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Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

ICAAMM-2016

Investigation on welding characteristics of aerospace materials –

A review
Bishub Choudhurya and M. Chandrasekaranb*
a,b
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology (NERIST), Deemed University, Nirjuli-791109, Arunachal Pradesh

Abstract

Titanium and nickel based alloys possess excellent properties and are found wide applications in producing aerospace
components. Welding of these superalloys has always been a challenging task for researchers. The high dynamic shear strength
and higher strain hardening tendency makes welding process difficult. Poor penetration, microfissuring at heat affected zone
(HAZ), loss of strength in HAZ and poor mechanical property on weld fusion zone (FZ) are some of difficulties encountered in
different welding processes during the welding of nickel based super alloys. This work reviews the published literatures in the
area of welding investigations of nickel based superalloys by different welding processes viz., gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW),gas metal arc welding (GMAW), electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding (LBW) and friction stir welding
(FSW). Most of the welding processesare found suitable for welding nickel based alloys while EBW and LBW processes
offeradvantages of low heat input, high weld depth-to-width ratio, narrow HAZ, reduced distortion, and excellent mechanical
property compared with arc welding of nickel based alloys.Apart from experimental investigation of welding, modeling and
optimization of process parameters for obtaining better weld bead geometry were attempted by the researchers.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and Peer-review under responsibility ofthe Committee Members of International Conference on Advancements in
Aeromechanical Materials for Manufacturing (ICAAMM-2016).

Keywords: Nickel based alloys, Welding characteristics, Weld bead geometry, Modeling, Optimization.

1. Introduction

Welding is an important metal joining process used for fabrication of materials in which localized coalescence is
obtained by heating the material to a suitable temperature, with or without application of pressure heating. Welding
is found to be the most common, economical and efficient way to join metals permanently. The most common
*Corresponding author: Bishub Choudhury
E-mail: [email protected]
2214-7853© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and Peer-review under responsibility ofthe Committee Members of International Conference on Advancements in Aeromechanical
Materials for Manufacturing (ICAAMM-2016).
7520 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526

processes used for welding of hard and high strength alloys include gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten
inert gas welding (TIG), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), electron beam
welding (EBW), laser beam welding (LBW) and friction stir welding (FSW) [1-3]. Advances in engineering
materials and their applications in aerospace industries have been found common. The nickel based alloys such as
Inconel 718, Inconel 600, Inconel 625, Inconel 825, Incoloy 903 etc. are mostly used in aerospace industries due to
their high strength at elevated temperature. In welding of these materials, the weld characteristics such as effect of
variation in grain size, effect of heat input on weld quality, effect of cooling and direct ageing on weld properties,
various weld quality defects and their control measures are studied by number of researchers. In this work, the
various welding characteristics in welding Inconel super alloys and their outcome in the published literatures are
discussed.

Amongst numerous welding techniques that are generally employed by various industries in welding nickel
based alloys especially those precipitations strengthened and solid solution strengthened nickel based alloys;arc
welding, electron beam and laser welding techniques are the three main categories of welding processes.The
GMAW, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW) are some of sub categories of arc
welding process, while FSW is another form of welding technique also used for welding these alloys. This welding
technique provides better overall mechanical properties to the weld but it is limited to low strength nickel based
alloys only.

The processing of nickel based super alloy is limited due to their high dynamic shear strength and higher strain
hardening tendency. The ability to weld with ease and perform satisfactorily in service environments is known as
weldability. Their tendency towards microfissuring in heat affected zone (HAZ) and their poor impact and ductility
properties in fusion zone (FZ) while welding make them vulnerable for working environments. Micro-fissures are
fine cracks of 1 or 2 grains in length which occur along the boundaries of partially melted grains close to the FZ.
Normally, micro-fissures are function of two factors viz., prior solution treatment temperature and welding heat
input,that affects the mechanical properties of weld. Also these nickel based alloys are susceptive towards strain age
cracking, hot cracking and solidification cracking due to their chemical composition. Gas welding process is found
unsuitable for these materials as carbon pickup from the flame affects the corrosion properties of these materials [1,
2]. The review of available literature in the area of experimental study on weld characteristics and modeling &
optimization of processes parameters in welding nickel based super alloys is discussed.

2. Study on weld characteristics

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or TIG is a very versatile metal joining process and found well suited for
welding of Ni-based alloys. Here the arc is maintained between the workpiece and a tungsten electrode. This process
uses a non-consumable electrode where gas is fed through the torch to shield the electrode and molten weld pool.
All position welding capability, no welding spatter and no alloy loss during welding and minimal finishing required
are some of advantages of these processes. Here welding heat input, welding speed and gas flow rate are the most
influencing process parameters that need to be considered carefully. Weld bead geometry such as penetration, area
of penetration, weld width and mechanical properties like tensile strength, elongation are some of the important
responses of this process.
Radhakrishna et al. [4] studied the cause and control of laves phase formation in TIG welding of nickel based
alloys. It was reported that formation of laves phase was due to micro-segregation of alloying elements such as Nb,
Ti and Mo. This micro segregation of alloy elements occurs due to insufficient solubility which is a result of their
higher atomic radius. Weld heat input, cooling rate and post-weld heat treatment were the influencing factors for
controlling laves phase formation. They recommended fast cooling rate during welding. Xin Ye et al. [5]
investigated on controlling of hot cracking of Inconel 718 weldment using TIG welding. They observed various
solidification cracks and HAZ liquation cracks on the weldments. They found that the increased heat input is more
susceptible towards solidification cracking in the weldment. Hence lower heat input combined with crater grinding
was suggested for welding. They also suggested pre-welding homogenization heat treatment as it decreases HAZ
liquation sensitivity. Manikandan et al. [6] studied the effect of cooling rate on laves phase formation. They used
 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526 7521

argon and helium gas shielded tungsten arc welding with constant and compound current pulse mood. Maximum
instantaneous cooling rate was found using compound current pulse mood and is enhanced with helium shielding
gas. This reduces Laves phase formation. Dendrite arm facing also allowed reduction in Laves phase and element
segregation. Ramkumar et al. [7] investigated on microstructure, weldability and mechanical properties of Inconel
718 during TIG welding process. They used two fluxes viz., TiO2 and SiO2, and observed a Laves phase formation
at the inter-dendritic regions. The mechanical properties of both flux assisted weldments were found better while
superior tensile properties were obtained with TiO2 flux assisted weldments. Tensile testing of weld specimen
showed fracture at both weldments. They also studied the effect of filler wire and direct ageing on a 718 weldments
[8]. Three filler wires viz., ERNiCu-7, ERNiCrCoMo-1 and ERNICr-3 and post weld heat treatment at 720°C /8
h/furnace cooling followed by 620°C/8 h/air cooling were considered. Presence of laves phase was absent
employing ERNiCu-7 filler. Higher ductility values were observed in all the cases and are found greater importance
in controlling the formation of laves. Drop in impact toughness and improvement in tensile strength was observed
after direct ageing heat treatment.
Electron beam welding (EBM) is a non-conventional welding technique in which coalescence is produced by the
heat obtained through a concentrated beam composed of high velocity electrons impinging upon the joint to be
welded. This high energy density beam welding process offers some advantages over the conventional arc welding
process. Heat input, beam feed rate and oscillation frequency of electron beam are some of the important process
parameters in EBW. The effectiveness of the welding process is assessed by different performance measures such as
area of HAZ, depth of penetration, welds width and mechanical properties of weld joint.
Richards et al. [9] investigated the influence of various EBM welding parameters on HAZ microfissuring in
Incoloy 903 welds. They developed a fractional factorial design to study the effect of different welding parameters
and found that lower welding speed and higher current value for a particular heat input were more beneficial in
reducing microfissuring. It was suggested that substantial occurrence of liquid film migration (LFM) in HAZ
reduces the microfissuring.Vishwakarma et al. [10] studied the microfissuring tendency of two allvac 718 plus alloy
and were compared with the Inconel 718 alloy. The alloys were initially heat treated at 950°C and 1050°C,and then
subsequently water quenched. After welding the inter-granular liquation cracks were observed in HAZ. They
observed that allvac718 plus alloys were more susceptible to HAZ microfissuring and cracking tendency increases
with increase in pre welds heat treatment temperature.Reddi et al. [11] studied the influence of welding techniques
and post heat treatment on mechanical properties of the Inconel 718 welds. They employed different electron beam
oscillating techniques like sinusoidal, square, circular, elliptical, triangular and ramp. Less micro segregation of
Nbwas observed with circular, sinusoidal and elliptical oscillating technique; and elliptical oscillating technique was
found better amongstthe others. Further, oscillated beam technique found more superior than the un-oscillated beam
technique as it leads to better mechanical properties.
Peng et al. [12] investigated the microstructure and mechanical properties of EBW of Inconel 718 plate. The
grain size in HAZ decreased gradually from the top to the bottom of the work piece. Agilan et al. [13] carried out an
experimental investigation on effect of heat input in EB welded Inconel 718 plate. The tests were conducted with
varying heat input values. Increase in weld inter-dendritic spacing was observed with increase in heat input.
Microfissuring was seen at low heat input (36J/mm) whileno presence of microfissuring has been reported above 72
J/mm of heat input. Also tendency of grain boundary liquation reduces with increase in heat input. Cracking in
fusion zone as well asHAZ of EB welded Inconel 713LC gas turbine blade was studied by Chamanfar et al [14].
They observed the presence of extensive amount of cracks in FZ and HAZ. Segregation of alloying element was
found in the cracked areas of FZ and HAZ. Liquation and subsequent cracking also occur due to the generation of
thermal and mechanical tensile stresses during welding. Low strength of solidifying weld metal was the main reason
for the occurrence of cracks in FZ.
Laser beam welding (LBW) technique is performed using a focused coherent monochromatic light beam emitted
from a laser source onto weld metal parts which are welded by surface heating and thermal conduction through the
metal. CO2 and Nd-YAG laser are most commonly used during laser welding of nickel based alloys. Laser power,
heat input and beam welding speed are the influencing parameters in LBW process. Weld bead geometries such as
penetration depth and weld width; and mechanical properties such as hardness and ultimate tensile load are the
output responses that are investigated by various researchers.
7522 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526

Gobbi et al. [15] carried out a study on CO2 and Nd-YAG laser welding of Inconel 718 plate. The high power
CO2laser welding is found appropriate for post welding machining joints with high depth to width ratio while Nd-
YAG laser welding found suitable for a uniform bead profile without microfissuring. It was found that at fine grain
boundaries (ASTM 9-12) the microfissuring is related to the delta phase (Niobium rich phase (Ni3Nb)) and in larger
grain material (ASTM 6) the microfissuring is related to NbC. Moreover, the weld material solidified at about
1000°C to homogenize the FZ and above 1038°C Laves phase formation was avoided. Janakiram et al., [16] carried
out study on welding characteristics of Inconel 718 using pulsed Nd-YAG laser welds. They conducted three
different post weld treatments and found that solution treatment at 980°C results considerable dissolution of Laves
phase but fail to eliminate completely. Complete dissolution of Laves phase was observed at 1080°C solution
treatment but it results in significant grain growth in base metal. Also at 980STA post weld treatment they found
considerable improvement in the weld tensile properties. Hong et al. [17] investigated on the heat treatment effects
on microstructures and mechanical properties of CO2 laser welded Inconel 718 plates with two different grain sizes
i.e., ASTM #4 and #10. The optimum values of process parameters viz. laser power and speed for a defect free weld
are reported as 6kW with 2.5m/min and 8kW with 4m/min respectively.
Ren et al. [18] investigated liquation cracking on FLW of Inconel 617 under different preheating and heat inputs
conditions. They observed that liquation of the grain boundaries is due to constitutional liquation of M23(C,B)6
carbides. Also continuous Grain Boundary (GB) (Cr, Mo)-rishresolidified phase was produced due to continuous
liquid film during solidification and is decreased with increase in heat input and preheating temperature. This GB
re-solidified phase is also a feature in formation of liquation cracking. The tendency of liquation cracking in HAZ
can be avoided with increase in preheating temperature.The same authors [19] also carried out a comparative study
between CO2 and FLW of Inconel 617 plates. The weld bead geometry and microstructure at FZ were investigated
and found that the weld bead geometry for CO2 weld is of Y-type shape and for FLW is of I-type. Minimum heat
input is needed for CO2 welding but the melting efficiency is higher for FLW and hence FLW is found superior over
CO2 welding.
Friction stir welding is a new welding process in which coalescence is obtained by heat which is generated by
mechanically induced sliding motion between two rubbing surfaces, with the application of pressure.This welding
process provides better overall mechanical properties over other arc welding process.But due to lack of availability
of tool material, this process is limited for welding nickel based alloys. The rotational speed of the tool called ‘tool
speed’ and the work piece ‘feed rate’ are the two main process parameters. The mechanical properties such as micro
hardness and tensile strength are considered as process responses.
Sato et al. [20] studied the effect of microstructure on weldment of Inconel 600 alloy in a friction stir welding
process using polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) tool. They found fine grain structure in stir zone with
better mechanical properties compared to the base metal. They also observed that FSW exhibits lower corrosion
resistance in stair zone and HAZ. Song et al. [21] studied the effects of welding speed on microstructure and
mechanical properties of FSW of Inconel 600 plate. They considered the welding speed in the range of 150-250
mm/min at a constant tool rotation of 400rpm. Defect free weld is reported welding speed in the range of
150mm/min and 200mm/min. The average grain size in the stir zone was noticeably refined with increase in welding
speed and observed an improvement in mechanical properties like micro hardness, tensile strength than that base
metal. Song and Nakata in 2010 [22] investigated the mechanical properties and the effect of post heat treatment in
the FSW of Inconel 625. They noticed an improvement in mechanical properties after the post heat treatment at
700°C for100h in vacuum.

3. Literature review on modeling and optimization of welding process

Modeling is the process of establishing the relationship between welding parameters and desired response
characteristics while optimization is to obtain optimum welding parameters aiming to improve performance
characteristics.In welding it is important that the weld must show the same properties like the base metal. In order to
achieve a strong weld joint which can sustain any kind of operating stress and still exhibit strong mechanical
properties; a proper modeling of welding technique is desired. In welding nickel based super alloys, the most
influencing parameters are identified as welding current, welding speed, nozzle to tip distance and gas flow rate.
These process parameters have significant influence on weld bead geometry of the weld.Theweld bead geometry
 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526 7523

normallyassociates with: front width (FW)or reinforcement (R), back width (BW), front height or depth (FH or FD),
back height (BH), penetration (P), area of penetration (AP) etc., as shown in figure1. This weld bead geometry is
very vital in order to ensure good mechanical properties of the weld.Among different modeling and optimization
based techniques response surface methodology (RSM), Taguchi based approach andgrey relational analysis (GRA)
havebeen found popular among the researcher to optimize weld parameters. Table 1 shows the review details of
published work in the area of modeling and optimization of different welding processes.

Figure 1: Weld bead geometry

Table 1: Summary on modeling and optimization of various welding processesOutput parameters

Work material

parameters
used/ input

Sl.
Paper details Summary
No

The authors developed a mathematical model for predicting

V , F, WS, N

P, W, R , D

weld bead geometry in automatic MIG welding of 316L

steel (SS)/
Stainless

Effects of MIG process parameters on the

316L

1 geometry of the bead [23] stainless steel. They used 4 factors and five level factorial
Parmer and Murugan (1994) experimental designfor conducting experimentation. The
voltage is reported to have dominant effect on the weld
width and it remains constant at 31 – 34 V, irrespective of
Response graph approach was applied for optimizing fatigue
a/W, L/Tp, θ,
grade steel/

Assessment of some factors affecting life (FL) of flux cored arc welded (FCAW) cruciform joints.
ASTM 517

fatigue endurance of welded cruciform Experiments were conducted using L16 DoE with all factors in
Δσ

FL

2
joints [24] two levels. Response graph and normal probability plot were
Balasubramanian and Guha (1999) used to optimize the joint geometries. The maximum fatigue
life was obtained at low level of a/W; high level of L/Tp and
Taguchi approach is used to optimize weld pool geometry
FH , BH, FW,

during TIG welding of stainless steel. The optimal weld pool

N , GFR, I ,
steel (SS)/
Stainless

Optimizing the weld pool geometry in the

geometry obtained at 2.6 mm, 11 l/min, 45 A and 15
BW
WS

3 TIG welding [25]

Juang and Tarng (2002) cm/min for arc gap, gas flow rate, welding current and
welding speedrespectively. The result validated
experimentally and found an increase in S/N ratio of 3.07.
The authors performed an experimental study on MIG
sheet/WS, V,

welding of aluminium 5457 sheet in Argon environment and

I F, Pf, GFR
Al. 5745

SL, P

4 MIG welding process optimization [26] optimize shear load to joint failure and depth of
Koganti et al. (2003) penetration. Robot speed and gas flow rate are found to be
the significant factors. Lower gas flow rate results in lower
shear load to failure and weld penetration is higher when
The authors developed regression models to predict the
a/W, L/Tp, θ, Δσ
ASTM 517 – F

fatigue life of shielded metal arc welded (SMAW) and flux

grade steel/

Fatigue life prediction of load carrying cored arc welded (FCAW) cruciform joints considering root
FL

5 cruciform joints [27] and toe cracking. The developed model predicted effectively
Balasubramanian and Guha (2004) at 95% confidence level. The coefficient of correlation of the
predicted models is found to be within 0.88–0.94. In ANOVA
analysis, shear value (S) and ratio of leg length (L) to plate
7524 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526

They employed Taguchi method to optimize the pulsed TIG

alloy/ WS, Pf,

UTS, YS, E, H
AA 5456 Al.
Optimization of pulsed TIG welding welding process parameters of AA 5456 Aluminium alloy
process parameters on mechanical welds for increasing the mechanical properties (i.e., ultimate

I b, Ip
6
properties [28] tensile strength, yield strength, percent elongation, and
Kumar and Sundarrajan (2009) hardness). The results show 10–15% improvement in
mechanical properties after planishing. It was inferred from
They optimized multiple characteristics of weld bead

WS, I , GFR, N
AISI 304 thin

AP, BW, BH
TL, HAZ, P,
Optimization of weld bead geometry in geometry of TIG welding process using grey relational
4
TIG welding process using GRA and analysis (GRA). They performed L16 (4 ) experiments with 4

SS /
7
Taguchi method [29]. different process parameters viz., bead width, bead height,
Esme et al.(2009) penetration, area of penetration; while HAZ and tensile load
were considered as performance measures. They found that
The authors have carried out optimization of 5 process

V, I, GFR, N, θ
Inconel 825/
parameters inGTAW of Inconel 825 alloy.L16 factorial design

WDA
Parametric optimization of GTAW [30] approach was used to develop mathematical model to
8
Prabaharan et al. (2014) derive functional relationship between various weld
parameters and weld deposition area(WDA).The
investigation revealed that WDA increased with increase in I,
Legends:
V=Voltage (V), I= current (A), GFR= Gas flow rate (l/min), N= Nozzle to plate distance (mm), θ= Fillet angle, WS=Welding Speed (mm/min),
a/W= The ratio between initial LOP size to fillet width, L/Tp= Ratio between leg length (L) to plate thickness, Δσ= Stress range, Pf= Pulse
frequency (Hz), Ib=Base current, Ip=Peak current.

WDA= Weld deposition area, P=Penetration (mm), W=Weld width (mm) R=Reinforcement (mm), D= Dilution (%), FH= Front height of weld
bead (mm), BH=Back height (mm), FW= Front width, BW= Back width (mm), FL=Fatigue life, SL=Shear load, UTS=Ultimate tensile strength,
2
YS= Yield Strength, E=Elongation, AP=Area of penetration (mm ),H=Bead height (mm).

4. Summary of the research:

Welding of hard and high strength nickel based super alloys has found industrial importance particularly in
aerospace industries. Various conventional welding process such as GTAW, GMAW, SMAW and FSW as well as
high energy density beam welding process such as EBW and LBW were investigated by the researchers. Poor
penetration, microfissuring at heat affected zone (HAZ), loss of strength in HAZ and mechanical properties on weld
fusion zone (FZ) are some of difficulties encountered during various welding processes. The weld characteristics,
weld penetration, weld deposition area, weld bead size and mechanical strength of weldments are mainly studied.
This work reviewed the published literatures in welding nickel based super alloys and outcome of review work is
summarised below.
• Microfissuring tendency and formation of laves phase during welding at high temperature of nickel based
alloys is one of the prime concerns. The problems such as strain age cracking, hot cracking and
solidification cracking can be avoided with a proper heat input and pre-weld and post-weld heat treatments.
• Sound welding of nickel based alloys is possible if proper procedure and techniques are followed.
• The selection of correct welding process, joint design, base and filler metal, preheat temperature and post
weld heat treatment requirements are important for obtaining defect-free and sound weld economically.
• Formation of Laves phase is due to micro-segregation of alloying elements such as Nb, Ti and Mo. This
may be avoided by controlling the heat input, cooling rate and post-weld heat treatment.
• GTAW, GMAW, SMAW, FSW, EBW and LBW have found suitable for welding nickel based alloys. In
gas welding process the carbon pickup from flame cause change in material property and hence it reduces
corrosion resistance property.
• EBW and LBW processes offer advantages of low heat input, high weld depth-to-width ratio, narrow HAZ,
reduced distortion, and excellent mechanical property over the arc welding of nickel based alloys.
However, the processes show less applicability due to their sophisticated nature.
 Bishub Choudhury / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 7519–7526 7525

• In the area of modeling and optimization of weld parameters limited research work is published. Modeling
and optimization of weld bead geometry was mainly attempted by the researchers using regression,
Taguchi and grey relational analysis
• Proper welding speed is very essential for producing sound weld. The percentage of cleanliness of the weld
joint is an important factor that affects the weld quality. The weld joint must be free from any kind of
contamination like grease, oil, corrosion product etc.
• Researchers have carried out experimental investigation and studied on welding characteristics such as
weld quality in terms of weld bead geometry and strength. The selection of optimum weld parameters for
obtaining quality weld economically is an important area of research.

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