1. Select a glass tubing free of cracks, 2. Place it on the bench, hold it firmly and make a file. Do not apply too much pressure. 4, Place the thumbs on each side of the scratch at equal distances from it A 7 - : ~ ipply gentle pressure and give a quick bending motion towards you until i smc Proscar you until it breaks smoothly 4. Sometimes, the ends of the tube are not smooth and might bruise might bruise your fingers (igs. 2.2 and 2.3), These can be further smoothened by rotating the ends in a heme for2-8 minutes. The edges wll be smoothened (Fig, 2.8) Allow it to cool while holding in your hand. Single deep scratch with triangular . \ ) % © Fig. 2.2. (o) Making a seratch on a glass tube (@) Placing the thumbs together opposite to-the serateh (©) Breaking the glass tube. ae » Fig. 28, (a) Trimming the jngged edges (@) Rounding the edges. PRECAUTIONS 1. Make a single deep scratch at the desired length with one stroke af the file. 2. To avoid injury hold the glass tube with the help of a thick piece of cloth. 8. Do not heat the end for long time. It may seal the end or make it narrower. © scanned with OKEN ScannerFor bending a glass tube proceed as follows = 1. Hold the glass tubing between the thumb and fingers, introduce it lengthwise in the luminous flame of burner. Keep the tube rotating till it softens. Hot end: @ Fig. 2.4. (a) Heating the tube (®) The tube softens and starts bending under its own weight (©) Making the bend coplanar. 2, Now apply gentle pressure so that it bends by its own weight. When the desired angle is formed, remove the tubing from the flame. 8. Place the bent limb on the asbestos sheet. Press it gently so as to make it coplanar. Allow the tubing to cool. PRECAUTIONS 1. Select a glass tube of sufficient length to keep your hands safe from heat. Do not try to bend very small glass tubes of the lengths less than 20 em. 2, While heating, the glass tube should be rotated in order to ensure uniform heating. 3, Never bend the glass tubing by force. By doing so, the tubing may break. 1. Take a delivery tube of required length and diameter. Hold it with both hands and place it lengthwise in flame (Fig. 2.5). 11, Heat the tubing in the bunsen flame while rotating between fingers. © scanned with OKEN Scanner2. Continue hoating ond rotating with inward pressure till the tube in the contro bocomes very soft, 8, Remove the tubing from the flame and after a moment pull the ends apart to get the narrow capillary in the middle. SS SS 4, Cut to length and fire-polish the two ends of droppers Fig. 2.5, Drawing a jet . Keep rotating the tube so as to ensure uniform heating, continue heating till it softens, - Take the tubing out of the flame and gently pull the two ends apart. The middle Portion is drawn out to a thickness of about 2 mm. 4. Cool and cut the narrow portion with a triangular file and two jets will be obtained, Finally round the ends of the jets by heating in a flame for a short while. PRECAUTIONS 1. While drawing a jet, pull apart the two ends of the red-hot tube slowly so that it becomes thin unformly. Boring a cork is required for setting up an apparatus for the preparation of gas and for carrying out distillation ete. Above all, itis required for fitting up a wash bottle. For perfect boring of the cork, the following steps are involved : 1. Softening of the Cork. It is essential as a cork gets hard on keeping. In order to soften a cork, wet it with water, When it becomes more flexible and does not crack readily, then press it in a cork-presser which is a mechanical device and if it is not available, simply press the wetted cork under your shoes after wrapping the cork in a piece of paper. Fig. 2.6. Pressing the cork with shoe, 2, Selection of the Borer. Choose a borer slightly smaller in diameter than that of the © scanned with OKEN ScannerFig. 2.7 Propor selection of the borer. 8. Boring of the Cork. Place the cork on the table with its narrow end upward. Mark the position of the borer on both the sides of the cork to ensure straight hole. Holding the cork tightly with left hand, apply force on the borer with a twisting motion. Apply some glycerine to the borer if it is a rubber cork. Glycerine acts as lubricant for the hard rubber cork. When half of the cork has been bored, take the borer out and reverse the cark. Start the process of boring taking care that the borer remains vertical throughout. Remove the borer after the cork has been. bored from one face to the other. Remove the pieces of the cork inside by inserting the needle. Place marked fo boring Fig. 2.8. (@) Marked cork, (b) Boring process. Note. For fitting up a wash bottle, it is necessary to bore teoheles in the cork. The two les are bored in the same way as done for single hole but with e precaution that the two holes should not be very close to each other. Ifthe distance is very small, then the thin cork layer may break. Fitting the Glass Tube in the Bore. Wet the cork with water. Wet the end of the tube also with water. Hold the cork in one hand say left hand and tube in the right hand. It should bbe noted that the tube should be held closely from the wetted end. Insert the tube into the bore giving a rotatory motion as shown in Fig. 2.9. (a) Correct holding of the tube, (b) Wrong holding of the tubo. Fig. 2.9. Inserting the sube into the hole of the cork. PRECAUTIONS 1. Select bores of diameter slightly smalller in size than that of the tube to be inserted in the hole. 2. Make a mark an both sides of the cork. 8. To obtain a smooth hole, drill half the hole from one side and another half from the other side of the cork. 4, Since the rubber is hard, the end of the tube to be inserted is usually dipped in caustic soda solution or glycerine before fitting in the hole. © scanned with OKEN ScannerTo determine the melting point of the given solid substance REQUIREMENTS 100 mi beaker, thermometer, iron stand, clamp, tripod iube'8 to 10 em long and 1 to 2 mm diameter, spstula, |!" SttFOr thin-walled enpillary ‘Liquid paraffin. PROCEDURE 1, Powder the erystalline substance. Take a capillary tubs and seal its one end by heat- ing (ig. 3.1). For filling the substance make a heap of the powdered substance on § inverted Heap of porous sample Plate {trap Sealed copay Fig. 8.1. Soaling one end of the eapillary tube. Fig. 82, Charging tho capillary tube the porous plate. Push the open end of the capillary tube into the heap. Some substance will enter into it. Now tap the sealed end of the capillary tube on. the porous plate gently. Fill the capillary tube up to 2-3 mm. 2. Attach the capillary tube to a thermometer which is immersed in a bath of liquid paraffin, ‘The surface tension of the bath liquid is sufficient to hold the capillary tube in position, ‘Thermometer Capilary ‘Substance Fig. 3.3. Taking the melting point, 8, Heat the beaker slowly and go on stirring the liquid in the beaker so that the temperature remains uniform throughout. For this, a glass loop stirrer is moved up and down. When the temperature is within 15° of the melting point of the pure substance, the flame is lowered. Now the temperature is allowed to rise slowly. 4, The temperature is noted when the substance starts melting. The temperature is noted again when it is completely melted. The average of the two readings gives the correct: melting point of the substance. © scanned with OKEN ScannerPRECAUTIONS 1. Use dry and powdered sample for the determination of melting point. 2. Keep the lower end of the capillary tube and the thermometer at the same level. 48, Packing of the powder should be uniform without any big air gaps in between the solid particles. 4, Heating should be gradual and the bath should be stirred regularly to maintain uniform temperature, 5. The bulb of the thermometer and the capillary sticking to it should not touch the side or the bottom of the beaker. 6. Do not use rubber band for attaching the capillary tube to the thermometer. OBSERVATIONS ‘Temperature at which the unknown substance begins to melt = 1,°C ‘Temperature at which the substance completely melts = f,°C. hth 2 ‘Melting point of the unknown substance = ( Table 3.1. Melting Points of Some Organic Compounds yaa ea 4 B-Naphthol Onatic acid Benzoie ueid Cinnamie acid p-Toluidine ‘o-Naphthylamine Pim :- To determine the boiling point of the liquid. REQUIREMENTS 100 ml corning glass beaker; a small thin walled test tube, thermometer, a capillary tube, a tripod stand, wire gauze, stirrer, iron stand with clamp, liquid paraffin or cone. sulphuric acid and the given liquid. PROCEDURE 1, Take a small test tube and fill it two-third with the given liquid whose boiling point is to be determined. Fix this tube to the thermometer with a rubber band. The rubber band should be fixed near the mouth of the tube so that it remains outside the liquid paraffin bath. Adjust the tube so that the bottom of the tube is somewhere at the middle of the thermometer bulb. 2. Clamp the thermometer carrying test tube in an iron stand through a cork. Lower the thermometer along with the tube into a liquid paraffin bath. Adjust the ther- mometer so that its bulb is well under the acid and open end of the tube with the rubber band is sufficiently outside the acid bath. 8, Take # capillary tube 5-6 om in length and seal it at about one cm from one end by heating it in flame and giving a slight twist. Place this capillary in the test tube 50 that sewled part of it stands in the liquid. 19 © scanned with OKEN ScannerRubber band Liquid Liquid paratfin Bubbles Liquid Fig. 4.1. Determination of the boiling point. 5. Allow the temperature fall by 10°C and repeat the heating and again note the boiling point. PRECAUTIONS 1. Keep the lower end of the ignition tube and the thermometer bulb at the same level. 2. Record the temperature as the boiling point at which brisk and continuous evolution of the bubbles starts from the lower end of the capillary dipped in the liquid organic compound. 8, Ifon placing the sealed capillary tube in the test tube, the liquid is seen rising in the ‘capillary tube, it indicates that the capillary tube is not properly sealed. Reject this capillary tube and use a sealed new one, ‘The sealed point of the capillary tube should be well within the liquid. ‘The paraffin bath must be heated very slowly and the paraffin stirred to ensure ‘uniform heating. soe © scanned with OKEN Scanner| | ‘OBSERVATIONS 4 Boiling point (@4,°C (ii) tC Moon 4542" «0, ‘Table 4.1. Boiling Points of Some Orga ‘Methyl salicylate Nitrobenzene Aniline o-Toluidine ‘Chlorobenzene Bromobenzene enzoy] ehloride Rien, To determine the pH of various samples of NaOH solution using + @ pH paper, and (i) universal indicator solution. REQUIREMENTS a ‘Test tubes, measuring cylinder, dropper, pH paper, universal indicator solution, 0.1 M NaOH, 0.01 M NaOH, 0.001 M NaOH, 0.0001 M NaOH and 0.00001 M NaOH. PROCEDURE ‘Same as in previous experiment. OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS Approximate pH of the Sample Solutions of NaOH For calculating pH, find H,0* ion concentration [OH] (H,0% = 1x 10 +) 2x70 or 1H,0"] [OH Now, pH = — log (1,01, CONCLUSION G) The pH of NaOH solutions is greater than 7, Gi) The pH of NaOH solutions with decreaso in concentration. © scanned with OKEN ScannerRim Determine the pH of vegetable and fruit juices using pH paper and universal indicator. REQUIREMENTS Test tubes, measuring cylinder, glass rod, watch glass, vegetable and fruit juices, universal indicator solution and pH paper. PROCEDURE 1. Using pH Paper. Take some clean and dry test tubes and place various samples of vegetable and fruit juices in each of them. Now put one or two drops of each sample on different strips of pH papers. Note the colour formed on each strip and compare the shade with those on colour chart. Record the pH of the compared shade. 2, Using Indicator Solution. Take 10 ml of different juices in different test tubes with the help of measuring cylinder. Put a few drops of universal indicator in each of them. Note the colour of each solution and compare with those on indicator bottle. Record the approximate pH of each. OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS pH of Vegetable and Fruit Juices Lemon juice Tomato juice ‘Orange juice Pineapple juice ‘Ama juice ‘Mango juice RESULTS Increasing order of pH values of fruit juices is Gims— Determine the strength of the given sodium hydroxide solution, You are provided with x oxalic acid solution. ‘THEORY it i ion is i ‘yolume (20.0 ml) of the Here, the sodium hydroxide solution is taken in burette and a known oI 2 f oxalic acid solutién is taken in the titration flask. The titration is carried out using phenolphthalein as indicator. © scanned with OKEN ScannerChemical Equation : COOH COONa | (@q)+2Na0H(aq) —+ | (aq) + 28,000 COOH COONa Indicator. Phenolphthalein. End Point. Colourless to pink (Alkali in burette) PROCEDURE 1. Take a burette and wash it with water. 2. Rinse and then fill the burette with the given sodium hydroxide solution. Clamp it vertically in burette stand. 8. Rinse the pipette with the given oxalic acid solution. 4. Pipette out 20 m! of the oxalic acid solution in a washed titration flask. ©. Add 1-2 drops of phenelphthalein indicator into it and place it just below the nozzle | of the burette over a white glazed tile. 6. Note down the lower meniscus of the solution in the burette and record it as the initial burette reading. ‘7. Now run the sodium hydroxide solution slowly and dropwise into the flask till a very faint permanent pink colour is just obtained, Read the lower meniscus of the solution again in the burette and record it as final burette reading. 8. Repeat the procedure until three concordant readings are obtained. OBSERVATIONS Molarity of the given oxalic acid solution = M/20 ‘Volume of axalic acid solution taken for ench titration = 20 ml (V,). 1 7 — it 2 - - =m 3 = = = 4 - = =m Concordiant volume =.x ml (say) CALCULATIONS According to the equation, one mole of oxalic acid reacts with two moles of sodium hydroxide. Veaatic aid *Moaticest _ No.of moles of oxalic acid in the balanced equation * ~"Vycon® Myson No.of moles of NaOH in the balanced equation ‘Molarity of the given oxalic acid solution = M/20 1 20x55 4 5 =xMyson 2 Myon 2 mot Lt Strength of NaOH = Molarity x Molar mass = 240-8 git RESULT | ‘The strength ofthe given sodium hydroxide solution is 22 g 1-3 © scanned with OKEN Scannerlo .., Determine the strength i i i Fhe - Belermine the sir mae and molarity Of the given salution of hydrockiorie acid. THEORY 1. The molarity of hydrochloric acid is determined by titrating it against the standard solution of sodium carbonate using methyl orange as indicator. 2. Strength of the acid is determined by multiplying its molarily with its molecular mass which is 36.5. Chemical Equation : Na,CO, + 2HC1—> 2NaCl + CO, + H,0 Indicator. Methyl orange. ‘End Point. Yellow to pink (Acid in burette). PROCEDURE 1. Take a burette and wash it with water. 2, Rinse the burette with the given solution of hydrochloric acid and fill it with it. 8. Rinse the pipette with the given sodium carbonate solution and pipette out 20 ml of this solution in a washed titration flask. 4, Add 2-8 drops of methyl orange indicator to the titration flask and place it just below the nozzle of the burette over a white glazed tile. 5. Note down the initial reading of the burette and run the acid solution slowly and dropwise to the titration flask till the colour of the solution changes from yellow to light pink. 6. Note the final reading and find the volume of hydrochloric acid used. 7. Repeat the procedure to take a set of at least three concordant readings. OBSERVATIONS ‘Molarity of Na,CO, solution = 0.05 M ‘Volume of Na,CO, solution taken in each titration = 20.0 ml ‘Concordant volume = x ml (say) ‘CALCULATIONS i ‘Volume of HCI solution used for neutralising 20.0 mL of 0.05 MNa,CO, solution = x mL, M,¥, (HCD ___ Stoichiometric coefficient of HCL MV2 (NayCO;) ~ Stoichiometric coeficient of NaCOs M,xx__2 005x200 1 2%200%0.05_ 2 LA ee ne ‘Molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g mot 2 Strength of hydrochloric ac 2365 gl RESULT r pi Bis ‘The strength of the given solution of hydrochloric acid is —— g 17, © scanned with OKEN Scanner