Carbonated Beverages

Philip R Ashurst, Dr P R Ashurst and Associates, Ludlow, UK

Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Carbon Dioxide 1
Beverage Formulation and Composition 1
Product Manufacture 3
Packaging 4
Natural Mineral Water 4
Further Reading 5

Introduction

This article deals with carbonated soft drinks and carbonated (or sparkling) bottled water. It does not include carbonated alcoholic
drinks although the underlying science and technology is mostly applicable. Carbonated soft drinks are a very important sector of
the global drinks market and in 2013 some 196 billion litres were consumed.
The first carbonated drinks were produced in the eighteenth century when a young watchmaker and amateur scientist, Jacob
Schweppe, perfected an efficient system for producing carbonated mineral water. He founded the Schweppes Company in Geneva
but moved the business to London in 1790.
Carbonated products are now available worldwide in many different packaging formats including glass and PET (polyethylene
terphthalate) bottles and cans.

Carbon Dioxide

In order to manufacture a carbonated beverage, it is necessary to inject carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into the liquid product before
packaging. Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air having a density of 1.98 kg m 3 at 298 K. It is colourless odourless and non toxic
although can cause death by suffocation if present at high levels. The gas is easily liquefied by compression and cooling. A quick
decompression of liquid CO2 causes rapid expansion with some evaporation. This removes sufficient heat to allow the reminder
to become solid carbon dioxide or ‘dry ice.’
The gas is very soluble in water; the amount increasing with reducing temperature. When CO2 is dissolved in water, it produces
carbonic acid which gives products their characteristic acidic and biting taste. An essential requirement for successful carbonation is
to exclude air/oxygen as far as possible. Air has only about 2% of the solubility in water of CO2 which means that any air contained
within the beverage will exclude some 50 times its own volume of CO2.
The level of carbonation varies with product types with around 4.0–7.0 g per l (2–3.5 volumes) of added CO2 being typical. For
so called mixer drinks mostly intended to be added to alcoholic spirits such as gin, 9–10 g CO2 per l is normally added. These high
levels of CO2 are only achievable by paying scrupulous attention to removing as much air/oxygen as possible from the product
during both manufacture and packaging.
Except in the case of naturally carbonated mineral water (see Natural Mineral Water) CO2 is obtained from commercial
suppliers. The gas is manufactured or obtained as a by-product from a number of different industrial processes (see Table 1).
Contaminants arising in gas from varying processes can affect aroma and taste of the product and also introduce toxic
substances. Since potential contaminants in the gas may vary, it is essential for beverage use that the material supplied complies
with an appropriate quality standard such as that endorsed by the European Industrial Gases Association (EIGA). A typical speci-
fication for CO2 for beverage use is shown in Table 2.
Since much industrial CO2 comes from hydrocarbon sources, compliance in particular with the maximum level of benzene and
other potentially toxic substances is essential. In the past, discovery of unacceptable levels of benzene in some batches of carbon
dioxide used in beverages has resulted in widespread product recall and the potential for reputational damage to affected brands.

Beverage Formulation and Composition

Soft drinks are typically formulated to offer the consumer a taste of fruit, particularly orange or lemon, or spices and herbs as in
a cola drink. The underlying taste will be a balanced blend of sweetness and sharpness with flavour and colour being added to
meet the required product characteristics. Ingredients such as preservatives and antioxidants may be added to enhance the keeping
qualities of the product. Other widely used ingredients are described below.

Reference Module in Food Sciences http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.03240-6 1

2 Carbonated Beverages

Table 1 Various carbon dioxide production systems

Feedstock By-product from Throughput tonne/h

CO2 from fermentation Brewing fuel ethanol distilleries 8

CO2 from solvent based acid gas removal systems Hydrogen 1–20
Ammonia
Methanol
Other syngas processing
Natural gas sweetening
CO2 rich off-gas Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) hydrogen 0.1–20
Mineral processing
CO2 lean gas PSA hydrogen purification 0.1–20
Direct iron ore reduction
Flue gas Process steam boilers 0.1–20
Power plants
Gas engines
Oil or natural gas n/a 0.1–1
Landgas processing n/a

Note: PSA pressure swing adsorption.

Reproduced by permission: Steen, D., Ashurst, P.R. (Eds.), 2006. The Principles of Filling Technology, Carbonated Soft Drinks. Blackwell/Wiley.

Table 2 Typical commodity specification for carbon dioxide (CGA/EIGA limiting characteristics)

Component Concentration

Assay 99.9% v/v min

Moisture 50 ppm v/v max (20 ppm w/w max)
Acidity To pass JECFA test
Ammonia 2.5 ppm v/v max
Oxygen 30 ppm v/v max
Oxides of nitrogen (NO/NO2) 2.5 ppm v/v max each
Non-volatile residues (particulates) 10 ppm w/w max
Non-volatile organic residue (oil and grease) 5 ppm w/w max
Phosphenea 0.3 ppm v/v
Total volatile hydrocarbons (calculated as methane) 50 ppm v/v max of which 20 ppm v/v max non-methane
hydrocarbons
Acetaldehyde 0.2 ppm v/v max
Benzene 0.02 ppm v/v max
Carbon monoxide 10 ppm v/v max
Methanol 10 ppm v/v max
Hydrogen cyanideb <0.5 ppm v/v
Total sulphur (as sulphur)c 0.1 ppm v/v max
Taste and odour in water No foreign taste or odour

Notes: CGA Compressed Gas Association www.cganet.com; EIGA European Industrial Gases Association www.eiga.eu; JECFA FAO/WHO Joint
Expert Committee on Food Additives.
a
Analysis necessary only for carbon dioxide from phosphate rock sources.
b
Analysis necessary only for carbon dioxide from coal gasification sources.
c
If the total sulphur content exceeds 0.1 ppm v/v as sulphur then the species must be determined separately and the following limits
applied: Carbonyl sulphide: 0.1 ppm v/v max; Hydrogen sulphide: 0.1 ppm v/v max; Sulphur dioxide: 1.0 ppm v/v max.
Reproduced by permission: Steen, D., Ashurst, P.R. (Eds.), 2006. The Principles of Filling Technology, Carbonated Soft Drinks. Blackwell/Wiley.

The traditional source of sweetness is carbohydrate, mainly sucrose or high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Glucose syrup, which
usually contains a wide range of carbohydrates of differing molecular weight, is used in energy drinks where a lower sweetness level
is required for a given level of carbohydrate addition. A typical beverage would contain around 10–12.5 % w/v of sucrose or HFCS.
Alternative intense sweeteners are also widely used. Depending on the particular substance, these may provide up to 500 times the
sweetness of sucrose per unit weight. Because of worldwide concerns about excessive calorie intake and the associated diseases of
obesity and diabetes, intense sweeteners are increasingly used to provide all or part of the sweetness in beverages.
The most widely used intense sweeteners include the synthetic substances saccharin, cyclamates, aspartame, acesulfame K, and
sucralose. A natural intense sweetener extracted from the leaves of the plant Stevia rebaudiana and marketed as Stevia, is now widely
permitted.
 Carbonated Beverages 3

To provide the acidity or sharpness of beverages, organic acids such as citric or malic acids are used. Citric acid is usually the
preferred ingredient in fruit-flavoured drinks as it normally available at lower cost than alternatives. In cola drinks, phosphoric
acid is normally employed. The ratio between sweetness and sharpness determines the underlying taste characteristic of the product.
When carbonated products are formulated, it is usual to reduce slightly the level of added acid compared with the level that would
be employed in a non carbonated drink. This is to recognise that when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water carbonic acid is formed
in equilibrium with CO2 and contributes to the acidity and sharpness of taste. Products must be formulated to have a pH value less
than 4.0 to avoid risk of pathogenic microorganisms being present although the addition of CO2 practically ensures this pH level
will not be exceeded.
A wide range of permitted flavours and colourings are available for use in products. Flavourings are usually a solution of aroma
substances from either natural or synthetic sources dissolved in a permitted solvent, usually ethanol. Alternative solvents may be
employed to comply with cultural or religious needs. When a carbonated drink is formulated, the amount of flavouring used, typically
around 0.1% w/v, may need to be adjusted to account for the potential volatilising effect of CO2 gas when the product is served.
Colourings used are increasingly from natural sources. Carotenoids, anthocyanins and caramels are the most widely used.
Specific synthetic food azo dyes are also widely permitted and used. Despite their permitted status, some synthetic colourings
are claimed to be associated with hyperactivity in children and many major retailers now refuse to sell drinks containing them.
Fruit juices, mainly added in the form of concentrates, are also widely used as ingredients in fruit drinks. Typical use will be
between 2 and 10% by volume of the product when calculated as reconstituted juice. A potential problem when fruit juices are
used in carbonated drinks is that any particulate material can provide a nucleation point for release of CO2 when the container is
opened and gas pressure is released. This can cause the product to gush out of the container uncontrollably with the potential for
damage to both consumer and surrounding property. For this reason particulate ingredients from any source are usually avoided.
Traditionally, preservatives have been added to soft drinks to minimise the risk of microbial spoilage. The most widely used are
benzoic and sorbic acids added as their sodium or potassium salts. Dimethyl dicarbonate is also used but must be injected directly
into a stream of product. The once widely used sulphur dioxide (SO2) is now only permitted in small amounts in very limited
circumstances. Because of concerns about daily intake of SO2 in EU countries, it is possible that its future use in soft drinks may
be completely eliminated. Carbon dioxide itself has effective preservative properties as it suppresses the growth of yeast that forms
the gas as a metabolite. It is very effective against mould spoilage since most moulds require the presence of oxygen to develop.
Increasingly, the use of in-pack pasteurisation or aseptic filling (see Product Manufacture) renders the use of preservatives
unnecessary.
Anti-oxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are often added to improve stability of colour and flavour.
Other ingredients may include vitamins, minerals and herbal extracts. Nutritional and health claims permitted for products are
very tightly controlled by legislation.

Product Manufacture

Manufacture of carbonated beverages involves several distinct stages. The first is to mix all the required ingredients, except as noted
below, in an appropriate vessel. Because as indicated in Carbon Dioxide above, air and oxygen ingress must be kept to an absolute
minimum, mixing should be very carefully controlled so as to avoid vortexing or other operations which draw air into the mix. After
ensuring the mix complies with required quality parameters it is then carbonated.
Carbonated beverages are manufactured by one of two basic methods. The premix system involves mixing all the required ingre-
dients for the beverage and then the final volume of product is chilled and carbonated by one means or another. If the product is to
be subjected to flash pasteurisation, it will be chilled and carbonated after that.
In the alternative postmix system, concentrated syrup containing all the required ingredients except the majority of water and
carbon dioxide is prepared. Such syrup will typically be between 15% and 20% of the final volume and will frequently be subjected
to flash pasteurisation before dilution.
Water for addition is separately chilled and carbonated then, using a proportioning system, the two components are blended in
the required and closely controlled amounts. The carbonated product is then fed to the required filler.
The process of carbonation involves either injecting the gas into a stream of water or product or adding it to the static liquid in
a pressurised vessel.
Counter-pressure filling systems are frequently used. An alternative system is based on liquid level in the container. Product is
usually filled at a cool temperature to minimise the loss of CO2 during the process and transit to the capper.
Depending on the ingredients and formulation filled, capped products may be subjected to in-pack pasteurisation in a tunnel
unit. This would usually be an alternative to flash pasteurisation.
Pasteurisation is now widely used as it provides greater assurance of safety and protection from microbial spoilage although with
simple flavoured carbonated products produced in a plant with good hygiene standards, risks are low if pasteurisation is not carried
out. Pasteurisation is essential when ingredients such as fruit juices are incorporated. Flash pasteurisation involves the use of a heat
exchanger to rapidly raise a stream of product to a temperature between about 85 and 95  C for a period of around 15–20 s fol-
lowed by a rapid cooling. The alternative tunnel process involves passing filled and closed product through a chamber where heated
and cooling water sprays sequentially act as the transfer medium. Product temperature is raised more slowly to typically around
70  C, held for around 20 min and then cooled to ambient.
4 Carbonated Beverages

Filled products are likely to have moisture on them either as a result of condensation on a cold bottle or from the water sprays in
a tunnel unit. It is almost always desirable to remove surface moisture using an air blast as it may interfere with subsequent label
application and/or weaken secondary packaging.
After pasteurisation, filled and dried bottles are labelled if necessary, collated and packed as required into the stock keeping units
(SKUs) such as packs containing 6, 9 12 or 24 bottles. The use of plastic sleeve labels pre-applied to bottles before filling provides an
alternative. If cans are to be used, they are supplied pre–printed to the filling plant.
Increasingly, the use of aseptic filling systems provides an attractive, if expensive, means of packaging products without any need
for the use of preservatives. In such a system, PET bottles are blown from heated ‘preforms’ (see Packaging) using sterile air. The
heated bottles may then be injected with a small amount of hydrogen peroxide which flashes off and provides a very effective ster-
ilisation of the inside of the container. Bottles then continue in a sterile atmosphere provided by air or steam to the integrated filler,
where the pasteurised and carbonated product is introduced and the containers capped.

Packaging

Traditionally, glass bottles were the preferred form of packaging for carbonated beverages. They are still preferred today in many
applications, usually to enhance a brand image or to provide longer shelf life. There are disadvantages of weight and brittleness
but provided effective closures are correctly applied, the retention of gas is excellent. Oxygen ingress is also effectively minimised.
Unless appropriately tinted, oversleeved or covered with a large label, glass allows ingress of light which may damage the product
and affect shelf life.
Cans are also widely used for carbonated beverages. Most cans are now made from two pieces of aluminium; the body
produced by a process of “drawing and wall ironing” and the can end applied after filling. Cans are now almost always pre-
printed and only the data relating to traceability and product durability is applied at or immediately after filling, usually by an
ink-jet labeller.
Provided can ends are correctly applied and steps taken to minimise the risk of corrosion, cans provide arguably the best protec-
tion of a carbonated product as they do not allow ingress of light or oxygen.
In most markets, the majority of carbonated products are packed in PET bottles. Typical sizes range from 250 ml to 2.0 l. PET
bottles are manufactured in a two stage process. So called ‘preforms’ are made by an injection moulding operation with the required
amount of plastic. The preform also incorporates the neck finish with screw thread. Preforms, which may be stored for future use, are
then fed into heated moulds of the required design in the stretch-blowing operation. This produces the final bottle shape and size.
For small bottles the weight of plastic used is typically around 15–25 g but many manufacturers try to reduce bottle weight to
below 12 g and then rely on the pressure in the carbonated beverage to provide mechanical strength.
Shelf-life of carbonated drinks in PET is shorter than for products packaged in glass or cans. This is due to the loss of CO2 through
container walls. For a typical 2 l PET bottle weighing 43 g, a loss of some 15–16% of gas may be expected to occur within 8 weeks of
bottling. For a 250 ml bottle, this loss may be expected to occur within 6 weeks. CO2 loss may be further minimised by incorpo-
rating into the PET, at a cost premium, other polymers with better gas retention characteristics. Oxygen ingress can also occur with
corresponding deterioration of product.
Closures for carbonated products may be either metal or plastic but all now incorporate tamper evidence. Aluminium is nor-
mally used for metal closures as it is highly malleable whilst high density polyethylene (HDPE) is normally used for PET bottle
closures.
Because the nature of glass bottle production can lead to minor variations in moulding, metal caps are usually preferred. Caps
without a screw thread are applied to bottle tops and by use of a rotating chuck on the capping machine, are formed to fit the exact
profile of the screw thread on each bottle. A gas tight seal is obtained by incorporating a plastic sealant into the cap at manufacture.
The sealant also acts to protect the cap against corrosion from ingredients.
Since PET bottle moulds give bottles with tighter manufacturing tolerances, plastic caps are usually moulded to the exact thread
profile required.
In the past a small number of serious injuries have been caused when closures on carbonated drinks have been suddenly and
explosively released causing them to become missiles. Most bottle moulds now incorporate vertical slots into the screw threads to
which closures are applied. On initial release, this allows venting of excess gas pressure whilst the closure is still attached to the
container body and an explosive cap release can be avoided.

Natural Mineral Water

Natural mineral water is a product description protected by law in European Union countries. It describes a natural water source of
confirmed exceptional stability and purity which must be bottled at source. Such water may be sold still (i.e., not carbonated) or
with CO2 added. In the latter case it must be described as “carbonated natural mineral water.” Natural mineral waters originate
 Carbonated Beverages 5

underground and are exploited from springs, wells or other underground sources. In certain sources, the water may be found with
significant quantities of naturally occurring carbon dioxide present. If bottled as such it must be described as “Naturally carbonated
natural mineral water.” It may also be possible to capture the natural source of CO2 and re-inject into the water prior to bottling.

Further Reading

Ashurst, P.R., Hargitt, R., 2009. Soft Drink and Fruit Juice Problems Solved. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, ISBN 978-1-84569-326-8.
Steen, D.P., Ashurst, P.R. (Eds.), 2006. Carbonated Soft Drinks, Formulation and Manufacture. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, ISBN 978-14051-3435-4.