the case of buses and minibuses, the inspection record shall also include items

that are only applicable to these vehicles.

 If the vehicle does not comply with the relevant items in this standard, the examiner

shall state in the inspection record which items did not comply.

 If the vehicle has acceptable damages as prescribed by this standard, the examiner

shall state in the inspection record the damages that require attention or correction.

 A copy of the inspection record shall be handed to the licensed importer presenting
 the vehicle for inspection and a duplicate copy shall be filed for future reference.

Vehicle identification

As with any inspection action, the identification of the item to be inspected is the first

activity to be undertaken. The aim is to ensure that the vehicle documents match both

the VIN and the registration/title. Further checks aim to prevent property issues, or

other kinds of problems such as vehicles declared waste (Eduard , 2021).

The motor vehicle shall be fitted with a clearly imprinted information / data plate affixed in

an accessible place on a door post that displays at least the following particulars:

Manufacturer, Vehicle Identification Number, Gross Vehicle Mass denoted as GVM. Gross

Combination Mass GCM (If applicable), Gross axle weight rating denoted as GA and

GAU, respectively. To correctly identify a vehicle, it is essential to collaborate with the

country of origin’s registration authorities, making available all necessary data for the

receiving country.

The general criteria are as follows: if the vehicle identification data, such as the VIN or

the registration number, do not match, the used vehicle cannot be registered. The inspection

method is visual and documentary even if it is carried out at exporting country or importing

country, As the approach proposed in this report includes taking pictures of some

components in departure, it might be accepted that the vehicle could be restored to its initial

condition

in the case of no match.

Vehicle design

It is highly recommended to undertake the inspection of the vehicle design requirements

at the port of departure since design features are, in most cases, complex and expensive to

update. With this approach, the freight of non-compliant vehicles is partially

prevented. The data used for the vehicle’s first registration can be used if the country where

the vehicle was initially put into service has a vehicle compliance scheme that is deemed

acceptable/equivalent. However, if this is not the case, it will be necessary to undertake the

required checks, which can be complex and expensive. Particularly, vehicles with the

steering wheel on the wrong side for the country of destination should be avoided.

criteria related to vehicle design shall be verified by a documentary check before

shipment, mainly by following the procedure for registering the vehicle for the first time.

The recipient country shall define the criteria, i.e. only vehicles with a Euro 4/IV emission

level or higher and equipped with electronic stability control are admitted. They can also

circumscribe the regulatory framework they recognize.

Vehicle Fitness

The control of the vehicle fitness in the country of departure is linked to the roadworthiness

certificate. Recipient countries shall define the acceptance of the roadworthiness scheme of

the exporting country. The most consistent criteria to ensure vehicles’ fitness is to require a

valid roadworthiness certificate. This applies to countries with an acceptable

roadworthiness

scheme as defined in section. The subject of vehicle fitness testing and certification

requires a clearly defined long term strategy and a practicable approach to make a
substantive and effective start. International experts suggest a soft, graduated but a

structured and progressive approach for countries like Ghana, an environment that operates

a predominant population of older design and age of trucks. The approach recognizes the

reality that if highest international standards were introduced and enforced, it would result

in the majority of trucks being rendered unfit and off-road.

Specific Requirements for used vehicles in Ghana

Steering

A used motor vehicle shall have left-hand steering. The steering system shall turn the

wheels of the vehicle to the left and right. An inspector shall indicate in the inspection

report if the steering system of a vehicle is not functional, and the importer shall be

required to tow the vehicle for the requisite repairs.

Brakes

The motor vehicle shall be fitted with a functional braking system and shall meet the test

limits as prescribed for roadworthiness.

Exhaust emissions

The importer, at the any point of entry into the country shall submit test reports that shows

that the imported vehicle meets the exhaust emission requirement as stated in GS 1219.

The motor vehicle shall be at least Euro 2 compliant

Seats

In the case of Category M vehicles, the width of the seat from the front to the back shall be

at least forty 40 cm. seats designed facing the same direction should have a distance of 70
cm between each other and at least 30 cm between the front edge of each seat. seats

designed facing each other should have a distance of at least 50cm clear of obstruction

between the front edge of one seat and the front edge of the seat facing it.

Lighting devices and reflectors

A motor vehicle shall be fitted with the following lamps: Headlamps, Parking lamps, Rear

lamps, stop lamps, number plate lamp(s), reversing Lamps, brake lamp, direction Indicator

lamp, side-marker lamps, front position lamp.

All lamps fitted to a motor vehicle should be undamaged, properly secured, and capable of

being lighted at all times.

Speedometer and odometer

A used motor vehicle shall have a speedometer indicating speed in kilometers per hour.

The speedometer shall have a functional dial illumination The importation of any motor

vehicle that lacks an odometer at the time of importation is prohibited. The importation of

any motor vehicle with an odometer that has been tempered with or any motor vehicle with

an odometer reading that does not correctly record the distance that the vehicle has been

driven will not be allowed.

Tyres

The motor vehicle shall be fitted with pneumatic tyres manufactured for use in hot and

normal weather conditions labeled temperature. The motor vehicle shall not be fitted with a

tyre that is five years older than the date of manufacture. The tyres shall be of specified

sizes and suited to withstand the maximum permissible loads of the motor vehicle to which

they are fitted.

Rear-view Mirrors
A motor vehicle shall be so constructed and maintained as to afford the driver thereof a full

and clear view of the roadway ahead and to his or her right and left when the vehicle is in

use; b. A motor vehicle shall be fitted with a rearview mirror or mirrors enabling the driver

of such vehicle, when he or she is in the driving position, to see in clear weather a clear

reflection of traffic to the rear: Provided that the provisions of this paragraph shall not

apply in respect of a tractor.

Wipers

A motor vehicle shall be fitted with a windscreen with at least one windscreen wiper which

shall be capable of operation by other than manual means and shall, when in operation,

wipe the outside of the windscreen directly in front of the driver, continuously, evenly and

adequately.

All exports of used vehicles to Ghana will require valid Certificates of Conformity that can

be obtained from approved third-party inspection bodies or through trained and licensed

used vehicle dealerships in Ghana. Ghana announced in mid-November 2022, that these

new requirements will go into force on January 1, 2023. However, the Ghana Standards

Authority (GSA) has not yet published the list of approved inspection bodies and licensed

used vehicle dealerships with their contact details. Ghana subsequently notified the WTO

that entry into force would be delayed, possibly to July 2023.

Additionally, the GSA announced that all importers and assemblers of new vehicles need to

register with the GSA and ensure that vehicle models imported or assembled are

homologated (certified) by the GSA in line with the relevant Ghana Standards for new

vehicles of categories M1 (Passenger cars and SUVs), M2 (Minibuses), and N1 (Pickups

and cargo vans). (Administration, 2023).

REQUISITE REPORTS FOR VEHICLE CLEARANCE AT POINT OF ENTRY.

Motor vehicle emission report, Road worthiness test report from an agency approved by the

regulator indicating compliance to this Standard, Certificate of conformity to prove it

adheres to the safety standards set by the relevant regulator. With this procedure in place,

an initial inspection can be carried out before the vehicle leaves the exporting country to

ensure identification, eligibility of the conception and, when necessary, roadworthiness. At

the port of entry, it is essential to have this information available in real-time, online,

through a web platform with access to the countries of origin of the vehicle. All

information should be based on the unique vehicle identification number – VIN. It would

be preferable to have the complete process and chain of information from the vehicle

history to the point of export. Once this in place, the real inspections procedures of the

importing country can start. If the importing country already has a PTI implemented, this

can also be used as the basis for the Port of Arrival Inspection, as it includes an inspection

of the general condition of the vehicle and also identifies any fixings on the vehicle.
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