¢ De® UALITY OF WATER Meaning of pure water: The water required for Public water sup hemes should be ater supply sche ld bi -e. fit for drinking purposes. It is how not essential to have Physically or chemically pure ae See The presence of some mi ‘quired to give some taste to the water i.e. to make it palatable and they also assist in food assimilation. It will be difficult, time consuming and costly to have complete purification of the water. inerals in water is re: The impurities in water are to be removed to a certain extent only so that it does not prove harmful to the public health. The term wholesome water is used to indicate the water which is not chemically pure, but does not contain anything harmful to the human body i.e. the water in which there are no pathogenic bacteria, no toxic substances and no excessive organic matter. Thus the wholesomeness is a must while the palatability of water is desirable. The term pure water is a relative term and it has to be interpreted in relation to the use of water. The concept _of pure water, potable water or wholesome water with relation to various uses of water is Understood as follows: (1) Domestic use: The water required for domestic consumption “should possess a high degree of purity and it should be free from suspended impurities, bacteria, etc. A tolerance of small degree of hardness developed due to certain dissolved salts is however permissible. Thus the drinking water and water used in the food industry and some other industries must meet the highest standard of purity. Following are the requirements of potable or wholesome water for domestic - (1) It should be clear, odourless and colourless. , (2) It should be free from harmful and disease producing bacteria. (3) It should be free from all objectionable substances. (4) It should be fresh and cool. 4 (5) It should be palatable i.e. aesthetically attractive. (6) It should be tasty. 4 - (7) It should not cause corrosion to the pipes and other fittings.114 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (2) Civic use: For this purpose, to fulfil various civic Purposes su of sewers, etc. The nature of use of impurity can be tolerated. Hence of suspended and dissolved impurities may be permitted for this Purpose. But the water which is considerably mixed up with sewage and other refuse cannot be tolerated for this Purpose. a large quantity of water is required ch as washing of roads, cleaning of water is such that any degree the water containing large amount (3) Trade or business use: The water required for a particular trade will depend upon nature of that trade. For instance, the water required for laundry should not be hard as it will result in more consumption of soap. Similarly the water required for bathing cattles and washing floors in case of stables may contain any type of impurities (4) Commercial or industrial use: The water required for this Purpose should be chemically pure. The various chemical processes: involved in the production make it essential to use chemically pure water. A slight amount of impurity may considerably affect the final results of the product. The nature of water required for various factories is so variable that some of the factories install their own water supply plant to supply water to their industries. Alternatively, a city with well-developed and highly water-consuming industries should have preferably twosystems of water supply — one supplying potable water for drinking and domestic use; and the other providing water for industry. Moscow, Paris, Hanover, Stuttgart and a number of other big cities of the world have now adopted this system in practice and in future, it may become more popular as a means to save the drinking water. In this chapter, the various aspects related to the analysis and testing of the water quality will be briefly described. + Reasons for the analysis of water: Following are the reasons or purposes for carrying out the analysis of water: (1) to ascertain if the supplies maintain the required degree of purity and to find out the extent of any variations which occur; (2) to ascertain the effect of heavy rainfalls or of long-continued drought on river waters; (3) to ascertain the quality of the proposed supply to the new consumers; (4) to decide that the water obtained from some additional source or sources of supply will be pure, wholesome, not too hard and, free from the risk of any pollution;nd Quality of Water " 5 (5) to decide the suitabilit i 0 y Of water for { i song feeding boilers, hot-water (6) to examine the effect of pumping on well Waters, when wells are situated near the sea or an estuary; (7) to find out the organisms responsible for the Spreading of the water-borne diseases; to identify the organisms Tesponsible for developing certain effects on water with respect to colour, odour, taste, etc,; (9) to know the characteristics of waters at various depths of | deep wells and tube wells; (10) to know the quality of water submitted to the various Purification Processes; especially (8 {11) to know the quality of water used or proposed to be used for public swimming baths; (12) to know whether water from a particular supply of water is suitable for specific purpose such as paper making, dyeing, tanning, wool washing, brewing, steam raising, etc.; (13) to study the process of self-purification of streams and rivers; (14) to suggest the best method of purifying, of softening or of preventing action on mains and supply pipes; etc. _ Impurities in water: | It is not possible to find pure water in nature. The rain water as it drops down to the surface of earth absorbs dust and gases from the atmosphere. It is further exposed to the organic matter on the surface of earth and by the time, it reaches the source of water supply, it is found to contain various other impurities also For the purpose of classification, the impurities i cance neem meat ) Physical impurities ) Chemical impurities (3) Bacteriological impurities se i The detailed discussion on physical impurities, shania ioe and bacteriological impurities leading respectively to physical p i i : nee chemical pollution and bacteriological Pollution of Matety Isa “Chapter XV of this book under the topic — types of water pi Analysis of water: it i ted to the In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is se ieriou ie ie These tests can be divided into the following is tests.116 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering |. Physical tests I Chemical tests Ill. Bacteriological tests. Before we take up the discussion of various tests, it will be necessary to note the precautions which are to be taken while collecting the sample of water to be analysed. In fact, the sampling is the most Important part of any analysis because the final results obtained, even from the most accurate analysis, will be misleading, if the samples on which such analysis is carried out, are not representative ones of the liquids to be tested. As a matter of fact, it will be ideal to carry out all the analysis immediately after the collection of samples and the quicker the analysis, the more representative will be the results of analysis of the liquid at the time the samples are taken. These Precautions are as follows : (1) The water should be collected in bottles, especially of white glass, having well-fitted stoppers. The bottles having holding capacity of about 2 litres of water are necessary for the chemical analysis. For bacteriological examination, the bottles with smaller holding capacities will be sufficient. (2) The bottles should be thoroughly cleansed, filled thrice with water and thrice emptied before collecting the sample. However, it will not be necessary to carry out such process, if the sealed bottles are directly obtained from the laboratories. (3) When the sample of water is to be collected from a Pipe, the water tap should be turned on and the water should be allowed to go waste for at least two minutes so as to prevent the entry of impurities of the pipe in the sample of water. If the sample is to be collected for conducting a bacteriological analysis, the nozzle of the tap should be flamed and made unbearably hot and then cooled by the running water before the bottle is filled (4) For collecting the sample of water from lake, stream, spring or well, the whole bottle with stopper closed should be suspended well under the surface of water and then only the stopper of bottle should be removed by means of a clean piece of string and the bottle is filled. Thus the entry of floating materials will be prevented in the bottle. The bottle should be held as far away from its neck as possible. In no case, the water entering the bottle should come in contact with the hand. (5ary ing ost ven oles nes les ults ese hite ling ical iller vith ver, aled ipe, be ent ter. ical ade fore ring ded per ials Quality of Water 7 (6) After collecting the sam @ stopper ple, th i 7" per of bottle should be < Containing samples of wat be labelled stating the source, date and time of SER L/Physical tests: Under this catego) i ‘ for Te Talaning gory, the tests are carried Out to examine water 1) Colour ) Taste and odour e. 3) Temperature 4) Turbidity. ther physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density, electrical conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity. (1) Colour: The pure water is colourless and following are the sources which contribute colour to the water: (i) algae metabolism; (ii) end products of degraded organic matter; (iii) discharge of untreated and partially treated waste water from various industries like food processing, textile industry, tanneries, Paper production, etc. (iv) divalent species containing iron and manganese; etc The colour caused by the suspended matter is known as the apparent colour and the colour contributed by dissolved solids that remain after _ removal of suspended matter is referred to as the true colour. An undesirable appearance is produced by colour in water. It spoils the clothes and affects various industrial processes. The measurement of colour in water is carried out by means of a tintometer. The instrument has an eye-piece with two holes. A slide of standard coloured water is seen through one hole and in the other hole, the slide of water to be tested is inserted. The intensity of colour in water is measured on an arbitrary scale. The unit of colour on cobalt scale is the colour produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt in litre of distilled water. The slide of standard numbers are kept ready in the laboratory. For public water supply, the number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20 and should be preferably less than 10. The measurement of water from the sample should be done within 72 hours of its collection. + it should however be remembered that the examination of colour by matching with slides of standard colours will be sufficient for most of the purposes and it is obvious that the results will be influencedil ia Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering by the personal factor, the ions of lighting under which th tes : conditi ligh i ae ighting ich the tests Following are the disadvantages of the water Possessing colour: (1) It is found that many colour bodies are colloidal in nature and they behave as adsorbents. Thus they concentrate on many trace metals and exert toxicity to the aquatic life. The coloured water is unsuitable for certain industries like dairy production, paper making, laundering, textile, etc. (iii) The receiving waters polluted with colour restrict the penetration of light which subsequently retard the photosynthetic reactions. It also indirectly affects the reoxygenation capacity of the receiving waters (i) (iv) The true colour causing organic compounds exert a chlorine” demand and hence it will increase the quantity of chlorine required for disinfection of water (2) Taste and odour: The water possesses taste and odour due to various causes and they make the water unpleasant for drinking. The test is carried out by inhaling through two tubes of an osmoscope. One tube is kept in a flask containing diluted water and the other one in a flask containing water to be tested. The taste and odour of water may also be tested by threshold number. In this method, the water to be tested is diluted with odour-free water and the mixture at which odour becomes detectable is determined. It indicates threshold number and other intensities of, adour are then worked out. The results of test are gfeatly affected by the sensitiveness of the observer. For public water supply, the threshold number should not be more than 3 “In any event, the water to be supplied from a public water supply scheme should not contain objectionable taste and odour. The odour is expressed:as:disagreeable, earthy, Aghatyntady:-mrroubdy, peaty; sweetishy etc. If an ‘odour of* chlorine “OF jodolorm is féund, it -should always be recorded: The taste is expressed as brackish, Saline, salty, etc. Some persons are more sensitive than others and what is called a taste is often nothing more than a Sensation of roughness on the palate after the water has been swallowed. If the taste and odour are suspected to be due to the growth of any kind, the cause may be found out by conducting microscopical and biological examinations. *: i ; ral . : (3) Temperature: The test for temperature of water has no ae meaning’ in the sense that it is not possible to give any treatment‘ests rT ature 2 on like ation ‘ions. [ the lorine™ lorine r due nking. scope. other odour ethod, vixture eshold results sr. For han 3. supply odour jeetishy always . Some a taste palate growth scopical yractical eatrment i Quality of Water 19 | to control the temperature in any water su j } 3 Pply project. The ti of water to be supplied from storage reservoir depends chee from which it is drawn. The desirable temperature of potable wale Lis 10°C while temperature of 25°C is considered to be objectionable. It should however be noted that changes in temperature of water from its source to the mains may be helpful in detecting the unsuspected source of pollution. Also the multiplication of bacteria in the waters is more rapid at higher temperature than in the waters at lower temperature. Hence, when waters with a temperature of about 15°C are collected for bacteriological analysis, they should be cooled down as quickly as possible. ft should further be remembered that the air temperature at the time of taking the water sample should always be recorded. The measurement of temperature of water is done with the help of ordinary thermometers. From the study of temperature, the characteristics of water such as density, viscosity, vapour pressure and surface tension can be determined. It also helps in determining the saturation values of solids and gases which can be dissolved in water and also the rates of chemical, biochemical and biological activity (4) Turbidity: The colloidal matter present in water interfers with passage of light and thus imparts turbidity to the water. The turbidity in water may also be due to clay and silt particles, discharges of sewage or industrial wastes, presence of large numbers of micro-organisms, etc. and the cloudy appearance developed in water due to turbidity is aesthetically unattractive and it may also be harmful to the consumers. It also disturbs the disinfection process because “the solids may partially shield the organisms from the disinfecant. The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water or shortly written as p.p.m. It is to be noted that the expression p.p.m. is also equivalent to mg per litre © or mg/l. The standard unit of turbidity is the turbidity produced by one part of Fuller's earth which is in the form of finely divided silica in a million parts of distilled water. The permissible turbidity for drinking water is 5 to 10 p.p.m. : embered that turbidity is not a direct quantita! tive | esivoe ee tie suspended solids. The absorption and el of particles are influenced by both size and surface characteristics e the suspended material. For instance, ‘one small pebble in a samp! ‘of water will not cause any turbidity. But if this pebble is crushed ‘Into small particles, a measurable turbidity would be developed even though the mass of pebble remains unchanged120 The measurement of turbidity in the field is done by means a turbidity rod and it is referred to as the visual method of iu, measurement. For laboratory, the various instruments known as ic turbidimeters are found out to measure the turbidity of water, - most common being Jackson turbidimeter, Baylis turbidimeter and Nephelometric turbidimeter Turbidity rod: The instrument consists of a graduated aluminium rod about 203 mm long. A graduated non-stretchable tape about 122 cm long is attached at the upper end of the aluminium rod as shown + in fig. 5-1. At the lower end of the aluminium rod, a screw containing platinum needle and nickel ring is inserted. The diameter of platinum needle is 1 mm and its length is 25 mm. The nickel ring is provided to insert a stick so that the instrument may be kept in vertical position. On the graduated tape, there is a mark for eye position. * (a —- Eye Position ‘ y 5 8 t—v-— {U- Graduated Tope +———>} é € : 5 E 2 5 a = Q os 8 3 2 5 Platinum Needle 4 Nickel Ring Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering f i Turbidity rod Fic. 5-1 For measuring turbidity of water, the rod is lowered i the depth at which the platinum wire ceases to be seen un in water and der standard i ; ar gives | light conditions is noted and corresponding reading on the bi , the turbidity of water in p.p.m.im 22 yn ng im jed on. and dard gives Quality of Water 121 Jackson turbidimeter: \t consists of metal stand, standard candle, metal container and graduated glass tube as shown in fig. 5-2. For measuring turbidity of water, some quantity of water is poured in the glass tube and image of candle flame is observed from the top. The depth of water in glass tube is gradually increased until the image of candle flame ceases to be seen. The corresponding reading on the glass tube indicates turbidity of water in p.p.m. This instrument can record turbidities above 100 p.p.m. and it is based on the principle of light absorption. «Graduated Glass Tube Metal Container—*) Metal Stand—»y Flome —Stondard Candie Jackson turbidimeter Fig, 5-2 Baylis turbidimeter: This instrument consists of a galvanised iron box. On one side of the box, there are two glass tubes and on the other side is a 250-watt bulb with reflectors as shown in fig. 5-3. The glass tubes are supported at their'lower ends by a white ‘opal glass plate and they are surrounded near their bottom portion by blue cobalt plates. Out of fwo glass tubes, one is filled with water whose turbidity is to be determined and the other is filled with standard solution of known turbidity. The bulb is lighted and blue light from both the tubes is observed from the top. If colour’ of both the tubes differ, another tube of standard solution is inserted and the process is continued until colours of both the tubes are nearly same. The turbidity of standard122 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering solution then corresponds to the turbidity of sample of water. This instrument can record turbidities less than 5 p.p.m. n° Galvanised Iron Box Two Glass Tubes Blue Cobalt Plates t+ Reflector 1 1 White Opal Glass Plate Baylis turbidimeter Fig. 5-3 Nephelometric turbidimeter: The Nephelometric turbidimeter is based on the principle of the intensity of light scattering and now-a-days. most of the turbidimeters are working on the principle of light scattering. The instrument is in the form of a box with chambers for sample tubes and standard turbidity suspension tubes. The data obtained from turbidity measurements are helpful in the following ways: (i) It assists in deciding whether turbidity interfers with the photosynthetic reaction in streams and lakes. (ii) It gives indication of the quantity of chemicals required for day to day operations of water treatment works. (ii) It helps in determining whether a public water supply requires before use special treatments by chemical coagulation and filtration. (iv) The excess tubidity may seriously affect the functioning of slow sand filters. (v) The optimum dosage of coagulants to treat the domestic and industrial waste can be determined. (vi) The performance of water treatment plants can be evaluated. (vii) The turbidity measurements of the filtered water are required to check the faulty filter operation.Quality of Water 123 Il. Chemical tests: Under this Category, the tests are carri i fersthe tollawine led out to examine water (1) Chlorides (2) Dissolved gases (3) Hardness (4) Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH value) (5) Alkalinity (6) Acidity (7) Metals and other chemical substances (8) Nitrogen and its compounds (9) Total solids. (1) Chlorides: The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked out for a sample of water. The excess presence of sodium chloride in natural water indicates pollution of water due to sewage, minerals, edible oil mill operations, ice cream plant effluents, chemical industries, sea water intrusion in coastal regions, etc. The water has lower contents of salt than sewage due to the fact that salt consumed in food is excreted by body. For potable water, :the highest desirable level of chloride content is 250 mg/litre and its maximum permissible level is 600 mg/litre. It_ may be noted that there is no known evidence to show that the chlorides constitute any human health hazard. It is for this reason that the public water sources containing chlorides as much as 2000 mg/litre of water are used for domestic purposes because such water does not develop any adverse effect once the human body gets adjusted to such water. The measurement of chloride contents is carried out as follows: (a) 50 c.c. of sample of water is taken by pipette in a porcelain dish: (b) Two or three drops of potassium chromate solution are added to the sample of water. (c) The chloride contents are then determined by titrating with standard solution of silver nitrate. The silver reacts first with all chlorides and silver chloride thus - formed then reacts with potassium chromate. The silver chromate appears as reddish precipitate and the amount of silver nitrate required to produce such reddish precipitate determines the amount of chlorides present in water. The chemical reactions are as follows:124 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering AgNO; + NaCl = AgCl + NaNO3 2AgCl + KyCr907 = AggCr207 + 2 KCl. The presence of chlorides can corrode and such water cannot be used for boilers because of formation of hydrochloric acid due to presence of magnesium chloride in water. The pH value of sample of water is to be adjusted between 7 and 8 either by adding sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide solution. Otherwise, the test results are likely. to be affected. 3 i EE (2) Dissolved gases: The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere and ground surfaces. The usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The contents of these dissolved gases in a sample of water are suitably worked out The nitrogen is not very important. The methane concentration ‘ is to be studied for its explosive property. The hydrogen sulphide gives disagreeable odour to the water even if its amount is very small. The carbon dioxide content indicates biological activities, causes corrosion, increases the solubility of many minerals in water and gives taste to the water. The oxygen in the dissolved state is obtained from atmosphere and pure natural surface water is usually saturated with it. The simple test to determine the amount of dissolved oxygen present in a sample of water is to expose water for 4 hours at a temperature of 27°C with 10% acid solution of potassium permanganate. The quantity of oxygen absorbed can then be calculated. This amount, for potable water, should be about 5 to 10 p.p.m 19 (3) Hardness: The term hardness is defined as the ability of the ) water to cause precipitation of insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of higher fatty acids from soap. The hardness or soap-destroying power of a water is of two types — temporary hardness and permanent hardness. =) The temporary hardness is also known as the carbonate hard ind it i inly due to the presence icarbonates of calcium and _ magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by adding lime to the water. The permanent hardness is also known as the non-carbonate —titrates_of calcium_and magnesium. It cannot be removed by sim! oiling the water. It requires special treatment of water softening.a Quality of Water 125 Thus the hardness of water is divided into the following two forms: (1) Carbonate hardness—metals associated with HCO3— (2) Non-carbonate _hardness— 4 ESS Che Sa a wee eS is Now, Most of the natural alkalinity in waters is due to HCO3~ which is produced by the action of ground water on limestone or chalk as shown by the following equation: CaCO; + HO + CO, —» CalHCO5), (Insoluble) (From soil bacteria) (Soluble) Thus we get the following relation: Total hardness = Carbonate hardness or alkalinity + Non-carbonate hardness ee an Following fo rules should be remembered in this connection When alkalinity < T.H., then CH. = Alkalinity (2) When alkalinity > T.H., then CH. = TH : \ The excess hardness of water is undesirable because of various reasons such as it causes more consumption of soap, affects the working _ of _dyei stem, provides sc on boilers, causes corrosion and incrustation of pi takes food tasteless, et The hardness is expressed as per Clark's scale in terms of degree of hardness. Thus one grain of CaCO3 dissolved in one gallon of water will produce one degree of hardness. Now, 7000 grains = 0.4536 kg = 453600 mg One grain= 64.8 mg One gallon (imperial) = 4.546 litres. 64. Hence one degree of hardness will be equivalent to 7 a = 14.254, -~ say 14.3 milligrams of calcium carbonate in a litre of water. The expression p.p.m. is used to mean mg _ per litre and in that case, one degree of hardness will be equal to 14.3 p.p.m. It is found that each degree of hardness causes wastage of about 0.60 gram ‘of soap. The hardness is usually measured by the soap solution test. The standard soap solution is added in the sample of water. It is then vigorously shaken for about five minutes and the formation of lather126 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering is observed. The difference between the total amount of soap solution and the lather factor indicates the hardness of water. The water, having hardness of about 5 degrees, is reasonably soft water and a very soft water is tasteless. Hence, for potable water, the hardness should preferably be more than 5 degrees but less than 8 degrees or so. For the purpose of convenience, a tentative scale of hardness may be framed as shown in table 5-1 TABLE 5-1 SCALE OF HARDNESS No Nature of water Hardness in degrees 1 | Extremely soft 2 | Very soft 3 | Soft 4 | Moderately soft 5 | Moderately hard 6 7 8 9 Hard Very hard i Excessively hard 15, Too hard for use 7 The hardness is normally expressed in terms of calcium carbonate. Now the chemical analyses for individual ions are usually given in terms of that ion. It will thus be necessary to convert the analytical results to ‘ommon denominator. equivalent wt. of CaCO; mg/l as CaCO3 = M** (mg/l) x ————______ equivalent wt. of M** where M represents any ion or radical. Molecular weight Now, Equivalent weight = x where X = for acids, the number of moles of H** obtainable from 1 mole of acid X = for bases, the number of moles of H** with which 1 mole of base will react. Thus, Equivalent weight of caco, = (40 + 12 + 3% 10) Bt areal 5o. For solving problems on hardness, the following facts should be noted: (1) The alkalinity will be caused by positively charged Ca**, Mg** and Sr** ions and negatively charged CO3~~, and HCO fons only. The readings of other metals should be ignored.Quality of Water 127 (2) The equivalent weights of Ca**, Mg*t and Sr**+ will be respectively as follows: Ca = 40/2 = 20; Mg = 24.4/2 = 12.2; and Sr = 87.6/2 = 43.8. (3) For measuring alkalinity, the reading of only COs” ~ or HCO3~ will be required and expressed as percentage, they can be found out from the following relations: Total alkalinity } _ { Bicarbonate alkalinity’ a { in mg/l as HCO; in mg/| } nae _ { Carbonate alkalinity = in mg/l Molecular wt of HCO, = (1 + 12 + 3 x 16) = 61 Molecular wt of CO; = (12 + 3 x 16) = 60 Probleyk 5-1. ae Mine analysis of water from a bore shows the following results in mg/l Ca = 60, Mg = 48, Na = 103.5, K = 195 HCO, = 244, $0, = 220.8, Cl = 78.1. Find out the total hardness, carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness. Total alkalinity as CO; in mg/l } x 060 Solution: Total hardness = (60 x 50/20 + 48 x 50/12.2) ~ (150 + 196.72) = 346.72 mg/l_as CaCO3. _ Total alkalinity \ _ { Bicarbonate alkalinity’ as HCO; in mg/l f ~ in mg/l a 244 = Bicarbonate alkalinity x 1.22 «. Bicarbonate alkalinity = 244/1.22 = 200 mg/l. In this case, . Alkalinity < T.H. = Alkalinity = 200 mg/l. TH. = GH = (346.72 - 200) = 146.72 mgil. } % 122 Then,128 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Problem 5.2. <\ The analysis of a sample of water shows the following resutts in mg/l: > Na = 20 Cl = 40 K 30 HCO; = 67 Ca =5 So Mg = 10 NO, = 10 The concentration of stroncium (Sr) is equivalent to a hardness of 2.29 mg/l and the carbonate alkalinity in this water is zero, Calculate the total hardness, carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness in mg/l as CaCO; Solution: a cere Total hardness = 52 _* 50 4 Ma 20 mae l Br ipixra0: 9 10x 50) 20 12.2 = (12.5 + 40.98 + 2.29) 55.77 mg/l as CaCO3. Bicarbonate alkalinity = 67/1.22 = 54.92 mg/l as CaCO3. +229, In this case, Alkalinity < T.H. e C.H. = Alkalinity = 54.92 mg/l as CaCO3. Then, NGHS=ST-H. SiGH,, (55.77 - 54.92) = 0.85 mg/l as CaCO3. Probler{ 5-3.) Eau obtained from a sample of water are as follows in mg/t: i Na = 20 Sr =e Ds K = 30 cl = 40 Ca = 6 HCO, = 72 Mg = 11 SO, -=.5 : Find out T.H., C.H. and N.C.H. in mg/l as CaCO3. Solution: Total hardness = (6 x 50)/20 + (11 x 50)/12.2 + (2 x 50)/43.8 (15 + 45.08 + 2.28) 62.36 mg/l as CacO3. uQuality of Water Bicarbonate alkalinity = 72/1.22 = 59.02 mg/] as Caco. In this case, : 129 Alkalinity < T.H. : > GH. = Alkalinity = 59.02 mg/l as CaCOy, Then, * ~~ NCH. = TH. - CH. = (62.36 - 59.02) 3.34 mg/l as CaCO3. oe <\" Th@Jofal hardness value obtained from the complete analysis of a water sample is found to be 116 mg/l. The analysis further shows that the concentrations of all the three principal cations causing hardness are numerically the same. If the value of C.H. is 58 mg/l, calculate the following: (1) the value of N.C.H.; (2) the concentrations of principal cations; and (3) the value of total alkalinity in mg/l. Solution: T.H. = GH. + N.CH In the given problem, T.H. = 116 mg/l and CH. = 58 mg/l 116 = 58 + NCH. e N.C.H. = (116 — 58) = 58 mg/l as CaCO3 Let P = Concentration of principal cations Then, T.H. = (P x 50)/20 + (P x 50)/12.2 + (P x 50)/43.8 PUG = "P25 St hela), P = 116/7.74 = 14.99, say 15 mg/l Concentrations of Ca**, Mg** and Sr** are 15 mg/l. In this case, Alkalinity < T.H Total alkalinity = C.H. = 58 mg/l as CaCO3. (4) Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH value): The acidity or alkalinity ‘of water is measured in terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration. The pure water (H20) consists of positively charged hydrogen or H-ions combined with negatively charged hydroxyl or OH-ions. But the process of dissociation takes place in pure water and hence it contains some uncombined positively charged H-ions and someeS Bo Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering uncombined negatively charged OH-ions. The water becomes acidic when positively charged H-ions are in excess than negatively charged OH-ions and it becomes alkaline when reverse is the case. For neutral water, the concentrations of H-ions and OH-ions are equal. The water will dissociate into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions as follows: Ha ==>) Hi eri, ene woes ea Now, applying the law of mass action to equation (1), we get (H*}[OH7] I BES (2 7) (2) The brackets indicate concentration of the constituents in moles/litre, A mole is the molecular weight in g. Since the concentration of water in a dilute aqueous system is essentially constant, it can be expressed as follows: Ky = [H*][OH7] where K, = ionization constant or ion product of water. - (3) It is found by various experiments that K is approximately equal to I x 107'4 at a temperature of 25°C. The equation (3) can be used to calculate the hydrogen-ion concentration when the hydroxyl-ion concentration is known and vice versa. Thus a litre of pure water at 25°C contains: 10~" g of H-ion x 1077 g of OH-ion = 107!4. (4) It is universally acknowledged to express H-ion concentration in terms of logarithm of its reciprocal and thus pH value of water by definition can be expressed as follows: il PH tog = (5) log; o[H*] Similarly pOH value of water by definition can be expressed as follows: P= lO = (6) 109 of OH" Now as per equation (3), (H*] x [OH7) = 107!4 Bit OM, Eta eel ee ae “ Jogiq (pH + pOH) = 10714 : (Ts 9 Ie fe be eng a AA eae Ae aA aQuality of Water 131 With the above relation of pH and pOH, it has become a Practice to refer only H-ion concentration in water. The term PH index is used to indicate the reactivity of water with respect to alkalinity or acidity and it is expressed quantitatively by concentration of the hydrogen-ions Fig. 5-4 shows pH-scale. A neutral water has pH value of 7 So Mae eee As pH value becomes less, the water vale becomes acidic and when pH value 2. is zero, it indicates maximum acidity. 3 Similarly the water becomes alkaline rele as pH values increase and maximum alkalinity is indicated when pH value is equal to 14. alte . — 7+ Neutral Water Acidity 5 It is desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7. The ease acidic water causes tuberculation and Alkalinity 2] the alkaline water causes 10-F incrustation. For potable water, the oo pH value should be between 6.50 ee and 8.50 and it is found that if ‘ge this range is maintained, there is " ; 14—L Maximum Alkalinit no direct effect on healh of human pier e beings. If pH value of water is below Fic. 5-4 4, it will produce a sour taste and if it is more than 8.50, it will impart a bitter taste. The higher values of pH induces the formation of trihxlomethanes which are responsible for causing cancer in human beings. The lower values of pH starts corrosion in pipes and thereby the toxic metals like Zn, Pb, Cu, etc., are released. Following are the two methods which are employed to measure the pH value of water: (i) Electrometric method (ii) Colourimetric method (i) Electrometric method: In this method, the potentiometer is used to measure the electrical pressure exerted by positively charged H-ions. The pH value is then correspondingly expressed (ii) Colourimetric method: \n this method, the chemical reagents or indicators are added in water and the colour produced is compared with standard colours of known pH values. A set of sealed tubes containing coloured waters of known pH values is kept in the laboratory132 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering for ready reference. This test is simple and hence it is commonly carried out in the public health laboratories. The usual indicators are Benzol yellow, Methyl red, Bromphenol blue, etc. for acidic range ane Thymol blue, Phenol red, Tolyl red, etc. for alkaline range. Problem 5 A In a water treatment plant, the pH values of entering and leaving waters are respectively 7.5 and 8.5. Assuming linear variation of pH with time, find out the average pH value of water. Solution: By definition, pH = —logioH For entering water, pH = 7.5 7.5 = —logjoH HesiOace For leaving water, pH = 8.5 8.5 = -logioH HE = Ono i Pe Oo Average value of H = 3 Ore On 2 | =. 5:50 xs10.8 > 1. Average pH value of water = —log)gH = -logig (5.50 x 10785) = (8.50 - 0.7404) = 7.7596. Problem |5-6. Calculate pH and OH values of freshly prepared distilled water. Solution: As per equation (3), {H"] x [OH"] = 107!4 mole/l In freshly distilled water, the concentrations of both the ions will be the same say, C moles/litre.Quality of Water 133 Then, Cx Ce 16-4 C= 1077 ie. {H*] = 1077 and [OH™] = 1077 Now, ° pH = -logjo (H*) / = -logi9f1077] = - [-7] =7 Similarly Bone ghee Probleny/5.7. “) XK factory discharges 50 m?/day of waste having pH = 11. If the waste contains KOH only, find Solution: pH + pOH 11 + pOH pOH = " u out the quantity of KOH in kg/day. 14 14 14-11 = 3. Thus the concentration of hydoxycl ion in the given water is 102 moles/litre ie, [OH~] = 107? moles/litre. : The molecular weight of KOH in 1 litre solution works out to (39+ 16+ 1) = KOH in g/litre KOH in kg/litre 56 9. 56 x 1079 56 x 1076 Now, Discharge = Q@ = 50 m3/day = 50 x 10? litres/day. Quantity of HOH in given waste = (56 x 107° x 50 x 10°) kg/day * = 2.80 kg/day. Problen//5-8. * Calculate the pH of 1000 mg/I of Ca(OH)2. Solution: The molecular weight of Ca(OH)2 works out to (40 + 2 (16+1)] 74 gil. Now, 74 gllitre contains 2 moles of (OH7], 1 g/litre contains 2 moles of [OH™)134 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Thi a = a (OH) = 33 pOH = -log)o [OH] <= Hogi [2/74] = 10g} [0.027] = 1.5686. Now, pH + pOH = 14 ; / pH = 14 - pOH = (14 - 1.5686) = 12.4314 *. pH of 1090 mg/l ie. 1 g/l of Ca(OH), = 12.4314 Problem Find out the pH of the following mixture Volume pH Solution A 500 mi 6 Solution B 500 ml 5 Solution: AAs the volume of both the solutions in the mixture ie. A and B is the same, the morality of the mixture will be half in 1000 mi. pH of A = 6 ie. [H*] of A = 1076 mole/litre pH of B = 5 ie. (H*] of B = 10-° moleflitre i: 1 6 1 -5 HH of new mixture = |— 0 “SA Pp Gx. } + Ex 10°) = (0.5 x 10%) + (5 x 10°) = 5.5 x 10-6 molellitre pH of new mixture = —logyo (H*] = -I0g (5.5 x 107°) = (- 0.7404 + 6) = 5.2596. Probl¢m 5-10. J) Find out the pH of the mixture which will be formed by mixing ‘the following two volumes: Volume pH Solution A .. 100 ml 6 Solution B .. 900 ml 5Quality of Water 135 Solution: In this case, the volumes of A and B are not the same in 1000 ml mixture. pH of A = 6 i.e. (H*] of A = 10°° mole/litre pH of B = Sie. (H*] of B For solution A: 1 i 10> mele/litre The volume of solution A is 100 ml and concentration of (H*] is 107© mole/litre i.e. 107 moles per 1000 ml 100 1000 1077 mole/litre. «, Concentration of {H*] in 100 mi = 10° x i) {H*la For solution B: The volume of solution B is 900 ml and concentration of [H"] is 10-5 mole/litre i.e. 107° moles per 1000 ml 5, 900 bak S10 xa +, Concentration of [H*] in 900 ml x a [H*], = 9 x 10°© molellitre. Concentration of (H*] in mixture = (H*], + [H"]p = {1077} + [9 x 1076] = (0.1 x 1076) + (9 x 10°) 9.1 x 107% mole/litre pH = —logyo (9.1 x 1079) = (- 0.959 + 6) = 5.041. ul Probyem 5-11. aS “There are three samples X, Y and Z of water having pH values of 4.5, 5.5 and 6.5 respectively. Calculate how many times X is acidic than Zz Solution: pH = -logyo (H*) ‘ Sample x: pH = 4.5 4.5 = -logyo [H*) (H*] = 1074? mole/litre.136 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Sample z: pH = 6.5 6.5 = -logy9 [H*} " [Ht] = 10°65 motertitre. Concentration of [H*} ion in X 10745 Concentrftion of [H*] ion in Z ~ yq-65 ~ 1°? Thus safnple X is 100 times acidic than sample Z. Problem 9/12. Ne What would be the pH of a solution containing 1.70 x 1078 g \ of hydroxide per litre? Assume molecular weight of OH as 17 g Solution: {[OH7] = pOH Now, pH + pOH pH Protfem 5-13. Ww AY; he hydrogen concentration is 3.x 10-? mole/I, calculate the hydroxide concentration. Solution: As per equation (3), (H*] x [OH7] = 107'4 moles [3 x 1072) x [OH] = 107!4 mole/l [OH™] ; x 107!? mole/l (5) Alkalinity: The term alkalinity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as the capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydroxium (H3O] to reach a defined pH value (4.3 to 14). The alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonate (Hc057). carbonate (cos | or hydroxide (OH™). The determination of alkalinity is very useful in waters and wastes because it provides buffering to resist the changes in pH value. The alkalinity is usually divided into the following two parts:Quality of Water (1) Total alkalinity i.e. above pH 4.5 (2) Caustic alkalinity i.e. above pH 8.2. 137 The alkalinity is measured by the volumetric analysis. The various types of indicators are available for this purpose. The commonly adopted two indicators are as follows: (1) Phenolphthalein : pink above pH 8.2 and colourless below pH 8.2 red below pH 4.5 and yellow-orange above pH 4.5 The bromcresol green-methyl red indicator may be preferable to methyl orange as the colour change from greenish-blue above pH 4.5 to light pink below pH 4.5 is more definite (2) Methyl orange The amount of alkalinity is expressed in terms of CaCO3. If the strength of titrant solution is N/50, 1 ml ‘of titrant solution will be equal to 1 mg CaCO; because the equivalent weight of CaCO; is 50 Thus, Alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO; = te x 1000 3 If the strength of titrant solution is N/40, the equation will be as follows: Total reading x (0.025 x 50 x 1000) Vol. of sample in ml " Alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 _ Total reading _ 1250, Vol. of sample in ml The neutralization of OH™ is complete at pH 8.2. The neutralization of CO;~ is only half complete at pH 8.2 and not fully completed unti) a pH value of 4.5 is reached. Thus alkalinity on pH scale is represented as follows (1) The range of total alkalinity is 4.5 to 14. (2) The range of bicarbonate ie. HCO3 alkalinity is from 4.5 to 8.2 (3) The range of carbonate i.e. CO; alkalinity is from 8.2 to 10 a ¥ (4) The range 0 to 4.5 indicates no alkalinity. Table 5-2 can be used for finding out ‘the alkalinity of a sample with the process of titration. The letter P indicates phenolphthalein reading and the letter T indicates total alkalinity.138 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering TABLE 5-2 DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY Result of | H¥doxide alkalinity | Carbonate alkalinity | Bicarbonate alkalinity Ntfatlcn as CaCO3 as CaCO as CaCO (OH) (COs) (HCO;>) P=0 0 0 ij B <0 T 0 2P T- 2 P=O5T 0 2P 0 Piano: 1 2-7 2(T - P) 0 P=T T ° 0 Following rules should be kept in mind while finding out the alkalinity of a sample (1) For simplicity, it is assumed that HCO,” and OH™ alkalies cannot come together in the same sample. (2) The alkalinities of other than carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide origin are absent (3) OH” alone gives initial pH of about 10. (4) CO3"~ will be present at pH > 8.2 (5) OH” and CO3”~ together give initial pH of about 10. (6) CO3~~ and HCO can exist together. (7) HCO57 alone gives initial pH < 8.2. The determination of alkalinity of water is helpful for the following reasons: (i) It assists in finding out the quantity of lime and soda-ash required for the removal of hardness. (i) It helps to neutralise the acids produced during flocculation (iii) It leads to the reactions which may occur between alkalinity and certain cations in the water. The resultant precipitate can foul pipes and other appurtenances of the water distribution systems. (iv), The excess alkalinity is harmful for irrigation which leads to the soil damage and reduce crop yields. (vy) The highly alkaline water is usually unpalatable. (vi) The large amount of alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to the water. (vii) The natural waters are sometimes rendered alkaline to control corrosion due to acids.Quality of Water 139 (viii) The waste waters containing excess caustic alkalinity are not to be discharged into natural streams or sewers. (ix) The water having alkalinity less than 250 mg/1 is desirable for domestic consumption and for R.C.C. construction. Problem 5-14. From the following data of volumetric analysis, calculate the hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinities: Se ee auras ne ae eae Sample Total mi of titrant to reach end point 100 mi Phenolphthalein Mythyl orange he 10 15.5 B 14.4 38.6 c 8.2 8.4 D 0 12.7 Solution: Sample A = 10 x 1000 = 100 100 15.5 x 1000 T= 24 = 155 100 05.1. —2bho As P > 0.5 T, from table 5-2, OH™ alkalinity = 2P - T CO;-~ alkalinity = 2(T - P) HCO" alkalinity = 0. " (200 - 155) = 45 2(155 - 100) = 110 Sample B: p = 144% 1000 _ yg 100 7 = 38.8% 1000 _ 396 100 0.5 T = 193 ‘As P< 0.5 T, from table 5-2, OH” alkalinity = 0 coz 7 alkalinity OP =. 2B8 HCO3” alkalinity = T - 2P = (386 - 288) = 98. 1 ul W140 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Sample C: 8.2 x 1000 Dis ee eee 100 #2 8.4 x 1000 fs eee 100 ey Os =" As P > 0.5 T, from table 5-2, OH” alkalinity = 2P-T = (164 ~ 84) = 80 CO3"~ alkalinity = 2(T - P) = 2(B4 - 82) HCO; alkalinity = 0 " a Sample D: Pea) Te 12.7 x 1000 100 = 127), As P = 0, from table 5-2, OH™ alkalinity = 0 CO; ~ alkalinity = 0 HCO3" alkalinity = T = 127 Problem 5-15. Find out the total and individual (species-wise) alkalinity from the following laboratory record: Strength of titrant :N/40 Volume of sample : 50 ml Phenolphthalein end point : 5.6 ml Methyl orange end point: 13.5 ml. Also estimate the pH value of sample. Solution: As strength of titrant is N/40, pe 516 x 1250 _ 140 50 7 = BGK 1250 _ 3375 50Quality of Water 0.5 T = 168.75 As P < 0.5 T, from table 5.2, OH” alkalinity = 0 141 CO; ~ alkalinity = 2P = 280 HCO3” alkalinity = T - 2p = (337.5 — 280) = 57.5. As COs -~ and HCO3” exi 3 exist together, be between 8.2 to 10 gether, the pH value of sample will Problem 5-16. A water sample with pH 9 had a lini “hs ‘austic alkalinity of 70 mg/l, total alkalinity of 230 mg/l and total hardness of 300 mall, re CaCO. Calculate the amounts of the various forms of alkalinity present and the amount of non-carbonate hardness. Solution: The pH of sample is 9 and hence the neutralization of CO; ~ is only half completed. « Carbonate ie. CO3~~ alkalinity = 2 x Caustic alkalinity (2 x 70) 140 mg/l i Now, Total alkalinity = CO37~ alkalinity + HCO3~ alkalinity y 230 u 140 + HCO3” alkalinity HCO37 alkalinity = (230 - 140) = 90 mail Also, Total hardness = Alkalinity + Non-carbonate hardness N.C.H. = (300 - 230) = 70 mg/l (6) Acidity: The term acidity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as the capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydroxy! ions (OH7) to reach a defined pH value (0 to 8. 2) The acidity are of the following two types: (i) Carbon dioxide acidity (ii) Mineral acidity.142 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (i) Carbon dioxide acidi ; ity: Thi iit GOs ih around water aun: ty: This acidity is due to the presence of urface water. (ii) Mineral acidity: The mineral acidity i ‘al acidity is due t of HCl, H S04, HNO3 and strong organic oer acids. The mineral acidit 's present in many industrial wastes and the important industries which discharge the acid effluents are electroplating i i discharge plating industry, distillary i fertilizer industry, mining industry, etc. peas ee a The mineral acidity is determined by titrating or neutralizing sample with strong base NaOH to pH 4.3. The carbon dioxide acidity n the sample is calculated by neutralizing completely by continuing the titration till pH of 8.2 is reached. The amount of acidity is expressed in terms of CaCO3. Then, Total acidity (as CaCO3) = Mineral acidity + COz acidity. The determination of acidity of water has got significance because of the following reasons: It affects the aquatic life. It affects the biological treatment of sewage. It corrodes pipes. It decides the quantity of chemical dosages and line of treatment for industrial wastes. (v) It interferes in the treatment of water as in case of water softening (vi). The water containing mineral acidity is unpalatable. (vii) The water having acidity more than 50 mg/l cannot be used for R.C.C. construction. (7) Metals and other chemical substances: The various tests are made to detect the presence ‘of different metals and other chemical substances in a sample of water. Table 5-3 gives the maximum concentration of metals and other chemical] substances in potable water as recommended by U.S. Public Health Service standards (8) Nitrogen and its compounds: The nitrogen js present in water jn the following four forms: (i) Free ammonia (ii) Albuminoid ammonia (iii) Nitrites (iy) Nitrates.cause iment water , used ts are emical other Public | water Quality of Water a 143 BLE 5-3 CONCENTRATION OF Mi IETALS AND. CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN POTABLE WATER ne. Name of metal Maximum permissible Concentration in mg/litre 1 | Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate (ABS) 050 2 oe (As) 0.05 4 | Cadium a aot 5 | Carbon Chloroform Extract. (CCE) 020 6 | Copper . . -- (Gu) 1.00 7 | Cyanide . . (CN) 0.20 8 Fluoride. . (F) 1.70 9 | Hexavalent chromium 0.05 10 | Iron. (Fe) 0.30 11 | Lead (Pb) 0.05 12 Manganese. . . . (Mn) 0.05 13 | Phenols 0.001 14 | Selenium (Se) 0.01 15 Silver i (Ag) 0.05 16 | Sulphate ..... -. ($0) 250 17 Zinc Q : : Gy | 5.00 The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 p.p.m. and that of albuminaid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 p.p.m. The term albuminoid ammonia is used to represent the quantityof nitrogen present in water before the decomposition of organic matter has started. The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is not fully oxidised or in other words, it indicates an intermediate “oxidation stage. The amount of nitrites in potable water should be nil The presence of nitrates indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully oxidised and the water is no longer harmful. For potable water, the highest desirable level of nitrates is 45 mg per litre. The free ammonia is measured by simply boiling the water, The ammonia gas is then liberated. The albuminoid ammonia is measured by adding strong alkaline solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) to the water and then boiling it. The ammonia gas is then liberated. The nitrites and nitrates are converted chemically into ammonia and then measured by comparison with standard colours. (9) Total solids: The term solid with reference to the environmental engineering is defined as the residue in water left after evaporation and drying in oven at 103°C to 105°C. The total solids consist of dissolved and suspended matter.14. 4 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Dissolved solids: In natural waters, the dissolved solids mainly consist organic salts like carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, etc. together with small amounts i i of organic matter and dissolved For measuring the total dissolved solids, ssc in a clean porcelain dish and it is i partial cooling in the air, of i the sample of water is placed and ignited in a muffle furnace. After it is cooled in a desicator and is weighed Then, Total dissolved solids in mg/l = a) x 1000 where A = Final weight of the dish in mg B = Initial weight of the dish in mg V = Volume of sample in ml lt may be noted that mere determination of the dissolved solids does not give a clear picture of the type of pollution. However many dissolved substances are undesirable in water and they impart displeasing colour, taste and odour. The water with higher content of the dissolved solids has a laxative or sometimes reverse effect on the human body and it takes time for people to adjust with such water In a similar way, the high concentration of dissolved solids say 3000 p.p.m. may also produce distress in livestock and may lead to scaling in boilers, corrosion, etc. The estimation of total dissolved solids is useful in determining the suitability of water for drinking purpose as well as for agriculture and industrial processes. The permissible total dissolved solids for drinking water according to BIS is 500 mg/l with tolerable limit as 1500 mg/l. Suspended solids: In surface water, the suspended solids consist of inorganic matter like silt or organic matter like algae. These materials are generally carried by erosive action of the flowing water over land. The ground water contains negligible quantity of suspended matter because of filtering action of soil strata through mechanical straining action. The amount of suspended solids in surface waters increases with input of natural and man-made contamination. The term coefficient of fineness is sometimes used to indicate the rates of weight of the suspended solids to the turbidity of water, For measuring suspended solids, the water is filtered through a fine filter and dry material retained on the filter is weighed. The drying is carried out for one hour in an oven at 105°C. The filtered waterer Quality of Water is evaporated in a muffle furnace at 600° iat 600°C, the organic solids are caterer ie Conan the inorganic salls are remained as ash Into CO2 and HO and 145 Then, Total suspended solids in mg/} = (Wy - Wy) x 1000 Suspended volatile solids in mg) = (2 ~ Ws) : x 1000 where Wy = Initial weight in mg W. = Weigh ae = ight of dry material retained on filter in mg 3 = Weight after evaporation in mg V = Volume of sample in mi. The suspended matter is objectio nable in wat te water for the following (i) It is aesthetically displeasing. (ii) It may include disease causing organisms. (iii), It may release obnoxious odours. (iv) It provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents. The estimation of total suspended solids is extremely useful in the analysis of polluted waters and for evaluating the efficiency of treatment units. Ill. Bacteriological tests: The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very important. The bacteria are very small organisms and it is not possible to detect them by microscopes. Hence they are detected by circumstantial evidences or chemical reactions. The growth of bacteria takes place by cell division and there are yarious classifications of bacteria depending upon their shapes, oxygen requirements and effects on mankind, The last classification is important “for the water supply engineer from the view point ‘of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The former category is known as the non-pathogenic bacteria and the latter category is known as the pathogenic bacteria. t is not possible to isolate pathogenic bacteria with the help of laboratory instruments. Their chances of presence in a sample ‘of water are increased in relation to the amount of non-pathogenic bacteria present in the sample of water The combined group of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria is designated by bacillus coil (bacillus ~ bacterium and coll = ttests) or B-coli group. This group ‘of bacteria is present in intestines 0} all livina warm-blooded animals.146 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering It should be noted that cae a and only in rare cases, such as the supply from es. pec e water is found without the presence of any type les, climatic conditions, etc. Subsequently numerous bacteria are added to the water b: i i i y contact with the soil, vegetati i matter of the earth's surface, cee oe The number and species of these bacteria differ to a great extent lus Many of the bacteria found in water are derived from the air, soil and vegetation. Some of these are able to multiply and continue their existence while the remaining die out in due course of time. Following facts in connection with bacteria in water are to be noted: (1) A certain number of bacteria cannot be cultivated under laboratory conditions while it is possible to cultivate some varieties of bacteria under special conditions in laboratory. (2) For surface waters, the seasonal changes have a marked and complex influence on the bacteria. (3) Many varieties of bacteria produce colonies of various colours such as yellow-brown, red, green and violet. (4) Only few varieties of bacteria can tolerate any degree of acidity or caustic alkalinity. (5) Some bacteria continue to live and multiply, others find conditions unsuitable and succumb and there may be many new additions. (6) The temperature of water has some bearing on bacterial multiplication. Each variety of bacteria has its own optimum temperature for multiplication. (7) The amount and remoteness of sewage and manurial pollution are the most important sanitary considerations with regard to the bacterial contact of water. (8) The bacterial purity of water varies according to the source of water i.e. whether from river, stream, lake, shallow well or deep well and these differ greatly among themselves. The density of a bacterial population in water depends largely ‘on quantity and quality of food available. It may however be noted that the nutritional requirements of bacteria are very simple and as a matter of fact, the organically pure deep well waters can support comparatively large numbers of bacteria and for a certain period even permit rapid multiplication. (9jours cidity find nany terial mum ution gard ure well rgely yever very deep cteria i ~eemny ot Water (10) The gaseous constituents of i . water a . . in water to a certain exter Iso affect bacterial activity nt. For inst; i favourable to some bacteria, but not te ee the oxygen is (11) The inorganic constituents of the water can al: favourable or unfavourable conditions for the growth Cece, (12) The nature of the organic m: Sie ae of bacterial multiplication les of bacteria that will develo P. ca alte of metals in water, especially of copper, silver and aluminium, has usually detrimental effect on bacteria. The process of sedimentation which takes place during the storage of water is considered to be a potent factor in the bacterial purification of water. and also the types or varieti (13) (4) Apart from the main aim of finding out the sewage or manurial pollution, the bacteriology is also of great value for the following purposes: (1) to ascertain the effect of rainfall or drought on sources of water supply; (2) to ascertain the efficiency of chlorination of sewage works effluent; (3) to find out the change in quality of water either at source or after passing through the distribution system of mains and reservoirs; (4) to study the degree of pollution of river waters; (5) to study the pollution of sea water near shores by tidal outfalls from sewage works; (6) to work out the efficiency of purification system of water such as filtration, chlorination, etc.; (7) to work out the pollution by bathers of swimming pool water and to ascertain the efficiency of purification process; etc. ft may be mentioned that the chemical analysis of water affords valuable information of past or remote pollution and as such, it ae be relied upon to reveal all forms of recent pollution. On the ot : hand, the bacteriological analysis of pol ie les Rene . i it discloses the remote history of the water, but | n great reliability, the immediate or recent causes of water pollution. : aaa Itis for this reason that the results of the chemical and bacteriological inion should examinations should always be suitably correlated ue ae eae never be formed or expressed regarding the eal ae strength of the results of its chemical analysis onlyWater Supply and Sanitary Engineering t r re water may reveal the during its bacteriological analysis a bacteriological Presence of Pathogenic bacteria Se examination of wat Significance and nd it is for this reason that the er has been giv importance en considerable Following are the two ) Standard bacteriological te bacteriological examination of water. . aes eee (Total count or Agar plate count test Gi) B-coli test Q) Total count or Agar plate count test: In this t are cultivated on specially prepared medium of a. imple of water with sterilised water. The diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 37°C (ie. blood heat) or for 48 hours at 20°C. These represent the so-called hot counts and cold counts . Fespectively. The bacterial colonies which are formed, are then counted and the results are computed for 1 ¢.¢. For potable water, the total count should not exceed 100 per c.c est, the bacteria gar for different dilutions (2) B-coli test: This test is divided into the following three parts: (a) Presumptive test (b) Confirmed test (c) Completed test. The presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform group to ferment the lactose broth and producing gas. The confirmed test consists of growing cultures of coliform bacteria on media which suppress the growth of other organisms. The completed test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to again ferment the lactose broth. : (a) Presumptive test: Following procedure is adopted in this test: ini its of diluted samples of water are taken (1) The defi ite amount ; a aes in multiples of ten, such as 0.1 cc, 1. Sh, . (2) The water is placed in standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth ‘i : (3) The tube is maintained at a temperature of 37°C for a period of 48 hours. : iss ten (4) If gas is seen in the tube after this ee is Se ae i it of test of B-coli group and the result Te sve If reverse is the case, it indicates absence of ‘coll group and the result of test is treated as nea : (5) A negative result of presumptive test indicates that wate! fit for drinking.ria he dle UP est ess the ent ing iod tes ted of Quality of Water : ‘ : 149 (b) Confirmed test: This test is carried Out in one of the followi lowing ways: aya small Portion of lactose broth sho test is carefully transferred to a containing brilliant green lactose bile. If gas is seen in the tube after 48 hours, the r: i , esult is considere the completed test becomes essential. ee wing positive Presumptive nother fermentation tube (2) A small portion of material showing positive presumptive test is marked on the plates containing Endo or eosin-methylene-blue agar. The Plates are kept at 37°C for 24 hours. If colonies of bacteria are seen after this period, it indicates positive result and the completed test becomes essential. The colonies are prominent by metallic brightness and dark spots. (c) Completed test: This test is made by introducing or inoculating bacterial colonies into lactose broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes. The incubation is carried out at 37°C for 24 to 48 hours. If gas is seen after this period, it indicates positive result and further detailed tests are carried out to detect the particular type of bacteria present in water. The absence of gas indicates negative result and the water is considered safe for drinking The recent development of field measurement of bacteria is that of membrane filter technique. The membrane contains microscopic pores which are capable of retaining bacteria. The water is filtered through the membrane and it is then incubated for a period of 20 hours along with nutrients. The colonies of bacteria, if any, can then be counted by means of microscope. B-colf index: This is an index or number which represents approximately the number of B-coli per c.c. of sample of water under consideration. The presumptive tests are carried out with different dilution ratios of the sample of water with sterilised water. A number of tests is carried out for each proportion and percentage of positive results is recorded. The difference between successive percentages is worked out and it is multiplied by the reciprocal of quantity of solution, The sum of such values indicates B-coli index. For potable water, the B-coli index should be preferably less than 3 and it should not exceed 10 in any event. f analytical results, the laws In order to arrange correctly a number of ana of probabilities are applied and from the available fate oe data, the most probable number or MP.N. is determine a sont the lawe af ctatictice to the results of the test. This numberColi index and it indicat i i es the bacterial density whi Ha ikely to be present in water. t should however he eee at the MPN. is wever be remembered hot the absolute con exe : 'e concentration of organi Present, but it only indicates a statistical estimate of that Seale For illustration of is 1 working out B-coli index are recorded in table 5-4 and B-coli index of the c TABLE 5-4 B-COLI INDEX CALCULATION typical test results ‘ase comes to 5.68 No. | Proportion |No. of tests] Positive | Difference Reciprocal | Multipli- results of column | cation of in 2 columns percent 5 and 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 10 cx. 100 1 0.10 0.03 5 0.30 lc. 100 0.70 1 055 0.55 3 0.1 cc, 100 0.15 10 1.10 O11 4 | 001 ce 100 0.04 100 4.00 0.04 5 | 0.001 cx. 100 Nil 1000 - Total 5.68 Maintenance of purity of waters: Some of the measures which can be taken to maintain the purity of waters are as follows: (1) The content of dissolved oxygen present in water should be high. (2) The entry of undesirable elements such as acidic and alkaline discharges, hot discharges from thermal power stations, etc. into source of water supply should be prevented by suitable means. (3) The presence of algae supplying oxygen to the water is desirable. (4) The quantity of total dissolved solids, especially the chloride contents, should be very low. (5) There should be absence of organic wastes exerting oxygen demand on water. (6) There should be enough reaeration for the purpose of reoxygenation of water. (7) The temperature of water should be maintained low. : (8) The turbulence of water should be encouraged to make available more oxygen from air. I | | _ an al dy re: th th fotQuality of Water Water-borne diseases; ASt water and the disease is thus further carried forward. The water is also considered Partly such as hepatitis, tuberculosis, gastro-en' The water-borne diseases ar bacteria. The bacteria are found they are in great excess even in nat the water contaminated with se for the growth of bacteria. responsible for other diseases teritis, polimyelitis, etc € caused by pathogenic or harmful everywhere on surface of earth and ‘ural unpolluted water bodies. However wage provides an excellent. medium Out of all bacteria, the pathogenic bacteria form only a very small quantity. Further, the pathogenic bacteria have only a short life in water and they offer less resistance to adverse influences. If the source of pathogenic bacteria is known and if water treatment plant is properly operated, it is possible to detect and to destroy the pathogenic bacteria and thus the danger of water-borne diseases may be avoided The most important water-borne bacteria responsible for water-borne diseases are Sa/monella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Shigella dysenterial “and Vibrio cholerae. The respective diseases spread by them are typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery and cholera. It is significant to note that the water-borne diseases are predominant even in developing countries and it is estimated that about five million babies die annually from water-borne diseases in such countries and that one in six of the world’s population suffer every year from water- borne diseases. The surveys conducted by World Health Organization indicate that about 86% of the rural populations in developing countries are without Teasonable access to safe water. It is therefore very clear that the battle with water-borne diseases will be finally won only by continued attention to the pollution prevention and by maintaining quality of Water upto the required standard. Thus the public health sage a close Co-operation with chemists and biologists will play a great rol i In preventing the spread of water-borne diseases.152 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Suitability of water for trade purposes: The quality of water is as follows required for some of the common trades (1) Artificial silk; For the Process of preparing artificial silk, th: Water to be used should be clear, bright and absolutely free from colour. It should also be soft and should contain only a a Il a Ae Of saline constituents in solution. Ginencgeer: . (2) Concrete products: The water which is fit for drinking Purposes is considered suitable for the Preparation of cement concrete products. It should be clean and free from excess of sulphates and chlorides which are detrimental to the setting and solidity of the concrete. (3) Dairies: The bacterial purity of water is essential and the quantity of saline constituents is of secondary importance. As a matter of fact; the water which may be excessively hard or may contain an amount of salt perceptible to the taste, can be used, if it is bacteriologically pure. (4) Dyeing: For producing delicate tints in dyeing, extreme care should be taken to use the water of desired quality. It should be free from iron, colour and turbidity and should have the smaller quantity of the salts. (5) Laundries: The water must be clear, soft and free from iron. (6) Manufacture of ice: The water should be free from colour and suspended matter and should not contain metallic impurities such as iron and manganese. It should possess high degree of organic and bacterial purity as expected for drinking water. (7) Paper industry: For manufacturing paper of good quality, the water must be free from colour and sedimentary matter and from every trace of iron and manganese. The saline constituents should be present in such quantity that no appreciable amount is deposited in the drying paper. However the water of any quality can be used for the manufacture of coarse brown paper. (8) Photographic films: There should be sufficient supply of good water which must be colourless and absolutely free from suspended matter and metals such as iron, zinc and manganese. (9) Steam raising: The water should be free from sedimentary matter and should contain little free carbonic acid, The salts which can easily be thrown out of solution by heat should be preferably absent. The water should have pH value less than 6.5. The calcium ; and magnesium chlorides are most undesirable because such water, i whe dan salt and atte pox thr