Republic of the Philippines

University of Eastern Philippines

PEDRO REBADULLA MEMORIAL CAMPUS
Catubig, Northern Samar
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FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

(2nd chunk)

Course Facilitator: LYRA PAZ P. LLUZ

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0966931804
 0 Module 5: Behaviorist Perspective

Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 explain the basic principles of behaviorism.
 make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
 determine how to use rewards in the learning process more
effectively.

Introduction
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of
observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior
is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement
(rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the
mind, and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the
mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory
largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Activity
1.Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in
elementary or high school.
2.Are there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear,
touch, smell) makes you ‘go back to the past’ and recall this
teacher? What are these things? ____________________
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3.What kinds of rewards and punishment did she/he apply in your
class? For what student behaviors were the rewards and
punishment for?

Student Behavior Reward/ Punishment

1.
2.
3.
4.

Analysis
1.What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?
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2.Why do your answers in no. 1make you recall this teacher?
Describe the connection these things have on your past teacher.
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3.Were the rewards and punishment given effective? Please
elaborate.
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Abstraction/ Generalization
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist is well
known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a
dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation
in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon
classical conditioning.
 Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell
(neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing food
(unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog-initiated salivation
(unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung
a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After
conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone
produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical
conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to

salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar
sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation
will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be
‘recovered’ after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if
the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between
similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been
conditioned to associate the bell with food., another unconditioned
stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the
bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’ Connectionism

theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book
entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this
term. He explained that learning is the result of associations or
‘habits’ become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, stated that learning

has taken place when a strong connection or bond between
stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three
primary laws:
Law of Effect. The law of effect stated that a connection
between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is
negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds,
and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not
necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. Tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus
response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. ‘Practice
makes perfect’ seem to be associated with this. However, like the
law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when
Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that, the more readiness the
learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond
between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is
not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of
effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they
belong to the same actions sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections
learned.

John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American

psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially
involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human
behavior research.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning
in his experiment concerning an Albert, a young child and a white
rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson
made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat.
Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon
became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and
Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in order in only on
changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any
processes taking place in the mind.
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before
him. in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors
used in operating on the environment). Thus, is theory came to be
known as Operant Conditioning.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A
reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.
There is a positive reinforcer and negative reinforcer
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to
increase the response. A example of positive reinforcement is
when a teacher promises to extra time in the play area to children
who behave well during the lesson.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or
removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is a
reward.
A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a
punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced
responses. an example would be a student who always comes
late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began
(punishment) and therefore loses points for that activity. The
punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly
coming to class late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement
Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeatedly.
For example, ignoring a student’s misbehaviour may extinguish
that behavior.
Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very
long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To
accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the
behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association
between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the
animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the
lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the
lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining come about when a series of steps are
needed to be learned. The animal would master each step-in
sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be
applied to a child being taught to tie a shoe lace. The child can be
given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of tying the
shoe lace is learned.
Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications
are given for programmed instruction.
1.Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer
(response) frames which expose the student to the subject in
gradual steps.
2.Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and
receives immediate feedback.
3.Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is
always correct and hence, appositive reinforcement.
4.Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good
grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning:
1.Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur, intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective.
2.Information should be presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced (shaping)
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus
generalization) producing secondary conditioning
Looking back at the activity at the beginning, try to look into the
rewards and punishment that your former teacher used in class
Connect them with Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. Can you now
see why your teacher used them?
Synapse Strengtheners
1.Read more about classical and operant conditioning. Find out
about their similarities and differences. Prepare a concept map or
graphic organizer to highlight these similarities and differences.
Application
1.Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions-
such as a mall, in church, at the playground, etc. Spend one hour
observing such adult-child interactions.
Focus your attention on the stimulus-response-consequence
patterns you observe.
____________________________________________________
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b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or
scribble the details on the spot or as soon as you finish your
observation).
c. Answer these questions.
1. What kinds of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you
observe?
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2.What kinds of behaviors’ on the part of children elicit
reinforcement and punishment consequences from the adult?
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3.What kinds of behaviors of adult are reinforced or punished by
the children?
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4.What kinds of reinforcements and punishments seem to be the
most ‘successful’?
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5.Given this experience, what are your thought about operant
conditioning? Do you think children reinforce and punish adults
reinforce and punish them? How might the two be interdependent?
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2.Thorndike’s Connectionism
a. Choose a topic you want to teach.
b. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws you teach
the topic.

Topic______________________Grade/Year level________

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…NOW!

From this module on Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, I
learned that……
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Module 6: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenger yourself to:
 explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.
  explain Bandura’s social learning theory.
 give specific applications of each theory in teaching.
Introduction
With new researches, explanations provided by the basic
principles of behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning
scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained some
of the behaviorists concepts but excluded others, and added new
ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive views
of learning the neo-behaviorists, then were a transitional group,
bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of
learning.
Abstraction/ Generalization Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism
Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which you
just did would say they found the second maze easier. This is
because they saw that the two mazes were identical except that
the entrance and exist points were reserved. Their experience in
doing maze A helped them answer Maze B a lot easier. People
create mental maps of things they perceived. These mental maps
help them respond to other things or tasks later, especially if they
see the similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and error
(behavioristic), but later on your response becomes more
internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what
neobehaviorism is about. It has aspects of behaviorism but it
also reaches out to the cognitive perspective.

There are two theories reflecting neobehaviorism that stands out.

Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Albert
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Both theories are influenced
by behaviorism (which is focused on external elements in
learning). But their principles seem to also be reflective of the
cognitive perspective (focused on more internal elements).
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive behaviorism – has also been referred to as Sign
Leaning Theory and is often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory was founded
on two psychological views, those of the Gestalt psychologist and
those of John Watson, the behaviorist. Tolman believed that
learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then
revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal -directed
behavior.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman
asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He
held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some
adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely
responds to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as
holistic, purposive, and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats in his most famous experiments,
one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a
maze but the food was always in the same location. Another
group of rats had the food placed in different locations which
always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their
starting location.

Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that

remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is learning that
is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can
exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat
experiments wherein rats apparently ‘learned the maze’ by
forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this
knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables
are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants
of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is
influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs
and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his
experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening
variable.
 Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman
concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning,
although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies,
he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way
through a maze, i.e, to develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.
Activity 2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
1.Read the following news article.
10 -Year -Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself
After Watching Saddam Execution
The Associate Pres
HOUSTON Jan 4, 2007 (AP)
Police and family members said a 10-year-old who
died by hanging himself from a bunk bed was
apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi
leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his
apartment bed-room in the Houston-area city of
Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s
mother told police he had previously watched a news
report on Saddam’s death.
‘It appears to be accidental, Claunch said. ‘Our gut
reaction is that he was experimenting.’
An autopsy of the fifth-grader’s body was pending.
Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a
happy and curious child.
He said Sergio had watched TV news with
another uncle on Saturday and asked the uncle about
Saddam’s death.
‘His uncle told him it was because Saddam was
real bad,’ Gustavo said. ‘He (Sergio) said, ‘OK’ And
that was it.’
Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico De leon, was at work
Sunday while Sergio and other children were under
the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children
found Sergio’s body in his bed-room.
Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around hi
sneck while on a bunk bed. Police investigators
learned that Sergio had been upset about not getting a
Christmas gift from his father, but they don’t believe
the boy intentionally killed himself.
Clinical psychologist Edward Bischop, of
California, said childrenSergio’s age mimic risky
behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme
sports without realizing the dangers. He said TV
appeared to be the stimulant in Sergio’s case.
‘I would think maybe this kid is trying something
that he thinks fun to act out without having the
emotional and psychological maturity to think the
thing through before he acts on it’ Bischop said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy
Wednesday in the apartment complex activity center.
Gustavo said the family is trying to put together
enough money to send Sergio’s body to Guatemala for
burial.
‘I don’t think her though it was real,’ Gustavo said
of Saddam’s hanging. ‘They showed them putting the
noose around his neck and everything. Why show that
on TV?’
Analysis – Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
1.What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged
himself?
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What facts made them give this reason? __________________
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2.Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
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3.What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of
young people (preschool to college)? Cite specific examples.
____________________________________________________
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Abstraction / Generalization
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social Learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs

within a social context. It considers that people learn from one
another, including such concepts as observational learning,
imitation, execution in t.v and then have imitated it. and modelling.
The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading
proponent of this theory.

General principles of social learning theory

1.People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
2.Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorist
say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in
behavior, in control social learning theorists say that because
people can learn through observation alone. Their learning may
not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or
may not result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social
learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its
interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of
future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on
the behaviors that people exhibit.
4.Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition
between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes
modeling
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of
others. Bandura suggested that the environment also
reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:

1.The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a

student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of
students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus
reinforces by that group.

2.The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer

might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an
outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior
thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences.

Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or
reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This
student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.

4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s

behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then
the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting
an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model
being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group
of children began to also hit the doll.
Contemporary social learning perspective of
reinforcement and punishment

1.Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and

punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the
sole or main cause.
2.Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which
an individual exhibit a behavior that has been learned.

3.The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive

processes that promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a
critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the
expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, where the
teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is
not on the test. Students will not pay attention, because they do
not expect to know the information for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as
behaviorist factors (actually operant factors).
1.Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction
between learning through observation and the actual imitation
of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman’s latent
learning.
2.Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists
contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.
3.Expectattions: As a result of being reinforced, people from
expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are
likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring
reinforcements and others to bring punishment.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can
influence both the environment and the person. In fact, each of
these three variables. the person, the behavior, and the
environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live
model, and actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can
also be a symbolic model, which can be aperson or action
portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape,
computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through modelling

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through
modelling. Examples that can be cited are, students can watch
parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of
mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research
indicates that children become more aggressive when they
observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral
behavior are influenced by observation and modelling. This
includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in
part, develop through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary
before an individual can successfully model the behavior of
someone else:
1.Attention-The person must first pay attention to the model.
2.Retention- The observer must be able to remember the
behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is
using the technique of rehearsal.
3.Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to
replicate the behavior that the model; has just demonstrated. This
means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action,
which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children
have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4.Motivation- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to
occur is motivation. Learning must want to demonstrate what
they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions
vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same
behavior differently.
Effects of modeling on behavior:
Modeling teaches new behaviors.
Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned
behaviors.
Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For
Example a student might see a friend excel in basketball and he
tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for
Basketball.

Educational Implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom
use.
1.Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other
people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively
increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate
ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards
and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors, instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning,
modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching
new behavior. To promote effective modeling. A teacher must
sure make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention,
retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
4.Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and
take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5.Teacherts should expose students to a variety of other models.
This technique is especially important to break down traditional
stereotypes.

Synapse Strengtheners
1.How are Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social
Learning theory able to bridge behaviorism and cognitive theory?
2. Read this article about Bandura’s view about television and
violence, Albert Bandura Lecture-Bing Distinguished Lecture
Series ‘The Power of Social Modeling: The Effect of Television
Violence’’ by Christine Van De Velde (at http:// www. Stanford -
.edu/dept/bingschool/rsrchart/bandura.htm). Make a reaction
paper.

Application- Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

State a personal message derived from the key concepts of
Tolman’s purposive behaviorism. Use the able provided below:
Key Concept of Tolman’s Personal Message
Theory on Purposive
Behaviorism
1.Learning is always 1.1To make my students do
purposive and goal-directed. what I require them to do, I
should state the goal clearly
and specifically.
1.2.
1.3.
2.Cognitive maps helps 2.1
students perform well.
Organism select the shortest
or easiest path to achieve a
goal
2.2
3.Latest learning stays with 3.1
the individual until needed.
3.2
4.Learning is influenced by 4.1
expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and
other internal variables like
hunger.
4.2
4.3

Application- Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Choose 3 key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory
then state how you apply the concept as you teach. Use the table
provided for this purpose.

3 Key Concepts of Albert How I apply it in my teaching

Bandura
1. 1.1

1.2

2 2.1

2.2

3 3.1

3.2
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!
From the module on Neobehaviorism: Tolman and Bandura, I
learned that….
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Cognitive Perspective
Module 7: Gestalt Psychology
Take the Challenge!
In this module, challenge yourself to:
 describe the different gestalt principles.
 list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching
learning process.
 demonstrates.
Introduction
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive
psychology. It served as the foundation of the cognitive
perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic
focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and
products of perception.
Abstraction/ Generalization
Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to
behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes
and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt,
means ‘form’ or ‘configuration.’’ Psychology, Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kholer and Kurt Koffka studied perception and
concluded that perceivers (or leraners) were not passive, but
rather active they suggested that learners do not just collect
information as is but they actively process and restructure data in
order to understand it.
According to the gestalt psychologist, the way we form our
perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These
principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or
situations we meet.
Gestalt Principles
Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be
perceived as a coherent object. On the left, there appears to be
three columns, while on the right, there appears to be three
horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near each
other, we perceive them as belonging together.
Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as
part of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square.
We link similar elements together.
Law of Closure We tend to fill the gaps or ‘close’ the figures we
perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and
ignoring gaps in the figure.
Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to
continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish
an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line.
Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as
good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to
symmetry, simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceived as a
square overlapping. A triangle, not a combination of several
complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with perception,
we expect certain patterns and therefore perceive that excepted
pattern.
Law of Figure/ Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive
things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as
separate from its ground.
Insight Learning
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking
place by discovery or insight. The idea of insight learning was first
developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments
with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to
solve problems.
Gestalt Principles and the Teaching Learning Process
the six gestalt principles not only influence perception but
they also impact on learning. Other psychologists like kurt Lewin,
expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on ‘life
space adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual
has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his
learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and
feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the
teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and impact on
the person’s learning. Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist writes
about the relevance of gestalt psychology to education.
 Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of
contact that occurs in the here and now. It considers
with interest the life space of teachers as well as
students. It takes interest in the complexity of
experience, without neglecting anything, but
accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It
stimulates learning. It appreciates the affections and
meaning that we attribute to what we learn.
Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organization
and rearrangement of information according to needs,
purposes and meanings. It asserts that learning is not
accumulate, but remodelling or insight. Autonomy
and freedom of the assimilation and for cognitive and
existential remodelling is respected. The contact
experience between teachers and students is given
value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas
and affections.
1.Read more on gestalt psychology and list more
applications of its principles on the teaching and
learning process.
Application
 Identify the gestalt principle applied in each of the following
learning activities. Discuss your answer with a learning
partner.

__________1. The teacher relates a new topic with something the

student already knows.

__________2. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each

other.

__________3. The most important words in the paragraph are

written in bolder fonts.
__________4. The teacher slows down her pace and varies her
tone of voice to emphasize a point.

__________5. Teachers remind children to keep their numbers in

straight columns when doing math operations.
Formulate 5 items like the ones you went through then exchange
work with your learning partner. Your learning partner answers
the 5 items you prepared while you also answer what your
learning partner made.

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Gestalt Psychology, I learned that…
________________________________________________
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Module 8 Information Processing
________________________________________________
Take the Challenge!
In this module, challenge yourself to:
 describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and
retrieving knowledge.
 cite educational implications of the theory on information
processing,

Introduction
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical
framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored
and retrieved from our memory. It was one of most significant
cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications
on the teaching-learning process.

Activity
Form groups of about 3-5 members each.
1.Brainstorm on how you can liken the man’s cognitive processes,
like acquiring information, putting them to memory, remembering,
etc. to that of the functioning of a computer.
Analysis
Discussion Questions:
1.In what ways are our cognitive processes like the functioning of
a computer?
2.In what ways do our cognitive processes differ from the
functioning of a computer?
3. Can a computer perform all our cognitive processes? Explain
your answer.

Abstraction /Generalization
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful
analogy. The terms used in the information processing theory
(IPT) extends this analogy. In fact, those who program and design
computers aim to make computers solve problems through
processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to know
more about IPT.

Cognitive psychologist believed that cognitive processes

influenced the nature of what is learned. They considered learning
as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorist thought). They looked into how we receive,
perceive, store and retrieve information. They believed that how a
person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shapes
what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called
the information processing theory.

IPT describe how the learner receives information (stimuli) from

the environment through the senses and what takes place in
between determines whether the information will continue to pass
through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the
long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether
the information will be retrieved or ‘remembered’ when the learner
needs it. Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may
receive.
‘Types of Knowledge
 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge
useful in many tasks, or only in one.
 Declarative-This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to
the nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a
word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a
nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face your
crush.
 Procedural-This includes knowledge on how to do things.
Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake or
getting the least common denominator.
 Episodic- This includes memories of life events, like your
high school graduation.
 Conditional-This is about ‘Knowing when and why’ to apply
declarative or procedural strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory
The stages of IPT involves the functioning of the senses,
sensory register, short term memory and the long-term memory.
Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of
external information becoming incorporated into the internal
cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame,
mental model, etc).
These three primary stages in IPT are:
 Encoding-Information is sensed, perceive, and attended to.
 Storage-The information is stored for either a brief or
extended period of time, depending upon the processes
following encoding.
 Retrieval- The information is brought back at the appropriate
time, and reactivated for use on a current task, the true
measure of effective, memory.

What made IPT plausible was the notion that cognitive processes
could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to
processing follow a trail along (recalled) when needed. Most
theories of information processing resolve around three main
stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model, holds all sensory information

for a very brief time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information

but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for
an extremely brief-in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory
memory is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

 To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that
we give attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and
remember later those things that pass through our attention
‘gate’.
 Getting through this attentional filter is done when the
learner is interested in the material; when there is conscious
control over attention, or when information involves novelty,
surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as
‘precategorical’ information. This means that until that point,
the learner has not established a determination of the
categorical membership of the information. To this point, the
information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli.
Once it is perceived, we can categorize judge, interpret, and
place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have
no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever
encountered.

Short Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

  Capacity: The STM can only hold 5to9 ‘chunks’ of
information sometimes described as 7+/-2. It is called
working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM
maintain information for a limited time, until the learner has
adequate resources to process the information, or until the
information is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to
do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the
information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone
number just given over and over.
Long Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory
information it holds the stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive
processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These
processes guide the flow of information through the system, helps
the learner make informed decisions about how to categorized,
organize, or interpret information, Example of processes are
attention, rehearsals, and organization.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when
needed.
 There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs.
 Decay- Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’
away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.
 Interference- New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the
information in question.
Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information
 Rehearsal- This is repeating information verbatim, either
mentality or aloud.
  Meaningful Learning-This is making connections between
new information and prior knowledge.
 Organization-It is making connections among various pieces
of information. Info that is organized efficiently should be
recalled.
 Elaboration-This is adding additional ideas to new
information based on what one already knows. It is
connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery-This means forming a ‘picture’ of the
information.
 Generation-Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember
than things we ‘hear’.
 Context -Remembering the situation help recover
information.
 Personalization-It is making the information relevant to the
individual.
Other Memory Methods
 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy)-You will
remember the beginning and end of ‘list’ most readily
 Part Learning-Break up the ‘list’ or ‘chunk’ information to
increase memorization.
 Distributed Practice-Break up learning sessions, rather than
cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids-These are memory techniques that learners
may employ to help them retain and retrieve information
more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms,
sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques,
among others.

Information is received through the senses and goes to the

sensory memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found
relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given
attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to
the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different
cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine
if information can be retrieved when needed later.
Synapse Strengtheners
1.Read more on specific mnemonic techniques and write about
how you can use it to make information processing more effective
in yourself and your future students.
2. Does forgetting go with advancing in age? What do experts say?
Application
As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the
information process given in the table below. One is done for you.
Process Teaching Implication/s
1.Information is received 1.1 Be sure that the learner’s
through the senses. senses are functioning well.
1.2

2.If information is not 2.1

relevant, it decays.

2.2

3.If information goes to the 3.1

short-term memory and if
given attention and is found to
be relevant, it is sent to the
Long-Term Memory. 3.2

4.If information is not properly 4.1

encoded, forgetting occurs.

4.2

5.There are methods to 5.1

increase retrieval of
information when needed
(see methods on page 112.) 5.2

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Information Processing, I learned that…
_________________________________________________
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Module 9: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
_________________________________________________

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 describe the development of the child’s ability to
represent knowledge.
 explain how the spiral curriculum works.
 demonstrate appreciation of discovery learning as a
teaching strategy.

Introduction
Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of
constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that
learning is an active process in which learners construct new
ideas or concepts based upon their current/ past knowledge.

Activity
Think of a topic that you studied when you were in your
preschool or elementary years, and then you studied it again in
high school, and probably you had that same topic again in
college.

What was the topic?

____________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Try to recall how the topic was discussed/ tackled in class (use of
visual aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.).

Describe what and how you learned about the topic during
preschool/elementary.
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Describe what and how you learned about the topic during high
school.
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college.
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Analysis
Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the
different levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details given,
etc.)

Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three
different levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted
form.
 ______________________________________________
 ______________________________________________
 ______________________________________________

Abstractions Generalization
In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that
a single topic can taught in preschool/elementary, then again in
high school, and still again in college! Take for instance, in
learning about Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have his picture
in a postcard, know that he is our national hero, born on June 19,
1861 in Calamba Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there.
In high school, we may study his two novels in more detail. In
college, we would go deeper into analysing Rizal’s works and
may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him
in his life and applying the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave
us important concepts in development of representations, the
spiral curriculum and discovery learning. These concepts are all
in line with the constructivist approach. (Constructivism will be
discussed in Module 17)

Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge three
develops in three stages. These three stages also become the
three ways to represent knowledge.
1.Enactive representation- At the earliest ages, children learn
about the world through actions on physical objects and the
outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms of
their immediate sensations of them. They are represented in the
muscles and involve motor responses, or ways to manipulate the
environment.
2.Iconic representation- this second stage is when learning can
be obtained through using models and pictures. The learner can
now use mental images to stand for certain objects or events.
Iconic representation allows one to recognized objects when they
are changed in minor ways.
3.Symbolic representation- In this third stage, the learner has
developed the ability to think abstract terms. This uses symbol
system to encode knowledge. The most common symbol systems
are language and mathematical notation.

Spiral curriculum
Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting
cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept
if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s level of
understanding.
In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the
curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways
depending on student’s developmental levels. This is why
certain topics are initially presented in grade school in manner
appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same topic is
tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a
topic can be revisited within the same semester or school year.
For instance, the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced
to you in Module 2, and will again be tackled in Module 28. This
time the 14 principles where be taken up as a means to integrate
and summarize all your learning in this course/subject. Many
other concepts and principles discussed in this book are also
taken up in your other subjects like child and adolescent
development and principles of teaching to name a few. This is
part of spiral learning. It helps you get a clearer understanding,
thus more effective learning.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1.Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and
contexts that make the student willing and able to learn
(readiness).
2.Instruction must be structured so that it can be grasped by the
student (spiral organization).
3.Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or
fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

Discovering Learning

Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.

Teacher plans and arranges activities in such a way that students
search. Manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn new
knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-
solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering
information.
Classroom Example:
Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore
their learning environment rather than listen passively to
teachers.
 In elementary school – Teachers might use guided
discovery to help children learn animal groups (e.g
mammals, bird, reptiles). Rather than provide students with
the basic animals groups and examples for each, the
teacher could ask students to provide the names of types of
animals. Then the students and teacher could classify the
animals by examining their similarities and differences.
Category labels can be assigned once classification are
made. This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that
classifications are proper, but students are active
contributors as they discover the similarities and differences
among animals.
 In high school – A chemistry teacher might use ‘mystery’
liquids and have students discover the elements in each.
The students could proceed through a series of experiments
designed to determine if certain substances are present in a
sample. By using the experimental process, students learn
about the reactions of various substances to certain
chemicals and also how to determine the contents of their
mystery substance.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should

address four major aspects:
1.Predisposition to learn – He introduced the ideas of
‘readiness’ for learning’. Bruner believed that any subject could be
taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child’s
cognitive abilities.
2.Structure of Knowledge. The ways in which a body of
knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily
grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in
learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure
refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques.
This will depend on different factors, and many preferences
among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about
structuring knowledge.
1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject
makes it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as
a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details
are better retained when placed within the context of an ordered
and structure pattern.
2.To generate knowledge which is transferable to other
contexts, fundamentals principles r patterns are best suited.
3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced
knowledge in a subject area is diminished when instruction
centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This means
that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the
learner to understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the
student’s experience.

3.Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner,

but in general, like lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.
Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more
difficult.
4.Reinforcement. Rewards and Punishment should be selected
and placed appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning.
He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best
stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive
goals such as grades or class ranking.

Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorized of information in
the construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that
perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and
making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are
‘rules’ that specify four things about objects. The four things are
given below:
1.Criterial attributes-required characteristics for inclusion of an
object in a category. 9example, for an object to be included in the
category ‘car’ it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible
means of transportation.
2.The second rule prescribe how the critical attributes are
combined.
3.The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it
could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for
hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category of ‘truck’
or perhaps ‘van’.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some
attributes can vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For
example, a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a
vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in car.

There are several kinds of categories:

1.Identity categories – categories include objects based on their
attributes or features.
2.Equivalent categories (Provide rules for combining categories.
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render
objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria,
based on related functions (for example, ‘car, ‘truck’, ‘van’ could
all be combined in an inclusive category called ‘‘ motor vehicle’),
or by formal criteria, for example by science, law, or cultural
agreement.
3.Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize
sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher
cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data
involves making inferences on the basis of related immediate
sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related
categories.

Synapse Strengtheners
1.Read more about discovery learning and how it is used in
preschool elementary and high school levels.
Application
1.Choose a topic related to your field of specialization.
2. Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using Bruner’s
principles.
Topic______________________________________________
Grade/year Level of Learner____________________________
How will you present the topic on the
Enactive level?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________________

Iconic Level?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________________

Symbolic Level?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________________

How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this topic?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________

Describe how you can use discovery learning for this topic.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
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5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Bruner’s Constructivist Theory. I learned
that….
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Module 10 :Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal

Learning/Subsumption Theory

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 explain Ausubel’s yourself to:
 determine the uses of graphic organizers.
 use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.

Introduction
Many educational psychology theories often criticize the
expository or presentational manner of teaching. They say that
teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of
information, while student remain passive receivers of information.
David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching,
proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance
organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful
Verbal Learning.

Activity
1.The figure below is an advance organizer.
2.Study it. Read the words found in each box.
3.Examine how the lines connect the boxes
4.Describe the advance organizer, specifically on how the words
are related to each other.

Analysis
1.Why was the advance organizer presented before the
discussion of the topic?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________

2.How can the advance organizer help the students?

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________

Abstraction/ Generalization

The main theme of Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is

hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the
extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is
already known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/ textual presentations in a school
setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for
learning.

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1.The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity,
clarity and organization of the leaner’s present knowledge.
This present knowledge consists facts, concepts, propositions,
theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to
him/ her at any point in time.
2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is
related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already
possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be
presented effectively, the student’s cognitive structure should be
strengthened.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on

the principle of sub Sumption. He thought that the primary way of
learning was sub Sumption: a process by which new material is
related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure.
Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on
what is already known. This signifies that one’s own prior
knowledge and biases limit and effect what is learned. Also,
retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior
concrete concepts. Meaningful learning can take place through
four processes:

Derivative sub Sumption – This describe the situation in which

the new information you learn is an example of a concept that you
have already learned. For example, let’s say you have acquired a
basic concept such as ‘bird’. You know that a bird has feather, a
beak, lays egg.

Correlative sub Sumption-Examine this example. Now, let’s say

you see a new kind of bird that has a really big body and long
strong legs. It doesn’t fly but it can run fast. In order to
accommodate this new information, you have to change or
expand you concept of bird to include the possibility of being big
and having long legs.
Superordinate learning. Images that a child was well acquainted
with banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc, but the child did not
know, until she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits.

Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge

combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of
both concepts. The first three learning processes all included new
information that relates to edge.

Advance Organizers
The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed
by Ausubel. The advance organizer, gives you two benefits: (1)
You will find it easier to connect new information with what you
already know about the topic, and (2) you can readily see how the
concepts in a certain topic are related to each other. As you go
about learning about the topic and go through the four learning
processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning
to your existing scheme. As such advance organizers facilitate
learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive
structure.

Types of advance organizers

1.Expository-describe the new content.
2.Narrative-presents the new information in the form of a story to
students.
3. Skimming-is done by looking over the new material to gain a
basic overview.
4. Graphic organizer-visuals to set up or outline the new
information. This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns,
concept patterns, concept maps.

Application of Principles

1.The most general ideas of subject should be presented first and

then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
He called this progressive differentiation. According to Ausubel,
the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the
stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that,
if you’re teaching three related topics A, B, and C, rather than
teaching all of topic A, then going on B, etc., you would take a
spiral approach. That is, in your first pass through the material,
you would teach the ‘big’ ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy)
in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to
elaborate the details. Along the way you would point out principles
that the three topics had in common, and things that differentiated
them.
2.Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material
with previously presented information through comparisons and
cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Synapse Strengtheners
1.Read on the interrelatedness of Ausubel’s theory with Gestalt
Psychology and Bruner’s theory. Explain how their concepts and
principles complement each other.

Application
1.Collect different examples of graphic organizers, indicate how
each is used.
2. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization. Obtain a
material such as a book chapter about this topic and prepare an
advance organizer about it.

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Ausubel theory, I learned that…
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Module 11: Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.
 Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using
Gagne’s instruction events.
 Articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in
teaching.

Introduction
In this theory, Gagne specified several different types or
levels of learning. He stressed that different internal and external
conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is
called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction
events that served as basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Activity
Before reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the
nine steps in lesson presentation (instructional events) in their
proper order. Read and arrange the steps by numbering them.
Form groups of 5 for this activity.
___________1. Guidance of students’ performance
___________2. Recall prior learning
___________3. Enhance retention and transfer
___________4. Gain attention
___________5. Provide feedback
___________6. Assess performance
___________7. Present stimulus
___________8. Elicit performance
___________9. Identify the objective

Analysis
Each group writes arrangement on the board for comparison
and discussion. Each group explains and justifies arrangement.
For discussion, teacher asks the class: ‘which of the
arrangements presented on the board is correct? Why?

Abstraction/ Generalization
Let us see Gagne’s principles.
Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However,
the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has
been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier
version of theory, special attention was given to military training
settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional
technology in learning.

Gagne’s Principles
1.Different instruction is required for different learning
outcomes. Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different
types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that
 each different type of learning calls for different types of
instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor
skills and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are
required for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive
strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for problem
solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible
role model or arguments that are convincing and moving. below
are the categories of learning with corresponding learning
outcomes and conditions of learning:

Category of Learning Example of learning Conditions of

Outcomes Learning
Verbal Information Stating previously learned 1.Draw attention to
materials such as facts, distinctive features by
concepts, principles, and variations in print or
procedures, e.g., listing speech.
the 14 learner -centered 2.Present information
psychological principles. so that it can be made
into chunks.
3. Provide a meaningful
context for effective
encoding of information.
4. Provide cues for
effective recall and
generalization of
information.
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: 1.Call attention to
Discriminations, Concrete Distinguishing objects, distinctive features.
Concepts, Defined features, or symbols, e.g., 2.Stay within the limits
Concepts, Rules, Higher distinguishing an even of working memory.
Order Rules and odd number 3. Stimulate the recall of
previously learned
Concrete Concepts: component skills.
Identifying classes of 4.Present verbal cues to
concrete objects, the ordering or
features, or events, e.g., combination of
picking out all the red component skills.
beads from a bowl of 5.Schedule occasion for
beads. practice and spaced
review.
Rules: Applying a single 6. Use a variety of
relationship to solve a contexts to promote
class of problems, e.g., transfer.
computing average
monthly of a company.
 Order Rules: Applying a
new combination of rules
to solve a complex
problem, e.g., generating
a balanced budget for a
school organization

Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways 1.Describe or

to guide learning, thinking, demonstrate the
acting, and feeling, e.g., strategy.
constructing concept maps 2.Provide a variety of
of topics being studied occasions for practice
using the strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or originality of
the strategy or outcome.
Attitudes Choosing personal actions 1. Establish an
based on internal states of expectancy of success
understanding and feeling, associated with the
e.g., deciding avoid soft desired attitude.
drinks and drinking a t 2. Assure student
least 8 glasses of water identification with an
everyday. admired human model.
3. Arranged for
communication or
demonstration of choice
of personal action.
4. Give feedback for
successful
performance; or allow
observation of feedback
in the human model.
Motor skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal or
involving the use of other guidance to cue
muscles, eg. Doing the the executive
steps of the singkil dance subroutine.
2. 2. arrange repeated
practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of
performance.
4. Encourage the use of
mental practice.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be
learned and a sequence of instruction. Gange suggests that
learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response
generation, procedure following, use of terminology,
discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem
solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify
prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at
each level.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that
constitute the condition of learning. These events should satisfy or
provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the
basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate
media.the theory includes nine instructional events and
corresponding cognitive processes:
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic approach)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

Application:
Choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or
year level. Make a teaching sequence applying Gagnes nine
instructional events. Use the table provided for you.
Topic: ________________________________
Objective: _____________________________

Event of instruction Lesson Example/ Conditions of

learning
1. Gaining attention
2. Informing the
learner of the
objectives
 3. Stimulating recall
of prior learning
4. Presenting the
stimulus
5. Providing learner
guidance
6. Eliciting
performance
7. Giving feedback
8. Assessing
performance
9. Enhancing
retention

Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning /Subsumption Theory

Take the challenge !

In this module, challenge yourself to :
 explain Ausubel’s Subsumption theory.
 determine the uses of graphic organizers.
 use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.

Introduction
Many educational psychology theories often criticize the
expository or presentational manner of teaching. They say
teachers assume such a major role in learning's as providers of
information, while students remain passive receivers of
information. David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of
teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of
advance organizers. His idea are contained in his theory of
Meaningful Verbal Learning.

Anslysis
1. Why was the advance organizer presented before the
discussion of the
topic?___________________________________________
 ________________________________________________
__________________________________________

2. How can the advance organizer help the

students?________________________________________
________________________________________________
__________________________________________

Abstraction /Generalization
The main theme of the Ausubel’s theory is that
knowledge is hierarchical organized; that new information is
meaningful to extent that it can be related( attached,
anchored) to what is already known. It is about how
individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/ textual presentations in a school setting. He
proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for
learning.

Focus of Ausubels Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the
quantity, clarity and the organization of the learners
present knowledge. This present knowledge consist of
facts,concepts,propositions,theories and raw perceptual
data that the learner has available to him/her at any
point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive
structure.
2. Meaningful leanings take place when an idea to be
learned is related in some sensible way to ideas that
the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that
before new material can be presented effectively , the
students cognitive structure should be strengthened.
When this is done, acquisition and retention of new
information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the
student’s cognitive structure is by using advance
organizers that allow student’s to already have a
bird’s eye view or to see the “big picture” of the
topic to be learned even before going to the details.

Types of advance organizers

 1. Expository -- describes the new content.
2. Narrative -- present the new information in the form of
story to students.
3. Skimming -- is done over looking the new material to gain
basic overview.
4. Graphic organizer -- visual to set up or outline the new
information. This may include pictographs, descriptive
patterns,concept patterns, concept maps.

Synapse Strengtheners
1. Read on the interconnectedness of Ausubel’s theory with
Gestalt Psychology and Bruners theory. Explain how their
concepts and principles complement each other.

Application
1. Collect different examples of graphic organizers. Indicate
how each is used.
(www.technology.com is good source)
2. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization.
Obtain a material such as a book chapter about this topic
and prepare and advance organizer about it.

Bruners Constructivist Theory

Take the challenge !

In this module, challenge yourself to :
 describe the development of the childs ability to represent
knowledge.
 explain how the spiral curriculum works.
 demonstrate appreciation of discovery learning as a teaching
strategy.

Introduction
Jerome Burner was one of the first proponents of
constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Burner is that
learning is an active process in which learners construct new
ideas or concept based upon their current/past knowledge.

Activity
Think of atopic that you studied when you were in preschool
or elementary years, and then you studied it again in high school,
and probably you had that same topic again in college.
What was the topic?
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Try to recall how the topic was discussed/tackled in class(use of
visual aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.).

Describe what and how you learned about the topic during
preschool/elementary.__________________________________
_________________________________________________Des
cribe what and how you learned about the topic during high
school.______________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Describe what and how you learned about the topic in
college.______________________________________________
________________________________________________

Analysis
Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the
different levels(Try to recall the activities, materials, details given,
etc.)

Why do you think the same topic taught in the three different
levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in the bulleted form.
 ________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________

Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation
 Bruners suggested the ability to represent knowledge three
develops in three stages. These stages also become the three
ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation -- At the earliest ages, children
learn about the world through actions on physical objects
and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent
objects in terms of their immediate sensation of them. They
are presented in the muscles and involve motor responses,
or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding bicycle
and tying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic presentation -- The second stage is when learning
can be obtained through using models and pictures. The
learner can now use mental images to stand fro certain
objects or events. Iconic representation allows one to
recognize objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g.
mountains with and without snow at the top).
3. Symbolic representation -- In this third stage, the learners
has developed the ability to think is abstract terms. This uses
symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common
symbol systems are language and mathematical notation.

Burner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete,

pictorial then symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before
children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations,
teachers can first have the numbers represented enactively (with
blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children can later on
handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with
numbers and number signs(symbolic).

Discovering learning
Discovering learning refers to obtaining knowledge for
oneself. Teacher plans and arrange activities in such way that
student search, manipulate, explore and investigate. Students
learn new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general
problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering
information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students
require background preparation. Once students possess
prerequisite knowledge, careful structuring of material allows
them to discover important principles.
Synapse Straighteners
1. Read more about discovery learning and how it is used in
preschool, elementary and high school levels.

Application
1. Choose a topic related to yor field of specialization.
2. Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using
Bruners’s principles.

Topic __________________________________
Grade/year Level of Learner________________
How will you present the topic on the Enactive
level?_______________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Iconic
Level________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Symbolic Level?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________________

How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this

topic?_______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________

Describe how you can use discovery learning for this

topic.________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________________