Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

DOI 10.1007/s00126-016-0693-5

ARTICLE

Temporal evolution of the giant Salobo IOCG deposit, Carajás

Province (Brazil): constraints from paragenesis of hydrothermal
alteration and U-Pb geochronology
Gustavo H. C. deMelo 1 & Lena V. S. Monteiro 2 & Roberto P Xavier 1 &
Carolina P. N. Moreto 1 & Erika S. B. Santiago 1 & S. Andrew Dufrane 3 & Benevides Aires 4 &
Antonio F. F. Santos 4

Received: 18 May 2015 / Accepted: 12 October 2016 / Published online: 11 November 2016
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Abstract The giant Salobo copper-gold deposit is located tourmaline formation, potassic alteration with biotite,
in the Carajás Province, Amazon Craton. Detailed drill core copper-gold ore formation, and later Fe-rich hydrated
description, petrographical studies, and U-Pb SHRIMP IIe silicate alteration. Myrmekitic bornite-chalcocite and mag-
and LA-ICP-MS geochronology unravel its evolution re- netite comprise the bulk of copper-gold ore. All these alter-
garding the host rocks, hydrothermal alteration and miner- ation assemblages have been overprinted by post-ore hema-
alization. Within the Cinzento Shear Zone, the deposit is tite-bearing potassic and propylitic alteration, which is also
hosted by orthogneisses of the Mesoarchean Xingu recognized in the Old Salobo granite. In the central zone of
Complex (2950 ± 25 and 2857 ± 6.7 Ma) and of the the deposit the mylonitized Igarapé Gelado suite rocks yield
Neoarchean Igarapé Gelado suite (2763 ± 4.4 Ma), which an age of 2701 ± 30 Ma. Zircon ages of 2547 ± 5.3 and
are crosscut by the Old Salobo granite. Remnants of the 2535 ± 8.4 Ma were obtained for the Old Salobo granite and
Igarapé Salobo metavolcanic-sedimentary sequence are for the high-grade copper ore, respectively. A U-Pb LA-
represented by a quartz mylonite with detrital zircon popu- ICP-MS monazite age (2452 ± 14 Ma) from the copper-
lations (ca. 3.1–3.0, 2.95, 2.86, and 2.74 Ga). High- gold ore indicates hydrothermal activity and overprinting
temperature calcic-sodic hydrothermal alteration in the Siderian. Therefore, a protracted tectono-thermal
(hastingsite-actinolite) was followed by silicification, event due to the reactivation of the Cinzento Shear Zone
iron-enrichment (almandine-grunerite-magnetite), is proposed for the evolution of the Salobo deposit.

Keywords Salobo . IOCG deposits . Carajás Province . U-Pb

Editorial handling: F. Barra geochronology
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s00126-016-0693-5) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
Introduction
* Gustavo H. C. deMelo
[email protected] The giant magnetite-rich Salobo copper-gold deposit in the
Carajás Province, Amazon Craton, represents the largest cop-
1
Institute of Geosciences, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), R. per deposit in Brazil (1.112 Gt at 0.69 % Cu and 0.43 g/t Au;
João Pandiá Calógeras, 51, Campinas, SP 13083-870, Brazil VALE 2012). The deposit was discovered in 1978 due to
2
Institute of Geosciences, University of São Paulo (USP), Rua do geochemical and aeromagnetic anomalies, but mining began
Lago 562, São Paulo, SP 05508-080, Brazil only in May 2012 by a subsidiary of Vale S.A. It is located
3
Deparment of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of along the WNW-striking, 130 km long, Cinzento Transcurrent
Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3, Canada Shear Zone, where other important copper deposits also occur,
4
Departamento de Operações de Cobre Atlântico Sul – DIOC, Serra including GT46/Igarapé Cinzento, Grota Funda, Paulo
dos Carajás, Parauapebas, PA, Brazil Afonso, and Furnas.

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710 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Copper-gold orebodies at Salobo are distributed over a strike The now extensive geochronological data for granites in the
of 4 km, with widths of 100 to 600 m, and are recognized to a Carajás Province (Huhn et al.1999a, 1999b; Avelar et al.1999;
depth of 750 m below the surface (Souza and Vieira 2000). Barros et al. 2004; Sardinha et al.2006; Dall’ Agnol et al. 2006;
They are spatially related to mylonitic rocks with varying Vasquez et al. 2008; Oliveira et al. 2009, 2010; Almeida et al.
amounts of magnetite, fayalite, grunerite, almandine, biotite, 2010; Feio et al. 2012, 2013; Moreto et al. 2015a) point to two
and tourmaline (Lindenmayer 1990, 2003; Réquia et al. 2003). major periods of granite formation at ca. 2.76 to 2.73 Ga and ca.
The large amount of magnetite at Salobo was considered by 1.88 Ga. Only two small granitic bodies of several hundred
early workers as evidence that the copper-gold ore was hosted square meters (Old Salobo and Itacaiúnas; Machado et al.
by silicate-oxide facies iron formations coeval to those associ- 1991; Souza et al. 1996), located along the Cinzento Shear
ated with the outstanding Carajás iron deposits (e.g., N1, N4, Zone, record the ca. 2.57 Ga age. Thus, the significance of this
and N5; 18 Gt at 65 % Fe, VALE 2007), located 40 km south- age is a matter of debate, as it could represent an important
east of Salobo (Lindenmayer 1990; Lindenmayer 2003; Réquia tectono-thermal event rather than a magmatic event.
et al. 2003). Thus, the host units were attributed to the Therefore, the evolution of the Salobo deposit remains con-
metavolcanic-sedimentary Igarapé Salobo Group, the lower troversial. Key remaining questions, which are addressed in
unit of the Archean Itacaiúnas Supergroup (DOCEGEO 1988). this study, include (i) the nature of the host rocks and their
However, the sedimentary (e.g., metagreywackes, quartz- ages, (ii) the temporal evolution of the hydrothermal system,
ites, and iron formation) or volcanic (e.g., dacite and basalt) (iii) the timing of mineralization, and (iv) the importance of
nature of the host rocks remains controversial, as original fea- single or multiple events and their relationships with the
tures were totally obliterated by strong mylonitization and tectonic-magmatic evolution of the Carajás Province.
intense hydrothermal alteration (Lindenmayer 2003; Réquia This paper presents new geological, paragenetic, and geo-
et al. 2003). Lindenmayer (2003) reinterpreted the magnetite chronological data for the Salobo deposit that provide new
as the product of high-temperature hydrothermal processes. insights on the temporal evolution of this economically im-
Initial genetic models proposed for the Salobo deposit includ- portant IOCG system.
ed syngenetic volcano-exhalative genesis followed by medium-
to high-grade metamorphism (Hutchinson 1979; Lindenmayer Geologic setting of the Carajás Domain
1990) and a genetic relationship with a copper-gold porphyry
system (Lindenmayer 1998). Huhn and Nascimento (1997) sug- The Carajás Province forms an Archean nucleus in the south-
gested the Salobo deposit represented an iron oxide-copper-gold eastern part of the Amazon Craton, northern Brazil. It is bound
(IOCG) type of deposit as defined by Hitzman et al. (1992). This to the north by the Bacajá Domain (2670–2070 Ma), to the
classification was subsequently endorsed by Lindenmayer and west by the Iriri-Xingu Domain (1900–1860 Ma), to the south
Teixeira (1999), Lindenmayer (2003), and Réquia et al. (2003). by the Santana do Araguaia Domain (2260–1990 Ma) and to
The Salobo deposit was thought to be genetically associated the east by the Araguaia Belt (850–757 Ma; Santos 2003;
with the emplacement and crystallization of the alkaline, Vasquez et al. 2008). The Carajás Province is divided into
metaluminous, mesozonal, syn-tectonic Old Salobo Granite, two tectonic domains: the Rio Maria Domain in the south,
whose age (2573 ± 2 Ma; Machado et al. 1991) was obtained and the Carajás Domain (Fig. 1) in the north (Santos 2003;
by U-Pb TIMS dating of two zircon crystals. This genetic asso- Vasquez et al. 2008). All known IOCG deposits are located in
ciation was mainly based on Re-Os molybdenite ages of the Carajás Domain.
2576 ± 8 and 2562 ± 8 Ma (Réquia et al. 2003), interpreted as Mesoarchean basement and Neoarchean intrusive and
the timing of mineralization synchronous with the Old Salobo supracrustal sequences occur in the Carajás Domain (Machado
granite emplacement. This ca. 2.57 Ga metallogenic event has et al. 1991). Basement rocks include tonalitic to trondhjemitic
been extended to all copper-gold deposits of the Carajás gneiss and migmatites (e.g., Xingu Complex; 3066 ± 6.6 Ma,
Province (Tallarico et al. 2005; Grainger et al. 2008; Groves Delinardo da Silva 2014) and mafic granulites (e.g., Pium
et al. 2010). However, Pb-Pb isochronic ages in chalcocite Complex or Chicrim-Cateté Orthogranulite; 3002 ± 14 Ma,
(2705 ± 42 Ma) and in magnetite (2112 ± 12 Ma) from Salobo Pidgeon et al. 2000). Migmatization of the gneisses (2859 ± 2
obtained by Tassinari et al. (2003), although imprecise, sug- and 2860 ± 2 Ma; U-Pb in zircon; Machado et al. 1991) and
gested a more complex history for the deposit. The 2.57 Ga granulitization of mafic protoliths (2859 ± 9 Ma; U–Pb in zir-
age also contrasts with geochronological data obtained for the con; Pidgeon et al. 2000) were synchronous.
IOCG deposits in the southern sector of the Carajás Province The basement rocks are overlain by the metavolcanic-
(e.g., Sossego, Cristalino, Bacaba, Bacuri, Visconde, sedimentary sequences of the Rio Novo Group (Hirata et al.
Borrachudos, Alvo 118; Tallarico 2003; Huhn et al. 1999b; 1982) and the ca. 2.76 to 2.73 Ga Itacaiúnas Supergroup
Moreto et al. 2015a, 2015b; Silva et al. 2015) in the (Wirth et al. 1986; DOCEGEO 1988; Machado et al. 1991).
Neoarchean (ca. 2.71–2.68 Ga) and in the Paleoproterozoic The Rio Novo Group is composed of amphibolites, schists,
(ca. 1.90–1.87 Ga). metagreywacke, tholeiitic metavolcanic rocks, and gabbros

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 711

Fig. 1 Geological map of the Carajás Domain, Carajás Province (Vasquez et al. 2008), showing the location of the Salobo and other important mineral
deposits. BD Bacajá Domain, CD Carajás Domain, RMD Rio Maria Domain

(Hirata et al. 1982). The Itacaiúnas Supergroup was divided The Igarapé Salobo Group was placed at the base of the
into four groups: (i) Igarapé Salobo, which includes gneisses, Itacaiúnas Supergroup and divided into three formations: (i)
amphibolites, quartzites, metagreywackes, and iron forma- Cascata Gneiss, composed of orthogneisses; (ii) Três Alfa
tions; (ii) Igarapé Pojuca, which comprises basic metavolcanic Formation, made of schists with variable amounts of
rocks, schists, and cordierite-antophyllite-rich rocks; (iii) Grão grunerite, almandine, biotite, and tourmaline, and iron forma-
Pará, composed of metabasalts, felsic metavolcanic rocks, and tions, which host the copper-gold ore of the Salobo deposit;
jaspillites, which host giant iron deposits; and (iv) Igarapé and (iii) Cinzento Formation, which comprises gneisses and
Bahia, constituted by metavolcanic, metapyroclastic, and quartzites (DOCEGEO 1988).
metasedimentary rocks, including those that host the Igarapé The Águas Claras Formation (Nogueira et al. 1995)
Bahia/Alemão IOCG deposit (DOCEGEO 1988). overlies the metavolcanic-sedimentary sequence of the

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712 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Itacaiúnas Supergroup. It consists of a siliciclastic cover hydrothermal alteration assemblages (e.g., amphibole- and
with minimum deposition age given by intrusive mafic grunerite-almandine-biotite-rich rocks). The central zone is
dikes with crystallization age of 2708 ± 37 Ma (U-Pb in flanked by orthogneiss and quartz mylonite in the northeastern
zircon; Mougeot et al. 1996). and southwestern sectors, respectively (Figs. 2 and 3).
Mafic-ultramafic layered igneous intrusions crosscut the Least-mylonitized and least-altered orthogneisses are recog-
basement rocks and supracrustal units and are represented nized only in the outskirts of the shear zone (Fig. 4a, b).
by the Luanga Complex (ca. 2.76 Ga; Machado et al. 1991) Compositional banding in orthogneiss is typically marked by
and Cateté Intrusive Suite (Macambira and Vale 1997). These the alternation of light-gray quartz-feldspathic bands, locally
are associated with nickel, chrome, and PGE mineralization folded, with biotite-rich dark gray bands. Bulk mineralogy indi-
(Ferreira Filho et al. 2007). cates a composition ranging from granodiorite to syenogranite.
The granitic magmatism in the Carajás Domain is ascribed Closer to the shear zone, the gneiss develops a penetrative NW-
to three events: (i) 2.76 to 2.73 Ga foliated syn-tectonic or SE-striking subvertical mylonitic fabric and shear-related micro-
synkinematic alkaline granites (e.g., Plaquê, Planalto, Estrela, structures, such as quartz ribbons, deformation lamellae, undulose
Igarapé Gelado, and Serra do Rabo suites; Huhn et al. 1999b; extinction, quartz-subgrain formation, and bent twins in plagio-
Avelar et al. 1999; Sardinha et al. 2006; Barros et al. 2004; Feio clase. Incipient hydrothermal alteration (Fig. 4c) is represented by
et al. 2012); (ii) ca. 2.57 Ga peralkaline to metaluminous gran- the development of mafic minerals, such as hastingsite, actinolite,
itoids, with restricted distribution and represented by two small and biotite, which define the mylonitic foliation. Toward the cen-
granitic bodies, named Old Salobo and Itacaiúnas granites tral zone of the deposit, the main pervasive high-temperature
(Machado et al. 1991; Souza et al. 1996); and (iii) ca. 1.88 Ga hydrothermal assemblage (grunerite + almandine + biotite + mag-
anorogenic alkaline to sub-alkaline A-type granites, which in- netite) develops over orthogneissic rocks.
clude Central de Carajás, Young Salobo, Cigano, Pojuca, and The quartz mylonite defines a NW-SE-striking belt in the
Breves (Machado et al. 1991; Lindenmayer and Teixeira 1999; southwestern portion of the deposit, where it forms a topo-
Tallarico 2003) and are broadly recognized in the province. graphic high. This rock is composed mainly of quartz with
The Itacaiúnas Supergroup was formed in an intracratonic subordinated muscovite, biotite, and potassium feldspar
(DOCEGEO 1988) or magmatic arc setting (Dardenne et al. (Fig. 4d). Features of extreme shearing are commonly present,
1988). Inversion of the basin hosting the sequence has been such as quartz ribbons, quartz-subgrain formation, and
attributed to progressive transtensional and transpressional de- stretched potassium feldspar.
formation along several high-angle, E-W- and ESE-NNW- Two granitic intrusions cut the least-altered, hydrothermally
striking shear zones that underwent movement during several altered, and mylonitic rocks. The several tens of meters sized
periods since the Mesoarchean (Pinheiro and Holdsworth Old Salobo granite crops out in the northeastern portion of the
1997). Major faults in the Carajas Domain include the deposit. It is equigranular, medium-grained, foliated (Fig. 4f),
Cinzento and Carajás transcurrent shear zones in the north, but locally isotropic (Fig. 4e). It commonly displays a gray
which were active at ca. 2.7–2.5 Ga and the Canaã shear zone color in least-altered zones and is reddish to pink where hydro-
in the south (Fig. 1; Pinheiro et al. 2013). These structures were thermally altered. Its modal composition ranges from granodi-
responsible for the widespread E-W trending foliation in this orite to tonalite. Plagioclase in the rock is commonly oligoclase.
domain related to NNE to SSW shortening. A major set of NW- The Young Salobo granite (Fig. 4g) does not outcrop, but it
SE-trending sinistral strike-slip faults appears to have been re- is recognized in drill core from beneath the Salobo deposit. It
sponsible for the sigmoidal BS-shape^ of the Carajás Basin is pinkish, equigranular, fine-grained, isotropic, and has a
(Pinheiro et al. 2013). granodioritic composition with plagioclase ranging from oli-
goclase to andesine. It appears undeformed. Incipient hydro-
thermal alteration is represented by chlorite infill in the inter-
Results stices of quartz and plagioclase grains and weak sericitization
of feldspars. Late, fine-grained, diabase dikes crosscut the
Geology of the Salobo deposit: host rocks Salobo rocks, including the granites (Fig. 4h).

Within the Cinzento Transcurrent Shear Zone, original features Hydrothermal alteration: mineral association and zoning
of the main host rocks (e.g., mineralogy, textures) of the Salobo
deposit have been obliterated due to deformation that imparted a Temporal and spatial relationships between hydrothermal al-
widespread and penetrative, subvertical, NW-SE-striking teration phases reveal a complex hydrothermal history.
mylonitic foliation to the rocks. Deformation and hydrothermal Petrographic studies suggest that the host rocks for the de-
alteration are especially intense in the central zone of the deposit posit were primarily gneissic rocks. Hydrothermal events affect-
that hosts the structurally controlled, steeply dipping, magnetite- ing these rocks included early calcic-sodic alteration accompa-
rich, copper-gold orebodies. This zone contains well-developed nied by silicification, followed by pronounced iron enrichment,

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 713

Fig. 2 Geological map of the northern sector of the Carajás Domain with the main shear zones and location of the Salobo Cu-Au deposit (modified from VALE)

and potassic alteration I with biotite. The copper-gold ore is marialitic scapolite ± titanite ± chalcopyrite ± allanite ±
spatially associated with the iron enrichment and potassic alter- d r a v i t e ( N a M g 3 A l 6 S i 6 O 1 8 ( B O 3 ) 3 ( O H ) 3 ( F, O H ) ) .
ation I zones, but hydrolytic alteration (greenalite- Hydrothermal albite, which is typical of Na-Ca assem-
stilpnomelane-chamosite-Fe-pyrosmalite) is ubiquitous in the blages, was not observed at Salobo, but its early replace-
orebodies. These alteration assemblages were locally ment by marialitic scapolite cannot be ruled out.
overprinted by a post-ore hematite-bearing assemblage (Fig. 5). Hastingsite occurs only in zones distal to mineralized rocks.
The hastingsite forms subidioblastic crystals that replace
Calcic-sodic alteration previously formed biotite around grain edges and along
cleavage planes. Electron microprobe (EPMA) analyses re-
The early stage of hydrothermal alteration is characterized veal fluorine contents in the Ca-Na amphiboles (0.04 and
by hastingsite and by an assemblage of actinolite ± 0.63 wt%) and dravite (0.06 to 0.33 wt%) associated with

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714 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Fig. 3 Geological map and profile of the Salobo deposit showing the least-altered and hydrothermally altered rocks of the deposit within the NW-SE-
striking Cinzento shear zone. Orebodies are steeply dipping lenses with mylonitic foliation (modified from VALE (2003))

the calcic-sodic alteration. Chlorine content is lower than grains and irregular masses in replacement fronts and in de-
detection limits in these minerals. formed veinlets concordant with the mylonitic foliation. It
Locally, zones with pervasive calcic-sodic alteration as- displays undulose extinction, subgrain formation, and ribbon
semblages consisting of actinolite with subordinated amounts texture (Fig. 6a). Quartz II forms thin layers with subgrains
of allanite, scapolite, and chalcopyrite are present in distal and quartz ribbons and accompanies potassic alteration with
portions of the deposit (Fig. 6a, b). Rocks in these zones biotite. Post-shearing quartz III veins and veinlets crosscut the
may preserve original textures of orthogneis, such as quartz- main hydrothermal alteration stages and the mylonitic folia-
feldspathic matrix with deformation microstructures. The tion. These late quartz veins may occasionally contain chalco-
amount of actinolite in such assemblages increases toward pyrite and anomalous gold grades.
more deformed zones. Actinolite appears to replace igneous
biotite, feldspars, and titanite. Actinolite-rich rocks contain
minor dravite as well as relicts of igneous plagioclase and Iron enrichment
quartz (Fig. 7b). Marialitic scapolite occurs as xenoblastic
crystals that selectively replace plagioclase (Fig. 7a). The central zone of the Salobo deposit is characterized by
Chalcopyrite and allanite are associated with marialitic scap- widespread iron enrichment represented by precipitation of
olite and occur along grain boundaries between quartz and grunerite + almandine + shorlite ± fayalite + magnetite I.
feldspar in the gneiss. The Fe-rich amphibole (grunerite) replaced actinolite and de-
fines the mylonitic foliation (Figs. 6d and 7c). A gradation from
(hastingsite)-actinolite to (actinolite)-grunerite assemblages with
Silicification minor relict actinolite and quartz is commonly observed (Fig. 6e,
g–k). Original gneissic textures were overall destroyed in the
The rocks hosting the deposit display multiple generation of grunerite-rich rocks (Fig. 7f). Grunerite also occurs as idioblastic
hydrothermal quartz. Early quartz I was coeval with calcic- porphyroblasts oriented concordantly with the mylonitic folia-
sodic alteration in gneissic rocks and was also recognized in tion and has significant Cl (0.03 to 0.57 wt%) and F (0.04 to
the quartz mylonite. It occurs as subidioblastic to idioblastic 0.41 wt%) contents, as revealed by EPMA analyses.

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 715

Fig. 4 Aspects of host rocks of the Salobo deposit. a Orthogneiss from minor potassium feldspar. f Sample of the Old Salobo granite but with
the periphery of the Cinzento shear zone showing typical compositional marked foliation and potassic alteration II that imparts a reddish color to
banding. b Orthogneiss showing well developed mylonitic foliation. Note the rock, crosscut by an epidote veinlet. g Representative sample of the
that compositional banding becomes less pronounced due to shearing. c Young Salobo granite with incipient chlorite alteration. h Later medium-
Gneiss with mylonitic foliation and incipient Na-Ca alteration with grained diabase dikes with subophitic texture. Act actinolite, Chl chlorite,
actinolite. d Quartz mylonite mainly composed of quartz ribbon with Cpx clinopyroxene, Ep epidote, Fa fayalite, Hst hastingsite, Kfs
minor biotite and stretched crystals of potassium feldspar. e Least- potassium feldspar, Pl plagioclase, Qz quartz
deformed Old Salobo granite with quartz, plagioclase, biotite, and

A large concentration of hydrothermal almadine is also Fayalite was also formed during the iron enrichment stage,
present in the iron-rich alteration zones. Almandine seems to but it is only observed within the orebodies (Fig. 7k), as gran-
have formed early in comparison to other Fe-rich minerals. In ular crystals dispersed in the matrix composed of copper sul-
less deformed zones, almandine forms fine-grained aggre- fides and magnetite.
gates and constitutes alteration fronts. Almandine also occurs Magnetite represents an important product of the iron
as isolated idioblastic porphyroblasts (Fig. 7h) of up to 4 cm in enrichment process in the entire deposit and locally com-
diameter or as poikiloblasts with grunerite, quartz, and minor prises up to 40 % of the rock mass. Magnetite I is
monazite inclusions concentrated in grain cores (Figs. 6g, h xenoblastic and commonly displays granular to massive
and 7e). Elongated almandine grains with pressure shadows habit. It also occurs as minor stretched xenoblastic crystals
are observed in more deformed zones of the deposit (Fig. 7i). (Fig. 6j, k, l).
Schorl tourmaline ((NaFe3Al6Si6O18) (BO3)3 (OH)3 (F,
OH)) occurs throughout the deposit, especially in widespread
iron enrichment zones. It occurs as dark greenish-blue idio- Potassic alteration I
blastic porphyroblasts up to 2 cm long (Figs. 6i and 7d, e) and
is intergrown with grunerite (Fig. 6e). Fluorine contents are Potassic alteration is better developed close to mineralized
higher in schorl (0.46 to 0.92 wt%) than in dravite (0.06 to zones. In weakly potassic-altered zones, biotite replaces
0.33 wt%) from calcic-sodic alteration zones, as indicated by grunerite and almandine (Figs. 6f and 7e, g). Biotite common-
EPMA analyses. ly occurs aligned along the mylonitic foliation (Fig. 6j, k),

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716 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Fig. 5 Paragenetic sequence of the Salobo hydrothermal system

filling pressure shadows around almandine grains, or in vein- Later Fe-rich hydrated silicate alteration
lets cutting almandine (Fig. 6i).
In strongly potassic-altered zones, where biotite may at- A late stage of hydrolytic alteration is locally observed con-
tain over 60 % abundance, only relicts of almandine, fined within mineralized zones. These zones contain an as-
grunerite, and schorl are recognized (Figs. 6i and Fig. 7d, semblage of iron-bearing hydrated silicates including
e, h–j). Biotite is commonly intergrown with bornite- stilpnomelane, chamosite, greenalite (Fe2–3(Si2O5) (OH)4),
chalcocite within the ore zones, indicating that, at least in and locally Fe-pyrosmalite ((Fe, Mn)8Si6O15(OH, Cl)10).
part, potassic alteration and mineralization were synchro- The latter has 3.30 to 3.87 wt% of Cl, as indicated by semi-
nous. Biotite has high F (0.93 to 5.39 wt%) and Cl (0.29 to quantitative analyses using SEM energy-dispersive spectros-
1.72 wt%) contents. copy. Lower chlorine contents have also been identified in

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 717

Fig. 6 Drill core photos of hydrothermally altered rocks at the Salobo bornite and chalcocite) and almadine-grunerite-biotite-rich rocks. k
deposit. a Elongated actinolite crystals defining the mylonitic foliation in Grunerite-biotite-rich rock in contact with magnetite-rich with bornite
the gneiss. b Chalcopyrite disseminated in actinolite-rich zones. c and chalcocite. l Magnetite-rich rocks with large amounts of bornite and
Amphibole-rich rocks (actinolite ± grunerite) with tourmaline chalcocite, minor late chalcopyrite, and minor malachite. m Grunerite-
porphyroblasts. d Amphibole-rich rocks showing the replacement of biotite-rich rock with post-ore potassium feldspar alteration. n Grunerite-
actinolite by grunerite. e Fronts of almandine and tourmaline formation almandine-biotite-rich rock with post-ore pervasive alteration with
in grunerite-biotite-rich rocks. f Fronts of potassic alteration I with biotite potassium feldspar and hematite, replacing stretched almandine crystals.
replacing the grunerite-rich zones. g Grunerite-almandine-biotite-rich Mineral abbreviations: Act actinolite, Alm almandine, Bn bornite, Bt
rocks with idioblastic almandine porphyroblasts. h Grunerite- biotite, Cct chalcocite, Ccp chalcopyrite, Chl chlorite, Gru grunerite,
almandine-biotite-rich rocks with almandine and grunerite Hem hematite, Kfs potassium feldspar, Mag magnetite, Mlc malachite,
porphyroblasts. i Grunerite-almandine-biotite ± tourmaline-rich rocks Tur tourmaline
exhibiting a mylonitic foliation. j Intercalation of magnetite-rich (with

stilpnomelane (up to 0.84 wt% Cl) and greenalite (up to The ore consists chiefly of disseminated to massive bornite
0.50 wt% Cl). (up to 60 %) and chalcocite (up to 40 %; Fig. 8a) commonly in
Stilpnomelane occurs as needle-shaped crystals crosscutting a myrmekitic-symplectite texture (Fig. 8c, d). Bornite and
ore minerals (e.g., chalcocite, bornite, and/or magnetite), while chalcocite infill fractures and occur between magnetite I
chamosite and Fe-pyrosmalite form subidioblastic crystals be- grains. Relicts of schorl are found in the mineralized zones
tween ore minerals. Greenalite frequently replaces fayalite, but (Figs. 6i and 7d, e), where biotite is spatially related to bornite-
also occurs dispersed within the ore zones (Fig. 7l). chalcocite. Later Fe-rich hydrated silicates, such as
stilpnomelane, greenalite, and minor chamosite, are also com-
Copper-gold ore mon within the ore (Fig. 8h, i). Fluorite represents an impor-
tant mineral phase in the ore samples. It occurs as xenoblastic
The copper-gold orebodies at Salobo form NW-SE- crystals intergrown with bornite, chalcocite, and magnetite,
striking lenses or elongated bodies concordant to the and also with Fe-rich hydrated silicates and relicts of biotite
mylonitic foliation. These bodies are spatially associated (Fig. 8h). A later generation of idioblastic magnetite II occurs
with zones of intense iron enrichment and with potassic as dispersed crystals in bornite-chalcocite matrix (Fig. 8c, d).
alteration I with biotite. Chalcopyrite is less common than bornite and chalcocite and

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718 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Fig. 7 Photomicrographs of distinct stages of hydrothermal alteration. a crystals. h grunerite-almadine-biotite-rich rocks strongly foliated with
Igneous potassium feldspar with selective scapolite alteration. b idioblastic almandine. i grunerite-almadine-biotite-rich rocks strongly
pervasive Na-Ca alteration with actinolite and associated titanite and foliated with stretched almandine. j pervasive potassic alteration I with
dravite. c actinolite replaced along cleavage planes by grunerite. d biotite associated with porphyroblasts of tourmaline and allanite. k zones
pervasive tourmaline formation associated with intense grunerite of intense iron enrichment with large amount of fayalite crystals. l
formation. e poikiloblastic garnet with inclusions of grunerite. Note the greenalite and stilpnomelane within the interstices of bornite (a–l are
shadow pressure texture given by grunerite and biotite crystals. f zones of polarized light images). Mineral abbreviations: Act actinolite, Aln
intense iron enrichment with large amount of stretched grunerite crystals. allanite, Alm almandine, Fa fayalite, Gru grunerite, Tur tourmaline
g potassic alteration I with biotite replacing the previous grunerite

occurs as tiny crystals intergrown with major ore minerals generally occur as tiny inclusions in magnetite, bornite,
(Fig. 8g) or in late (quartz)-massive sulfide veins that cut and chalcocite or as small grains between the major ore
bornite-chalcocite-rich zones. It is most common on the edges minerals. Rare graphite flakes were recognized in the ore
of the orebodies. samples. Gold occurs as inclusions in bornite, chalcocite,
Covellite, digenite, and native copper also occur in chalcopyrite, and magnetite. It is also strongly associated
fractures, mineral rims, or infillings in the major ore min- with arsenic-rich mineral phases, such as safflorite and
erals. Molybdenite (Fig. 8k, l), uraninite (Fig. 8i, j), il- cobaltite (Fig. 8b, e, f), and with hessite.
menite, and apatite are commonly observed in the ore
zones. The ore also contains inclusions of cobaltite Post-ore alteration
(Fig. 8f), safflorite, hessite, linnaeite, cattierite, carrollite,
Co-pentlandite, Co-rich bornite, cobaltharturite, nickeline, Distinct post-ore alteration assemblages are only locally
and pentlandite. LREE-bearing (La-Ce-Nd) monazite and well-developed in deep portions of the Salobo deposit
allanite and Y-xenotime and Y-synchysite are also com- as well as in the Old Salobo granite. This post-ore al-
mon in the ore samples (Fig. 8k). These minor minerals teration assemblage is dominated by red-colored

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 719

Fig. 8 Features and different aspects of the ore at the Salobo deposit. a g are reflected light images). h Fluorite crystals in the interstices of
High-grade ore of the Salobo deposit, mainly composed of bornite, greenalite and biotite. i Greenalite and stilpnomelane in the ore zones,
chalcocite, and magnetite. b Drill core sample of the grunerite-biotite- where bornite, chalcocite, and magnetite are also present. j Fine-grained
rich rocks cut by quartz and associated gold veinlets. c Idioblastic uraninite crystals with associated magnetite and gangue minerals. k
magnetite II, associated with bornite and chalcocite displaying Copper-gold ore with synchisite, monazite, and molybdenite. l
myrmekitic-symplectite texture. Note the occurrence of gold in Molybdenite crystals in paragenesis with bornite and chalcocite (i–l are
paragenesis with safflorite and cobaltite. d Bornite and chalcocite with backscattered electron images). Mineral abbreviations: Au gold, Bn
myrmekitic-symplectite texture as the matrix of the rock with some bornite, Bt biotite, Cct chalcocite, Ccp chalcopyrite, Cob cobaltite, Cpn
dispersed idioblastic magnetite crystals (II). e Gold as small inclusions Co-pentlandite, Cv covellite, Gre greenalite, Gru grunerite, Hem
in magnetite (I), associated with bornite and covellite. f Safflorite grain hematite, Mag magnetite, Mnz monazite, Mol molybdenite, Qz quartz,
with inclusions of Co-pentlandite, cobaltite, and gold within zones of Saf safflorite, Stp stilpnomelane, Syn synchisite, Urn uraninite
bornite-chalcocite. g Chalcopyrite crystals within the bornite crystal (c–

hematite-bearing potassium feldspar, which is observed Analytical procedures

as fracture infilling and as selective replacements of
almandine porphyroblasts. Intense pervasive potassic al- Field work, petrography, and SEM
teration II with potassium feldspar gives a strong red
color to the altered rocks (Fig. 6m, n). Seven drill holes (Sal3A FD177, Sal3A FD189, Sal3A FD284,
Post-ore potassic alteration II with potassium feldspar was Sal3A FD329, Sal3A FD366, Sal3A FD405, and Sal3A FD
followed by propylitic alteration, which is commonly weak. 417) from the Salobo deposit were examined to determine the
This type of alteration resulted in the formation of epidote, nature of the deposit host rocks, distribution and types of hy-
chlorite, sericite, and carbonate in veinlets. Late hematite- drothermal alteration, and mode of occurrence of the copper-
rich veinlets and hematite pseudomorphs after almandine gold ore. Petrographic investigations were conducted on repre-
were also recognized. sentative samples of rocks distal to mineralized zones and on

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720 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

strongly altered rocks and related copper-gold ore. These inves- house monazite reference material was repeatedly analyzed,
tigations were complemented by scanning electron microscope which corresponded to the Western Australia monazite
(SEM) with coupled energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (2843.7 ± 6.5 Ma, Simonetti et al. 2006; Heaman unpublished
(EDS) analyses performed at the Scanning Electron data), to monitor U-Pb fractionation, reproducibility, and instru-
Microscope Laboratory of the Institute of Geosciences, ment drift. Mass bias for Pb isotopes was corrected by measuring
205
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil. Tl/203Tl from an aspirated Tl solution (NIST SRM997) via
the DSN using an exponential mass fractionation law and as-
U-Pb SHRIMP IIe zircon dating suming a natural 205Tl/203Tl of 2.3871. All data were reduced
offline using an in-house Excel-based program. Unknowns were
Zircon grains were obtained from crushed rock at the Institute of normalized to the in-house monazite standard. The uncertainties
Geosciences, University of Campinas (UNICAMP, Brazil), reported are a quadratic combination of (1) the standard error of
using gravimetric and magnetic separation techniques. the measured isotope ratio and (2) the standard deviation of the
Individual grains were hand-picked and sent to the High standards that bracket the unknowns. Reproducibility of the
Resolution Geochronology Laboratory (HRGL) at the monazite standard is estimated to be ∼1 % for 207Pb/206Pb,
Geosciences Institute in the University of São Paulo (Brazil), 3 % for 206Pb/238U, and 4 % for 207Pb/235U.
where they were mounted together with the TEMORA standard
in epoxy and polished until attaining quasi-central sections. After
Au-coating, the polished mounts were examined with a FEI- U-Pb geochronology results
QUANTA 250 scanning electron microscope equipped with
secondary-electron and cathodoluminescence (CL) detectors. U-Pb SHRIMP IIe and LA-ICP-MS analyses of zircon
The most common conditions used in CL analysis were as fol-
lows: 60 μA of emission current, 15.0 kV of accelerating volt- Zircon grains of three samples of the host rocks (SAL65,
age, 7 μm of beam diameter, 200 μs of acquisition time, and a FD405/119, and FD177/651) and one sample of the high-
resolution of 1024 × 884. The mounts were afterward analyzed grade copper-gold ore (SALORE-1) were analyzed by U-Pb
by the U-Pb isotope technique using a SHRIMP-IIe machine SHRIMP IIe. Additionally, U-Pb LA-ICP-MS zircon analyses
also at the High Resolution Geochronology Laboratory of the were carried out on two host rock samples (GSF-I and QM-II).
University of São Paulo, following the analytical procedures A sample of an orthogneissic rock (SAL65) was chosen for
presented by Sato et al. (2014). Correction for common Pb U-Pb geochronology due to its weak degree of hydrothermal
was based on the measured 204Pb. Typical error component for alteration. This rock outcrops in the outskirts of the Salobo
the 206Pb/238U ratio is less than 2 % and uranium abundance, and deposit and may represent the least-altered protolith of the
U/Pb ratios were calibrated against the TEMORA standard. Age mylonitic orthogneiss that is intercepted by drill holes.
calculations were performed with Isoplot© 3.0 (Ludwig 2003). Hydrothermally altered rocks have also been analyzed.
Mylonitized orthogneiss (GSF-I) that underwent calcic-sodic
LA-ICP-MS zircon and monazite U-Pb dating alteration within the shear zone was chosen since it may rep-
resent the main host rock of the Salobo deposit. In addition, a
Zircon and monazite grains were concentrated in the Institute of sample (FD177/651) with intense post-ore potassic II and
Geosciences at University of Campinas (UNICAMP, Brazil) propylitic alteration was selected. It records a different pattern
following the same procedures previously described for the of hydrothermal alteration in relation to that typical of the
SHRIMP IIe analyses. The in situ U-Pb zircon and monazite magnetite-rich copper-gold ore zones.
data were collected using LA-MC-ICP-MS at the Canadian A sample of quartz mylonite (QM-II) was dated as well.
Centre for Isotopic Microanalysis, University of Alberta, The protolith of the quartz mylonite remains controversial, as
Edmonton, Canada. A full description of the analytical approach it can be part of the metasedimentary sequence of the Igarapé
is reported in Simonetti et al. (2005). The analytical setup con- Salobo Group or could represent an extremely silicified por-
sists of a New Wave UP-213 laser ablation system interfaced tion of the Salobo country rocks.
with a Nu plasma MC-ICP-MS equipped with three ion coun- The Old Salobo granite (FD405/119) represents an intru-
ters. The laser was operated at 4-Hz pulse rate and a beam sive lithotype that cuts hydrothermally altered zones. The Old
diameter of 12 mm that yielded a fluency of ∼3 J/cm2. Salobo granite was previously dated by zircon dissolution and
Ablations were conducted in a He atmosphere at a flow rate of ID-TIMS analyses of only two zircon crystals (2573 ± 2 Ma;
1 L/min through the cell. Output from the cell was joined to the U-Pb in zircon; Machado et al. 1991). Since this age may be
output from a standard Nu plasma desolvating nebulizer (DSN). unreliable due to the reduced number of zircon grains, this
On peak gas + acid, blanks (30 s) were measured prior to a set of lithotype was chosen for U-Pb dating.
10–20 analyses. Data were collected statically, consisting of 30 Zircon crystals from the high-grade ore (SALORE-1) com-
1-s integrations. Before and after each set of analyses, an in- posed of bornite-chalcocite-magnetite were also dated to

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 721

determine the nature of the host rocks and/or the timing of (Fig. 9b). Fourteen zircon analyses by U-Pb LA-ICP-MS
mineralization. A brief description of the dated samples is yielded a discordant result with a projected upper intercept
shown in the Table 1. age of 2701 ± 30 Ma (MSWD = 7.0; Fig. 10b).
The least-altered orthogneissic rock (sample SAL65) has The lithotype with post-ore alteration (FD177/651) shows
primarily murky pink colored zircon crystals, with grain pyramidal to prismatic euhedral zircon grains, whose length
lengths ranging from 150 to 300 μm and elongation ratio ranges from 90 to 190 μm with aspect ratios (length/width)
(length/width) from 1:1 to 3:1. Some fractures are observed around 1:1 and 3:1. In the cathodoluminescence (CL) images,
in backscattered electron (BSE) images and most of the grains zircon grains display oscillatory zoning and well-distinguished
have euhedral prismatic habit, whereas some are rounded or core and rim (Fig. 9c). Zircon crystals seem to occur in two
have ovoid habits. In CL images, zircon crystals show low to populations. Five zircons with high luminescence in CL images
moderate luminescence. Weak oscillatory zoning is observed yielded older concordant ages of 2950 ± 25 Ma (MSWD = 5.9),
in several grains, but most of them are entirely textureless due whereas the younger ages of 2857 ± 6.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.001;
to weak metamictization (Fig. 9a). Twelve zircon grains Fig. 10c) were acquired by SHRIMP IIe in five zircon grains
yielded a concordant age of 2763 ± 4.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.7) with intermediate luminescence.
in SHRIMP IIe analyses (Fig. 10a). Variable features have been observed in zircon crystals of
Zircon grains of the mylonitized orthogneiss with calcic- the quartz mylonite (QM-II), revealing more than one zircon
sodic alteration (GSF-I) are murky pink and have length rang- population. In general, this lithotype has prismatic euhedral to
ing from 80 to 200 μm and elongation ratio (length/width) rounded zircon grains, with length ranging from 100 to
from 1:1 to 2:1. They are intensely fractured and show corro- 200 μm and aspect ratios (length/width) around 1:1 and 3:1.
sion textures in their rims in the BSE images. In the CL im- The CL images reveal the existence of two zircon populations,
ages, zircon grains are very metamictic with low luminescence in which the crystals have (i) high to moderate luminescence

Table 1 List of analyzed samples by U-Pb SHRIMP IIe and LA-ICP-MS zircon and monazite geochronology

Sample Geological unit Description Mineralization Mineral Method Age (Ma) MSWD
code

FD177/651 Rock with post-ore Strongly foliated rock, Absent Zircon U-Pb 2950 ± 25 5.9
alteration composed of hydrothermal SHRIMP IIe 2857 ± 6.7 6.7
potassium feldspar and
hematite
SAL65 Igarapé Gelado Foliated rock, with Absent Zircon U-Pb 2763 ± 4.4 1.7
gneiss compositional banding and SHRIMP IIe
composition ranging from
granodiorite to sienogranite,
with incipient calcic-sodic
alteration
GSF-I Mylonitized Igarapé Mylonitized gneiss showing Absent Zircon U-Pb 2701 ± 30 7.0
Gelado gneiss incipient calcic-sodic LA-ICP-MS
alteration and silicification
QM-II Quartz mylonite Mylonitized quartz-rich rock Absent Detrital U-Pb Detrital Zircon –
with subordinated biotite, Zircon LA-ICP-MS
muscovite and potassium
feldspar
FD405/119 Old Salobo granite Equigranular, Absent Zircon U-Pb 2547 ± 5.3 0.26
medium-grained, foliated SHRIMP IIe 2551 ± 9.0 0.92
rock with granodioritic to
tonalitic composition. The
rock shows potassic
alteration (II) accompanied
by hematite formation and
propylitic alteration
SALORE-1 High-grade ore Massive ore composed of Massive ore Zircon U-Pb 2535 ± 8.4 1.7
magnetite, bornite and SHRIMP IIe
chalcocite, and minor
biotite, grunerite, greenalite
and stilpnomelane
GGM-I Almandine-grunerit- Mylonitic rock with large Subordinated Monazite U-Pb 2535 ± 8.4 1.02
e-biotite-rich rock amounts of hydrothermal contents of LA-ICP-MS
almandine, grunerite and bornite and
biotite chalcocite

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722 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

In the Old Salobo granite (sample FD405/119) most of the

zircon crystals are murky pink, fairly fractured, ranging from
prismatic to rounded with eroded edges. Crystal length ranges
from 80 to 250 μm and elongation ratio (length/width) varies
from 1:1 to 2:1. All zircon grains display highly metamictic
texture, showing low luminescence in CL images and appar-
ently no zonation (Fig. 9e). Low Th/U ratios (0.10 to 0.24),
with U values ranging from 337 to 1312 ppm, are character-
istic of the Old Salobo granite zircon. SHRIMP IIe analyses of
four grains yielded a concordant age of 2547 ± 5.3 Ma
(MSWD = 0.26) and eight zircon grains provided a discordant
age with a projected upper intercept of 2551 ± 9.0 Ma
(MSWD = 0.92). A weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of
2546 ± 11 Ma (MSWD = 2.9; Fig. 10e) was also calculated.
Zircon grains in the copper-gold ore sample (SALORE-1)
are predominantly murky pink, fairly fractured with some
mineral inclusions, with length ranging from 50 to 140 μm
with aspect ratios (length/width) around 1:1 and 2:1. They are
prismatic and rounded and some occur as fragments with cor-
roded rims. In CL images, zircon crystals display low lumi-
nescence and lack of oscillatory zoning due to intense
metamictization (Fig. 9f). In the BSE images, zircon grains
are fairly fractured. They are characterized by low Th/U ratios
(<0.001) with U values between 929 and 1728 ppm. Twelve
U-Pb SHRIMP IIe spot analyses provided a discordant age
with a projected upper intercept of 2535 ± 8.4 Ma
(MSWD = 1.7), with a weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of
2435 ± 58 Ma (MSWD = 216; Fig. 10f).

U-Pb LA-ICP-MS analyses of monazite

Monazite grains were separated from almandine-

grunerite-biotite-magnetite-rich rocks (sample GGM-I)
with moderate copper content, in which copper sulfides
make up approximately 20 % of the rock. Hydrothermal
monazite is found strongly associated with allanite,
xenotime, synchisite, and apatite (Fig. 11a).
Monazite grains are rounded with some angular edges and
Fig. 9 Cathodoluminescence images of zircon grains analyzed by show corrosion textures in the rims in the BSE images
SHRIMP IIe and LA-ICP-MS. a Least-altered orthogneiss; b (Fig. 11b). Crystal length ranges from 90 to 240 μm with
mylonitized orthogneiss; c Old Salobo granite; d host rock with post- aspect ratios (length/width) around 1:1 and 2:1. CL images
ore alteration; e quartz mylonite, and f high-grade copper-gold ore. reveal no internal textures in monazite grains. Sixteen spot
206
Pb/238U ages are indicated in the image where analyses were done
analyses by U-Pb LA-ICP-MS in eleven grains yielded a dis-
cordant result with an upper intercept age of 2452 ± 14 Ma
and (ii) low luminescence, but without evidence of (MSWD = 1.02; Fig. 11c).
metamictization. The former commonly display oscillato-
ry zoning and a well-distinguished core and rim, whereas
other grains only show oscillatory zoning with no evident Discussion
core and rim (Fig. 9d). The low-luminescence zircon pop-
ulation shows weak oscillatory zoning. Thirty-four zircon The nature of the host rocks
analyses by U-Pb LA-ICP-MS provided four distinct pop-
ulation ages of ca. 3.1–3.0, 2.95, 2.86, and 2.74 Ga The host rocks of the copper-gold ore of the Salobo deposit
(Fig. 10d). have been previously attributed exclusively to the

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 723

Fig. 10 206Pb/238U vs. 207Pb/235U diagrams for a least-altered gneiss; b mylonitized gneiss; c Old Salobo granite; d host rock with post-ore alteration; e
probability density plots for quartz mylonite; f 206Pb/238U vs. 207Pb/235U diagrams for high-grade copper-gold ore

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724 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Deformed granitoids and gneisses have been previously

recognized along the WNW-ESE Cinzento Transcurrent
Shear Zone, initially named as Lower Gneiss (Farias 1981)
or Cascata Gneiss (DOCEGEO 1988) and attributed to the
basal unit of the Igarapé Salobo Group. Barbosa (2004) also
recognized tonalitic to monzogranitic gneisses in the sur-
roundings of the Salobo deposit, which were grouped in the
Igarapé Gelado suite (2731 ± 3 Ma; Pb-Pb in zircon; Barbosa
2004). Those rocks share similar microstructures to those de-
scribed for the orthogneiss at Salobo and were attributed to the
extensive Neoarchean syn-tectonic alkaline to subalkaline
granite magmatism in the Carajás Domain (ca. 2.76 to
2. 73 Ga). Ther efore, the ag e of 2 763 ± 4.4 Ma
(MSWD = 1.7) obtained for the least-altered orthogneiss at
northern of the Salobo area may evidence that it is part of the
Igarapé Gelado suite.
Host rocks affected by the post-ore alteration show two
zircon populations that yield concordant ages of
2950 ± 25 Ma (MSWD = 5.9) and 2857 ± 6.7 Ma
(MSWD = 0.001). Considerations cannot be made about the
petrogenetic significance of these ages, since no remnants of
protolith textures and structures could be recognized due to
the strong metasomatism of these rocks. However, these ages
are consistent with those attributed to metamorphism
(2859 ± 2 Ma; U-Pb zircon; Machado et al. 1991) and
protolith crystallization (2.959 ± 15 Ma; Delinardo da Silva
2014) of the Xingu Complex.
The new geochronological data presented in this study con-
Fig. 11 Aspects and ages of hydrothermal monazite. a Common strain the age of the Old Salobo Granite at 2547 ± 5.3 Ma
association of monazite with apatite, chalcocite, and magnetite; b BSE (concordant age, MSWD = 0.26) and 2551 ± 9.0 Ma (upper
images of some analyzed monazite grains by U-Pb LA-ICP-MS; c
206
Pb/238U vs. 207Pb/235U diagrams for hydrothermal monazite intercept, MSWD = 0.92), likely reflecting its crystallization
age. Concordant and upper intercept ages are very close con-
sidering errors, but the latter reveals remarkable Pb loss. These
metavolcanic-sedimentary units of the ca. 2.76 to 2.73 Ga ages are also similar to that (2573 ± 2 Ma; U-Pb in zircon)
Igarapé Salobo Group (Itacaiúnas Supergroup), especially previously obtained by Machado et al. (1991). Age differ-
to metagreywackes and subordinate iron formations, am- ences possibly reflect the distinct applied techniques, since
phibolites, and quartzites (Lindenmayer 1990). The nature the previous age was obtained by zircon dissolution and anal-
of these host rocks was reassessed by Lindenmayer (2003), ysis by ID-TIMS of two zircon grains.
who considered basalts and dacites of the Igarapé Salobo A similar age to that of the Old Salobo Granite was also
Group as the main protoliths of the hydrothermally altered acquired in zircon crystals of the high-grade copper-gold ore
rocks. Detailed characterization of the host rocks per- at 2535 ± 8.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.7). Remnants of the least-
formed in this study, however, reveals the predominance altered Old Salobo Granite were not recognized in these ore
of variably deformed quartz-feldspathic orthogneissic and zones. However, zircon textures from both rocks are identical,
granitic rocks at Salobo. with a strong metamict character, extremely low lumines-
Least-altered rocks characterized in this study in the north- cence, low Th/U ratios, and lack of igneous oscillatory zoning.
ern part of the Salobo deposit correspond to variably These ages may indicate that zircon from high-grade copper-
mylonitized banded orthogneissic rocks. Geochronological gold ore was inherited from the Old Salobo granite and repre-
U-Pb SHRIMP IIe data for the least-altered gneiss yielded sents its crystallization age. This rock would have underwent
an age of 2763 ± 4.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.7), whereas mylonitized extreme hydrothermal alteration and mylonitization.
orthogneisses within the Cinzento Shear Zone display ages of Alternatively, this may reflect a disturbance in the U-Pb iso-
2701 ± 30 Ma (MSWD = 7.0). This age difference may be topic system due to shearing and hydrothermalism, which
attributed to Pb loss in the zircon isotopic system due to the resulted in intense metamictization of older zircon within the
shear zone development. ore zone.

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 725

The U-Pb geochronology data for the quartz mylonite point William-Jones 2014). A remarkable feature of the Salobo
to different zircon populations, with peaks at ca. 3.1–3.0, 2.96, deposit is the large amount of fluorite intergrown with
2.86, and 2.74 Ga. This data may reflect a metasedimentary bornite-chalcocite-magnetite, indicating that destabiliza-
origin for this rock and provenance from distinct sources. In tion of fluoride complexes resulted in precipitation of the
the Carajás Domain, older ages between ca. 3.1 and 3.0 Ga ore mineral association. Additionally, the action of highly
were reported for the Mesoarchean basement, including corrosive hydrofluoric acid enhanced fluid-rock interaction
protoliths of granulites (3002 ± 14 Ma; Pidgeon et al. 2000). and strongly obliterated the host protolith features at
In addition, ages of 2.96 and 2.86 Ga may be also associated Salobo, as also reported for the Olympic Dam deposit
with sources derived from the Xingu Complex. The younger (McPhie et al. 2011).
ages (ca. 2.74 Ga) suggest that sedimentation, metamorphism, Hydrothermal graphite in ore samples is also notable at
and deformation would have been coeval or after the Salobo. It may represent an additional evidence for the pres-
Neoarchean granite magmatism and volcanism (ca. 2.76– ence of other supracrustal rocks within the Salobo deposit.
2.73 Ga). Thus, the quartz mylonite can represent a remnant However, its formation from reduced CO2-CH4-rich fluid
of the metavolcanic-sedimentary sequence of the Igarapé identified in the Salobo deposit (Réquia et al. 1995) cannot
Salobo Group. be ruled out. This process would be similar to that reported for
the Albany graphite deposit, Canada, which is a rare example
Evolution of the hydrothermal system of a hydrothermal graphite deposit within an igneous host
rock. It was formed likely from a reduced CH4-CO2-rich fluid
The Salobo host rocks underwent intense hydrothermal that evolved due to pressure-related degassing of syenites
alteration under conditions of high fluid/rock ratio. They (Ross and Masun 2014).
were variably mylonitized within the Cinzento Shear The post-ore hydrothermal alteration, with potassium feld-
Zone, which has played an important role in the evolution spar, hematite, and propylitic alteration, is distinct from the
of the deposit. typical IOCG alteration and clearly overprints previously al-
The hydrothermal alteration encompasses an initial and tered rocks. The patterns and type of hydrothermal alteration
incipient calcic-sodic alteration stage coeval to silicification, observed in the Old Salobo granite and post-ore hydrothermal
followed by high-temperature iron enrichment (grunerite-al- alteration may be similar mainly due to higher fO2 conditions
mandine-magnetite-schorlite), strong potassic alteration I with indicated by hematite predominance. However, spatial rela-
biotite, and later Fe-rich hydrated silicate alteration. Ore for- tionships are unclear and the temporal association is only
mation may have been temporally associated with late stages suggested.
of potassic alteration I with biotite and magnetite II. The Fe-
rich hydrated silicate alteration (stilpnomelane, greenalite, and Timing of IOCG mineralization
chamosite-Fe-pyrosmalite) overprints the potassic alteration I
with biotite and major ore minerals. This low-temperature Previous geochronological data point to the synchronous for-
assemblage could represent a late hydrolytic alteration similar mation of the Salobo IOCG deposit and the crystallization of
to that commonly reported for other IOCG deposits (Hitzman the Old Salobo granite at 2576 ± 8 and 2562 ± 8 Ma (Re-Os
et al. 1992; Hitzman 2000). molybdenite; Réquia et al. 2003). This suggests that the Old
The Cu-Au ore is represented by steeply dipping NW-SE- Salobo granite played an important role in the genesis of the
striking orebodies. The ore comprises bornite and chalcocite Salobo deposit.
with myrmekitic-symplectite texture, evidencing exsolution Zircon from the copper-gold ore zones (2535 ± 8.4 Ma,
that is expected at temperatures ≤335 °C. Early chalcopyrite MSWD = 1.7) and hydrothermal monazite (2452 ± 14 Ma,
is recognized in Ca-Na alteration zones, but the bulk chalco- MSWD = 1.02) point to hydrothermal activity in the
pyrite is intergrown with bornite and chalcocite or occurs in Salobo deposit likely during more than one single event.
late quartz III veinlets. The ore also has significant contents of While the timing of molybdenite crystallization may point
Au, Co, Ni, As, Ag, Mo, REE, and U, as indicated by minor to the main mineralization stage, the monazite age may
safflorite, cobaltite, nickeline, pentlandite, hessite, molybde- represent later events of hydrothermal activity during the
nite, monazite, allanite, and uraninite. Siderian.
The paragenetic sequence indicates a temperature de- Older ages were also obtained for the Salobo deposit,
crease in the hydrothermal system, as indicated by hydro- such as a Pb-Pb isochron age in chalcocite (2705 ± 42 Ma;
lytic alteration during or after the mineralization stage. Tassinari et al. 2003) obtained by the stepwise Pb leaching
Temperature decrease can be one of the mechanisms that technique. This less precise age could represent an early
triggered ore precipitation if metals and REE were mineralization at Salobo, similar to other IOCG deposits in
transported as aqueous chloride and fluoride complexes the southern sector of the Carajás Domain. However, if
(Williams-Jones et al. 2000, 2012; Migdisov and present, this mineralizing event was overprinted by the

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726 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

intense ca. 2.5 Ga tectono-thermal event responsible for high- characterized in the Southern Copper Belt. Even if the ca.
temperature mineral assemblages (e.g., almandine-grunerite- 2.57 Ga magmatism is considered, it clearly could not be
biotite-magnetite), precluding its recognition. Younger Pb-Pb responsible for extensive hydrothermal systems related to all
ages of 2579 ± 71 Ma (Pb-Pb ages on bornite and chalcopyrite Carajás IOCG deposits.
by stepwise Pb leaching technique; Réquia et al. 2003) and
2112 ± 12 Ma (Pb-Pb ages on magnetite by stepwise Pb Significance of the ca. 2.5 Ga Cinzento event
leaching technique; Tassinari et al. 2003) were also reported in the northern sector
for the Salobo deposit. The former is synchronous with the
molydbenite age (2576 ± 8 Ma, Réquia et al. 2003) and can In the northern sector of the Carajás Domain, several ages at
represent the main stage of mineralization at the Salobo de- ca. 2.5 Ga, similar to those reported for the Old Salobo and
posit, while the latter is considered to be coeval with the Itacaiúnas granites, were acquired and their significance must
Paleoproterozoic Transamazonian event (Tassinari et al. be further discussed.
2003) and related to the collision of the Paleoproterozoic Machado et al. (1991) obtained for hydrothermally altered
Bacajá Domain, to the north, with the Carajás Province. The rocks of the Salobo deposit ages of (i) 2581 ± 5 Ma (U-Pb in
Pb-Pb ages should be interpreted with caution because they titanite), 2555 ± 4 Ma (U-Pb in zircon), and 2497 ± 5 Ma (U-
are less precise in comparison to U-Pb and Re-Os ages and Pb in titanite) in amphibole-rich rocks; (ii) 2551 ± 2 Ma (U-Pb
may reflect the timing of Pb removal from its source region in monazite) in magnetite-rich rocks; and (iii) 2519 ± 5 Ma
(Faure 1986). (U-Pb in titanite) in rocks of the Xingu Complex (Fig. 12,
Similar ages have been obtained for the Igarapé Bahia de- Table 2). All of the dated samples were strongly deformed in
posit (2575 ± 12 Ma; U-Pb in monazite, Tallarico et al. 2005), ductile shear zones and metasomatized. Barbosa (2004) also
which has also been genetically related to the emplacement of reported similar ages in deformed granitoids from the Igarapé
the ca. 2.57 Old Salobo granite (Réquia et al. 2003). However, Gelado suite (2508 ± 14, 2588 ± 5, 2533 ± 7, 2576 ± 4, and
the spatial relationship between granitic intrusions and the 2574 ± 8 Ma; Pb-Pb in zircon), which were attributed to the
Igarapé Bahia deposit was not documented. recrystallization of zircon crystals due to the reactivation of
In the Southern Copper Belt of the Carajás Domain, the shear zone. The Rb-Sr geochronological data for the
Moreto et al. (2015b) reported multiple hydrothermal IOCG Estrela Granite also point to an age of 2527 ± 34 Ma (Barros
events in the Neoarchean (2.71 to 2.68 Ga; Sossego, Bacuri, and Barbey 1998), but this granite afterward was dated at
and Bacaba deposits) and Paleoproterozoic (1.88 Ga; Sossego 2763 ± 4.4 Ma (Pb-Pb in zircon; Barros et al. 2001).
and Alvo 118 deposits), similar to those identified in the Collectively, this set of ages represents a good indicator of
Igarapé Cinzento deposit within the Cinzento Shear Zone an important tectono-thermal event at ca. 2.5 Ga that is doubt-
(Silva et al. 2005). However, host rocks or IOCG lessly present in the northern part of the Carajás Domain
metallogenetic events at ca. 2.57 Ga have not been (Fig. 12, Table 2). It could represent the timing of reactivation

Fig. 12 SRTM image of the

Carajás Domain showing the
location of geochronological data
of Table 2. See Table 2 for
analyzed samples

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 727

Table 2 Geochronological data for regional units, mineralization, and hydrothermal alteration of IOCG deposits of the Carajás Domain, Carajás
Province

Sample Rock/mineral Age (Ma) Method Reference

Regional units
1 Migmatite Xingu Complex 2859 ± 2 U-Pb in zircon Machado et al. (1991)
2 Migmatite Xingu Complex 3066 ± 6.6 U-Pb in zircon Delinardo da Silva (2014)
3 Mafic granulites Pium Complex 3002 ± 14 U-Pb in zircon Pidgeon et al. (2000)
4 Igarapé Gelado suite 2731 ± 3 Pb-Pb in zircon Barbosa (2004)
5 Igarapé Gelado suíte 2508 ± 14 Pb-Pb in zircon Barbosa (2004)
2588 ± 5
2533 ± 7
2576 ± 4
2574 ± 8
6 Itacaiunas granite 2560 ± 37 Pb-Pb in zircon Souza et al. (1996)
7 Itacaiunas granite 2480 ± 40 Rb-Sr in whole rock Montalvão et al. (1984)
8 Estrela granite 2763 ± 4.4 Pb-Pb in zircon Barros et al. (2009)
9 Estrela granite 2527 ± 34 Rb-Sr whole rock Barros and Barbey (1998)
10 Tonalitic gneisses 2503 ± 10 U-Pb in zircon Santos (2003)
11 Tonalitic gneisses 2440 ± 7 Pb-Pb evaporation in zircon Vasquez et al. (2005)
IOCG deposits
Salobo deposit
12 Magnetite-rich rock 2551 ± 2 U-Pb in monazite Machado et al. (1991)
13 Amphibole-rich rock 2581 ± 5 U-Pb in titanite Machado et al. (1991)
14 Amphibole-rich rock 2497 ± 5 U-Pb in titanite Machado et al. (1991)
15 Amphibole-rich rock 2555 + 4/−3 U-Pb in zircon Machado et al. (1991)
16 Old Salobo granite 2573 ± 2 U-Pb in zircon Machado et al. (1991)
17 Granitic vein 2758 U-Pb in zircon Machado et al. (1991)
18 Foliated amphibolite (metamorphism) 2761 ± 3 U-Pb in zircon Machado et al. (1991)
19 Rocks with post-ore alteration 2950 ± 25 U-Pb in zircon This study
20 Cascata gneiss 2763 ± 4.4 U-Pb in zircon This study
21 Cascata gneiss 2701 ± 30 U-Pb in zircon This study
22 Old Salobo granite 2547 ± 5.3 U-Pb in zircon This study
23 Salobo ore 2535 ± 8.4 U-Pb in zircon This study
24 Salobo ore 2452 ± 14 U-Pb in monazite This study
25 Magnetite leachates 2112 ± 12 Pb-Pb Tassinari et al. (2003)
26 Chalcopyrite leachates 2427 ± 130 Pb-Pb Tassinari et al. (2003)
27 Molybdenite 2562 ± 8 Re-Os Réquia et al. (2003)
28 Molybdenite 2576 ± 8 Re-Os Réquia et al. (2003)
29 Bornite–chalcopyrite leachates 2579 ± 71 Pb-Pb Réquia et al. (2003)
30 Tourmaline leachates 2587 ± 150 Pb-Pb Tassinari et al. (2003)
31 Chalcocite leachates 2705 ± 42 Pb-Pb Tassinari et al. (2003)
Igarapé Bahia deposit
32 Mafic metavolcanic rock 2748 ± 34 U-Pb in zircon Tallarico et al. (2005)
33 Mafic metavolcanic rock 2758 ± 75 Sm-Nd whole rock Galarza et al. (2003)
34 Mafic metavolcanic rock 2776 ± 12 Pb-Pb whole rock Galarza et al. (2003)
35 Mafic metavolcanic rock 2745 ± 1 Pb-Pb in zircon Galarza et al. (2008)
36 Chalcopyrite leachates 2385 ± 122 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
37 Chalcopyrite leachates 2417 ± 120 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
38 Monazite from ore breccia 2575 ± 12 U-Pb (*) Tallarico et al. (2005)
39 Gold 2744 ± 12 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
40 Chalcopyrite (metapyroclastic rock) 2754 ± 36 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
41 Chalcopyrite (mafic metavolcanic rock) 2756 ± 24 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
42 Chalcopyrite (hydrothermal breccia) 2772 ± 46 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
43 Chalcopyrite (mafic intrusive rock) 2777 ± 22 Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
GT 46–Igarapé Cinzento

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728 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

Table 2 (continued)

Sample Rock/mineral Age (Ma) Method Reference

44 Ore breccia and hydrothermal sample 1752 ± 77 Sm-Nd whole rock Silva et al. (2005)
from Salobo deposit
45 Biotite (Potassic alteration) 1810 ± 15 Ar-Ar Silva et al. (2005)
46 Biotite (Potassic alteration) 1858 ± 7 Ar-Ar Silva et al. (2005)
47 Molybdenite from pegmatitic granite 2554 ± 8 Re-Os Silva et al. (2005)
48 Molybdenite from pegmatitic granite 2557 ± 8 Re-Os Silva et al. (2005)
49 Molybdenite from granite 2600 ± 8 Re-Os Silva et al. (2005)
50 Molybdenite from amphibolite 2711 ± 9 Re-Os Silva et al. (2005)
Gameleira
51 Biotite–sulfide veins 1700 ± 31 Sm-Nd, WR Pimentel et al. (2003)
52 Biotite (Potassic alteration) from 1734 ± 8 Ar-Ar Lindenmayer et al. (2001),
meta-andesite Pimentel et al. (2003)
53 Quartz–grunerite–gold vein 1837 ± 30 Sm-Nd, WR Lindenmayer et al. (2001)
54 Garnet-biotite schist 1958 ± 230 Sm-Nd, WR Pimentel et al. (2003)
55 Chalcopyrite concentrates 2180 ± 84, Pb-Pb Galarza and Macambira (2002)
2217 ± 19
56 Chalcopyrite from quartz veins 2419 ± 12 Pb-Pb Galarza and Macambira (2002)
57 Molybdenite 2614 ± 14 Re-Os Marschik et al. (2005)
Sossego
58 Sequeirinho orebody: ore breccia 3076 ± 5.3 U-Pb in zircon Moreto et al. (2015a)
59 Sequeirinho orebody: ore breccia 2712 ± 4.7 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015a)
60 Sequeirinho orebody: silicified Pista metavolcanic rock 2685 ± 11 Re-Os in molybdenite Moreto et al. (2015a)
61 Sossego orebody: Na altered Pista 2710 ± 11 Re-Os in molybdenite Moreto et al. (2015a)
metavolcanic rock
62 Sossego orebody: ore breccia 1879 ± 4.1 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015a)
63 Sossego orebody: ore breccia 1904 ± 5.2 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015a)
64 Sossego orebody: ore breccia 1890 ± 8.5 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015a)
Alvo 118
65 Ore breccia 1868 ± 7 U-Pb in xenotime Tallarico (2003)
66 Ore breccia 1869 ± 7 U-Pb in xenotime Tallarico (2003)
Bacuri
67 Chlorite alteration 2703 ± 6.2 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015b)
68 Molybdenite vein cutting the Serra 2758 ± 11 Re-Os in molybdenite Moreto et al. (2015b)
Dourada granite
Bacaba
69 Na-altered Serra Dourada granite 2720 ± 15 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015b)
70 Monazite from the ore breccia 2060 ± 9.6 U-Pb in monazite Moreto et al. (2015b)
Visconde
71 Visconde ore 2729 ± 150 Pb-Pb in chalcopyrite Silva et al. (2009)
72 Visconde ore 2736 ± 100 Pb-Pb in chalcopyrite Silva et al. (2009)

See Fig. 12 for sample location

of the WNW-ESE-trending Cinzento Transcurrent Shear Zone excluded. Granitic magmatism may also be part of this
(Machado et al. 1991, Barbosa 2004, Pinheiro et al. 2013). important regional scale tectono-thermal event.
Notwithstanding the fact that this reactivation dis- However, the significance of the ages obtained in this
turbed or even reset the U-Pb isotopic system in zircon study for the Old Salobo granite (2547 ± 5.3 Ma,
grains at the Salobo deposit, the possibility of rock MSWD = 0.26) and for zircon from the copper-gold
crystallization at ca. 2.57 Ga should not be completely ore zones (2535 ± 8.4 Ma, MSWD = 1.7) is equivocal,

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Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732 729

since they were acquired in intensely ductile deformed hydrothermal pulses and IOCG mineralization, generating
and metasomatized samples. the broad group of ages near ca. 2.5 Ga restricted to the north-
M o r e o v er, t h e y o un g e r ag e o f 2 7 01 ± 3 0 M a ern part of the Carajás Domain.
(MSWD = 7.0) obtained for the Igarapé Gelado orthogneiss
within the shear zone also shows a significant Pb loss and
disturbance of the U-Pb isotopic system. It is remarkable that Conclusions
toward the central zone of the deposit, where ductile deforma-
tion and hydrothermalism intensify, zircon grains become The results obtained in this study provide new data on the
more metamictic, and there is a renewal of the ages of the temporal evolution of the giant magnetite-rich Salobo
country rocks. copper-gold deposit and the nature of the host rocks.
The significance of such ages must be interpreted with
caution, due to its relationship with highly deformed rocks, 1. The deposit is hosted by rocks of the Xingu Complex with
intensely metamict zircon and high fluid/rock ratio in the ages of 2950 ± 25 Ma (MSWD = 5.9) and 2857 ± 6.7 Ma
Salobo deposit. Crystallization of hydrothermal or metamor- (MSWD = 0.001) and by younger orthogneisses
phic titanite and monazite during shear zone reactivation may (2763 ± 4.4 Ma; MSWD = 1.7) attributed to the extensive
likely reflect this event. A major question is if zircon, which Neoarchean syn-tectonic magmatism of the Igarapé
commonly grows below its high closure temperature Gelado suite.
(>1000 °C, Cherniak and Watson 2001) in relation to 2. Remnants of the metasedimentary sequence of the Igarapé
the U-Pb isotopic system, may also record this event Salobo Group are represented by a quartz mylonite with
after its formation related to granite crystallization or populations of detrital zircon with ages of ca. 3.1–3.0,
the development of a high-temperature hydrothermal 2.96, 2.86, and 2.74 Ga. Provenance sources from the
system. Mesoarchen basement and Neoarchean granites or volca-
Some authors have argued for uranium, lead, and zirconi- nic rocks are suggested.
um mobility in hydrothermal systems (e.g., Rubin et al. 1993; 3. The Old Salobo Granite yielded an age of 2547 ± 5.3 Ma
Geisler et al. 2002). According to these authors, under high (MSWD = 0.26), which is similar to the zircon age of the
temperatures and acidic conditions, those elements and others high-grade copper-gold ore sample at 2535 ± 8.4 Ma
can behave as mobile elements, especially when (MSWD = 1.7). These ages are clearly linked with the
metamictization is intense. The metamictization process de- Cinzento shear zone reactivation. They may represent
stroys the internal structure of a zircon crystal and creates crystallization ages or reflect the total resetting of the U-
gaps, where the fluids can pass through, leach, and transport Pb isotopic system during an important tectono-thermal
some elements (Geisler et al. 2007). When metamictization is event.
intense, zircon crystals are more susceptible to open their iso- 4. Intense fluid-rock interaction of the host rocks generated
topic system in a thermal event and cause a partial or complete rocks containing variable amounts of hastingsite-actino-
resetting of the U-Pb system (Mezger and Krogstad 1997; lite-, grunerite-almandine-biotite-tourmaline-, and mag-
Geisler et al. 2007). This commonly happens through netite. Features of extreme shearing in these rocks point
diffusion-reaction and dissolution-reprecipitation processes to the important role of the Cinzento Shear Zone coeval
(Mezger and Krogstad 1997, Geisler et al. 2007). The latter with metasomatism. Low-temperature assemblages are
breaks the bonds and releases the elements in zircon, which recognized within the ore zones with stilpnomelane,
can induce more disturbance in the U-Pb isotopic system greenalite, chamosite, and Fe-pyrosmalite. Hematite-
(Geisler et al. 2007). Partial resetting yields discordant U-Pb bearing post-ore hydrothermal alteration overprints the
ages with upper intercepts representing the age of zircon crys- typical IOCG alteration revealing an evolution by multi-
tallization, whereas complete resetting masks the age of crys- ple hydrothermal pulses.
tallization. In the case of total resetting, the obtained age re- 5. Bornite and chalcocite, the main copper sulfides,
flects the last thermal event (Mezger and Krogstad 1997), exhibit a myrmekitic-symplectite texture, which in-
reflecting a drastic change in the U-Pb system (e.g., Mezger dicates formation at temperatures higher than
and Krogstad 1997; Gebauer and Grunenfelder 1976). 335 °C. Chalcopyrite is minor. Significant contents
Therefore, there is the possibility that the ca. 2.5 Ga ages of Co, Ni, As, Ag, Au, Mo, F, REE, and U are
obtained in highly metamict zircon grains from the host rocks characteristic of the Salobo ore.
and ore reflect disturbance and even total resetting of the U-Pb 6. Collectively, geochronological data for Salobo reflect a
system, which might be intrinsically associated with an im- complex hydrothermal system at Salobo, with events of
portant hydrothermal event recorded at Salobo. hydrothermal overprinting. The Re-Os molybdenite age
Successive reactivations of the Cinzento Shear Zone oc- at 2576 ± 8 Ma (Réquia et al. 2003) clearly reflects the
curred between 2.58 and 2.45 Ga, likely associated with main stage of mineralization at Salobo, which is different

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730 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:709–732

from the mineralizing events recognized in the Southern evolução mesoarqueana do Domínio Carajás, PA. University of
Campinas, Master Thesis
Copper Belt (Moreto et al. 2015a, b). A monazite age
DOCEGEO (1988) Revisão litoestratigráfica da Província Mineral de
obtained in this study (2452 ± 14 Ma; MSWD = 1.02) Carajás - Litoestratigrafia e principais depósitos minerais. In:35th
indicates hydrothermal activity at Salobo even during the Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia, Belém. (Proceedings).
Siderian. Farias NF ( 1981) Projeto de Cobre Carajás – Jazida Salobo 3A e Salobo
4ª. Internal report, Rio Doce Geologia e Mineração S/A.
Faure G (1986) Principles of Isotope Geology, New York, John Wiley &
Acknowledgments We are very grateful to VALE for the continuous Sons, 589 p.
support, especially to geologists Marcio Godoy, Axel Torres, Fernando Feio GRL, Santos RD, Dall'Agnol R, Dantas EL, Oliveira DC, Sardinha
Mattos, Samuel Nunes, and Sergio Bacelar Hunh. We also would like to AS, Macambira MJB, Santos PA, Gomes ACB (2012)
thank the Editor-in-Chief Bernd Lehmann, Murray W. Hitzman, Geochemistry, geochronology, and origin of the Neoarchean
Fernando Barra, and Martin Smith, whose critical comments and sugges- Planalto Granite suite Carajás. Amazonian craton: A-type or hydrat-
tions significantly improved the paper. This research has been supported ed charnockitic granites. Lithos (Oslo. Print) 1:1–17
by the INCT Geociências da Amazônia (MCT/CNPq/Fapespa 573733/ Feio GRL, Dall’Agnol R, Dantas EL, Macambira MJB, Santos JOS,
2008-2), Fapesp (2009/18371-0, 2013/25659-5), National Council for Althoff FJ, Soares JEB (2013) Archean granitoid magmatism in
Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq Grant 481969/2013- the Canaã dos Carajás area: implications for crustal evolution of
6, 308365/2014-3), and CAPES Scholarship for the first author. the Carajás province, Amazonian craton, Brazil. Precambrian Res
227:157–185
Ferreira Filho CF, Cancado F, Correa C, Macambira EMB, Junqueira-
Brod TC, Suepierski L (2007) Mineralizações estratiformes de EGP-
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