Protective Relaying

Module II
EE401 Switchgear and Protection
7th Sem. EEE
Content
• Introduction to
• electromagnetic protective relaying,

• static relaying, and microprocessor based digital protective relaying.

• Advantage, limitations and basic elements of protective relays.

• Thermal relay
• Over current relay
• Directional relay
• Differential relay
• Distance relay
Protective Relaying Introduction

• Between the electrical power generator and electrical loads, there are several
electrical equipment and machines of various ratings which need certain
adequate protection from abnormal current, voltage and other abnormality in
working parameters.
• The protective relaying senses the abnormal conditions in a part of the power
system and give alarm to isolate that part from the remaining healthy system.
• In a protective relaying system besides circuit breakers and relays there are
several other important components in the system, this include: current and
voltage transformers, secondary circuits, trip circuits, auxiliaries and
accessories.
 Contd.
• Function of protective relaying:
• For abnormal condition like over-load, under-voltage, temperature rise, under-frequency,
over-voltage, unbalanced load, reverse power, short-circuit etc. it senses and send a signal
to isolate the faulty part or energizes the trip circuit of CB.
• To isolate the faulty part immediately so as to minimize the damage to faulty part and
stable operation of rest of the healthy part of the system.
• To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting it from healthy part of the system.
• Protective zones – A part of the system protected by a certain protective
scheme is called as protective zone or zone of protection.
• Based on machine rating, its location, relative importance, probability of faults and
abnormal condition etc. each power system component is covered by a protective zone.
• The boundary of the protective zone is determined by the location of current transformer.
The current transformer are located such that the CBs are covered in the protective zones.
 Contd.

• Primary and Back-up protection

• Primary protection or main protection is the essential protection provided for protecting a
equipment/machine. The primary protection is the first to act and the back-up protection is the next in the
line of defense, if primary protection fails, the back-up protection comes into action.
• The back-up protection is classified as:
• Relay back-up – Same breaker is used by both main and back-up protection, but the protective systems are different.

• Breaker back-up – Different breakers are provided for main and back-up protection in the same station.

• Remote back-up – The main and back-up protections provided at different station and are completely independent.

• Centrally coordinated back-up – Main protection is at various stations and back-up protection for all stations is at central
control center.

• Back-up protection by time grading principle – The current is measured at various points along the current path, the
tripping time at these locations are graded in such a way that the circuit breaker/fuse nearest the fault part operate first,
giving primary protection. The CB at previous station operates only as back-up.

• Back-up protection by duplication principle – The important protective devices are duplicated. Both primary and back-up
protections are provided at the same station and are arranged to operate at the same speed.

• Monitoring – it is an alternative to duplicate protection.

 Contd.
• Desirable qualities of protective relaying:
• Selectivity – the protective system should be able to discriminate between normal and abnormal condition, also between abnormal condition
within the protective zone and abnormal condition elsewhere. Ability to isolate only the faulty part of the network from the healthy part to
minimize the outage area.

• Absolute selectivity (differential protection) and relative selectivity (distance protection).

• The possibility of failure to operate and failure of relays and circuit breaker should be considered in determining the selectivity of the relays.

• Speed – fault clearing time is the sum of relay-time and circuit breaker time.
1 1 1 1
• Fault Clearing Time = Time of operation of Relay + Time of operation of CB = 2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 1 2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 2 2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 4cycles

• Though fast fault clearing is desirable, time lag is purposely provided to permit discrimination between main and back-up protection, and to prevent operation of
relay during transients. Typically, a high-speed relay can operate in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds.

• Sensitivity – it is defined by the smallest value of actuating quantity at which the protection starts operating in relation with the minimum value
of fault current in the protected zone. Sensitivity of relay and sensitivity of system are different. S

• Discrimination - Fault/Overload, Induction Motor winding fault/Starting Current, Transformer Winding fault/Inrush current.

• Stability – by the virtue of which the protective system remains in operation and stable under certain specified condition.

• Reliability – the protective relaying should not fail to operate in the event of faults in the protected zone, and there should not be any fault in the
components of the protective system.

• Economics – the cost of protective equipment should not be more than 10% of the cost of protected device/equipment.

• Simplicity – Least complexity in installation.

 Contd.

Terminology of protective relaying

Relay – device by means of which an electric circuit is controlled, by change in the other
Electromechanical relay, Static Relay, Biased Relay
circuit.
Protective Relay – electrical relay used for protecting electrical devices. It closes its Power consumption of a relay – value of power consumed expressed in VA
contacts when operating quantity reaches certain predetermined magnitude/phase. (for a.c.) or watts (for d.c.)
Pick-up: Pick-up value or level is the value of operating quantity which is
Measuring Relay – Operates at a predetermined value of operating quantity by
on threshold above which the relay operates and closes its contacts.
performing the necessary measurement. (if not, then such relay is called as all-or-nothing
Reset, drop-out: the value of actuating quantity below which the relay
relay).
resets and comes back to original position.
Trip Circuit – consist of mainly trip coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch, seal in coil, Over-current relay, Earth-fault relay
battery supply, it controls the CB for opening operation.
Distance protection – protection of transmission line in which the relay
Current Transformer (CT) and Voltage or Potential transformer (PT)
measurement is based on measuring V/I ratio at relaying point.
Differential Protection – A protective system which responds to vector
Auxiliary Switch – A multipoint switch which operates in conjunction with CB and
difference (phase/magnitude) between two or more similar electrical
connects/disconnects certain protective, indicating and control circuits in each position.
quantities.
Unit Protection – Protection system in which the protective zone can be
Fault Clearing Time, Relay Time, Breaker Time clearly identified by means of CT boundaries. Such protection does not
respond to through fault, it responds only to internal faults.
Reach – the limiting distance covered by the protection, the faults beyond
Earth Fault, Phase Fault which are not within the reach.
Over-reach, Under-reach
Instantaneous relay, IDMT Relay
Relay, classifications and type
• Relay (Protective relay)
• Relays are devices that respond to signals from sensors (voltage, current, temperature, etc.) and operate contacts based on predetermined criteria.
These contacts are usually wired to the trip coil of a circuit breaker or a lockout relay. A relay can also be used as a control device to operate a
circuit breaker after a preset time interval (IEEE Std C37.90™-1989 [B42]).
• Classification based on technology
• Electromechanical relays
• Static relays
• Numerical relays.
• Classification based on speed of operation
• Instantaneous relays
• Time delay relays
• High-speed relays
• Ultra high-speed relays.
• Classification based on function
• Overcurrent relays
• Undervoltage relays
• Impedance relays
• Underfrequency relays
• Directional relays
Electromechanical Relay

• Electromechanical relay has mainly one or more coils, movable element,

contact system and some other associated elements. The operation depends
on whether the operating torque/force is greater than the restraining
torque/force. Relay operates when Operating Force > Restraining Force.
• In electromechanical relays, the operating torque is produced by
electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction.
• In electromagnetic attraction type of relays, the operation is obtained by virtue of an
armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn
into a solenoid. Operated by both D.C. and A.C. quantities.
• Electromagnetic induction type relays operation is based on electromagnetic
induction principle, use only for A.C. circuits. A moving element (disc/cup) with
contact of relays moves due to induction to complete the relay circuit.
Contd.
 Contd.
• Attracted Armature Relay (Electromagnetic Attraction type of relays)
• Attracted armature relay: A single actuating quantity relay. These relays have coil, or an electromagnet energized by coil. The coil
is energized by the operating quantity, a plunger or rotating iron vane is subjected to the action of magnetic field produced by the
operating quantity.

• Can be used for both AC and DC , relay have fast operation and fast reset because of small length of travel and light moving parts.

• These relays are described as instantaneous, but operating time may vary with current.

• Do not have directional feature, are affected by transients.

• For typical relay the VS burden is of the order of 0.2 to 0.6 VA for current range 0..1 to 0.4 A.

• These relays are sensitive to starting currents, load fluctuations and current surges.

• Operating Principle: The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is proportional to square of the
flux in air gap. Neglecting the saturation, the force is proportional to the square of the operating current.

• 𝐹 = 𝐾1 × 𝐼2 − 𝐾2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐾1 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝐾2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐼 =

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.

𝐾2
• When relay is on the verge of operation, F is zero, 𝐾1 𝐼2 = 𝐾2 , 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝐾1
 Contd.
• Application of attracted armature type relay:
• Used for over/under current, over/under voltage for both AC and DC application.
• Over-current protection.
• Definite-time lag over-current and earth fault protection.
• Differential protection
• Auxiliary relay.
 Contd.

• Balanced beam relay (Electromagnetic attraction type)

• Consisted of a horizontal beam pivoted centrally, with one armature attached
to either side. The beam remain in horizontal position till operating force
became more than restraining force. There are two coils, one on each side, The
current in one coil gives operating force, the current in other coil gives
restraining force. The beam is given slight mechanical bias by means of spring
or weigh adjustment such that under normal condition the contacts are open.
When operating torque increases, the beam tilts, and the contacts close.
 Contd.
• Operating principle: Neglecting spring effect, the net torque is given by –
• 𝑇 = 𝐾1 × 𝐼12 − 𝐾2 × 𝐼22 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝐼1 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐼2 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

𝐼1 𝐾2
• At the verge of operation, net torque is zero, therefore 𝐾1 × 𝐼12 = 𝐾2 × 𝐼22 , = =
𝐼2 𝐾1
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑉1
• If one coil is actuated by voltage (𝑉1 ) and other by current (𝐼2 ) then, the equation is, =𝐾=
𝐼2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.This principle is used in impedance relay.

• Balanced beam relay is difficult to design over a wide range current because the force is
proportional to current in restraining coil.

• These relays are fast and instantaneous.

Induction Disc Relay
• In these relays a metal disc is allowed to rotate between two electromagnets. The field produced by
the two magnets are displaced in space and phase. The torque is developed by the interaction of the
flux of one magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by other.
• There are two type of induction disc relay:
• Shaded pole induction relay.
• Watthour meter type induction relay.

• Torque production in induction relay:

• 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒 𝝋𝟏 = 𝝋𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝝋𝟐 = 𝝋′𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)

Flux 𝜑1 is produced by the shaded pole and 𝜑2 by the unshaded pole and the shaded pole flux
lags that by the unshaded pole by an angle 𝜃. The two fluxes will induce voltage 𝑒1 and 𝑒2
respectively in the disc. These voltages will circulate eddy currents in the disc of the relay.
Assuming the currents be in phase with their respective voltages.
 Contd.

𝒅𝝋𝟏
• 𝒆𝟏 ∝ , 𝒆𝟏 ∝ 𝝋𝒎 𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒆𝟐 ∝ 𝝋′𝒎 𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)
𝒅𝒕

• Since the eddy current is proportional to the induced voltage, 𝒊𝟏 ∝ 𝒆𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐 ∝ 𝒆𝟐 , 𝒊𝟏 ∝ 𝝋𝒎 𝝎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕,
𝒊𝟐 ∝ 𝝋′𝒎 𝝎 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽).
• The flux 𝜑1 will interact with eddy current 𝑖2 and 𝜑2 will interact with 𝑖1 and since 𝜑2 is leading 𝜑1 the
torque due to 𝜑2 and 𝑖1 will be reckoned as positive whereas that due to 𝜑1 and 𝑖2 as negative.
• The resultant torque is 𝑻 ∝ 𝝋𝟐 𝒊𝟏 − 𝝋𝟏 𝒊𝟐 , 𝑻 ∝ 𝝋𝒎 𝝋′𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. So the torque is maximum when the two
fluxes are displaced by 90𝑜 .
• The shading ring is a copper band or coil. The effect of the shading ring is to displaced the flux in
phase and space from the flux produced by unshaded pole.
• Since 𝜑2 leads the 𝜑1 , the rotation of the disc under the poles will be from unshaded pole towards the
shaded pole.
• Since the torque is of constant magnitude, therefore, there is no possibility of vibration.
 Contd.

• Plug setting multiplier:

• The minimum torque required for the movement of the disc is fixed for a particular design. Ampere-turns
required are fixed.
• For different pick-up current settings, number of turns are changed effectively so that the ampere-turns
remain same. Higher current setting require small number of turns.
• The selection of the required current setting is done by means of a plug setting multiplier; plug is
provided for different current settings.

• Time multiplier setting:

• The operating time of relay depends upon the distance between the moving contact and the fixed contact
of the relay.
• The distance is adjusted by the movement of the disc back stop which is controlled by rotating a knurled
moulded wheel at the base of the graduated time multiplier scale, known as time multiplier setting.
• Higher the time multiplier setting the greater is the operating time.
 Contd.

• The watt-hour meter structure has two separate coils on two different magnetic
circuits, each of which produces one of the two necessary fluxes for driving the disc
of the relay. The operating principle is same as that of shaded pole type.
Induction cup relay

• This relay has two, four or more electromagnets, in stator. A stationary iron core is placed
between these electromagnets. The rotor consists if a hollow metallic cylindrical cup. The
rotor is free to rotate in the gap between the stationary iron and the electromagnets.
• The electromagnets are energized by the relay coils. The eddy currents are produced in the
metallic cup. These currents interact with the flux produced by the other electromagnet and
torque is produced.
• The operating principle is same as that of disc type relay.
• A control spring and moving contacts are carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the
cup.
• The relay can be responsive to voltage or current.
• The relays have inverse time characteristic.
 Contd.

• For simple protective functions and for protection of simple low power
equipment, electromechanical relays are preferred.
• Electromechanical relays are also used as components of static relay, e.g.
for auxiliary relay function, output function.
• For complex protective functions requiring accurate characteristics for
various protective functions and for protection of costly, large equipment,
static relays are preferred.
• For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable
microprocessor-controlled relays are preferred.
Operating Characteristics

Attracted Armature Relay

Ref.: Performance Evaluation of Overcurrent Protection Relay Based on Relay Operation Time (ROT), M. Hairi, M. Aras
 Contd.

• Determine the time of operation of a relay of rating 5 amps, 2.2 sec IDMT and having a relay setting of
125% TMS = 0.6. It is connected to a supply circuit through a CT 400/5 ratio. The fault current is
4000A.
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 −
𝑢𝑝 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 5𝐴 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 125%, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑠

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 5 × 1.25 = 6.25𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦, 𝑃𝑆𝑀 =
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡) 4000

• 𝑃𝑆𝑀 = = = 8, 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑆𝑀 = 8 𝑖𝑠 3.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝐶𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 6.25 ×80

• 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑀𝑆 𝑖𝑠 0.6, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 1.92 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Static Relay
• Static relay is an electrical relay in which the response is developed by
electronic/magnetic/optical or other components, without mechanical
motion of components.
 Contd.
• A static relay generally has several functional units.
• A static relay may have one or more programmable units such as a microprocessor. Such relays are
called as programmable relays or microprocessor-controlled relay.
• Advantages of static relays
• Low power consumption, Low burden
• No moving contacts
• Fast response
• Less maintenance
• Single relay for several functions
• Compact
• Precise and accurate
• Interface with SCADA and EMS
• Logic circuit can be used for complex protective scheme.
• Disadvantages of static relays
• Auxiliary voltage requirement
• Temperature sensitive
• Sensitive to voltage transients
 Contd.

• Electronic circuits commonly used in static relay.

• Main CT and auxiliary CT
• Auxiliary voltage supply – the static relays require auxiliary d.c. supply which is generally
obtained from station battery system.
• Rectifiers, smoothing circuits
• Time-delay circuit
• Frequency filter
• Symmetrical component filters – negative sequence current and voltage filter.
• Comparators
• Level detectors
• Amplifiers
• Timer circuit, setting device,
• directional unit
Comparators
• Comparator – receive the rectified inputs, after comparison the comparator output is given to
measuring unit.
• Types used are - amplitude comparator, phase comparator, hybrid comparator.
• These three can be of either direct or integration type.
• Comparators are either single-phase or poly-phase
• Amplitude Comparator – compares the magnitude of the two (or more) input quantities.
• If 𝐴ഥ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵ത are two vectors input to the comparator, the comparator gives the algebraic difference between the
magnitudes i.e. 𝐴ҧ − 𝐵ത as output.

• Phase Comparator – it compare the two (or more) input quantities vectorially. There are two kinds
of phase comparators
• One which recognises only phase angle between the input waveforms
• Other, which recognises the vector product (or division) between two (or more) input quantities.
• Let A and B be two vectors and φ be the phase difference between the two, then 𝜑 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 + 𝐵 =
𝐴 − 𝐵 , 𝜑 < 900 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 + 𝐵 > 𝐴 − 𝐵 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 > 900 if 𝐴 + 𝐵 < 𝐴 − 𝐵 .
 Contd.

• An amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator and

vice-versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified.
• Type of amplitude comparator
• Rectifier bridge type amplitude comparator
• Phase splitting type comparator
• Sampling type comparator

• Type of phase comparator

• Vector product type phase comparator
• Coincidence type phase comparator
Level Detector
• It is a functional circuit in a protective relay which determine the level of its
inputs with reference to a predetermined setting.

I Level O Amplifier Output

Trip
Detector

• Level detector by PNP transistor

• NPN transistor as level detector
• Schmitt trigger with operational amplifier as level detector
• Schmitt trigger with two NPN transistor
 Microprocessor Based Relays/Numerical Relay
• In a microprocessor-based relay the digital processing unit is a
microprocessor.

https://crushtymks.com/sv/protection/1405
B. Osorno, "Application of Microprocessor Based Protective Relays in Power Systems," -the-essentials-of-numerical-relays-their-features-and-important-considerations.html
2009 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Houston, TX, USA, 2009, pp. 1-8, doi: 10.1109/IAS.2009.5324898.
Thermal Relay
• Used to protect device/equipment from overloading.
• The electromechanical thermal relay uses heat sensitive material like
bimetallic strip. The bimetallic strip open/close the contacts
mechanically.
• The solid state or static relay monitors the current for operation.
• Some relays use thermistor or other such transducer to sense the heat
developed due to overloading.
 Overcurrent Relay
• Over current relays sense fault currents and over-load currents.
• OC relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CTs.

• OC has following types:

• Instantaneous overcurrent relay
• no intentional time delay is provided

• the time of operation of the relay is approximately 0.1 sec.

• The instantaneous relay is more effective where the impedances between the source and the relay is small compared with the impedance of the section to be protected.

• Inverse time-current relay

• the operating time reduces as the actuating quantity increases in magnitude.

• These are normally more inverse near the pick-up value and become less inverse as it is increased.

• Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current relay

• the operating time is approximately inversely proportional to the fault current near pick-up value and becomes substantially constant above the pick-up value

• Very inverse relay

• the time-current characteristic is inverse over greater range and after saturation tends to definite time

• Extremely inverse relay

• the operation time is inversely proportional to the square of the fault current.
 Contd.
• Over current relays to be employed for overcurrent protection.
• The choice of relay for overcurrent protection depends upon the time/current
characteristics.
• For instantaneous overcurrent protection
• Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static.

• For inverse time characteristic

• Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static.

• Directional overcurrent protection

• Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature

• Static overcurrent relay

• Thermal relays are widely used for overcurrent protection.
Directional overcurrent relay
• The relay having two units
• Non-directional or inverse time current unit

• Directional unit

• Directional unit
• It is a four-pole induction cup unit. Two opposite poles are fed with voltage and other two poles are fed with current. The voltage is
taken as polarizing unit.

• The polarizing quantity is one which produces one of the two fluxes required for production of torque and this quantity is taken as
reference.

• Meaning of direction – related to direction of flow of current.

• Suppose in a circuit current flow in one direction which is the normal direction of flow of current. In this situation the directional
unit develop negative torque and the relay will be restrained to operate.

• Now if due to certain abnormality the current flow in opposite direction, the relay will develop positive torque and will operate.
 Contd.

• Torque developed in directional unit is 𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝜃 − 𝜏) − 𝐾

• Where, V = rms magnitude of the fed voltage; I = rms magnitude of the current in the current coil; 𝜃= the angle
between I and V; 𝜏 = the max. torque angle (a design quantity); K = restraining torque including spring and friction.

• 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇 ∝ 𝜑𝑉 × 𝜑𝐼 sin 𝛼 , 𝑂𝑟 𝑇 ∝ 𝑉 × 𝐼 sin 90 − 𝜃 , 𝑂𝑟, 𝑇 ∝ 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃

• If 𝜃 is less than +90𝑜 and more than −90𝑜 the torque will be positive.

• If 𝜃 is greater than +90𝑜 and less than −90𝑜 the torque will be negative. The cup or disc will rotate in negative
direction, the movement will be hindered by backstop.

• When fault occurs, the angle between V & I varies between 70 to 90 (depends on fault location)
• 𝑇 ∝ 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃, 𝜃 → 70𝑜 𝑡𝑜 90𝑜 . The directional relay should be designated for maximum torque angle, decided based
on relay location from source.

• 𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝜃 − 𝜏), 𝜏 → 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑇, 𝜏 → 30𝑜 , 60𝑜 , 𝑜𝑟 90𝑜

• For a particular relay installation 𝜃 − 𝜏 = 𝐾1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, then𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼𝐾1 − 𝐾. Under threshold

𝐾
condition 𝑇 = 0 = 𝑉𝐼𝐾1 − 𝐾, 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾 ′
𝐾1
Contd.
 Differential Relay
• Relays which operates when the vector difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined
value.

• The relays must have two similar actuating quantity.

• Most of the differential relays are current differential relays in which vector difference between the current entering the
winding and current leaving the winding is used for sensing and relay operation.

• Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protected zone is exactly determined by location of CTs or PTs.

• Application
• Protection of generator and generator-transformer

• Protection of transformer

• Protection of Feeder by pilot wire differential protection

• Protection of large motors

• Bus-zone protection

• Protection of transmission line by Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection.

 Contd.
• Principle of circulating current differential (Merz-Price)
protection:
• Referred to the diagram, X is the equipment to be protected.
• When there is no internal fault, the current entering in X is
equal in phase and magnitude to the current leaving X.
• The CTs are of such ratio that during normal conditions or
for external faults, the secondary currents of CTs are equal.
These currents circulate in the pilot wires.
• The polarity connections are such that the currents are in
same direction in pilot wires during normal condition or
external fault.
• Relay operating coil is connected at the middle of pilot
wires.
• Relay unit is of overcurrent type.
• On faults in the protected zone, the current entering the
protected winding is no more equal to the leaving.
• The differential 𝐼ഥ1 − 𝐼ഥ2 flows through the relay operating coil
and the relay operates if the operating torque is greater that
restraining torque.
• The currents circulate in the secondary circuit, hence, the
CTs does not get damaged.
 Contd.

• Biased or percent differential relay

• The assumption that CTs are identical is practically cannot be achieved. This is
because the CT normally used do not transform their currents so accurately
under transient conditions specially.
• Also due to variation in magnetic properties also, the two CTs will transform
their current differently.

• To overcome this issue biased differential protection is employed.

• The percentage differential relay has an additional restraining coil
connected in the pilot wire.
• The operating coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil.
 Contd.
• Normally, no current flows through the operating coil under through fault
condition, but owing to the dissimilarities in CTs, the differential current through
the operating coil is 𝐼ഥ1 − 𝐼ഥ2 and the equivalent current in the restraining coil is
(𝐼ഥ1 + 𝐼ഥ2 )/2.
• The torque developed by the operating coil is proportional to the ampere-turns
𝑇0 ∝ (𝐼ഥ1 − 𝐼ഥ2 )𝑁0 , where 𝑁0 is the number of turns on the operating coil.
𝑁
• The torque due to restraining coil is T ∝ (𝐼ഥ1 + 𝐼ഥ2 ) 𝑟, 𝑁𝑟 is the number of turns in
2
restraining coil.
𝑁 𝐼ഥ1 −𝐼ഥ2 𝑁𝑟
• At balance 𝐼ഥ1 − 𝐼ഥ2 𝑁0 = (𝐼ഥ1 + 𝐼ഥ2 ) 𝑟 , (𝐼1 +𝐼2 )ൗ
=
2 2
𝑁0

• The ratio of the differential operating current to the average restraining current is a
fixed percentage. That is why it is called as percentage differential relay.
Contd.
 Distance Relay
• Background – During a fault on a transmission line the fault current increases and the voltage at
fault point reduces. The voltage at PT location depends on the distance between PT and the
fault. If fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser. If the fault is farther, measured voltage will
be more. Hence, assuming constant fault resistance each value of the ratio 𝑉Τ𝐼 measured from
relay location corresponds to distance between the relaying point and the fault along the line.
Hence such protection is called as distance protection.
• It is used for non-unit type protection.
• It includes following types of relay:
• Impedance relay
• Reactance relay
• MHO relays
• Angle impedance relays
• Quadrilateral relays
• Elliptical and other conic section relays.
 Contd.

• The ratio of voltage across a branch to

current in the branch gives impedance of
the branch.
𝑉
• = 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝐼
• The impedance relay operates for certain
conditions of the ratio V to I which may
expressed as impedance.
• In any impedance relay there are two
actuating quantity V and I. I gives
operating torque, and the V gives
restraining torque.
 Contd.
• The impedance relay measures Z (impedance)
• The reactance relay measures X (reactance)
• The mho relay measures Y (admittance)
• Operating principle of impedance relay:
• The equation for the operating torque of an electromagnetic relay is
• 𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼2 − 𝐾2 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3 , 𝐾3 accounting for the torque due to the control-spring effect other Ks are
constant.
𝑉2 𝐾1 𝑉
• Neglecting 𝐾3 𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼2 − 𝐾2 𝑉 2, at the verge of operation T = 0, 𝐾1 𝐼2 = 2
𝐾2 𝑉 , 𝑜𝑟 2 = , 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼 𝐾2 𝐼
𝐾, 𝑜𝑟 𝑍 = 𝐾
• For positive torque 𝑍 < 𝐾

• For reactance relay - 𝑍 sin 𝜑 < 𝐾 for positive torque.

𝑍
• For mho relay - < 𝐾 for positive torque.
cos(𝜑−𝛼)
Contd.
Reference
• Power System Protection and Switchgear, Badri Ram, D N Vishwakarma, Mc
Graw Hill.
• Electrical Power Systems, C. L. Wadhwa, New Age International Publishers.
• Switchgear Protection and Power System, Sunil S. Rao, Khanna Publishers.
• The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, C. Russel Mason, Wiley Bastern
Ltd., 1956
• The J&P Switchgear Book, AN OUTLINE OF MODERN SWITCHGEAR
PRACTICE FOR THE NON-SPECIALIST USER. R. T. LYTHALL,
Newnes-Butterworths, London.