Phosphorus

Phosphorus is a chemical element; it has

symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental
Phosphorus, 15P
phosphorus exists in two major forms, white Forms of phosphorus
phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is
highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a
free element on Earth. It has a concentration in
the Earth's crust of about one gram per kilogram
(compare copper at about 0.06 grams). In
Waxy white Light red
minerals, phosphorus generally occurs as
phosphate.

Elemental phosphorus was first isolated as white

phosphorus in 1669. In white phosphorus,
phosphorus atoms are arranged in groups of 4,
written as P4 . White phosphorus emits a faint
Dark red and violet
glow when exposed to oxygen – hence the
name, taken from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος
meaning 'light-bearer' (Latin Lucifer), referring
to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. The
term phosphorescence, meaning glow after
illumination, derives from this property of
phosphorus, although the word has since been
used for a different physical process that
produces a glow. The glow of phosphorus is
caused by oxidation of the white (but not red) Black
phosphorus — a process now called
chemiluminescence. Phosphorus is classified as a Phosphorus
pnictogen, together with nitrogen, arsenic,
Pronunciation /ˈfɒsfərəs/ ​(FOS -fər-əs)
antimony, bismuth, and moscovium.
Allotropes white, red, violet, black and
Phosphorus is an element essential to sustaining others (see Allotropes of
life largely through phosphates, compounds phosphorus)
containing the phosphate ion, PO4 3−.
Appearance white, red and violet are waxy,
Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA,
black is metallic-looking
ATP, and phospholipids, complex compounds
fundamental to cells. Elemental phosphorus was Standard atomic weight Ar°(P)
first isolated from human urine, and bone ash
was an important early phosphate source. 30.973 761 998 ± 0.000 000 005
Phosphate mines contain fossils because 30.974 ± 0.001 (abridged)[1]
phosphate is present in the fossilized deposits of
Abundance
animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate
in the Earth's 5.2 (silicon = 100)
levels are an important limit to growth in a crust
number of plant ecosystems. The vast majority Phosphorus in the periodic table
of phosphorus compounds mined are consumed
N
as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the ↑
phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and P
↓
its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as As
the growth of the human population. Other silicon ← phosphorus → sulfur
applications include organophosphorus
Atomic number (Z) 15
compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve
agents. Group group 15 (pnictogens)
Period period 3
Characteristics Block p-block
Electron [Ne] 3s2 3p3
configuration
Allotropes
Electrons per 2, 8, 5
Phosphorus has several allotropes that exhibit shell
strikingly diverse properties.[8] The two most Physical properties
common allotropes are white phosphorus and
Phase at STP solid
red phosphorus.[9]
Melting point white: 317.3 K ​(44.15 °C, ​
From the perspective of applications and 111.5 °F)
chemical literature, the most important form of red: ∼860 K (∼590 °C,
elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often ∼1090 °F)[2]
abbreviated as WP. It is a soft, waxy solid which
Boiling point white: 553.7 K ​(280.5 °C, ​
consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules, in which
each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a 536.9 °F)

formal single bond. This P4 tetrahedron is also Sublimation point red: ≈689.2–863 K ​(≈416–
present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to 590 °C, ​≈780.8–1094 °F)
the temperature of 800 °C (1,470 °F) when it violet: 893 K (620 °C, 1148 °F)
starts decomposing to P2 molecules.[10] The P4 Density (near r.t.) white: 1.823 g/cm3
molecule in the gas phase has a P-P bond length red: ≈2.2–2.34 g/cm3
of rg = 2.1994(3) Å as was determined by gas
violet: 2.36 g/cm3
electron diffraction.[11] The nature of bonding in black: 2.69 g/cm3
this P4 tetrahedron can be described by spherical
Heat of fusion white: 0.66 kJ/mol
aromaticity or cluster bonding, that is the
electrons are highly delocalized. This has been Heat of white: 51.9 kJ/mol
illustrated by calculations of the magnetically vaporisation
induced currents, which sum up to 29 nA/T, Molar heat white: 23.824 J/(mol·K)
much more than in the archetypical aromatic
capacity
molecule benzene (11 nA/T).[11]
Vapour pressure (white)
White phosphorus exists in two crystalline P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
forms: α (alpha) and β (beta). At room
temperature, the α-form is stable. It is more at T (K) 279 307 342 388 453 549
common, has cubic crystal structure and at
195.2 K (−78.0 °C), it transforms into β-form, Vapour pressure (red)
which has hexagonal crystal structure. These P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
forms differ in terms of the relative orientations
of the constituent P4 tetrahedra.[12][13] The β at T (K) 455 489 529 576 635 704

form of white phosphorus contains three slightly Atomic properties

different P4 molecules, i.e. 18 different P-P bond Oxidation states −3, −2, −1, 0,[3] +1,[4] +2, +3,
lengths between 2.1768(5) and 2.1920(5) Å. +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide)
The average P-P bond length is 2.183(5) Å.[14]
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.19
White phosphorus is the least stable, the most Ionisation 1st: 1011.8 kJ/mol
reactive, the most volatile, the least dense and the energies 2nd: 1907 kJ/mol
most toxic of the allotropes. White phosphorus
gradually changes to red phosphorus. This 3rd: 2914.1 kJ/mol
transformation is accelerated by light and heat, (more)
and samples of white phosphorus almost always
Covalent radius 107±3 pm
contain some red phosphorus and accordingly
appear yellow. For this reason, white phosphorus Van der Waals 180 pm
that is aged or otherwise impure (e.g., weapons- radius
grade, not lab-grade WP) is also called yellow
phosphorus. When exposed to oxygen, white
phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint
Spectral lines of phosphorus
tinge of green and blue. It is highly flammable
and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with Other properties
air. Owing to its pyrophoricity, white phosphorus Natural primordial
is used as an additive in napalm. The odour of occurrence
combustion of this form has a characteristic
garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated Crystal structure ​body-centred cubic (bcc)
with white phosphorus pentoxide, which
consists of P4 O10 tetrahedra with oxygen
inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at
their vertices. White phosphorus is insoluble in Thermal white: 0.236 W/(m⋅K)
water but soluble in carbon disulfide.[15] conductivity black: 12.1 W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic ordering white, red, violet, black:
Thermal decomposition of P4 at 1100 K gives
diamagnetic[5]
diphosphorus, P2 . This species is not stable as a
solid or liquid. The dimeric unit contains a triple Molar magnetic −20.8 × 10−6 cm3/mol (293 K)[6]
bond and is analogous to N2 . It can also be susceptibility
generated as a transient intermediate in solution Bulk modulus white: 5 GPa
by thermolysis of organophosphorus precursor red: 11 GPa
reagents.[16] At still higher temperatures, P2 CAS Number 7723-14-0 (red)
dissociates into atomic P.[15] 12185-10-3 (white)

Red phosphorus is polymeric in structure. It can History

be viewed as a derivative of P4 wherein one P-P Discovery Hennig Brand (1669)
bond is broken, and one additional bond is Recognised as an Antoine Lavoisier[7] (1777)
formed with the neighbouring tetrahedron element by
resulting in chains of P21 molecules linked by
Isotopes of phosphorus
van der Waals forces.[18] Red phosphorus may
be formed by heating white phosphorus to
250 °C (482 °F) or by exposing white
phosphorus to sunlight.[19] Phosphorus after this
treatment is amorphous. Upon further heating,
this material crystallises. In this sense, red
phosphorus is not an allotrope, but rather an
intermediate phase between the white and violet
phosphorus, and most of its properties have a
range of values. For example, freshly prepared,
Main isotopes Decay
bright red phosphorus is highly reactive and
ignites at about 300 °C (572 °F),[20] though it is abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
more stable than white phosphorus, which 31
P 100% stable
ignites at about 30 °C (86 °F).[21] After
prolonged heating or storage, the color darkens 32
P trace 14.269 d β− 32
S
(see infobox images); the resulting product is
more stable and does not spontaneously ignite in
33
P trace 25.35 d β− 33
S
air.[22]
Crystalline structures of some phosphorus allotropes
Violet phosphorus is a form of phosphorus that
can be produced by day-long annealing of red
phosphorus above 550 °C. In 1865, Hittorf
discovered that when phosphorus was
recrystallised from molten lead, a red/purple form
is obtained. Therefore, this form is sometimes
known as "Hittorf's phosphorus" (or violet or α-
metallic phosphorus).[17]
White Red
Black phosphorus is the least reactive allotrope
and the thermodynamically stable form below
550 °C (1,022 °F). It is also known as β-metallic
phosphorus and has a structure somewhat
resembling that of graphite.[23][24] It is obtained
by heating white phosphorus under high
pressures (about 12,000 standard atmospheres or
1.2 gigapascals). It can also be produced at Violet Black
ambient conditions using metal salts, e.g.

Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus[8][17]

Form white(α) white(β) red violet black

Body-centred
Symmetry Triclinic Amorphous Monoclinic Orthorhombic
cubic
Pearson symbol aP24 mP84 oS8
Space group I43m P1 No.2 P2/c No.13 Cmce No.64

Density (g/cm3) 1.828 1.88 ~2.2 2.36 2.69

Band gap (eV) 2.1 1.8 1.5 0.34

Refractive index 1.8244 2.6 2.4

mercury, as catalysts.[25] In appearance, properties, and structure, it resembles graphite, being black and
flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered sheets of linked atoms.[26]

Another form, scarlet phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in carbon
disulfide to evaporate in sunlight.[17]

Chemiluminescence
When first isolated, it was observed that the green glow emanating
from white phosphorus would persist for a time in a stoppered jar, but
then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to "debilitation" of
the air. Actually, it is oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it
was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all;[27]
there is only a range of partial pressures at which it does. Heat can be
applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures.[28]

In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. White phosphorus exposed to air
Khan. [29][30] A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the glows in the dark
solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO
and P2 O2 that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only
very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow
continues in a stoppered jar.

Since its discovery, phosphors and phosphorescence were used loosely to describe substances that shine in
the dark without burning. Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction that
gives phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing due to a cold chemical reaction),
not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and excited it).[31]

Isotopes

There are 22 known isotopes of phosphorus,[32] ranging from 26 P to 47 P.[33] Only 31 P is stable and is
therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer nuclear spin and high abundance of 31 P make
phosphorus-31 NMR spectroscopy a very useful analytical tool in studies of phosphorus-containing
samples.

Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorus have half-lives suitable for biological scientific experiments. These
are:

32P, a beta-emitter (1.71 MeV) with a half-life of 14.3 days, which is used routinely in life-
science laboratories, primarily to produce radiolabeled DNA and RNA probes, e.g. for use in
Northern blots or Southern blots.
33P, a beta-emitter (0.25 MeV) with a half-life of 25.4 days. It is used in life-science
laboratories in applications in which lower energy beta emissions are advantageous such
as DNA sequencing.

The high-energy beta particles from 32 P penetrate skin and corneas and any 32 P ingested, inhaled, or
absorbed is readily incorporated into bone and nucleic acids. For these reasons, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration in the United States, and similar institutions in other developed countries require
personnel working with 32 P to wear lab coats, disposable gloves, and safety glasses or goggles to protect
the eyes, and avoid working directly over open containers. Monitoring personal, clothing, and surface
contamination is also required. Shielding requires special consideration. The high energy of the beta
particles gives rise to secondary emission of X-rays via Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) in dense
shielding materials such as lead. Therefore, the radiation must be shielded with low density materials such
as acrylic or other plastic, water, or (when transparency is not required), even wood.[34]

Occurrence

Universe

In 2013, astronomers detected phosphorus in Cassiopeia A, which confirmed that this element is produced
in supernovae as a byproduct of supernova nucleosynthesis. The phosphorus-to-iron ratio in material from
the supernova remnant could be up to 100 times higher than in the Milky Way in general.[35]

In 2020, astronomers analysed ALMA and ROSINA data from the massive star-forming region AFGL
5142, to detect phosphorus-bearing molecules and how they are carried in comets to the early Earth.[36][37]

Crust and organic sources

Phosphorus has a concentration in the Earth's crust of about one gram per kilogram (compare copper at
about 0.06 grams). It is not found free in nature, but is widely distributed in many minerals, usually as
phosphates.[9] Inorganic phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (a group of minerals being,
generally, pentacalcium triorthophosphate fluoride (hydroxide)), is today the chief commercial source of
this element. According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), about 50 percent of the global phosphorus
reserves are in Amazigh nations like Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.[38] 85% of Earth's known reserves are
in Morocco with smaller deposits in China, Russia,[39] Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere.[40]
Albright and Wilson in the UK and their Niagara Falls plant, for instance, were using phosphate rock in the
1890s and 1900s from Tennessee, Florida, and the Îles du Connétable (guano island sources of phosphate);
by 1950, they were using phosphate rock mainly from Tennessee and North Africa.[41]

Organic sources, namely urine, bone ash and (in the latter 19th century) guano, were historically of
importance but had only limited commercial success.[42] As urine contains phosphorus, it has fertilising
qualities which are still harnessed today in some countries, including Sweden, using methods for reuse of
excreta. To this end, urine can be used as a fertiliser in its pure form or part of being mixed with water in
the form of sewage or sewage sludge.

Compounds

Phosphorus(V)

The most prevalent compounds of phosphorus are derivatives of phosphate (PO4 3−), a tetrahedral
anion.[43] Phosphate is the conjugate base of phosphoric acid, which is produced on a massive scale for use
in fertilisers. Being triprotic, phosphoric acid converts stepwise to three conjugate bases:

H3PO4 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + H2PO4− Ka1 = 7.25×10−3

H2PO4− + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + HPO42− Ka2 = 6.31×10−8

HPO42− + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + PO43− Ka3 = 3.98×10−13

Phosphate exhibits a tendency to form chains and rings containing
P-O-P bonds. Many polyphosphates are known, including ATP.
Polyphosphates arise by dehydration of hydrogen phosphates such
as HPO4 2− and H2 PO4 −. For example, the industrially important
pentasodium triphosphate (also known as sodium tripolyphosphate,
STPP) is produced industrially by the megatonne by this
condensation reaction:

2 Na2HPO4 + NaH2PO4 → Na5P3O10 + 2 H2O

Phosphorus pentoxide (P4 O10 ) is the acid anhydride of phosphoric

acid, but several intermediates between the two are known. This
waxy white solid reacts vigorously with water. The tetrahedral structure of P4O10
and P4S10.
With metal cations, phosphate forms a variety of salts. These solids
are polymeric, featuring P-O-M linkages. When the metal cation
has a charge of 2+ or 3+, the salts are generally insoluble, hence they exist as common minerals. Many
phosphate salts are derived from hydrogen phosphate (HPO4 2−).

PCl5 and PF5 are common compounds. PF5 is a colourless gas and the molecules have trigonal
bipyramidal geometry. PCl5 is a colourless solid which has an ionic formulation of PCl4 + PCl6 −, but adopts
the trigonal bipyramidal geometry when molten or in the vapour phase.[15] PBr5 is an unstable solid
formulated as PBr4 +Br−and PI5 is not known.[15] The pentachloride and pentafluoride are Lewis acids.
With fluoride, PF5 forms PF6 −, an anion that is isoelectronic with SF6 . The most important oxyhalide is
phosphorus oxychloride, (POCl3 ), which is approximately tetrahedral.

Before extensive computer calculations were feasible, it was thought that bonding in phosphorus(V)
compounds involved d orbitals. Computer modeling of molecular orbital theory indicates that this bonding
involves only s- and p-orbitals.[44]

Phosphorus(III)

All four symmetrical trihalides are well known: gaseous PF3 , the yellowish liquids PCl3 and PBr3 , and the
solid PI3 . These materials are moisture sensitive, hydrolysing to give phosphorous acid. The trichloride, a
common reagent, is produced by chlorination of white phosphorus:

P4 + 6 Cl2 → 4 PCl3

The trifluoride is produced from the trichloride by halide exchange. PF3 is toxic because it binds to
haemoglobin.

Phosphorus(III) oxide, P4 O6 (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) is the anhydride of P(OH)3 , the minor
tautomer of phosphorous acid. The structure of P4 O6 is like that of P4 O10 without the terminal oxide
groups.

Phosphorus(I) and phosphorus(II)

These compounds generally feature P–P bonds.[15] Examples
include catenated derivatives of phosphine and organophosphines.
Compounds containing P=P double bonds have also been
observed, although they are rare.

Phosphides and phosphines

Phosphides arise by reaction of metals with red phosphorus. The

alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals can form ionic
compounds containing the phosphide ion, P3−. These compounds
A stable diphosphene, a derivative of
react with water to form phosphine. Other phosphides, for example
phosphorus(I).
Na3 P7 , are known for these reactive metals. With the transition
metals as well as the monophosphides there are metal-rich
phosphides, which are generally hard refractory compounds with a metallic lustre, and phosphorus-rich
phosphides which are less stable and include semiconductors.[15] Schreibersite is a naturally occurring
metal-rich phosphide found in meteorites. The structures of the metal-rich and phosphorus-rich phosphides
can be complex.

Phosphine (PH3 ) and its organic derivatives (PR3 ) are structural analogues of ammonia (NH3 ), but the
bond angles at phosphorus are closer to 90° for phosphine and its organic derivatives. Phosphine is an ill-
smelling, toxic gas. Phosphorus has an oxidation number of −3 in phosphine. Phosphine is produced by
hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca3 P2 . Unlike ammonia, phosphine is oxidised by air. Phosphine is also
far less basic than ammonia. Other phosphines are known which contain chains of up to nine phosphorus
atoms and have the formula Pn Hn+2 .[15] The highly flammable gas diphosphine (P2 H4 ) is an analogue of
hydrazine.

Oxoacids

Phosphorus oxoacids are extensive, often commercially important, and sometimes structurally complicated.
They all have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms, some have nonacidic protons that are bonded directly
to phosphorus and some contain phosphorus–phosphorus bonds.[15] Although many oxoacids of
phosphorus are formed, only nine are commercially important, and three of them, hypophosphorous acid,
phosphorous acid, and phosphoric acid, are particularly important.
 Oxidation state Formula Name Acidic protons Compounds

+1 HH2PO2 hypophosphorous acid 1 acid, salts

H3PO3 phosphorous acid

+3 2 acid, salts
(phosphonic acid)

+3 HPO2 metaphosphorous acid 1 salts

+4 H4P2O6 hypophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts

+5 (HPO3)n metaphosphoric acids n salts (n = 3,4,6)

+5 H(HPO3)nOH polyphosphoric acids n+2 acids, salts (n = 1-6)

+5 H5P3O10 tripolyphosphoric acid 3 salts

+5 H4P2O7 pyrophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts

+5 H3PO4 (ortho)phosphoric acid 3 acid, salts

Nitrides

The PN molecule is considered unstable, but is a product of crystalline phosphorus nitride decomposition at
1100 K. Similarly, H2 PN is considered unstable, and phosphorus nitride halogens like F2 PN, Cl2 PN,
Br2 PN, and I2 PN oligomerise into cyclic polyphosphazenes. For example, compounds of the formula
(PNCl2 )n exist mainly as rings such as the trimer hexachlorophosphazene. The phosphazenes arise by
treatment of phosphorus pentachloride with ammonium chloride:

PCl5 + NH4 Cl → 1/n (NPCl2 )n + 4 HCl

When the chloride groups are replaced by alkoxide (RO−), a family of polymers is produced with
potentially useful properties.[45]

Sulfides

Phosphorus forms a wide range of sulfides, where the phosphorus can be in P(V), P(III) or other oxidation
states. The three-fold symmetric P4 S3 is used in strike-anywhere matches. P4 S10 and P4 O10 have
analogous structures.[46] Mixed oxyhalides and oxyhydrides of phosphorus(III) are almost unknown.

Organophosphorus compounds

Compounds with P-C and P-O-C bonds are often classified as organophosphorus compounds. They are
widely used commercially. The PCl3 serves as a source of P3+ in routes to organophosphorus(III)
compounds. For example, it is the precursor to triphenylphosphine:

PCl3 + 6 Na + 3 C6H5Cl → P(C6H5)3 + 6 NaCl

Treatment of phosphorus trihalides with alcohols and phenols gives phosphites, e.g. triphenylphosphite:

PCl3 + 3 C6H5OH → P(OC6H5)3 + 3 HCl

Similar reactions occur for phosphorus oxychloride, affording triphenylphosphate:

OPCl3 + 3 C6H5OH → OP(OC6H5)3 + 3 HCl

History

Etymology

The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived from the Greek
words (φῶς = light, φέρω = carry), which roughly translates as light-bringer or light carrier.[19] (In Greek
mythology and tradition, Augerinus (Αυγερινός = morning star, still in use today), Hesperus or Hesperinus
(΄Εσπερος or Εσπερινός or Αποσπερίτης = evening star, still in use today) and Eosphorus (Εωσφόρος =
dawnbearer, not in use for the planet after Christianity) are close homologues, and also associated with
Phosphorus-the-morning-star).

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the correct spelling of the element is phosphorus. The word
phosphorous is the adjectival form of the P3+ valence: so, just as sulfur forms sulfurous and sulfuric
compounds, phosphorus forms phosphorous compounds (e.g., phosphorous acid) and P5+ valence
phosphoric compounds (e.g., phosphoric acids and phosphates).

Discovery

The discovery of phosphorus, the first element to be discovered that was

not known since ancient times,[47] is credited to the German alchemist
Hennig Brand in 1669, although others might have discovered phosphorus
around the same time.[48] Brand experimented with urine, which contains
considerable quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal
metabolism.[19] Working in Hamburg, Brand attempted to create the fabled
philosopher's stone through the distillation of some salts by evaporating
urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed in the dark
and burned brilliantly. It was named phosphorus mirabilis ("miraculous
bearer of light").[49]
Robert Boyle
Brand's process originally involved letting urine stand for days until it gave
off a terrible smell. Then he boiled it down to a paste, heated this paste to a
high temperature, and led the vapours through water, where he hoped they would condense to gold.
Instead, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the dark. Brand had discovered phosphorus.
Specifically, Brand produced ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, (NH4 )NaHPO4 . While the
quantities were essentially correct (it took about 1,100 litres [290 US gal] of urine to make about 60 g of
phosphorus), it was unnecessary to allow the urine to rot first. Later scientists discovered that fresh urine
yielded the same amount of phosphorus.[31]

Brand at first tried to keep the method secret,[50] but later sold the recipe for 200 thalers to D. Krafft from
Dresden.[19] Krafft toured much of Europe with it, including England, where he met with Robert Boyle.
The secret—that the substance was made from urine—leaked out, and Johann Kunckel (1630–1703) was
able to reproduce it in Sweden (1678). Later, Boyle in London (1680) also managed to make phosphorus,
possibly with the aid of his assistant, Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz. Godfrey later made a business of the
manufacture of phosphorus.
Boyle states that Krafft gave him no information as to the preparation of phosphorus other than that it was
derived from "somewhat that belonged to the body of man". This gave Boyle a valuable clue, so that he,
too, managed to make phosphorus, and published the method of its manufacture.[19] Later he improved
Brand's process by using sand in the reaction (still using urine as base material),

4 NaPO3 + 2 SiO2 + 10 C → 2 Na2SiO3 + 10 CO + P4

Robert Boyle was the first to use phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints, forerunners of our
modern matches, in 1680.[51]

Phosphorus was the 13th element to be discovered. Because of its tendency to spontaneously combust
when left alone in air, it is sometimes referred to as "the Devil's element".[52]

Bone ash and guano

Antoine Lavoisier recognized phosphorus as an element in 1777 after Johan

Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1769, showed that calcium
phosphate (Ca3 (PO4 )2 ) is found in bones by obtaining elemental phosphorus
from bone ash.[53]

Bone ash was the major source of phosphorus until the 1840s. The method
started by roasting bones, then employed the use of fire clay retorts encased in
a very hot brick furnace to distill out the highly toxic elemental phosphorus
product.[54] Alternately, precipitated phosphates could be made from ground-
up bones that had been de-greased and treated with strong acids. White
phosphorus could then be made by heating the precipitated phosphates, mixed Guano mining in the
with ground coal or charcoal in an iron pot, and distilling off phosphorus Central Chincha Islands,
vapour in a retort.[55] Carbon monoxide and other flammable gases produced ca. 1860.
during the reduction process were burnt off in a flare stack.

In the 1840s, world phosphate production turned to the mining of tropical island deposits formed from bird
and bat guano (see also Guano Islands Act). These became an important source of phosphates for fertiliser
in the latter half of the 19th century.[56]

Phosphate rock

Phosphate rock, which usually contains calcium phosphate, was first used in 1850 to make phosphorus,
and following the introduction of the electric arc furnace by James Burgess Readman in 1888[57] (patented
1889),[58] elemental phosphorus production switched from the bone-ash heating, to electric arc production
from phosphate rock. After the depletion of world guano sources about the same time, mineral phosphates
became the major source of phosphate fertiliser production. Phosphate rock production greatly increased
after World War II, and remains the primary global source of phosphorus and phosphorus chemicals today.
See the article on peak phosphorus for more information on the history and present state of phosphate
mining. Phosphate rock remains a feedstock in the fertiliser industry, where it is treated with sulfuric acid to
produce various "superphosphate" fertiliser products.

Incendiaries
White phosphorus was first made commercially in the 19th century for the match industry. This used bone
ash for a phosphate source, as described above. The bone-ash process became obsolete when the
submerged-arc furnace for phosphorus production was introduced to reduce phosphate rock.[59][60] The
electric furnace method allowed production to increase to the point where phosphorus could be used in
weapons of war.[29][61] In World War I, it was used in incendiaries, smoke screens and tracer bullets.[61] A
special incendiary bullet was developed to shoot at hydrogen-filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen being
highly flammable).[61] During World War II, Molotov cocktails made of phosphorus dissolved in petrol
were distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation, for defence;
and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a large scale. Burning phosphorus is difficult to
extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects.[15]

Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its toxicity.
Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use. (An apocryphal tale tells of a woman
attempting to murder her husband with white phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew's
giving off luminous steam).[29] In addition, exposure to the vapours gave match workers a severe necrosis
of the bones of the jaw, known as "phossy jaw". When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus
was discovered, with its far lower flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, under the Berne
Convention (1906), requiring its adoption as a safer alternative for match manufacture.[62] The toxicity of
white phosphorus led to discontinuation of its use in matches.[63] The Allies used phosphorus incendiary
bombs in World War II to destroy Hamburg, the place where the "miraculous bearer of light" was first
discovered.[49]

Production
In 2017, the USGS estimated 68 billion tons of world reserves, where
reserve figures refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current
market prices; 0.261 billion tons were mined in 2016.[64] Critical to
contemporary agriculture, its annual demand is rising nearly twice as
fast as the growth of the human population.[39] The production of
phosphorus may have peaked before 2011 and some scientists predict
reserves will be depleted before the end of the 21st century.[65][39][66]
Phosphorus comprises about 0.1% by mass of the average rock, and Mining of phosphate rock in
consequently, the Earth's supply is vast, though dilute.[15] Nauru

Wet process

Most phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. In this case where the standards of purity are
modest, phosphorus is obtained from phosphate rock by what is called the "wet process." The minerals are
treated with sulfuric acid to give phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is then neutralized to give various
phosphate salts, which comprise fertilizers. In the wet process, phosphorus does not undergo redox.[67]
About five tons of phosphogypsum waste are generated per ton of phosphoric acid production. Annually,
the estimated generation of phosphogypsum worldwide is 100 to 280 Mt.[68]

Thermal process

For the use of phosphorus in drugs, detergents, and foodstuff, the standards of purity are high, which led to
the development of the thermal process. In this process, phosphate minerals are converted to white
phosphorus, which can be purified by distillation. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric
acid and subsequently neutralised with a base to give phosphate salts. The thermal process is conducted in a
submerged-arc furnace which is energy intensive.[67] Presently, about 1,000,000 short tons (910,000 t) of
elemental phosphorus is produced annually. Calcium phosphate (as phosphate rock), mostly mined in
Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1,200–1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly SiO2 , and coke to
produce P4 . The P4 product, being volatile, is readily isolated:[69]

4 Ca5(PO4)3F + 18 SiO2 + 30 C → 3 P4 + 30 CO + 18 CaSiO3 + 2 CaF2

2 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 SiO2 + 10 C → 6 CaSiO3 + 10 CO + P4

Side products from the thermal process include ferrophosphorus, a crude form of Fe2 P, resulting from iron
impurities in the mineral precursors. The silicate slag is a useful construction material. The fluoride is
sometimes recovered for use in water fluoridation. More problematic is a "mud" containing significant
amounts of white phosphorus. Production of white phosphorus is conducted in large facilities in part
because it is energy intensive. The white phosphorus is transported in molten form. Some major accidents
have occurred during transportation.[70]

Historical routes

Historically, before the development of mineral-based extractions, white phosphorus was isolated on an
industrial scale from bone ash.[71] In this process, the tricalcium phosphate in bone ash is converted to
monocalcium phosphate with sulfuric acid:

Ca3(PO4)2 + 2 H2SO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2 CaSO4

Monocalcium phosphate is then dehydrated to the corresponding metaphosphate:

Ca(H2PO4)2 → Ca(PO3)2 + 2 H2O

When ignited to a white heat (~1300 °C) with charcoal, calcium metaphosphate yields two-thirds of its
weight of white phosphorus while one-third of the phosphorus remains in the residue as calcium
orthophosphate:

3 Ca(PO3)2 + 10 C → Ca3(PO4)2 + 10 CO + P4

Applications

Flame retardant

Phosphorus compounds are used as flame retardants. Flame-retardant materials and coatings are being
developed that are both phosphorus- and bio-based.[72]

Food additive

Phosphorus is an essential mineral for humans listed in the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI).

Food-grade phosphoric acid (additive E338[73]) is used to acidify foods and beverages such as various
colas and jams, providing a tangy or sour taste. The phosphoric acid also serves as a preservative.[74] Soft
drinks containing phosphoric acid, which would include Coca-Cola, are sometimes called phosphate sodas
or phosphates. Phosphoric acid in soft drinks has the potential to cause dental erosion.[75] Phosphoric acid
also has the potential to contribute to the formation of kidney stones, especially in those who have had
kidney stones previously.[76]

Fertiliser

Phosphorus is an essential plant nutrient (the most often limiting nutrient, after nitrogen),[77] and the bulk of
all phosphorus production is in concentrated phosphoric acids for agriculture fertilisers, containing as much
as 70% to 75% P2 O5 . That led to large increase in phosphate (PO4 3−) production in the second half of the
20th century.[39] Artificial phosphate fertilisation is necessary because phosphorus is essential to all living
organisms; it is involved in energy transfers, strength of root and stems, photosynthesis, the expansion of
plant roots, formation of seeds and flowers, and other important factors effecting overall plant health and
genetics.[77] Heavy use of phosphorus fertilizers and their runoff have resulted in eutrophication
(overenrichment) of aquatic ecosystems.[78][79]

Natural phosphorus-bearing compounds are mostly inaccessible to plants because of the low solubility and
mobility in soil.[80] Most phosphorus is very stable in the soil minerals or organic matter of the soil. Even
when phosphorus is added in manure or fertilizer it can become fixed in the soil. Therefore, the natural
phosphorus cycle is very slow. Some of the fixed phosphorus is released again over time, sustaining wild
plant growth, however, more is needed to sustain intensive cultivation of crops.[81] Fertiliser is often in the
form of superphosphate of lime, a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate (Ca(H2 PO4 )2 ), and calcium
sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 ·2H2 O) produced reacting sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.

Processing phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid for obtaining fertiliser is so important to the global
economy that this is the primary industrial market for sulfuric acid and the greatest industrial use of
elemental sulfur.[82]

Widely used compounds Use

Ca(H2PO4)2·H2O Baking powder and fertilisers

CaHPO4·2H2O Animal food additive, toothpowder

H3PO4 Manufacture of phosphate fertilisers

PCl3 Manufacture of POCl3 and pesticides

POCl3 Manufacture of plasticiser

P4S10 Manufacturing of additives and pesticides

Na5P3O10 Detergents

Organophosphorus

White phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds through intermediate phosphorus
chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides, phosphorus pentasulfide and phosphorus sesquisulfide.[83]
Organophosphorus compounds have many applications, including in plasticisers, flame retardants,
pesticides, extraction agents, nerve agents and water treatment.[15][84]

Metallurgical aspects
Phosphorus is also an important component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in
many other related products.[85][86] Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to
react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper (CuOFP)
alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper.[87] Phosphate conversion
coating is a chemical treatment applied to steel parts to improve their corrosion resistance.

Matches

The first striking match with a phosphorus head was invented by

Charles Sauria in 1830. These matches (and subsequent
modifications) were made with heads of white phosphorus, an
oxygen-releasing compound (potassium chlorate, lead dioxide, or
sometimes nitrate), and a binder. They were poisonous to the
workers in manufacture,[88] sensitive to storage conditions, toxic if
ingested, and hazardous when accidentally ignited on a rough
surface.[89][90] Production in several countries was banned
between 1872 and 1925.[91] The international Berne Convention, Match striking surface made of a
ratified in 1906, prohibited the use of white phosphorus in matches. mixture of red phosphorus, glue and
ground glass. The glass powder is
In consequence, phosphorous matches were gradually replaced by used to increase the friction.
safer alternatives. Around 1900 French chemists Henri Sévène and
Emile David Cahen invented the modern strike-anywhere match,
wherein the white phosphorus was replaced by phosphorus sesquisulfide (P4 S3 ), a non-toxic and non-
pyrophoric compound that ignites under friction. For a time these safer strike-anywhere matches were quite
popular but in the long run they were superseded by the modern safety match.

Safety matches are very difficult to ignite on any surface other than a special striker strip. The strip contains
non-toxic red phosphorus and the match head potassium chlorate, an oxygen-releasing compound. When
struck, small amounts of abrasion from match head and striker strip are mixed intimately to make a small
quantity of Armstrong's mixture, a very touch sensitive composition. The fine powder ignites immediately
and provides the initial spark to set off the match head. Safety matches separate the two components of the
ignition mixture until the match is struck. This is the key safety advantage as it prevents accidental ignition.
Nonetheless, safety matches, invented in 1844 by Gustaf Erik Pasch and market ready by the 1860s, did
not gain consumer acceptance until the prohibition of white phosphorus. Using a dedicated striker strip was
considered clumsy.[20][83][92]

Water softening

Sodium tripolyphosphate made from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in some countries, but
banned for this use in others.[22] This compound softens the water to enhance the performance of the
detergents and to prevent pipe/boiler tube corrosion.[93]

Miscellaneous
Phosphates are used to make special glasses for sodium lamps.[22]
Bone-ash (mostly calcium phosphate) is used in the production of fine china.[22]
Phosphoric acid made from elemental phosphorus is used in food applications such as soft
drinks, and as a starting point for food grade phosphates.[83] These include monocalcium
 phosphate for baking powder and sodium tripolyphosphate.[83] Phosphates are used to
improve the characteristics of processed meat and cheese, and in toothpaste.[83]
White phosphorus, called "WP" (slang term "Willie Peter") is used in military applications as
incendiary bombs, for smoke-screening as smoke pots and smoke bombs, and in tracer
ammunition. It is also a part of an obsolete M34 White Phosphorus US hand grenade. This
multipurpose grenade was mostly used for signaling, smoke screens, and inflammation; it
could also cause severe burns and had a psychological impact on the enemy.[94] Military
uses of white phosphorus are constrained by international law.
32P and 33P are used as radioactive tracers in biochemical laboratories.[95]

Biological role
Inorganic phosphorus in the form of the phosphate PO3− 4 is required for all known forms of life.
[96]
Phosphorus plays a major role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA. Living cells use phosphate to
transport cellular energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses
energy. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the
main structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening
bones.[15] Biochemists commonly use the abbreviation "Pi" to refer to inorganic phosphate.[97]

Every living cell is encased in a membrane that separates it from its surroundings. Cellular membranes are
composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are
derived from glycerol with two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons replaced by fatty acids as an ester,
and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol.[98]

An average adult human contains about 0.7 kg of phosphorus, about 85–90% in bones and teeth in the
form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids. The phosphorus content increases
from about 0.5% by mass in infancy to 0.65–1.1% by mass in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in
the blood is about 0.4 g/L; about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates.[99] An adult with
healthy diet consumes and excretes about 1–3 grams of phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form
of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids;
and excretion almost exclusively in the form of phosphate ions such as H2 PO−4 and HPO2− 4 . Only about
0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the blood, paralleling the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue
cells.

Bone and teeth enamel

The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite as well as amorphous forms of calcium phosphate, possibly
including carbonate. Hydroxyapatite is the main component of tooth enamel. Water fluoridation enhances
the resistance of teeth to decay by the partial conversion of this mineral to the still harder material
fluorapatite:[15]
− −
Ca5(PO4)3OH + F → Ca5(PO4)3F + OH

Phosphorus deficiency

In medicine, phosphate deficiency syndrome may be caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb

phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood (such as in refeeding
syndrome after malnutrition[100]) or passing too much of it into the urine. All are characterised by
hypophosphatemia, which is a condition of low levels of soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum and
inside the cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle
and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to diarrhoea and calcification (hardening)
of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability to use iron, calcium, magnesium, and
zinc.[101]

Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in edaphology to

understand plant uptake from soil systems. Phosphorus is a limiting factor in many ecosystems; that is, the
scarcity of phosphorus limits the rate of organism growth. An excess of phosphorus can also be
problematic, especially in aquatic systems where eutrophication sometimes leads to algal blooms.[39]

Nutrition

Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for phosphorus in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to
establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR
for phosphorus for people ages 19 and up is 580 mg/day. The RDA is 700 mg/day. RDAs are higher than
EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for
pregnancy and lactation are also 700 mg/day. For people ages 1–18 years the RDA increases with age from
460 to 1250 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and
minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of phosphorus the UL is 4000 mg/day. Collectively the
EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[102]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary
Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement
instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For people ages 15 and older,
including pregnancy and lactation, the AI is set at 550 mg/day. For children ages 4–10 the AI is
440 mg/day, and for ages 11–17 it is 640 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs. In both
systems, teenagers need more than adults.[103] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same
safety question and decided that there was not sufficient information to set a UL.[104]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent
of Daily Value (%DV). For phosphorus labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of
May 27, 2016 it was revised to 1250 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA.[105][106] A table of the
old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Food sources

The main food sources for phosphorus are the same as those containing protein, although proteins do not
contain phosphorus. For example, milk, meat, and soya typically also have phosphorus. As a rule, if a diet
has sufficient protein and calcium, the amount of phosphorus is probably sufficient.[107]

Precautions
Organic compounds of phosphorus form a wide class of materials; many are required for life, but some are
extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of
organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents against enemy humans. Most
inorganic phosphates are relatively nontoxic and essential
nutrients.[15]

The white phosphorus allotrope presents a significant hazard

because it ignites in the air and produces phosphoric acid residue.
Chronic white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw
called "phossy jaw". White phosphorus is toxic, causing severe
liver damage on ingestion and may cause a condition known as
"Smoking Stool Syndrome".[108]
Phosphorus explosion
In the past, external exposure to elemental phosphorus was treated
by washing the affected area with 2% copper(II) sulfate solution to
form harmless compounds that are then washed away. According to the recent US Navy's Treatment of
Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional
Military Chemical Injuries, "Cupric (copper(II)) sulfate has been used by U.S. personnel in the past and is
still being used by some nations. However, copper sulfate is toxic and its use will be discontinued. Copper
sulfate may produce kidney and cerebral toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis."[109]

The manual suggests instead "a bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid, which will then allow
removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often can be located by their emission of smoke when air
strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark surroundings, fragments are seen as
luminescent spots. Promptly debride the burn if the patient's condition will permit removal of bits of WP
(white phosphorus) that might be absorbed later and possibly produce systemic poisoning. DO NOT apply
oily-based ointments until it is certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the
particles, treat the lesions as thermal burns."[note 1] As white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily
substances or ointments are not recommended until the area is thoroughly cleaned and all white phosphorus
removed.

People can be exposed to phosphorus in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye
contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the phosphorus exposure
limit (Permissible exposure limit) in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of
0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 5 mg/m3 , phosphorus is immediately dangerous to life and
health.[110]

US DEA List I status

Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for reducing
ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine.[111] For this reason, red and white phosphorus were
designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as List I precursor chemicals under 21
CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001.[112] In the United States, handlers of red or white
phosphorus are subject to stringent regulatory controls.[112][113][114]

Notes
1. WP, (white phosphorus), exhibits chemoluminescence upon exposure to air and if there is
any WP in the wound, covered by tissue or fluids such as blood serum, it will not glow until it
is exposed to air, which requires a very dark room and dark-adapted eyes to see clearly

References
1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Phosphorus" (https://www.ciaaw.org/phosphorus.htm). CIAAW.
2013.
2. "Phosphorus: Chemical Element" (https://www.britannica.com/science/phosphorus-chemical
-element). Encyclopædia Britannica.
3. Wang, Yuzhong; Xie, Yaoming; Wei, Pingrong; King, R. Bruce; Schaefer, Iii; Schleyer, Paul
v. R.; Robinson, Gregory H. (2008). "Carbene-Stabilized Diphosphorus". Journal of the
American Chemical Society. 130 (45): 14970–1. doi:10.1021/ja807828t (https://doi.org/10.10
21%2Fja807828t). PMID 18937460 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18937460).
4. Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2006). "Phosphorus(I) Iodide: A Versatile
Metathesis Reagent for the Synthesis of Low Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds".
Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (17): 6864–74. doi:10.1021/ic060186o (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fi
c060186o). PMID 16903744 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16903744).
5. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds".
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (https://web.archive.org/web/20110303222309/htt
p://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf) (PDF) (86th ed.).
Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
6. Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida:
Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
7. cf. "Memoir on Combustion in General (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Lavoisier1.html)"
Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 1777, 592–600. from Henry Marshall
Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry 1400–1900 (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1952)
8. A. Holleman; N. Wiberg (1985). "XV 2.1.3". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (33rd ed.).
de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012641-9.
9. Abundance (http://www.ptable.com/#Property/Abundance/Crust). ptable.com
10. Simon, Arndt; Borrmann, Horst; Horakh, Jörg (1997). "On the Polymorphism of White
Phosphorus". Chemische Berichte. 130 (9): 1235–1240. doi:10.1002/cber.19971300911 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.19971300911).
11. Cossairt, Brandi M.; Cummins, Christopher C.; Head, Ashley R.; Lichtenberger, Dennis L.;
Berger, Raphael J. F.; Hayes, Stuart A.; Mitzel, Norbert W.; Wu, Gang (2010-06-01). "On the
Molecular and Electronic Structures of AsP3 and P4". Journal of the American Chemical
Society. 132 (24): 8459–8465. doi:10.1021/ja102580d (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja102580
d). ISSN 0002-7863 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7863). PMID 20515032 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20515032).
12. Welford C. Roberts; William R. Hartley (1992-06-16). Drinking Water Health Advisory:
Munitions (illustrated ed.). CRC Press, 1992. p. 399. ISBN 0-87371-754-6.
13. Marie-Thérèse Averbuch-Pouchot; A. Durif (1996). Topics in Phosphate Chemistry. World
Scientific, 1996. p. 3. ISBN 981-02-2634-9.
14. Simon, Arndt; Borrmann, Horst; Horakh, Jörg (September 1997). "On the Polymorphism of
White Phosphorus". Chemische Berichte. 130 (9): 1235–1240.
doi:10.1002/cber.19971300911 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.19971300911). ISSN 0009-
2940 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2940).
15. Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.),
Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
16. Piro, N. A.; Figueroa, J. S.; McKellar, J. T.; Cummins, C. C. (2006). "Triple-Bond Reactivity of
Diphosphorus Molecules" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c606e43c9acd5ce4f53e8cfd1b
3a61511561c0ad). Science. 313 (5791): 1276–9. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1276P (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...313.1276P). doi:10.1126/science.1129630 (https://doi.org/
10.1126%2Fscience.1129630). PMID 16946068 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1694606
8). S2CID 27740669 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27740669).
17. Berger, L. I. (1996). Semiconductor materials (https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat00
00berg). CRC Press. p. 84 (https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat0000berg/page/84).
ISBN 0-8493-8912-7.
18. Shen, Z; Yu, JC (2016). "Nanostructured elemental photocatalysts: Development and
challenges". In Yamashita, H; Li, H (eds.). Nanostructured Photocatalysts: Advanced
Functional Materials. Switzerland: Springer. pp. 295–312 (301). ISBN 978-3-319-26077-8.
19. Parkes & Mellor 1939, p. 717
20. Egon Wiberg; Nils Wiberg; Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001). Inorganic chemistry (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=Mtth5g59dEIC&pg=PA684). Academic Press. pp. 683–684, 689.
ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. Retrieved 2011-11-19.
21. Parkes & Mellor 1939, pp. 721–722
22. Hammond, C. R. (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.).
CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4.
23. A. Brown; S. Runquist (1965). "Refinement of the crystal structure of black phosphorus".
Acta Crystallogr. 19 (4): 684–685. doi:10.1107/S0365110X65004140 (https://doi.org/10.110
7%2FS0365110X65004140).
24. Cartz, L.; Srinivasa, S.R.; Riedner, R.J.; Jorgensen, J.D.; Worlton, T.G. (1979). "Effect of
pressure on bonding in black phosphorus". Journal of Chemical Physics. 71 (4): 1718–1721.
Bibcode:1979JChPh..71.1718C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979JChPh..71.1718C).
doi:10.1063/1.438523 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.438523).
25. Lange, Stefan; Schmidt, Peer & Nilges, Tom (2007). "Au3SnP7@Black Phosphorus: An
Easy Access to Black Phosphorus". Inorg. Chem. 46 (10): 4028–35. doi:10.1021/ic062192q
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic062192q). PMID 17439206 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1
7439206).
26. Robert Engel (2003-12-18). Synthesis of Carbon-Phosphorus Bonds (2 ed.). CRC Press,
2003. p. 11. ISBN 0-203-99824-3.
27. "Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1956 – Presentation Speech by Professor A. Ölander (committee
member)" (https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1956/ceremony-speech/). Retrieved
2009-05-05.
28. "Phosphorus Topics page, at Lateral Science" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009022103131
6/http://www.lateralscience.co.uk/phos/index.html). Archived from the original (http://www.lat
eralscience.co.uk/phos/index.html) on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
29. Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking History of Phosphorus. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-
330-39005-8.
30. Vanzee, Richard J.; Khan, Ahsan U. (1976). "The phosphorescence of phosphorus". The
Journal of Physical Chemistry. 80 (20): 2240–2242. doi:10.1021/j100561a021 (https://doi.or
g/10.1021%2Fj100561a021).
31. Michael A. Sommers (2007-08-15). Phosphorus (https://archive.org/details/phosphorus0000
somm/page/25). The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. p. 25 (https://archive.org/details/phosp
horus0000somm/page/25). ISBN 978-1-4042-1960-1.
32. Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016
evaluation of nuclear properties" (https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2016/NUBASE2016.p
df) (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A). doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001 (http
s://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F41%2F3%2F030001).
33. Neufcourt, L.; Cao, Y.; Nazarewicz, W.; Olsen, E.; Viens, F. (2019). "Neutron drip line in the
Ca region from Bayesian model averaging". Physical Review Letters. 122 (6): 062502–1–
062502–6. arXiv:1901.07632 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.07632).
Bibcode:2019PhRvL.122f2502N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PhRvL.122f2502
N). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.062502 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.122.062
502). PMID 30822058 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30822058). S2CID 73508148 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73508148).
34. "Phosphorus-32" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160528091951/http://www.oseh.umich.edu/
pdf/TrainP32.pdf) (PDF). University of Michigan Department of Occupational Safety &
Environmental Health. Archived from the original (http://www.oseh.umich.edu/pdf/TrainP32.p
df) (PDF) on 2016-05-28. Retrieved 2010-11-18.
35. Koo, B.-C.; Lee, Y.-H.; Moon, D.-S.; Yoon, S.-C.; Raymond, J. C. (2013). "Phosphorus in the
Young Supernova Remnant Cassiopeia A". Science. 342 (6164): 1346–8. arXiv:1312.3807
(https://arxiv.org/abs/1312.3807). Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1346K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2013Sci...342.1346K). doi:10.1126/science.1243823 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscie
nce.1243823). PMID 24337291 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24337291).
S2CID 35593706 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35593706).
36. Rivilla, V. M.; Drozdovskaya, M. N.; Altwegg, K.; Caselli, P.; Beltrán, M. T.; Fontani, F.; van
der Tak, F. F. S.; Cesaroni, R.; Vasyunin, A.; Rubin, M.; Lique, F.; Marinakis, S.; Testi, L.
(2019). "ALMA and ROSINA detections of phosphorus-bearing molecules: the interstellar
thread between star-forming regions and comets". Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society. 492: 1180–1198. arXiv:1911.11647 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.11647).
doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3336 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstz3336).
S2CID 208290964 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208290964).
37. ESO (15 January 2020). "Astronomers reveal interstellar thread of one of life's building
blocks" (https://phys.org/news/2020-01-astronomers-reveal-interstellar-thread-life.html).
Phys.org. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
38. "Phosphate Rock: Statistics and Information" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/comm
odity/phosphate_rock/). USGS. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
39. Philpott, Tom (March–April 2013). "You Need Phosphorus to Live—and We're Running Out"
(https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/05/fertilizer-peak-phosphorus-shortage).
Mother Jones.
40. Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr., Manual of Mineralogy, Wiley, 1985, 20th ed., p.
360, ISBN 0-471-80580-7
41. Threlfall 1951, p. 51
42. Arthur D. F. Toy (2013-10-22). The Chemistry of Phosphorus (https://archive.org/details/chem
istryofphosp0003toya/page/389). Elsevier, 2013. p. 389 (https://archive.org/details/chemistry
ofphosp0003toya/page/389). ISBN 978-1-4831-4741-3.
43. D. E. C. Corbridge "Phosphorus: An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Technology"
5th Edition Elsevier: Amsterdam 1995. ISBN 0-444-89307-5.
44. Kutzelnigg, W. (1984). "Chemical Bonding in Higher Main Group Elements" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20200416103206/http://web.uvic.ca/~chem421/ACIE_1984_Kutzelnigg_review.
pdf) (PDF). Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 23 (4): 272–295. doi:10.1002/anie.198402721 (http
s://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.198402721). Archived from the original (http://web.uvic.ca/~che
m421/ACIE_1984_Kutzelnigg_review.pdf) (PDF) on 2020-04-16. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
45. Mark, J. E.; Allcock, H. R.; West, R. "Inorganic Polymers" Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ:
1992. ISBN 0-13-465881-7.
46. Heal, H. G. "The Inorganic Heterocyclic Chemistry of Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus"
Academic Press: London; 1980. ISBN 0-12-335680-6.
47. Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the
alchemists". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (1): 11. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9...11W (https://
ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9...11W). doi:10.1021/ed009p11 (https://doi.org/10.
1021%2Fed009p11).
48. Beatty, Richard (2000). Phosphorus (https://books.google.com/books?id=FHJIUJM1_JUC&
pg=PA7). Marshall Cavendish. p. 7. ISBN 0-7614-0946-7.
49. Schmundt, Hilmar (21 April 2010), "Experts Warn of Impending Phosphorus Crisis" (http://w
ww.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,690450-2,00.html), Der Spiegel.
50. Stillman, J. M. (1960). The Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. New York: Dover.
pp. 418–419. ISBN 0-7661-3230-7.
51. Baccini, Peter; Paul H. Brunner (2012-02-10). Metabolism of the Anthroposphere. MIT Press,
2012. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-262-30054-4.
52. Emsley, John (7 January 2002). The 13th Element: The Sordid Tale of Murder, Fire, and
Phosphorus (https://books.google.com/books?id=D8IMOQAACAAJ). John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-471-44149-6. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
53. cf. "Memoir on Combustion in General (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/Lavoisier1.html)"
Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 1777, 592–600. from Henry Marshall
Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry 1400–1900 (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1952)
54. Thomson, Robert Dundas (1870). Dictionary of chemistry with its applications to mineralogy,
physiology and the arts (https://books.google.com/books?id=1LxBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA416).
Rich. Griffin and Company. p. 416.
55. Threlfall 1951, pp. 49–66
56. Robert B. Heimann; Hans D. Lehmann (2015-03-10). Bioceramic Coatings for Medical
Implants. John Wiley & Sons, 2015. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-527-68400-7.
57. The Chemistry of Phosphorus, by Arthur Toy
58. US patent 417943
59. Threlfall 1951, pp. 81–101
60. Parkes & Mellor 1939, p. 718–720.
61. Threlfall 1951, pp. 167–185
62. Lewis R. Goldfrank; Neal Flomenbaum; Mary Ann Howland; Robert S. Hoffman; Neal A.
Lewin; Lewis S. Nelson (2006). Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=cvJuLqBxGUcC&pg=PA1487). McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 1486–1489.
ISBN 0-07-143763-0.
63. The White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act, 1908.
64. "Phosphate Rock" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/mcs
-2017-phosp.pdf) (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
65. Lewis, Leo (2008-06-23). "Scientists warn of lack of vital phosphorus as biofuels raise
demand" (http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/natural_resources/
article4193017.ece). The Times.
66. Grantham, Jeremy (Nov 12, 2012). "Be persuasive. Be brave. Be arrested (if necessary)" (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1038%2F491303a). Nature. 491 (7424): 303. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..303G
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.491..303G). doi:10.1038/491303a (https://doi.o
rg/10.1038%2F491303a). PMID 23151541 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23151541).
67. Geeson, Michael B.; Cummins, Christopher C. (2020). "Let's Make White Phosphorus
Obsolete" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7318074). ACS Central Science.
6 (6): 848–860. doi:10.1021/acscentsci.0c00332 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facscentsci.0c0
0332). PMC 7318074 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7318074).
PMID 32607432 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32607432).
68. Tayibi, Hanan; Choura, Mohamed; López, Félix A.; Alguacil, Francisco J.; López-Delgado,
Aurora (2009). "Environmental Impact and Management of Phosphogypsum". Journal of
Environmental Management. 90 (8): 2377–2386. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.03.007 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2009.03.007). hdl:10261/45241 (https://hdl.handle.net/1026
1%2F45241). PMID 19406560 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19406560).
69. Shriver, Atkins. Inorganic Chemistry, Fifth Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York;
2010; p. 379.
70. "ERCO and Long Harbour" (http://www.heritage.nf.ca/law/erco.html). Memorial University of
Newfoundland and the C.R.B. Foundation. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
71. Von Wagner, Rudolf (1897). Manual of chemical technology (http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/p
t?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t3tt4gz1p;view=1up;seq=439). New York: D. Appleton & Co. p. 411.
72. Naiker, Vidhukrishnan E.; Mestry, Siddhesh; Nirgude, Tejal; Gadgeel, Arjit; Mhaske, S. T.
(2023-01-01). "Recent developments in phosphorous-containing bio-based flame-retardant
(FR) materials for coatings: an attentive review". Journal of Coatings Technology and
Research. 20 (1): 113–139. doi:10.1007/s11998-022-00685-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs1
1998-022-00685-z). ISSN 1935-3804 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1935-3804).
S2CID 253349703 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253349703).
73. "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers" (http://www.food.gov.uk/policy-advice/
additivesbranch/enumberlist#h_7). Foods Standards Agency. 14 March 2012. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20130821045312/http://food.gov.uk/policy-advice/additivesbranch/e
numberlist#h_7) from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
74. "Why is phosphoric acid used in some Coca‑Cola drinks?| Frequently Asked Questions |
Coca-Cola GB" (https://www.coca-cola.co.uk/our-business/faqs/why-is-phosphoric-acid-use
d-in-coca-cola-drinks-diet-coke-coke-zero). www.coca-cola.co.uk. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20210802114054/https://www.coca-cola.co.uk/our-business/faqs/why-is-phosph
oric-acid-used-in-coca-cola-drinks-diet-coke-coke-zero) from the original on 2 August 2021.
Retrieved 2021-08-31.
75. Moynihan, P. J. (23 November 2002). "Dietary advice in dental practice" (https://doi.org/10.1
038%2Fsj.bdj.4801628). British Dental Journal. 193 (10): 563–568.
doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.4801628 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4801628). PMID 12481178 (ht
tps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12481178).
76. Qaseem, A; Dallas, P; Forciea, MA; Starkey, M; et al. (4 November 2014). "Dietary and
pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: A clinical practice
guideline from the American College of Physicians" (https://doi.org/10.7326%2FM13-2908).
Annals of Internal Medicine. 161 (9): 659–67. doi:10.7326/M13-2908 (https://doi.org/10.732
6%2FM13-2908). PMID 25364887 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25364887).
77. Etesami, H. (2019). Nutrient Dynamics for Sustainable Crop Production (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=DeKtDwAAQBAJ&q=phosphorous%20limiting). Springer. p. 217.
ISBN 978-981-13-8660-2.
78. Carpenter, Stephen R. (2005). "Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: Bistability and soil
phosphorus" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1177388). Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. 102: 10002–10005. doi:10.1073/pnas.0503959102 (https://d
oi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503959102). ISSN 0027-8424 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027
-8424). PMC 1177388 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1177388).
79. Conley, Daniel J.; Paerl, Hans W.; Howarth, Robert W.; et al. (2009). "Controlling
Eutrophication: Nitrogen and Phosphorus". Science. 323: 1014–1015.
doi:10.1126/science.1167755 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1167755). ISSN 0036-
8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075).
80. "Soil Phosphorous" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201028202404/https://www.nrcs.usda.go
v/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_053254.pdf) (PDF). United States Department of
Agriculture. Archived from the original (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMEN
TS/nrcs142p2_053254.pdf) (PDF) on 2020-10-28. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
81. "Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201020090515/
https://extension.psu.edu/programs/nutrient-management/educational/soil-fertility/managing-
phosphorus-for-crop-production#:~:text=The%20challenge%20is%20that%20phosphorus,o
nly%20from%20the%20soil%20solution). Penn State Extension. Archived from the original
(https://extension.psu.edu/programs/nutrient-management/educational/soil-fertility/managing
-phosphorus-for-crop-production#:~:text=The%20challenge%20is%20that%20phosphorus,o
nly%20from%20the%20soil%20solution) on 2020-10-20. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
82. Jessica Elzea Kogel, ed. (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and
Uses. SME, 2006. p. 964. ISBN 0-87335-233-5.
83. Threlfall, R.E. (1951). 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951. Oldbury: Albright and
Wilson Ltd.
84. Diskowski, Herbert and Hofmann, Thomas (2005) "Phosphorus" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_505 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1002%2F14356007.a19_505)
85. Roland W. Scholz; Amit H. Roy; Fridolin S. Brand; Deborah Hellums; Andrea E. Ulrich, eds.
(2014-03-12). Sustainable Phosphorus Management: A Global Transdisciplinary Roadmap.
Springer Science & Business Media. p. 175. ISBN 978-94-007-7250-2.
86. Mel Schwartz (2016-07-06). Encyclopedia and Handbook of Materials, Parts and Finishes.
CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-138-03206-4.
87. Joseph R. Davisz, ed. (January 2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International.
p. 181. ISBN 0-87170-726-8.
88. Hughes, J. P. W; Baron, R.; Buckland, D. H.; et al. (1962). "Phosphorus Necrosis of the Jaw:
A Present-day Study: With Clinical and Biochemical Studies" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1038164). Br. J. Ind. Med. 19 (2): 83–99. doi:10.1136/oem.19.2.83 (https://d
oi.org/10.1136%2Foem.19.2.83). PMC 1038164 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC1038164). PMID 14449812 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14449812).
 89. Crass, M. F. Jr. (1941). "A history of the match industry. Part 9" (http://www.jce.divched.org/jo
urnal/Issues/1941/Sep/jceSubscriber/JCE1941p0428.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Chemical
Education. 18 (9): 428–431. Bibcode:1941JChEd..18..428C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/1941JChEd..18..428C). doi:10.1021/ed018p428 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed018p428).
90. Oliver, Thomas (1906). "Industrial disease due to certain poisonous fumes or gases" (https://
archive.org/stream/archivesofpublic01victuoft#page/2/mode/1up). Archives of the Public
Health Laboratory. Manchester University Press. 1: 1–21.
91. Charnovitz, Steve (1987). "The Influence of International Labour Standards on the World
Trading Regime. A Historical Overview". International Labour Review. 126 (5): 565, 571.
92. Alexander P. Hardt (2001). "Matches". Pyrotechnics. Post Falls Idaho USA: Pyrotechnica
Publications. pp. 74–84. ISBN 0-929388-06-2.
93. Klaus Schrödter, Gerhard Bettermann, Thomas Staffel, Friedrich Wahl, Thomas Klein,
Thomas Hofmann "Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry 2008, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_465.pub3 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a19_465.pub3)
94. Dockery, Kevin (1997). Special Warfare Special Weapons. Chicago: Emperor's Press.
ISBN 1-883476-00-3.
95. David A. Atwood, ed. (2013-02-19). Radionuclides in the Environment. John Wiley & Sons,
2013. ISBN 978-1-118-63269-7.
96. Ruttenberg, K. C. Phosphorus Cycle – Terrestrial Phosphorus Cycle, Transport of
Phosphorus (http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/3375/Phosphorus-Cycle.html), from
Continents to the Ocean, The Marine Phosphorus Cycle. (archived link (https://archive.toda
y/20110713204340/http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/3375/Phosphorus-Cycle.html)).
97. Lipmann, D. (1944). "Enzymatic Synthesis of Acetyl Phosphate" (http://www.jbc.org/content/
155/1/55.short). J Biol Chem. 155: 55–70. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)43172-9 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2943172-9).
98. Nelson, D. L.; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing:
New York, 2000. ISBN 1-57259-153-6.
99. Bernhardt, Nancy E.; Kasko, Artur M. (2008). Nutrition for the Middle Aged and Elderly (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=ba_5OSsyS4YC&pg=PA171). Nova Publishers. p. 171.
ISBN 978-1-60456-146-3.
100. Mehanna H. M.; Moledina J.; Travis J. (June 2008). "Refeeding syndrome: what it is, and
how to prevent and treat it" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2440847). BMJ.
336 (7659): 1495–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.a301 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.a301).
PMC 2440847 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2440847). PMID 18583681
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18583681).
101. Anderson, John J. B. (1996). "Calcium, Phosphorus and Human Bone Development" (http
s://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F126.suppl_4.1153S). Journal of Nutrition. 126 (4 Suppl):
1153S–1158S. doi:10.1093/jn/126.suppl_4.1153S (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F126.su
ppl_4.1153S). PMID 8642449 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8642449).
102. Institute of Medicine (1997). "Phosphorus" (https://www.nap.edu/read/5776/chapter/7).
Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 146–189. doi:10.17226/5776 (https://d
oi.org/10.17226%2F5776). ISBN 978-0-309-06403-3. PMID 23115811 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/23115811). S2CID 8768378 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:876837
8).
103. "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA
Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/defaul
t/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf) (PDF). 2017.
104. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/d
efault/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf) (PDF), European Food Safety
Authority, 2006
105. "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement
Facts Labels. FR page 33982" (https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-05-27/pdf/2016-118
67.pdf) (PDF).
106. "Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20200407073956/https://dsld.nlm.nih.gov/dsld/dailyvalue.jsp). Dietary
Supplement Label Database (DSLD). Archived from the original (https://www.dsld.nlm.nih.go
v/dsld/dailyvalue.jsp) on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
107. Phosphorus in diet: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia (https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplu
s/ency/article/002424.htm). Nlm.nih.gov (2011-11-07). Retrieved on 2011-11-19.
108. "CBRNE – Incendiary Agents, White Phosphorus (Smoking Stool Syndrome)" (http://www.e
medicine.com/EMERG/topic918.htm). Retrieved 2009-05-05.
109. "US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical
Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20051122221207/http://www.vnh.org/FM8285/Chapter/chapter9.html). Archived from the
original (http://www.vnh.org/FM8285/Chapter/chapter9.html) on November 22, 2005.
Retrieved 2009-05-05.
110. "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Phosphorus (yellow)" (https://www.cdc.
gov/niosh/npg/npgd0507.html). www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
111. Skinner, H.F. (1990). "Methamphetamine synthesis via hydriodic acid/red phosphorus
reduction of ephedrine". Forensic Science International. 48 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1016/0379-
0738(90)90104-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0379-0738%2890%2990104-7).
112. "66 FR 52670—52675" (http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_
register&docid=01-26013-filed). 17 October 2001. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
113. "21 cfr 1309" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090503063012/http://www.access.gpo.gov/nar
a/cfr/waisidx_06/21cfr1309_06.html). Archived from the original (http://www.access.gpo.gov/
nara/cfr/waisidx_06/21cfr1309_06.html) on 2009-05-03. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
114. "21 USC, Chapter 13 (Controlled Substances Act)" (https://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa.htm
l). Retrieved 2009-05-05.

Bibliography
Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking history of Phosphorus. A biography of the Devil's
Element. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-76638-5.
Parkes, G. D.; Mellor, J. W. (1939). Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry. Longman's Green
and Co.
Podger, Hugh (2002). Albright & Wilson. The Last 50 years. Studley: Brewin Books. ISBN 1-
85858-223-7.
Threlfall, Richard E. (1951). The Story of 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951.
Oldbury: Albright & Wilson Ltd.

Further reading
Kolbert, Elizabeth, "Elemental Need: Phosphorus helped save our way of life – and now
threatens to end it", The New Yorker, 6 March 2023, pp. 24–27. "[T]he world's phosphorus
problem [arising from the element's exorbitant use in agriculture] resembles its carbon-
dioxide problem, its plastics problem, its groundwater-use problem, its soil-erosion problem,
 and its nitrogen problem. The path humanity is on may lead to ruin, but, as of yet, no one has
found a workable way back." (p. 27.)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phosphorus&oldid=1187900774"