INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF

MACHINE

Objectives

 Discuss the Theory of Machines.

 Differentiate Machine from Mechanism

Introduction

A machine is a device which received

energy in some available form and
utilizes it to do some particular type of
work” or “A machine may be regarded
as an agent for transmitting or
modifying energy”. A machine is any
device that does work. Machines make our
lives a bit easier because they reduce the
amount of energy, power, and time we
need to get one thing done by magnifying
our input force.

Purpose of a machine
The main purpose of a machine is to make
things easier for people, like lifting and
moving heavy objects around, working out
a mathematical equation or even ordering
food from a restaurant.

Examples include: a wide range of vehicles,

such as automobiles, boats and airplanes;
appliances in the home and office,
including computers, building air handling
and water handling systems; as well as farm
machinery, machine tools and factory
automation systems and robots.

By means of a machine an applied force is

increased, its direction is changed, or one
form of motion or energy is changed into
another form. Thus defined, such simple
devices as the lever, the pulley, the inclined
plane, the screw, and the wheel and
axle are machines.

Lever, is a simple machine consisting of

a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a
fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a rigid
body capable of rotating on a point on
itself. On the basis of the locations of
fulcrum, load and effort, the lever is divided
into three types. Also, leverage is
mechanical advantage gained in a system.
It is one of the six simple
machines identified by Renaissance
scientists. A lever amplifies an input force
to provide a greater output force, which is
said to provide leverage.

inclined plane inclined plane inclined

plane, simple machine consisting of a
sloping surface, used for raising heavy
bodies. The force required to move an
object up the incline is less than the weight
being raised, discounting friction. The
steeper the slope, or incline, the more
nearly the required force approaches the
actual weight.
A screw is a mechanism that
converts rotational motion to linear
motion, and a torque (rotational force)
to a linear force. The most common
form consists of a cylindrical shaft
with helical grooves or ridges
called threads around the outside. The
screw passes through a hole in another
object or medium, with threads on the
inside of the hole that mesh with the
screw's threads. When the shaft of the
screw is rotated relative to the
stationary threads, the screw moves
along its axis relative to the medium
surrounding it;
A wedge is a triangular shaped tool,
and is a portable inclined plane, and one
of the six simple machines. It can be
used to separate two objects or portions
of an object, lift up an object, or hold an
object in place. It functions by
converting a force applied to its blunt
end into forces perpendicular (normal)
to its inclined surfaces. The mechanical
advantage of a wedge is given by the
ratio of the length of its slope to its
width.[1][2] Although a short wedge with a
wide angle may do a job faster, it
requires more force than a long wedge
with a narrow angle.

The wedge simply transports energy

and collects it to the pointy end,
consequently breaking the item. In this
way, much pressure is put on a thin area.

A pulley is a wheel that carries a flexible

rope, cord, cable, chain, or belt on its rim.
Pulleys are used singly or in combination
to transmit energy and motion. Pulleys with
grooved rims are called sheaves. In belt
drive, pulleys are affixed to shafts at their
axes, and power is transmitted between the
shafts by means of endless belts running
over the pulleys.

The wheel and axle.

This simple machine involves two circular
objects — a larger disc and a smaller
cylinder both joined at the center. The
larger disc is called the wheel. The smaller
cylindrical object or rod is referred to as the
 axle. Sometimes, there may be two wheels
attached to both ends of the axle. A wheel
alone or an axle alone is not a simple
machine. They need to be joined to be
called a simple machine.

 Let us take a screwdriver for instance. If you

apply a force to the wheel (the handle), the
wheel spins and multiplies the effort to
make the output force of the axle (shaft)
greater.
 Consider a windmill. If you apply a force to
the axle, it will multiply the force to the
wheel (blades) and result in a greater
distance covered. It is because the wheel is
larger than the axle and covers more area.
A ceiling fan works similarly. As the axle
turns, it powers the larger wheel (fan
blades) to cause the desired output.
The Wheel and axle are perfect for turning
turbines and fans; They are also used in
automobiles. For example, when you turn
the steering wheel of a car, your effort is
multiplied by the axle and results in more
turns of the car wheels. A gear is simply a
special wheel with teeth called threads on
the outside.

Simple machine evolution to complex

machine.
The identification of simple machines arises
from a desire for a systematic method to
invent new machines. Therefore, an
important concern is how simple machines
are combined to make more complex
machines. One approach is to attach simple
machines in series to obtain compound
machines.

A lever, pulley, and wheel and axle are in

essence the same device: a body rotating
about a hinge. Similarly, an inclined plane,
wedge, and screw are a block sliding on a
flat surface.
This realization shows that it is the joints, or
the connections that provide movement,
that are the primary elements of a machine.
Starting with four types of joints,
the revolute joint, sliding joint, cam
joint and gear joint, and related
connections such as cables and belts, it is
possible to understand a machine as an
assembly of solid parts that connect these
joints or an assembly of interconnected
 components arranged to transmit or
modify force in order to perform useful
work.

Abstraction

1.1.1 THE MACHINE

A machine is a combination of
components which can transmit
power in a controlled manner and
which is capable of performing
useful work. A machine consists of a
number of kinematic - related links.

A machine is a combination of
resistant bodies (links or
elements) with successfully
constrained relative motions, which
is used for transmitting other forms
of energy into mechanical energy
or transmitting and modifying
available energy to do some
particular kind of work.
 Machine Arrangement

Every machine will be found to

consist of a system of parts (links
or elements) connected together
in such a manner that, if one be
made to move, they all receive a
motion, the relation of which to that
of the first depends upon the nature
of connections (i.e. joints).

The links may be rigid, rigid-

hydraulic, or rigid-pneumatic. The
power input may be mechanical,
electrical, hydraulic, chemical, or
nuclear. The power output may
be mechanical, electrical hydraulic
or thermal.

Examples of machines:
Heat engine- Receives heat energy
and transforms it into mechanical
energy.

Electric motor- Changes electric

energy into mechanical energy.

A pump-Input electric power and

output hydraulic power.

The majority of machines receives

mechanical energy, and modify it so
that the energy can be used for
doing some specific task, for
which it is designed, common
examples of such machines being
hoist, lathe, screw jack, etc.
 Note: It should be noted that
machine must be capable of
doing useful work. A series of
kinematic- related links put into
motion with no output link, and
which simply converts input energy
to friction heat, is not a machine,
unless the original purpose was
only to generate heat.

1.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES

1. Machines for generating

mechanical energy

Converts other forms of

energy into mechanical
work

Examples: Steam engines, Steam

turbines, I. C. engines, gas turbines, water
turbines etc.

Steam engine, the pressure from water

vapor moves a piston back and forth,
making the energy generated usable.

Steam turbines The interior of a turbine

comprises several sets of blades,
or buckets as they are more commonly
referred to. One set of stationary blades is
connected to the casing and one set of
rotating blades is connected to the shaft.
The sets intermesh with certain minimum
clearances, with the size and configuration
of sets varying to efficiently exploit the
expansion of steam at each stage.

I.C engines, combustion also known as

burning, is the basic chemical process of
releasing energy from a fuel and air
mixture. In an internal combustion engine
(ICE), the ignition and combustion of the
fuel occurs within the engine itself. The
engine then partially converts the energy
from the combustion to work. The engine
consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving
piston. The expanding combustion gases
push the piston, which in turn rotates the
crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of
gears in the powertrain, this motion drives
the vehicle’s wheels.

gas turbine operate as a Brayton

cycle with air as the working fluid:
atmospheric air flows through the
compressor that brings it to higher
pressure; energy is then added by spraying
fuel into the air and igniting it so that the
combustion generates a high-temperature
flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas
 enters a turbine, producing a shaft work
output in the process, used to drive the
compressor; the unused energy comes out
in the exhaust gases that can be
repurposed for external work, such as
directly producing thrust in a turbojet
engine, or rotating a second, independent
turbine (known as a power turbine) that can
be connected to a fan, propeller, or
electrical generator. The purpose of the gas
turbine determines the design so that the
most desirable split of energy between the
thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The
fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of
the working fluid) is omitted, as gas
turbines are open systems that do not
reuse the same air.

2. Machines for transmitting

mechanical energy into other form of
energy
 Known as converting machines
Examples: Electric generators, air or
hydraulic pumps, etc.

An electric generator is a device that

converts mechanical energy obtained from
an external source into electrical energy as
the output.
It is important to understand that a
generator does not actually ‘create’
electrical energy. Instead, it uses the
mechanical energy supplied to it to force
the movement of electric charges present
in the wire of its windings through an
external electric circuit. This flow of electric
charges constitutes the output electric
current supplied by the generator. This
mechanism can be understood by
considering the generator to be analogous
to a water pump, which causes the flow of
water but does not actually ‘create’ the
water flowing through it.

A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device

that converts mechanical power into
hydraulic energy. It generates flow with
enough power to overcome pressure
induced by the load. It converts mechanical
power from an external source into
hydraulic energy in the form of a
combination of flow and pressure. It
produces flow with enough power to
overcome the load pressure at the pump
outlet.
A hydraulic pump performs two functions
when it operates. Firstly, its mechanical
action creates a vacuum at the pump inlet,
subsequently allowing atmospheric
pressure to force liquid from the reservoir
and then pumping it through to the inlet
line of the pump. Secondly, its mechanical
 action delivers this liquid to the pump
outlet and forces it into the hydraulic
system.

1. Machines for utilizing mechanical

energy in the performance of useful
work.

Examples: Lathe, and other machine

tools, etc.

The transmission and modification

of energy within the machine
require the inclusion of a number
of parts (links or elements), which are
so selected that they will produce
the desired motion and carry with
safety the forces to which they are
subjected so that the machine can
perform its task successfully.

The study of relative motion

between the various parts of a
machine, and the forces which act
on them, is covered under the field
of “Theory of machines”, or “The
Theory of Machines may be defined
as that branch of engineering
science which deals with the study of
relative motion between various
elements of a machine and the
 forces which act on them.

What is the relative motion?

Relative motion is the calculation of the
motion of an object with respect to some
other moving object.

An example might help you understand it

clearly. When you sitting ideally on a bus,
you will be moving with the same velocity
as the bus with respect to the ground. In
the relative motion concept, we can
calculate the relative velocity and relative
speed and relative acceleration.

1.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MACHINE AND

MECHANISM

In kinematics, a mechanism is a
mean of transmitting, controlling,
or constraining relative movement.
The central theme for mechanisms is
rigid bodies connected together by
joints. It can also be defined as a
combination of resistant bodies that
are shaped and connected in such
a way that they move with definite
relative motion with respect to each
other.

A machine is a combination of
rigid or resistant bodies, formed
and connected in such a way that
they move with definite relative
motions with each other and transmit
force also. A machine has two
functions: transmitting definite
relative motion and transmitting
force. The term mechanism is
applied to the combination of
geometrical bodies which
constitute a machine or part of a
machine.
Example: A simple example of
machine and mechanism is IC
engine and slider crank
mechanism. A slider crank
mechanism converts rotary motion
of crank into sliding motion of slider.
Where as, in the IC engine the
same mechanism is used to
convert available mechanical
energy at the piston into the
required torque at the crank shaft.

A
b
 c

A slider-crank linkage is a four-link

mechanism with three revolute joints and
one prismatic, or sliding, joint. The rotation
of the crank drives the linear
movement (see figure a,b,c above)

1.3 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF MECHANSIM

Various mechanisms have its own set

of outputs when they are put in
motion. The analysis of the
mechanism is done by calculating
the position, velocity and
acceleration at various points on
the mechanisms. For the analysis
 of velocity & acceleration at any
point on the mechanism we
don’t need to calculate forces
& stresses acting in the parts
of the mechanism. Likewise , in the
analysis of motion of a particular
mechanism we don’t need to
consider the cross section area or
strength of the parts in that
mechanism. Also, it does not matter
whether the parts are made of cast
iron or wood or anything else to
study its motion analysis.

1.3.1 GRAPHICAL AND ANALYTICAL

METHOD:

Analysis of the Mechanism can be

done by two types of methods,
generally known as graphical and
analytical methods. Each
method has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
The graphical method is easy to
follow and gives the visual image
of the working of mechanism which
can be applied in some simple
problems. But for more complex
problems analytical methods are
more suitable. It is up to us by
which method we want to solve
the problem in hand. With the
advent of high speed computing,
analytical methods has very useful
tool for solving complex problems. In
this course will concentrate our study
to graphical methods due its ease
and simplicity.

The following graph shows the

displacement velocity and acceleration of
the follower over one revolution of the
cam.( an Illustration)
1.4 SYNTHESIS OF DESIGN

In the design of a mechanism, we will

consider stress analysis & other
design parameters like bending,
fatigue etc. to find the dimensions of
the parts. The synthesis of a
mechanism can be done by
following two approaches. In the first
approach the dimensions of the parts
in a mechanism is found by
considering load, stress & bending
and other variables in the different
aspect of the mechanism. In the
second approach, the dimensions of
the parts are assumed first and then
the analysis is done to check its
strength. The second method of
synthesis is preferred by most of the
engineers.
The motion to be generated by machines
are generally irregular, any motion except
uniform rotation about a fixed axis and
uniform translation. The machine designer’s
task is to design such mechanisms which
can generate these required irregular
motions. The simplest way to design such
mechanisms is by clever combination and
assembly of cams and/or linkages. Basically
Cams and Linkages are the two types of
motion generators and the resulting
mechanism varies with the type of follower .

Fig.1 Cam
 Cams are classified according to the
direction of displacement of the follower
with respect to the axis or oscillation of the
cam. The most important types are:
 Disc or Radial Cams In these the working
surface of the cam is shaped that the
reciprocation or oscillation of the follower
is in a plane at right angles to the axis of
the cam. ( see examples c; d; e; f above )
 Cylindrical Cams These are often used in
machine- tools and the cam imparts an
oscillation or reciprocation to the follower
in a plane parallel to the axis of the cam.
( see examples g and h above)

1.5 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISM

It involves the study of the

relative motions of various parts of
a mechanism without considering
 the forces producing the motion in
the parts. It is the study from the
geometric point of view by which
we can know the displacement,
velocity and acceleration at the
various points on the parts of a
mechanism.

The members in linkage mechanisms are

connected through joints having surface
contacts. Surface contact in joints provide
good lubrication and wear resistance.
Revolute joints and prismatic joints are the
only two kinematic joints available to be
used in linkage mechanisms.

1.6 DYNAMICS OF MECHANISM

It involves the calculations of the
forces impressed upon various parts
of a mechanism. The forces
impressed on a mechanism can be
divided into static & kinetics. In static,
the study of forces is done when all
the parts of the mechanisms are in
equilibrium. Where in kinetics the
study of inertia forces are done
which may occur due to the
combination of mass and motion
of the parts.

Force and Torque

Force: an agent or influence that, if applied
to a free body results chiefly in an
acceleration of the body and sometimes in
elastic deformation and other effects.
A mechanism is what is responsible for
any action or reaction. Machines are
based on the idea of transmitting forces
through a series of predetermined
motions. These related concepts are the
basis of dynamic movement.

Torque: Something that produces or tends

to produce rotation and whose effectiveness
is measured by the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the line of
action of the force to the axis of rotation.
Consider the lever shown in Figure below.
The lever is a bar that is free to turn about
the fixed point, A, called the fulcrum; a
weight acts on the one side of the lever,
and a balancing force acts on the other
side of the lever.
 To analyze levers, we need to find
the torques of the forces acting on the
lever. To get the torque of force W about
point A, multiply W by l1, its distance from
A. Similarly F x l2 is the torque of F about
fulcrum A.

References

INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF
MACHINE http://
ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in /mod
/page/ view.php?id=1303#:~:text=The
%20study%20of%20relative
%20motion,various%20eleme nts%20of
%20a%20machine
 Last Name,FN,MI. : Course& Yr:
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Engineering
Application

A. DIFFERENCIATE BETWEEN MACHINE

AND MECHANISM

A. Discuss the GRAPHICAL AND

ANALYTICAL METHOD using an
illustration

CongrAtulAtions! You did well with

our lesson. Good luck for your next
topic.
Keep the fires burning, okAy?