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Master of Social Work YTISREVINUALAGAPPA

APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
elcyC drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
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detidby
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cA[ (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

349 22
]CGU-DRHM yb ytisrevinU I–yrogeand
taC Graded
sa dedarasG Category–I
dna University by MHRD-UGC]
300 036 – IDUKIARA
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
AND SOCIAL ACTION

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL ACTION

II - Semester

Master of Social Work

349 22

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TISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
lcyC drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
htiwGrade
detidby
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cA[ (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
]CGU-DRHM yb ytisrevinU I–yrogeand
taC Graded
sa dedarasG Category–I
dna University by MHRD-UGC] Master of Social Work
300 036 – IDUKIARA
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ACTION
II - Semester
 ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003

Directorate of Distance Education

Master of Social Work

II - Semester
349 22

COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
AND SOCIAL ACTION
Authors
Dr [Mrs] Intezar Khan, Asstt. Professor, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Units (1, 4, 5, 8, 9.0-9.2, 10, 11, 12.0-12.2, 13.0-13.2, 13.3.2-13.3.4, 14)
Dr. Siddhartha Sharma, Professor, Amrapali Group of Institutes, Haldwani
Units (2, 3.0-3.1, 3.4, 3.5-3.9, 9.3-9.10)
J.S Chandan, Retd Professor, Medgar Evers College, City University of New York
Units (3.2-3.3)
Minhaj Akram, ICSSR Fellow (Doctoral Program), Department of Social Work, (Centre of Advanced Study), Jamia Millia Islamia
Dr Ashvini Kumar Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Units (6, 7)
Advocate Piyali Mukherjee, BBA, LLB Calcutta High Court, West Bengal
Units (12.3-12.10)
Dr Ritika Sharma, Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Education, Amity University, Noida
Unit (13.3-13.3.1, 13.3.5-13.3.6, 13.7, 13.8-13.12)
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 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Community Organisation and Social Action
Syllabi Mapping in Book

BLOCK I: COMMUNITY, COMMUNITY DYNAMICS AND

COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP: CONCEPTAND DEFINITION
UNIT 1: Community: concept, definition, meaning, types, and Unit 1: Community: An Overview
characteristics - community power - structure - minority groups. (Pages 1-26)

UNIT 2: Community dynamics: integrative and disintegrative Unit 2: Community Dynamics

processes in the community. (Pages 27-40)

UNIT 3: Leadership: definitions, characteristics, types and qualities Unit 3: Leadership

- leadership in different types of communities - theories of leadership (Pages 41-74)
- symbols, rituals, apathy, prejudice and individual predisposition -
community power structure and political organizations in the
community - factions and sub-groups - minority groups.

BLOCK II: COMMUNITY ORGANISATION, COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION AND MODELS OF COMMUNITY
ORGANISATION
UNIT 4: Community Organization: concept, definition, objectives, Unit 4: Community Organization
philosophy, approaches, principles and skills - community (Pages 75-90)
organization as method of social work - community welfare councils
and community chests - models of community organization

UNIT 5: Community participation: concept, imperatives, types, Unit 5: Community Participation

constraints, methods and techniques; components of community (Pages 91-108)
work and community relation.

UNIT 6: Methods of community organization: Planning, education, Unit 6: Methods of Community

communication, community participation, collective decision making, Organization
involvement of groups and organizations, resource mobilization, (Pages 109-120);
community action, legislative and non-legislative promotion, co-
ordination - community organization as an approach to community
development.

BLOCK III: PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION,

INTERVENTION AND APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY
SETTINGS
UNIT 7: Phases of community organization: study, assessment, Unit 7: Phases of Community
discussion, organization, action, evaluation, modification, Organization
continuation and community study (Pages 121-130)

UNIT 8: Intervention strategies in community settings: awareness Unit 8: Intervention Strategies in

building, organizing, activating, people's participation, negotiating, Community Settings
lobbying, and resource mobilization, resolving group conflicts, (Pages 131-144)
programme planning and service delivery, developing human
resource, and monitoring and evaluation
BLOCK IV: SOCIAL ACTION: DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND
STRATEGIES
UNIT 9: Application of community organization in different settings: Unit 9: Application of Community
rural, urban, tribal - target groups: children, youth, women, aged, Organization in Different Settings
Dalits - community organization in emergencies: fire, flood, drought, (Pages 145-169)
famine, earthquake, and war - community organization at local, state,
and national level.

UNIT 10: Roles of the Community Organizer: Models of Community Unit 10: Community Organizer: Roles
Organization as practiced - Local department, Social Planning, Social and Responsibilities
Action and Community Liason - Methods and skills in Community (Pages 170-197)
Organization - Use of Social Work methods in Community
Organization.

UNIT 11: Social Action: Concept, meaning, definition, objectives, Unit 11: Social Action
characteristics, principles, methods and techniques - social action (Pages 198-217)
as a method of social work - social action and social reform - scope
of social action in India - enforcement of social legislation through
social action. Approaches: rights based approach - advocacy based
approach

UNIT 12: Strategies: preparation of carefully worded statement of Unit 12: Strategies of Social Action
policies - preparation of carefully analysis of pending legislations - (Pages 218-232)
individual consultation with key legislators on the implication of
pending measures - persuasion of influential organization to support
or oppose pending legislation - creation of ad hoc citizens committee
composed of people of great influence or prestige.

BLOCK V: RADICAL SOCIAL WORK AND APPLICATIONS OF

COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
UNIT 13: Radical Social Work: meaning, techniques - role of Paulo Unit 13: Radical Social Work
Freire and Saul Alinsky, Marx, Gandhi, Jayaprakash Narayan, and (Pages 233-254)
Vinoba Bhave - community organization as a Para- political process
and role of social worker in community organization and social action.

UNIT 14: Application of Community Organization in different fields: Unit 14: Application of Community
Health, Correctional, Educational, Rural and Urban, Industrial, Organization in Different Fields
Community Welfare Councils and Community Chest -Strategies of (Pages 255-272)
community organization: Advocacy, Campaigning, Lobbying and
Networking
 CONTENTS
BLOCK I: COMMUNITY, COMMUNITY DYNAMICS AND COMMUNITY
LEADERSHIP: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION
UNIT 1 COMMUNITY: AN OVERVIEW 1-26
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Community: Concept, Definition, Meaning, Types, and Characteristics
1.3 Minority Groups
1.4 Community Power and Community Structure
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings

UNIT 2 COMMUNITY DYNAMICS 27-40

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Community Dynamics: Meaning
2.3 Integrative and Disintegrative Processes
2.3.1 Integrative Processes
2.3.2 Disintegrative Processes
2.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.8 Further Readings

UNIT 3 LEADERSHIP 41-74

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Leadership: Definition and Characteristics
3.2.1 Theories of Leadership
3.3 Leadership Types in Different Communities
 3.4 Symbols, Rituals, Apathy, Prejudice and Individual Predisposition
3.4.1 Community Power Structure and Political Organizations
3.4.2 Factions and Sub Groups in Community Organization
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings
BLOCK II: COMMUNITY ORGANISATION, COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND
MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION

UNIT 4 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 75-90

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Concept, Definition, Objectives
4.3 Philosophy
4.4 Approaches
4.5 Principles and Skills
4.5.1 Community Organization as Method of Social Work
4.6 Models of Community Organization
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.8 Summary
4.9 Key Words
4.10 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.11 Further Readings

UNIT 5 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION 91-108

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Community Participation: Concept
5.3 Imperatives and Types
5.4 Components of Community Work
5.4.1 Community Relations
5.5 Methods and Techniques
5.5.1 Constraints of Participation
5.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
 5.7 Summary
5.8 Key Words
5.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.10 Further Readings

UNIT 6 METHODS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 109-120

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Methods of Community Organization: Planning, Education, Communication and Community
Participation
6.2.1 Other Concepts in Community Organization
6.3 Community Organization as an Approach to Community Development
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings
BLOCK III:PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION, INTERVENTION AND
APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY SETTINGS

UNIT 7 PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 121-130

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Phases of Community Organization
7.2.1 Related Concepts in Community Organization
7.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.6 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.7 Further Readings

UNIT 8 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES IN COMMUNITY SETTINGS 131-144

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Community-Based Interventions: Awareness Building
8.2.1 Negotiating
8.2.2 Lobbying
8.2.3 Resource Mobilisation
 8.3 Resolving Group Conflicts
8.3.1 Programme Planning and Service Delivery
8.4 Monitoring and Evaluation
8.4.1 Developing Human Resource
8.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.9 Further Readings

BLOCK IV: SOCIAL ACTION: DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND STRATEGIES

UNIT 9 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN

DIFFERENT SETTINGS 145-169
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Application of Community Organization in Rural, Urban and Tribal Areas
9.3 Application of Community Organization in Target Groups: Children, Youth, Women, Aged and Dalits
9.3.1 Children
9.3.2 Youth
9.3.3 Women
9.3.4 Aged
9.3.5 Dalits
9.4 Community Organization in Emergencies
9.5 Community Organization at Local, State and National Level
9.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.7 Summary
9.8 Key Words
9.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.10 Further Readings

UNIT 10 COMMUNITY ORGANIZER: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 170-197

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Roles of a Community Organizer
10.3 Models of Community Organization
10.4 Methods of Community Organization: Use of Social Work Methods
 10.5 Skills in Community Organization
10.5.1 Information Gathering and Assimilation Skills
10.5.2 Observation Skills and Analytical Skills
10.5.3 Active Listening and Responding Skills
10.5.4 Organizing Skills
10.5.5 Resource Mobilization Skills
10.5.6 Conflict Resolution Skills
10.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.7 Summary
10.8 Key Words
10.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.10 Further Readings

UNIT 11 SOCIAL ACTION 198-217

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Concept, Definition, and Meaning of Social Action
11.2.1 Social Work and Social Action
11.2.2 Importance of Effective Leadership
11.2.3 Social Legislation as a Form of Social Action
11.3 Objectives, Characteristics, Principles, Methods, and Techniques
11.4 Social Action as a Method of Social Work
11.4.1 Social Action and Social Reform
11.4.2 Scope of Social Action in India
11.5 Enforcement of Social Legislation Through Social Action
11.5.1 Social Legislation
11.5.2 Approaches: Rights and Advocacy Based Approaches
11.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.7 Summary
11.8 Key Words
11.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.10 Further Readings

UNIT 12 STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION 218-232

12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Strategies: Preparation of Carefully Worded Statement of Policies
12.3 Preparation of Careful Analysis of Pending Legislations
12.3.1 Procedure of Pending Legislation
 12.4 Individual Consultation with Key Legislators on the Implication of Pending Measures
12.4.1 Persuasion of Influential Organization to Support or Oppose Pending Legislation
12.5 Creation of Ad Hoc Citizens Committee
12.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.7 Summary
12.8 Key Words
12.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.10 Further Readings
BLOCK V: RADICAL SOCIAL WORK AND APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNITY
ORGANISATION

UNIT 13 RADICAL SOCIAL WORK 233-254

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning of Radical Social Work
13.2.1 Techniques of Radical Social Work
13.3 Role of Radical Social Workers
13.3.1 Paulo Freire
13.3.2 Role of Saul Alinsky
13.3.3 Marx
13.3.4 Gandhi
13.3.5 Jayaprakash Narayan
13.3.6 Vinoba Bhave
13.7 Community Organization as a Para Political Process
13.7.1 Role of Social Worker in Community Organization and Social Action
13.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.9 Summary
13.10 Key Words
13.11 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.12 Further Readings

UNIT 14 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

IN DIFFERENT FIELDS 255-272
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Application of Community Organization in Different Fields: Correctional, Rural and Urban and Industrial
14.2.1 Councils of Social Welfare
14.3 Strategies of Community Organization: Advocacy, Campaigning, Lobbying and Networking
14.4 Application of Community Organization in Health
 14.5 Application of Community Organization in Education
14.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.7 Summary
14.8 Key Words
14.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.10 Further Readings
Introduction
INTRODUCTION

Community organization is both a process and a method which aims at solving

NOTES contemporary problems existing in a specific time frame in a community by adopting
democratic principles and mass participation. Therefore, it is a means to enable
members of a community to engage in a planned collective action in order to deal
with their own requirements and issues on a sustainable basis. Community
organization encompasses other methods of social work, that is, group work, and
casework. The power structure plays a role in community organization. The social
workers need to know the community power structure to practice community
organization method, which is used for empowering people for their development.
These aspects are discussed in detail in the book for social work students to
understand and practice community organization effectively.
This book, Community Organisation and Social Action, is divided into
fourteen units that follow the self-instruction mode with each unit beginning with an
Introduction to the unit, followed by an outline of the Objectives. The detailed
content is then presented in a simple but structured manner interspersed with Check
Your Progress Questions to test the student’s understanding of the topic. A Summary
along with a list of Key Words and a set of Self-Assessment Questions and
Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit for recapitulation.

Self-Instructional
12 Material
 Community: An Overview
BLOCK - I
COMMUNITY, COMMUNITY DYNAMICS AND
COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP: CONCEPT AND
DEFINITION NOTES

UNIT 1 COMMUNITY: AN
OVERVIEW
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Community: Concept, Definition, Meaning, Types, and Characteristics
1.3 Minority Groups
1.4 Community Power and Community Structure
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to the concept of community. In general a community
refers to a social unit, larger than a household, whose elements have a similar set
of value orientation and social cohesion. In other words, a community is a group
or society, whose members stay together during a problem situation in common
interest. In any human community, a number of other conditions such as the beliefs,
the resources, the preferences, the requirements, the risk factors, and so on, may
be found affecting the identity of its participants and their degree of cohesiveness.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyse the concept of community with special reference to sociological,
cultural and social work perspective
 Describe the various types of community—geographical and functional
community, urban community, rural community, and tribal community
 List the functions of a community
 Discuss power structures in a community organization
Self-Instructional
Material 1
Community: An Overview
1.2 COMMUNITY: CONCEPT, DEFINITION,
MEANING, TYPES, AND CHARACTERISTICS

NOTES The concept of a community for a layman is a group of people who have something
in common. Earlier, a community was considered to be a group of people who
share the same district or locality. But such static interpretation of communities has
undergone tremendous change. Nowadays, in a broad and accurate sense, a
community stands for the group of people who have things in common, which
involves living together and sharing the resources; and its residents may be physically
mobile. For example, the communities may be nomadic herders walking long
distances with their cattle for greener pastures, or mobile fishing groups who move
from time to time and place to place in search of more fishes. A ‘strong community’
is open to all those who wish to join it; whereas a ‘tight community’ tends to guard
its togetherness by being reluctant to welcome new members or by not sharing the
community resources with them.
Next to the institution of family, the community is the most important
framework in which an individual learns to grow and develop socially. It is the
centre of activities which contribute significantly to the development of human
values.
A community may be defined as ‘a group of people sharing a common
geographic area, a common value system, common needs and interests and who
have had similar or shared experiences’.
The three basic elements in a community are as follows:
(i) Community as a place (locality): This element refers to that aspect
of community which denotes the territorial location of people, or where
people have something in common that is understood geographically.
This concept of community (as a place) is the first and foremost
common element on which a community needs to be based.
(ii) Community as an institutional structure: A community also needs
to be defined by the institutions that serve its residents’ needs. Such
needs may include health centres, schools, religious institutions, and
so on. One common feature of a community is that its members share
these socio-economic institutions.
(iii) Community as a process: This element refers to the interaction and
socialization among the members in a community that includes their
interests, objectives and needs. This element implies a sense of
attachment with each other in the community, which forms the basis
for social interactions among various social groups. These interactions
offer a sense of ‘belongingness’ among members of the community
and social networking/grouping is done to ensure interaction among
them.
Self-Instructional
2 Material
 While a community itself, a family forms the thread and fabric of any larger Community: An Overview

community. Some of the qualities of a family that reflect community are—living

together, sharing resources, the stronger providing for and protecting the less strong
members (e.g., parents looking after their kids), working together for a common
goal, playing together, and staying together in good and bad times. As a ‘sociological NOTES
construct’, a community is a set of interactions and human behaviours that bind the
expectations of its members from the group as a whole—i.e., actions based on
shared expectations, values, beliefs and meanings between the individuals.
There may be communities within larger communities, including districts,
regions, ethnic groups, nations and other boundaries. A human community is not
merely a collection of houses; it is a socio-cultural system with a life of its own that
goes beyond the sum total of its residents’ lives. As a socio-cultural organization,
it is a system of systems; that is to say, it composed of things that are learned. All
the social or cultural elements of a community, right from its technology to its
shared beliefs, are transmitted and stored in the form of symbols. In fact, symbols
are recognized as they contribute to the stability and continuation of the community.
Though a community is a cultural system, as it transcends its individual
members, it may not always be a harmonious unity. A community is full of factions
and conflicts, based upon differences such as gender, religion, inheritance of wealth,
ethnicity, class, educational level, income, ownership of land and capital, language,
and so on. The dimensions of community comprise: (i) technological, (ii) economic,
(iii) political, (iv) institutional (social), (v) aesthetic-value, and (vi) belief-conceptual.
Each of these dimensions is transmitted by symbols (not genes or chromosomes)
and comprise systems of learned ideas and behaviour.
The formation of a community is an intrinsic outcome that generates as a
result of human interaction, which further leads to the formation of a common
ground, common notions, common beliefs etc. Through this knowledge of a
community having irregular boundaries and a diverse range of definitions; we are
able to understand that an individual might be part of a community, either out of
participation and voluntary effort or as a result of other factors over which an
individual does not have control. For instance, a person might be part of a
community as a result of his gender or age, and such other factors that are also
part of what defines a community. Therefore, it is obvious that an individual might
be part of various communities as a result of the various characteristics and factors
that define the individual’s and/or others’ choice.
In working with a community, or for the effective implementation of
community organization, one needs to be able to view a community in a broad
range of perspectives. The ones that have immediate or profound effects when it
comes to community organization would be the sociological concept or
understanding of a community, the cultural aspect, and the very concept of community
organization—social work perspective. In defining a community through the
sociological concepts that mould or make the community, it is ‘a reference to a
common characteristic or value that brings together the group of people and Self-Instructional
Material 3
Community: An Overview individuals who make up that community’. In the words of John McKnight, ‘to
some people it’s a feeling, to some people it’s relationships, to some people it’s a
place, and to some people it’s an institution’.

NOTES Types of Community

Community can be, in the broadest sense, categorized into the following types:
Geographical, Urban and Rural, and Tribal. As the terms suggest, the classification
is grounded on what common factor has been considered for the definition of
each type of community. These common factors take many types and forms, and
effectively bring together the individuals in one way or the other, and thus forming
a community.
The most rudimentary and fundamental guess would be that a common
location is necessary for the formation of a community. This common location is
not always necessary for a community; it is just one of the types on which a
community may be grounded.
Geographical Community
A common location, therefore, gives those who reside a common trait to be shared.
This common location when considered to be a physical entity, a town or a city or
any geographically defined section leads to that group being defined as a
geographical community. However, even a platform that brings together people
of common interests might be defined to be a common location. It is interesting to
note that in many cases the common location might be the only thing that the
individuals share when grouped into ones belonging to a geographic community,
thereby making the concept of community somewhat incomplete, owing to the
fact that even though two individuals from a common location might not always
share similar interests over which they can recognize their belonging to a common
group.
On the contrary, an individuals who do not share a common location might
as well share common interests and might be involved in common activities.
Therefore, it is firmly established that while the common location is one of the
common traits that can be used to define a community, it need not necessarily be
present in every community for the valid definition of one. Besides, with the definition
of a common location comes the question whether the location needs always be
geographic or physical, and it is not necessarily so. With the evolution of the way
in which people interact and bond the concept and the definition of community too
has evolved, and thus has come to encompass a wider range of meanings. In this
case, where a community is not based on the geographic location as a common
entity but does share a common location, it is a virtual community where individuals
of common interests, ideas, beliefs and in manner traits share, and thus interact.
Social work has had a major urge through virtual communities enabling rapid
transmission of ideas and thoughts among people who share interests, and thus the
issues.
Self-Instructional
4 Material
 In context to the virtual communities is the community media—an amalgam Community: An Overview

of two individual concepts in sociology. It is one of the avenues that enable

communication between the individuals of a community. Here, the reference to the
community is one of geographical bounds. This implies that the community media
here is a means of information exchange, and thus a medium of interaction which NOTES
brings together the individuals of the community and offers them a platform where
they can find more common grounds to form better associations and interconnections
within the community. As described by Rennie, community media is ‘community
communication’, and communication forms an integral part in any community. In
the rudimentary sense of community, when it was considered to be one that a
group of individuals bound by geographical boundaries; the community media
was a typical small-scale platform of information exchange amidst the individuals
of the community.
However, with the evolution of the definition and the concept of community,
the concept of community media too has changed. What was once a platform for
exchange of news and information between inhabitants of the same geographic
location, or of individuals whose communion was merely that of geography and
land, has evolved to become a separate type of community in itself. These are the
virtual communities that are otherwise termed ‘communities of interest’. As the
label suggests, a ‘community of interest’ is one that brings together individuals of
common interests through a virtual platform. The stress is on its being virtual as a
community of interest does not necessitate its members being present in the same
geographical bounds.
Therefore, a ‘community of interest’, or in its earliest form the community
media, refers to a community where the communion among the individuals is that
of interests, with an oversight of the necessity for a geographical bound. The
community media enables the participation of individuals with the outside world,
thereby offering them the opportunity to gain cohesions with other communities
and thus expand their network. Besides, it offers to the citizens all that a public
media does.
Community media educates its individuals, provides a platform for
consolidated information and entertains too. However unlike the public media, the
features of community media go to the next step and offer the individuals, as
mentioned, a chance to interact with the public, and other communities ergo offering
them the ability to be part of more than just one community. Interconnectedness,
while seemingly complicating the concept of community, is one of the many factors
that aid social work by enabling faster transmission of messages, news and
information. This in a manner provides the community a means to express itself,
and this beyond what goes on within the community.
Community media consists of two types of activities—(i) front stage activities,
and (ii) back stage activities. The ‘front stage activities’ refers to the individuals of
the community expressing themselves and interacting with the outside world, and
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Community: An Overview this interaction pertains to information about the community to which these individuals
belong. The ‘back stage activity’ is the planning phase of any means of interaction
that the individuals of the community might choose. However, not every community
can afford to establish, or for that matter, just start a community media service.
NOTES This is when the concept of corporate sponsorship comes into picture to give the
individuals of the community a start with their initiative of a community media. One
might question the significance of the establishment of a community media that
requires so much effort as to employ corporate sponsorships. The answer is that,
community media enables many features that enhance a community, such as
diversity, expression of the community and the ability to access local information
and news. That is, it reflects the everyday life of the people of various communities
and it has gained enough significance and has evolved to become a major part of
media worldwide. Moreover, community media enables citizens to express
themselves to one another and to the world, and thereby enables a sense of oneness
in the community, which is yet another form of communion.
What started out to be a mere form of expression of the community has
evolved to help social work to a great extent. Community media in many regions
of the world have helped facilitate social development. It is closely related to and
is very useful in community organization as it enables the collective decision-making
process, that is, it enables the community to grasp new information, news and
changes as a community in whole; thereby enabling rapid spread and effective
implementation of social work programmes. This is reflected in the Indian
subcontinent whose social development was greatly aided by community media
since its effective implementation from the 1970s. Other than the fact that it enables
social development, community media has been extremely effective at protecting
the rights of many individuals of the community. The cultural rights, the communication
rights and the information rights of which many people were unaware has been
effectively explained via community media, which led to tremendous increase in
the level of social awareness. The most common example would be the radio
transmission. The widespread use of the radio was an effective way of
communication of and within communities; and the world has seen a radical change
on the fronts of awareness due to it. While this would be the most relatable concept
for those in the India subcontinents, other forms include street theatres, local
newspapers, comic strips, and comics and of course the Internet, which came a
little late but brought with it quite a revolution.
The World Wide Web which resulted in the computerization of the community
gave rise to tele-communities, which are otherwise known as the ‘virtual
communities’. As mentioned earlier, these virtual communities broke free, the
shackles of the definition of the word ‘community’ from its geographical bounds.
But its significance, apart from that of creating a radical change in the people’s
viewpoint in a community, lies in its power of networking. It enables people to
connect with many new individuals, therefore, creating multiple interconnections
and enabling community development by offering a chance to connect with centres
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 The virtual community is formed by the communion of interest and has no Community: An Overview

limitations in terms of time or space. Therefore, the media plays an important role
in the development of new communities. This realization leads us to a better
understanding of ‘community’. The community of interest or the community media
has proven to be one of the most effective means, which has assisted social work NOTES
in many countries, and thus is of utmost importance to those involved in the same.
Therefore, a common ground or location, palpable or otherwise can be the
basis of definition of a community. On the other hand, there are communities that
are defined on the basis of the beliefs, and the ideas that are shared by its individuals
which do not always need a common location to be the common factor based on
which the community is defined. These are communities as viewed from the cultural
perspective.
Now let us scrutinize the concept of a Geographical community. In the
broadest sense, one might classify a Geographical community to be one where the
common trait of the individuals or the entities of that community is the physical
ground and the geographic border which distinguish a specific group. That
geographical community is a community whose classification is based on location.
Therefore, location is the key underlying trait that holds together a geographical
community.
The geographical boundaries do make that community different from others,
but there are factors that go into what makes it a community which has been
defined on the basis of geography. Besides, the boundaries or the measurement
necessary for the definition of a community to be a geographic community is based
on the magnitude and the effect of the social work to be applied to that community.
The geographical boundaries might be that of a city, a town, a country, a nation
and so on. Therefore, while one of the factors of a geographic community is the
common location; the extent of common location is one that needs to be decided
by the social worker depending how their scheme affects the community or the
perspective area of effect expected.
Apart from a common location, there needs to be interaction among the
individuals, based on other common traits, such as common experience. When
put together under a common location, the effective formation of a community is
based on whether the individuals share common experiences, and thus are subject
to a common factor which can be tapped in implementing social work programmes
and schemes. Other than common experiences, there is the concept of a shared
location within the common and broader geographical location. That is, in a
geographical location it is necessary that the individuals access common locations
such as institutions, stores, services, thus interweaving the concept of both shared
experience and shared location. With shared locations within the geographical
boundaries and ergo share experiences one ascertains that the trends of the
individuals to an extent reflect upon said experiences and locations, thereby offering
a common thread which is further connected to yet another necessity or a given in
communities, that of social interaction. Self-Instructional
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Community: An Overview Interdependency among individuals is yet another feature that defines
geographical communities. The interdependency creates another common thread
which when recognized will be extremely useful as it forms a domino effect which
can be tapped for social work such as awareness and community development.
NOTES
Rural and Urban Communities
There are the rural and the urban communities which are in a manner, the sub-
divisions of a geographical community. ‘Rural community’ signifies a group of
people with a sense of belongingness, sharing their emotions, and living in a specific
locality within a village. Rural community comprises rural people who are generally
dependent on agriculture as their source of livelihood. The basic objectives of
rural community are to:
 Improve the living standards of rural people by providing food, shelter,
clothing, employment and education.
 Enhance agricultural productivity and reduce poverty in these areas.
 Make people participate in planning and development via decentralization
of administration process.
 Ensure distributive justice and equalization of opportunities in the society.
The features of rural community are as follows:
 It mainly depends on agriculture and allied activities.
 These communities are relatively more homogeneous.
 Relationships are not ‘means to end’ kind.
 These communities have their own culture and tradition.
 There have limited jobs opportunities in such communities.
 These communities depend on internal/natural resources.
 Rural community is regulated by village head (Panch).
Urban community means a group of people, with a sense of belongingness,
sharing their emotions, and who live in a particular area in town or city. The
objectives of urban community are to:
 Develop adequate support service to the slum dwellers.
 Mitigate the ecological imbalance.
 Organize family welfare programmes to control population growth.
 Formulate plans to reduce incidences of chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS,
tuberculosis, leprosy, and so on.
The features of an urban community are as follows:
 The community is large in size.
 The density of population is high.
 Diversification of occupation is available.
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  Very often, relationships are ‘means to end’ kind. Community: An Overview

 The community witnesses migration of people from rural area.

 Development of slums in another feature of urban community.
 The rate of population is high. NOTES
The definitions for urban communities also comprise the factors that define
a geographical community with certain factors distinguishing the former from rural
communities. With urban communities, there is an increase in the probability of the
formation of communities within the existing communities. Moreover, there is
diversity in the common grounds on which the individuals interact. This is yet another
reason for the probability of the formation of communities within communities.
Rural communities, on the other hand, tend to form lesser sub-divisions. On the
interactions front, it is notable that the urban communities, despite being considered
to be the evolved one of the two, fall behind.
The emphasis of social work lies on the development of rural communities
in most cases. Community organization, however, is facilitated in the settings of
urban communities. The difference between rural, urban and tribal areas lies in the
density of population for a given amount or area of land and the activity in which
the population is engaged. With the rural communities, more than 75 per cent of
the population is engaged in agriculture; tribal communities share the same 75 per
cent of the population being engaged in agriculture, except in remote and extreme
locations like hills. With urban communities, the 75 per cent mark needs be engaged
in non-agricultural activities.
The rural and the urban communities have a symbiotic relationship. However,
with the evolution and the development of both types of communities; the relationship
between the rural and the urban communities have developed into a co-dependent
relationship, or at least a relatively co-dependent bond has been forged. The
products of the rural community have gradually been converted into the medium
of development, which is achieved through the income that it brings in. The urban
community supports this development by utilization of these rural products, and
thereby creating a demand for it. Therefore, this bond can be tapped for an effective
organization of either community. For, as mentioned, what the urban community
lacks in social interaction, and other concepts of the common ground that holds
together the concept of a community, it makes up for its development in other
fronts, which have eventually made way for a comparatively better amount of
awareness, and the attitude to accept change. These developments can be used to
augment the social work process in rural communities. While the urban communities
bring its own share of advantages, the very concept of community takes a hit in
this type.
As explained, the very concept of community is based on the common
ground which includes social interactions, relationships and bonding. With the urban
communities, this concept of social interactions and bonding exists in what has
evolved into bonds based on personal gains. On referring to Tonnies’ Community
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Community: An Overview and Society (1887) and Durkheim’s The Division of Labour in Society (1893),
one find Tonnies argument where he considers the urban society before
industrialization to be one that had a better sense and offered better meaning to
term ‘community’ owing to the stronger and well-knit bonds between among family,
NOTES neighbours, and therefore forming an interweaving network of social interactions
and bonds which complete the concept of a proper community. However, post-
industrialization, these bonds have begun to waver and slowly morph into what
has turned out to be those based on personal interests and outcome based
relationships, or rather work based relationships which prove to be quite a hindrance
in the context of social work programmes such as community development or
organization.
Moreover, with industrialization came a complex structure that redefined
the division of labour. This applies to both the rural and the urban communities,
but its impact brought about a radical change in latter in a relative manner. The
urban labour as a result of industrialization was split into many complex divisions,
and this again affected the common grounds or the factor of unity. However, a
modified form of solidarity rose, one that was a result of dependence on the others
rather than that of mutual feelings.
Durkheim in his work refers to this type of unity as an ‘organic solidarity’.
Besides, such divisions and alterations led to the rise of various communities within
communities in the urban communities owing to result of differences in thought,
labour divisions, religion, caste and other such reasons. This has resulted in further
strain on the common traits and grounds that hold together and maintain the concept
of community. The common spaces that are necessary for bonding and the rise of
common aspects among the individuals became segregated and divided. All this
made the proper definition and measurement of the extent to which the sense of
community can be attributed to an urban settlement a tough task. However, yet
again evolution and many developments have slowly broken these divisions and
led urban communities to a somewhat better and a shared platform where the
many reasons for divisions have been effectively thwarted.
While the sense of common grounds that hold together a community in the
urban sense is ever wavering and is subject to constant change owing to ever-
progressive and radical advancements, technology, research and its likes; rural
communities remain homogenous in most aspects despite the little changes that
seem to affect it. While topics and issues to be focused on the urban communities
are quite complicated issues, with rural communities the issues to be addressed
still remain to be those related to population, awareness about various simple
issues, and development in its basic phase.
Moreover, organization of the rural communities and implementation of social
work projects are pretty simple when compared to that of the urban communities
owing to the aforementioned factor of a closely knit relationship existing in these
rural communities. On can find that the concept of having something common
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10 Material
upon, rural communities thrive when it comes to personal bonds. A similar strain of Community: An Overview

interests and functions can be observed among the individuals. This is a direct
effect of the fact that with development interests tend to branch out and so does
the division of labour which is yet another reason for a stronger sense, and
justification of the term community when it comes to the rural communities. Here, NOTES
the division of labour is quite simple as a result of which the interdependency
factor is quite obvious, which leads to a stronger sense of stratification or unity.
Tribal Community
While the features of rural and urban communities have been discussed, there still
another concept that needs to be discussed—tribal communities. The most
significant definitions of a tribal community are as follows:
 L.M. Lewis believes that tribal societies are small in scale are restricted in
the spatial and temporal range of their social, legal and political relations
and possess a morality, a religion and world view of corresponding
dimensions. Characteristically too, tribal languages are unwritten and hence
the extent of communication both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At
the same time, tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design and
have a compactness and self-sufficiency lacking in modern society.
 D.N. Majumdar defines tribe as ‘a social group with territorial affiliation,
endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers
hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect recognizing social
distance with other tribes or castes’.
 According to Ralph Linton, tribe is ‘a group of bands occupying a contiguous
territory or territories, and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous
similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a certain community of interests’.
In the Indian context, T.B. Naik offers the following features of a tribal
community:
 A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the
community.
 It should be economically backward (i.e., primitive means of exploiting
natural resources, tribal economy should be at an underdeveloped stage,
and it should have multifarious economic pursuits).
 There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its people.
 They should have a common dialect.
 Tribes should be politically organized and community Panchayat should
be influential.
 A tribe should have customary laws.
Naik argues that for a community to be a tribe, it should possess all the
above mentioned characteristics, but a very high level of acculturation with outside
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Community: An Overview society debars it from being a tribe. Thus term ‘tribe’ usually denotes a social
group bound together by kin and duty and associated with a particular territory.
From all these definitions, one can see that tribal communities are usually
small in terms of geographical or spatial terms, and this reflects on the lack of
NOTES
diversity within the community, which works out for the betterment of the tribal
communities by enhancing the amount of interaction and cohesion among the
individuals. As seen in T.B. Naik’s definition of a tribal community, it is understood
that a tribal community, or a tribe, is usually an isolated group of individuals. It is
made obvious that the factor of community and cohesion is greater in a tribal
community, but that with other communities is quite restricted as a result of which,
acculturation in tribal communities is quite low. In Ralph Linton’s definition of a
tribe, we see that despite their isolation, or rather as a result of it, there is strong
feeling of unity in terms of culture and as a result of “frequent contacts and a
certain community of interests”.
When one views tribal communities in the context of social work, it is
understood that these communities have to an extent some relationship with the
outside world which enables implementation of social work. Some of the problems
associated with tribal communities include lack of awareness which has resulted in
exploitation, and thus land alienation. When industrialization began and the need
for land arose, many industries were built in these tribal lands, which resulted in
the rise of contact between the tribal communities and the rest of the world. This
affected the members of the tribal communities, who gained employment as wage
labourers and its likes which resulted in the expansion of the rudimentary division
of labour in tribes. However the main problem was that of exploitation, where
most of the sources of livelihood of tribes were taken over by industries.
One of the major problems in the Indian context of tribal communities is
that of poverty. Tribes and its individuals go about their livelihood based on simple
and rudimentary tasks which require the simplest of technology. This results in
meagre income which does not leave room for surplus due to which most inhabitants
live below the poverty line. This loops back to the problem of exploitation, where
moneylenders levy heavy interests. Therefore, one of the most important issues
that need to be addressed is that of awareness of many issues of which the most
prominent one would be health. Most tribes suffer from diseases and epidemics
which go unnoticed as a result of a lack of awareness. Goitre, chronic infections,
leprosy and tuberculosis are some of the issues that need to be addressed in
tribes.
Next comes the issue of education, which is absent in most tribal communities.
As a result of deep rooted beliefs, superstitions and myths that haunt tribes,
permeation of educational values and education in itself has proven to be quite a
task. Education is not considered a prerequisite for the members of the tribe to
carry out their obligations. However, with the advent of contact with other cultures
and communities, education is necessary, and to enable acquisition, awareness
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plays a major role.
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 The communities of today are facing lots of challenges. The ancient social Community: An Overview

relations, emotional bonds and sentimental ties are no more significant and visible.
The community consciousness is rapidly lowering down. Dirty politics has housed
into the peaceful life of the community people, and they are divided into different
political groups and sub-groups. The joint family system is fast disintegrating and NOTES
strains on human mind are increasing. Communal disharmony, gender inequality,
factionalism, protection of rights of marginalized groups, feelings of deprivations
among different classes like cultivators, industrial workers, daily wage earners,
alteration of property relations in favour of the less privileged, and impact of macro
policies at micro levels are the some current issues which require immediate
intervention while working with communities, institutions and organizations.
Functions of Community
When one has understood the basic concept of a community, one understands the
crux or the most vital feature which can be tapped and utilized in terms of community
organization or any such social work context. While the first guess might be that of
communion, or something common, it is the end result of this feature that concerns
us the most. This trait of having something in common eventually leads the individuals
of the community to share a common platform which results in interaction between
them with this common trait as a platform of communication. This communication
can be the result of various incidents which also result in the creation of shared
experiences. These create interconnections between the individuals.
Therefore, in a broad sense we can define one of the functions of community
as creating connections and networks among its citizens, inhabitants, or individuals.
For this to happen effectively, it is obvious that there needs to be a platform that
the individuals are able to share. When it comes to geographical communities, this
platform can be common or shared structures that the public have access to. This
gives them an opportunity to bond and create links within the community. Therefore,
yet another function would be that it provides the individuals a common and shared
platform where they can gather and can make communal decisions and acts.
For a social worker, involved in the organization of efforts and events in a
community, the factor of interconnectedness, and thus the very factor of community
play a vital role. The organization of any activity is mobilized only through the
recognition of a community. In recognizing the many features and the functions
involved in the different types of communities, one is able to gain various
perspectives through which process of community organization can be mobilized.
The factor of common trait or the base feature that holds together the community
is the crux, and thus is the defining factor that mobilizes the organization process.
Therefore, a community forms an important role in the social work perspective.
Yet another important function of a community is the ability to define those
who belong and those who do not belong to a specific community. This is not to
be misunderstood to have any negative connotation attached to it. This identification
of who belongs to a community, that is, who the members of a community are and
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Community: An Overview those who do not, makes it easier to map that specific community and thus enables
better and effective functioning. Therefore on the whole, the functions of community
is to create connections and networks among its individuals, offer shared structures
or forums for that prove to be a healthy environment for the formation of
NOTES interconnections and bonds between the individuals. All these form the functions
of a community and see to it that there is communal harmony by ensuring a sense
of communion maintained by the various aspects of the community.
This sense of communion and interconnectedness helps enable swifter
communication within the community, thereby enabling better social work projects
such as community development, community organization and its likes.
Gender system has created a major impact and it is a field where social
work should be done. Our society is organized around some given parameters
and aims, the functionality of which is ensured by a set of systems and institutions.
For instance, marriage and family life are ingrained aspects of the Indian society.
Girls and boys get married and start their own families living within the prescribed
norms that determine choice of marriage partner, their roles, code of conduct
(fidelity, chastity, girl’s subservience to her husband and in-laws), lifestyle and
practices (purda, male inheritance, dowry etc.). One of the most pervasive and
widespread codes of organization that affects all aspects of social functioning is
the gender system. It is patriarchy that provides the life force to the unfavourable
conditions that women face. Let us try and list out some of the more common
features of gender system.
Male-Female differentiation: The practices of male-female differentiation form
the core of a gender-based system. Biological sex differences, which are real, are
extended to be the criteria for social placement.
Allocation of roles: In any organization or society, roles are attributed for specific
function. In a patriarchy, roles are allocated not only in accordance with the
biological functions (procreation), but are misappropriated according to values
prescribed to male and females. Within patriarchy; ‘dominating and controlling
social functions’ are prescribed for males, whereas ‘supportive functions’ are the
purview of the females. Thus, by birth, the males are ‘inheritors of resources’,
performing the functions of earners, and by birth the females are ‘family caretakers’
performing the functions of ‘child nurturing and running the household’.
Gender-based hierarchical placement: Along with role allocation, certain norms
and values, as well as practices and beliefs, further promote the ‘male-female
superior-inferior or hierarchy’, whereby males have access to landholdings
inheritance, skills, productive employment and the associated high status. On the
other hand, women are denied even right to life (female infanticide/foeticide), receive
poor nutrition and medical care, inferior education and suffer atrocities at the hands
of men.
Role stereotyping: The female biological functions of reproduction are extended
to rearing of children and catering to household work. On the other hand, the role
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of the male is to earn for the family. Accordingly, both sexes are socialized to these Community: An Overview

predetermined but separate roles. Even in society where both men and women
are called upon to earn, the primary roles associated with social values have
remained unchanged. Thus even if women earn an income, their responsibility
towards household chores remains undiminished. NOTES
Child preference on the basis of sex: The corresponding social status availed
by the male due to his being the inheritor, the protector of the family and its interest,
the “doer”, a male child is valued. Moreover, it is the sons who are considered as
old-age insurance for the parents, since the daughters get married and leave the
family. Besides, daughter implies expenses such as dowry. Thus, a male child is
preferred by society. In fact, male child preference is so strong that in certain areas
a wife who does not produce a male child is called ‘kulachhani’, destroyer of the
family since name will not be carried forward.
Female discrimination at the behavioural level includes un-employment, low
productivity skills, health care, public life etc., and infliction of atrocities (dowry
harassment, eve-teasing, wife beating, rape etc.). The structural conditions affect
society as a whole, whereas behavioural manifestations affect individual in specific
situation.

1.3 MINORITY GROUPS

The concept of ‘a community within community’ is one of the crucial features that
a social worker needs to analyse in order to gain complete and in-depth
understanding of the intricacies involved in a specific community. The deconstruction
can be one based on caste, ideals, race or reservations. The Dalit community, for
instance, is a reference to the scheduled castes where the common ground on
which the community is recognized is the caste and the reservation. The term
‘Dalit’, however, is being used interchangeably to mean scheduled caste.
Dalit is a designation for a group of people traditionally regarded
as Untouchables. Dalits are a mixed population, consisting of numerous castes
from all over South Asia; they speak a variety of languages and practice a multitude
of religions.
While the discrimination based on caste system (not the caste itself) has
been abolished under the Indian Constitution, there still is discrimination and
prejudice against Dalits in South Asia. Since India’s Independence, significant steps
have been taken to provide opportunities in jobs and education to this marginalized
group. Many social organizations too have proactively promoted better conditions
for Dalits through improved education, health and employment.
There are many different names proposed for defining this group of people
including panchamas (fifth varna), and asprushya (untouchables). The
Constitution of India recognizes them as Scheduled Castes.

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Community: An Overview According to Lyman Tower Sargent in the book ‘Contemporary Political
Ideologies: A Comparative Analysis’:
 It is seen that racial identity and race aid in the building of communities
that are just and healthy.
NOTES
 Though race is more often than not taken to be divisive, it is amply
capable of uniting communities which may be fighting racism or poverty
or even derisory services. So it might not be a good idea to downplay
or ignore race.
We can also look at race as a component that is key for democracy-building
at the level of the community. Racial identity is a component that when used in an
organized manner becomes a way of building a sense of power. For a community
to know its cultural strengths are a means of knowing that conditions of societal
disparity, which are shared with others. Races, in all their difficulties and
complexities help to create communities that are capable of making systemic
change.
Caste and class both are status groups. A ‘status group’ is an association of
individuals who enjoy a distinctive style of life and a certain consciousness of kind.
However, castes are perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status while
classes are defined in terms of the relations of production. The members of a class
have a similar socio-economic status in relation to other classes in the society,
while the members of a caste have either a high or a low ritual status in relation to
other castes.
Caste as a unit and as a system
Caste is considered viewed both as a unit and as a system. It is also understood as
a structural phenomenon and a cultural phenomenon. As a unit, caste can be defined
as a ‘closed rank status group’, that is, a group in which the status of the members,
their occupation, the field of mate selection and interaction with others is fixed. As
a system, it refers to interrelated status and patterned interaction among castes in
terms of collectivity of restrictions, namely, restriction on change of membership,
occupation, marriage and communal relations. In viewing caste as a system, there
is pre-supposition that no caste can exist in isolation and that each caste is closely
involved with other castes in the network of economic, political, and ritual
relationships. The ‘closed-rank group’ feature of caste also explains its structure.
As a cultural phenomenon, caste may be viewed as a “set of values, beliefs and
practices”.
If we look at our society, we find that people are divided in categories (in
castes and classes) on the basis on birth, religion, race, language and speech,
education, occupation and wealth etc., and society is heterogeneous in nature.
Individuals are placed higher or lower in a status scale based on these characteristics.
Thus, social barriers are erected in the way of lower category (caste and class)
people’s overall development. This has given birth to several inequalities as:
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  Caste. Community: An Overview

 Restricts mobility of working class, especially of marginalized groups.

 Leads to untouchability and slavery, and is responsible for many other
social evils and vices like child marriage, dowry system, purda system NOTES
and casteism.
 Responsible for low status of women.
 Is bed-rock of religious discrimination and fundamentalism.
Further, the persisting inter- and intra-caste, class and community inequalities
as well as widespread unrest are also result of prevailing contradictions in our
social system such as:
 We continue to follow the traditional values, whereas our roles have
become modern.
 We profess that India is committed to bring equality, but in reality it is
mired in an age-old system of caste and class.
 We claim ourselves as rationalist, but we bear with injustice and unfairness
with fatalistic resignation.
 We speak in favour of individualism, but we reinforce collectivism.
In spite of formulation of so many laws and modification of old laws, the
common people have not been benefitted from these because they are either not
being implemented or are full of loopholes which have benefitted only to legal
profession.
Factionalism is a situation/condition in which ‘sub-castes’ (within the caste)
function as ‘factions’ (conflict groups) than as ‘caste groups’ to achieve their
purpose. Prof. K.N. Sharma has termed them ‘resource groups’ with a view to
lay stress on their collaborative function. Occasionally, the ‘alliance’ between the
groups is restricted only for the duration of achievement of the purpose. Mostly,
families are engaged in such alliances. Nevertheless, in some cases even brothers
of same families have joined various factions and have disassociated themselves
from each other at the cost of their kinship relationships.
The faction (within the sub-caste) is an association of a few core families to
face challenges from other families, or to secure help in court cases, and so on.
Such factions/alliances can be seen when people come back from their fields or
offices and cluster in small groups to spend together their leisure time. In this way,
the closeness with the group is strengthened daily by intimate and informal relations,
and its strength is activated time to time for status defence or exaggeration. A
faction may continue for decades or for few years or few months, or it may change
unexpectedly as no hard and fast rules ties the members together. However, within
the faction, caste/sub-caste are of notable significance in towns and cities.
The strength of the factions depends on wealth, manpower and ability to
mobilize resources and influence from outside the village. Nowadays, factionalism
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Community: An Overview has become a serious problem and posing a serious threat to the traditional unity
and solidarity of Indian village and tribal communities.
The legal sanction accorded to various types of leadership positions in the
Panchayati Raj system, under 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, is not so much
NOTES
beneficial. Rather, it has widely, very strongly and seriously hampered all the efforts
to promote development of villages in the country. As they (factions) oppose one
another, not because of any genuine reason or rhyme, but simply for the sake of
showing the opposition and demonstration of their strength. As a consequence,
any effort made by any change agent, external or internal, to promote cooperative
and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community, gets badly thwarted.
Feminist and racial connotation of communities
While communities are contexts that strongly influence women’s lives, women’s
actions for their families also influence the nature of community studies of women’s
caregiving and activism, especially in multi-racial feminist and racial-ethnic family
scholarship, revealed how women’s concerns for their children motivated their
efforts to resist oppression and to improve their communities.
Bounty of ethnographic studies of family life from feminist and racial-ethnic
perspectives generated since the 1970s has contributed to articulating family ties
to communities, and how families function in response to their contents as well as
how family and community life are interwoven.
Much of the early feminist and racial-ethnic family studies scholarship used
in-depth interviewing to study women’s experiences in family life. This in turn led
to explorations of how multiple social contexts, structure, and ideology interplay
with women’s decisions about their life choices and how they socially constructed
their lives. Feminist and racial-ethnic family studies reveal how family activities
(economic work, child socialization, caregiving work) influence how communities
and social policies function in response to family life.

Check Your Progress

1. What are the three basic elements in a ‘community’?
2. What are the two types of activities in a ‘community media’?
3. What do you understand by a ‘Dalit’?

1.4 COMMUNITY POWER AND COMMUNITY

STRUCTURE

Power means the ability to influence others through community organization. That
is influencing community members to act as suggested by the leaders to achieve
the community goals. The community power aspects can be studied. This is called
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power structure of the community. The power structure of the community varies Community: An Overview

from community to community.

According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the beliefs and
behaviour of others. In other words, power is the ability to make things happen.
NOTES
Floyd hunter explained the nature of power and power structure. Power appears
in numerous forms and in a variety of combinations. Power flows from many
sources. Money, votes, laws, information, expertise, prestige, group support,
contacts, charisma, communication channels, media, social role, access to rewards,
position, titles, ideas, verbal skill, ability to gratify important needs, monopoly of
essential resources, alliances, energy, conviction, courage, interpersonal skills, moral
convictions, etc. are some of the sources of power.
The accumulation of power in a specific area is called as a power centre.
Power is also distributed. It is not confined within the power centre. It is present at
every level of the society. The powerless people also have power only; they have
to discover their power. Power maybe ascribed by formal delegation or by title.
Power may be achieved by many ways. For example, through competence, ability,
or by personality etc.
Sources of Power
Power can come from a variety of places. The following sources of power are not
mutually exclusive and can be most effective when used in some combination.
Conservationists who learn to recognize the power base(s) of a key leader or a
community group can maximize the benefit that the power base can offer.
 Connections: The ability to network and build useful relationships with
other powerful individuals and organizations. Whereas physical capital refers
to physical objects and human capital refers to properties of individuals,
social capital refers to connections among individuals – social networks
and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In
that sense social capital is closely related to what some have called “civic
virtue.” The difference is that “social capital” calls attention to the fact that
civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a dense network of
reciprocal social relations
 Personal traits: An individual’s charisma, creativity, charm, leadership
abilities or some combination of these characteristics can foster the respect
and loyalty of others.
 Legitimate power: the position (office, title) of the leader. Usually, the
higher the office, the more powerful the person.
 Expertise: Knowledge, skill, and talent, combined with respect for the
skill. A district conservationist can bring valuable skills to a conservation
initiative.
 Information: The ability to channel - or withhold - information. The mass
media has this type of power.
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Community: An Overview  Coercion: The attempt to influence others using a negative style, such as
using intimidation or manipulation.
Formal Power Structures
NOTES There are two kinds of power structures: formal and informal. The formal power
structure is easily recognized and includes elected and appointed government
officials and leaders of civic organizations. The informal power structure, which
exists together with the formal power structure, is harder to identify and may hold
a greater influence over a community’s development.
Concept of Power in Community Organization
Power means the ability to influence, in community organization. That is influencing
community members to act up on as directed by the leaders to achieve the
community goals. The community power aspects can be studied. This is called as
power structure of the community. The power structure of the community varies
according to the community.
The Dimensions of Power in Community Organization
According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the beliefs and
behaviour of others according to wish or plan. In other words, power is the ability
to make things happen. Floyd hunter explained the nature of power and power
structure. Power appears in numerous forms and in a variety of combinations.
Power flows from many sources. The money, votes, laws, information, expertise,
prestige, group support, contacts, charisma, communication channels, media, social
role, access to rewards, position, titles, ideas, verbal skill, ability to gratify important
needs, monopoly of essential resources, alliances, energy, conviction, courage,
interpersonal skills, moral convictions, etc. are some of the sources of power. The
accumulation of power in a specific area is called as a power center. Power is also
distributed. It is not confined within the power center. It is present at every level of
the society. The powerless people do have power. They have to discover their
power. Power may be ascribed by formal delegation or by title. Power may be
achieved by many ways. For example, through competence, ability, or by
personality etc. power can be achieved. Generally groups of people are at the top
of the community. They are called as power centres at the top of the power pyramid.
They influence the community through formal and informal connections. They
influence through sub-ordinate leaders who do not participate in community
decision-making process. The rich people are mostly powerful.
In some communities multiplicity of power structure is noticed. Power
structure is also flexible in nature. The community organizer has to study the
following: ‘How do some people influence the action of others? Who wields the
power? How? What are the issues? What are the results? These aspects are to be
analyzed by the organizer for effective practice of community organization. This is
called as community power structure analysis. It is called as power because some
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people are capable of action in spite of the resistance of others who are participating Community: An Overview

in the action. Some people are powerful because they know each other personally
and they interact frequently making them involve in joint efforts in community affairs.
People with power, make major community decision where as others are active in
implementing such decisions. An organizer who is able to study the power structure NOTES
well can practice community organization effectively. For example, the village
traditional leader is a powerful person. The leader can influence other people to
act. Many times this leader is motivated to involve in achieving the goals of the
community. The leader is capable of influencing people effectively. When there is
opposition from a few men, it can be tackled by the leader because the leader has
power.
In the community power is distributed. Each power center tries to expand
its influence over the distribution of resources and rewards. The various power
centres enter into an alliance. They share power, enter into a contract and discharge
obligations. Power does not come to the passive, timid, defeated, persons.
Energetic, courageous, persons wield it. The people with power tend to join
together based on issues. The basis for alliance are ideological, personality
similarities, needs, or to achieve the goals. Power possessed is always used. It can
be used for achieving the goals. The power can be intellectual, political, social,
and psychological power. To retain power there is a need for self-awareness and
self-control. The decision-making is the source and outcome of the power.
Sometimes, there is a possibility of many number of power centres. Each power
center may be autonomous. The organizer needs knowledge, and ability to mobilize
the power in the community for achieving the goals of the community.
Relevance of Power in Community Organization
Development is influenced by power structures of the community. People who are
influential can mobilize a major segment of the community. For example, in fund
raising drive some people can move behind other people and institutions. There
are two models of community power structure. The stratification model and the
pluralist mode are the two models of power structures. Stratification model suggests
that social class principally determines the distribution of community power.
According to this model, the power structure in community is composed of stable
upper class elite whose interest and outlook on community affairs are relatively
homogeneous. According to pluralist model, it rejects the idea that a small
homogeneous group dominates community decision-making. But there are
numerous small special interest groups that cut across class lines, which are
represented in the community decision-making. These are interest groups with
overlapping memberships, widely differing power bases, have influences on
decisions. Community decisions are the result of the interactions of these different
interest groups. This theoretical orientation can help the community organizer in
his action. The organizer has to identify the members of the power structure for
community organization.
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Community: An Overview Floyd Hunter an executive director of a community welfare council wrote
classic volumes on community power structure. His method of locating community
elites is known as the reputation approach. The basic procedure is to ask a group
of informants who are knowledgeable about the community to list the people they
NOTES believe to be most influential in the community affairs. There may be variations on
this procedure with regard to how informants are selected, and how questions are
put in. By tallying those people most frequently named as influential leaders we
can identify the core of the community power structure. Position approach is another
method of locating the members of the power structure based on the assumption
of stratification model. This approach assumes that people holding the highest
office in the community are at the top of the power structure. By scanning the
executive lists of the important social political and economic organizations in the
community, one can quickly compile a list of members of the power structure.
This approach requires fewer efforts than the reputation approach.
Community power is directly related with community organization.
Participation of people is related with power. In a community organization,
community power holders are involved to induce people’s participation in order
to achieve the organizations objectives. Sometimes if the existing power centres
are not for community organizational objectives, then a new center of power is
created to get people’s commitment and mass participation. The organizer needs
to study power structure and Community Organization process is carried out
successfully through leaders. For example, people are organized to implement
family planning. For this the leader is motivated for people’s participation. In some
villages the leader opposes family planning. In this situation the community organizer
has to identify a new powerful leader to implement family planning. Otherwise it is
not possible to implement family planning in the village.
Barriers to Empowerment
Generally poor people have the feeling of powerlessness. These people can be
helped to feel powerful to decide their own affairs using community organization.
When they learn to solve their problems they feel powerful. We can develop
confidence and capacity building so that they feel that they can solve their problems
by themselves. In community organization, the people carry out decision-making.
This provides them with a sense of empowerment. Empowerment deals with
providing disadvantaged groups with a powerful instrument for articulating their
demands and preferences by awareness, decision-making capacity and to achieve
their goal with freedom. Community organization results in empowerment of the
people. But there are some hindrances like fatalism, illiteracy, superstitions, and
caste divisions etc. Sometimes the vested interested groups may be a hindrance or
barriers for empowerment. The Community dependence, long time effect of poverty,
and wrong beliefs etc., act as barriers to empowerment. When people are
organized, they get the power. There are leaders in the community, they are united,
they can work together, and they can coordinate with each other. This makes
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them feel powerful. Thus community organization results in empowerment of people. Community: An Overview

The empowerment helps the community to stand against exploitation, ability to

solve problems, and to achieve the desired goals. Many of the economic problems
can be easily solved by community organization and empowerment of community.
NOTES
Check Your Progress
4. What do you understand by the term power?
5. What are the two models of power structure?

1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The three basic elements in a ‘community’ are: (i) community as a place, (ii)
community as an institutional structure, and (iii) community as a process.
2. The two types of activities in a ‘community media’ are: (i) front stage activities,
and (ii) back stage activities.
3. The Dalit community is a reference to the scheduled castes where the
common ground on which the community is recognized is the caste and the
reservation. The term ‘Dalit’, however, is being used interchangeably to
mean scheduled caste. ‘Dalit’ is a designation for a group of people
traditionally regarded as Untouchables. They are a mixed population,
consisting of numerous castes from all over South Asia; they speak a variety
of languages and practice a multitude of religions.
4. Power means the ability to influence others through community organization.
5. The stratification model and the pluralist mode are the two models of power
structures.

1.6 SUMMARY

 Nowadays, in a broad and accurate sense, a community stands for the

group of people who have things in common, which involves living together
and sharing the resources; and its residents may be physically mobile.
 A community may be defined as ‘a group of people sharing a common
geographic area, a common value system, common needs and interests
and who have had similar or shared experiences’.
 Some of the qualities of a family that reflect community are—living together,
sharing resources, the stronger providing for and protecting the less strong
members (e.g., parents looking after their kids), working together for a
common goal, playing together, and staying together in good and bad times.

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Community: An Overview  A human community is not merely a collection of houses; it is a socio-
cultural system with a life of its own that goes beyond the sum total of its
residents’ lives.
 A community is full of factions and conflicts, based upon differences such
NOTES
as gender, religion, inheritance of wealth, ethnicity, class, educational level,
income, ownership of land and capital, language, and so on.
 The dimensions of community comprise: (i) technological, (ii) economic,
(iii) political, (iv) institutional (social), (v) aesthetic-value, and (vi) belief-
conceptual.
 Community can be, in the broadest sense, categorized into the following
types: Geographical, Urban and Rural, and Tribal.
 Community media is ‘community communication’, and communication forms
an integral part in any community.
 The community media enables the participation of individuals with the outside
world, thereby offering them the opportunity to gain cohesions with other
communities and thus expand their network.
 Community media consists of two types of activities—(i) front stage
activities, and (ii) back stage activities.
 The World Wide Web which resulted in the computerization of the community
gave rise to tele-communities, which are otherwise known as the ‘virtual
communities’.
 Interdependency creates another common thread which when recognized
will be extremely useful as it forms a domino effect which can be tapped for
social work such as awareness and community development.
 Rural community comprises rural people who are generally dependent on
agriculture as their source of livelihood.
 Urban community means a group of people, with a sense of belongingness,
sharing their emotions, and who live in a particular area in town or city.
 The difference between rural, urban and tribal areas lies in the density of
population for a given amount or area of land, and the activity in which the
population is engaged.
 A tribal community, or a tribe, is usually an isolated group of individuals. It
is made obvious that the factor of community and cohesion is greater in a
tribal community but that with other communities is quite restricted, as a
result of which acculturation in tribal communities is quite low.
 The concept of ‘a community within community’ is one of the crucial features
that a social worker needs to analyse in order to gain complete and in-
depth understanding of the intricacies involved in a specific community.
 A ‘status group’ is an association of individuals who enjoy a distinctive style
of life and a certain consciousness of kind.
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  According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the beliefs Community: An Overview

and behaviour of others.

 There are two models of community power structure. The stratification model
and the pluralist mode are the two models of power structures.
NOTES
 Stratification model suggests that social class principally determines the
distribution of community power. According to this model, the power
structure in community is composed of stable upper class elite whose interest
and outlook on community affairs are relatively homogeneous.
 According to pluralist model, it rejects the idea that a small homogeneous
group dominates community decision-making.

1.7 KEY WORDS

 Community: It is a group of people sharing a common geographic area, a

common value system, common needs and interests and who have had
similar or shared experiences.
 Community of interest: It refers to a community where the communion
among the individuals is that of interests, with an oversight of the necessity
for a geographical bound.
 Urban community: It is a group of people, with a sense of belongingness,
sharing their emotions, and who live in a particular area in town or city.
 Factionalism: It is a situation/condition in which ‘sub-castes’ (within the
caste) function as ‘factions’ (conflict groups) than as ‘caste groups’ to achieve
their purpose.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What does the term ‘community’ imply?
2. How does one define the identity of a person in their community?
3. What is a ‘geographical community’?
4. Differentiate between the two types of activities in a ‘community media’.
5. What are the sources of power?
Long-Answer Questions
1. List the features of rural and urban communities.
2. Give a detailed account on the concept of ‘geographical community’.
3. Write a short note on features of a ‘tribal community’.
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Community: An Overview 4. Give a detailed account on the functions of a community.
5. Discuss the power structures within a community organization.

NOTES 1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Community Dynamics

UNIT 2 COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Structure NOTES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Community Dynamics: Meaning
2.3 Integrative and Disintegrative Processes
2.3.1 Integrative Processes
2.3.2 Disintegrative Processes
2.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.8 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Communities are critical to conceptualising, executing and sustaining developmental

projects of all sorts. In developing nations, communities take part in development
initiatives by way of community organization and participation. Community is a
master system encompassing social forms and cultural behaviour in interdependent
subsidiary systems. A community is also recognized as social unit, such as a group
or association based on common needs, interest, values and function. Community
is a social system composed of people living in some spatial relationship to one
another, who share common facilities and services, develop a common psychological
identification with the locality symbol. And together frame a common communication
network.
In social work profession there are three basic methods of working with
people (individuals, groups and communities). The third basic method is community
organisation. The aim of community organisation is ‘developing capacity’ in the
community ‘by making it more organised’ to handle its own needs or problems.
Community organisation is a well-established method in social work. It has value
orientation and the practice is guided by a set of general principles.
Though communities share a common behaviour, needs, interests, values
and functions their participation in development projects vary. While one community
showcase high levels of project participation and success the others merely survive.
This primarily owes to inherent integrative and disintegrative processes of
community dynamics. Community organization and participation techniques
therefore must take into account the wide array of integrative and disintegrative
aspects of community dynamics while undertaking development projects.

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Community Dynamics
2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through the unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Understand the concept of community dynamics
 Identify and explain the various social processes that impact community
dynamics
 Explicitly identify and discuss the types of integrative and disintegrative
process

2.2 COMMUNITY DYNAMICS: MEANING

Community dynamics is the process of change and development within communities.

It strives to bring about positive social change through community-based
programming. Community dynamics works with the community to think creatively
and act strategically so that community can achieve their goals. Community dynamics
through creative and sustainable programming works to raise the quality of living
for those most vulnerable to poverty and exploitation.
Importance of Community Dynamics
The role of communities in the projects concerning them is highly important. The
communities however, are often plagued by the various aspects of community
dynamics that leads to failure or limited results of the development projects. It is
one of the important aspects of community organization and participation that
must be taken due care of.
Every community has a leadership structure of people and organized groups
who exert influence over different areas of the community taking a position of
power. Community development projects, by their nature, are efforts that support
a shared vision of how the community should change or processes of developing
a shared vision. Therefore, community development projects might be seen as a
challenge by a community’s existing power structure. The people who are behind
new energy in the community to discuss and effect change need to understand
how others will view their efforts. Projects are more likely to be successful if the
organizers work with and draw on the resources of others in the community, often
some of these resources reside with people in positions of power.
A clear understanding of community dynamics facilitates the development
projects and increases their chances of being successful. The process of
understanding and handling dynamics at the community level is complex and
therefore must be ingrained in the entire project in a well thought manner.

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 Community Dynamics
2.3 INTEGRATIVE AND DISINTEGRATIVE
PROCESSES

Sociologists have classified social processes in many ways. Many of them have NOTES
classified them into two categories, namely, conjunctive social process and
disjunctive social process. E.A. Ross had prepared a list of 38 kinds of social
process. Blackinar and Gillin classified social processes into six categories. Park
and Burgess classified it into four fundamental types of interaction such as
competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. L. Von Wiese and H. Buker
classified social processes into 650 types. However, the classification provided
by the famous German Sociologist George Simmel divided the processes broadly
into two types including associative and dissociative process and offers space to
connect to that of community dynamics.
Associative processes are also called the integrative or conjunctive social
processes which are essential for the integration and progress of the society. The
major kinds of associative processes include co-operation, accommodation,
assimilation and acculturation. Dissociative social processes are also called the
disintegrative or disjunctive social processes. Although these processes hinder the
growth and development of society, their absence results in stagnation of society.
A few important types or dissociative processes are competition and conflict.
2.3.1 Integrative Processes
Let us discuss each one of these integrative processes briefly:
1. Cooperation
One of the most basic forms of integrative processes within the community is that
of cooperation. The term ‘cooperation’ derive its origin from two Latin words:
‘Co’ meaning ‘together’ and ‘Operari’ meaning ‘to work’. Cooperation therefore
means working together or joint activity for the achievement of common goal or
goals. So cooperation is a goal oriented process in which individuals or groups
work unitedly for the promotion of common goals or objectives. It is very important
as the human society and its development have been possible with co-operation.
According to A.W. Green, ‘Cooperation is the continuous and common
endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is
commonly cherished.’ Fairchild defines, ‘Cooperation is the process by which the
individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised way, for the
attainment of common objective’. According to Merrill and Eldrege, ‘Cooperation
is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain
a common end.’
C.H. Cooley has summarised co-operation in the following terms: “Co-
operations arises when men see that they have a common interest and have, at the
same time, sufficient intelligence and self-control to seek this interest through united
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Community Dynamics actions : Prescribed unity of interest and the faculty of organization are the essential
facts in intelligent combination.”
Conditions of Cooperation
NOTES The process of cooperation requires certain conditions to be fulfilled. The two
basic elements must be present in order to cooperation to take place in community.
They are:
(a) Common end or purpose: Cooperation requires a common purpose of
goal to take place. Without a common purpose of goal cooperation within
a community organization domain cannot take shape.
(b) Organised effort: Cooperation also must have a sustained organized effort.
In the absence of an organized efforts cooperation cannot exist.
Characteristics of Cooperation
The followings are some of the important characteristics of cooperation.
(a) Continuous Process: Cooperation inherits continuity. Without continuity
cooperation will cease to exist.
(b) Personal Process: This is a process in which the individuals and the groups
personally meet and work together for a common objective.
(c) Conscious Process: In the process of co-operation the organised individuals
or the groups work together consciously.
(d) Universal Process: Co-operation is also a universal social process. Because
it is found everywhere in all periods of time.
(e) Common Ends: Common end can be better achieved by co-operation which
is essential for the welfare of both individual and society.
(f) Organised Efforts: Co-operation is a process of social interaction which is
based on the organized efforts of individuals and groups.
2. Accommodation
One of the other important integrative process that is very useful in engaging
community dynamics is that of accommodation. It is, in fact, a sort of cooperation
among people after their conflict comes to an end. Because conflict cannot continue
for an indefinite period and must be resolved at some stage or other. The end of
conflict directs the way for accommodation.
The term accommodation refers to understanding, adjustment or agreement.
It is a process of getting along in spite of differences. It is a way of inventing social
environments which helps people to work together whether they like it or not. It
consists in the avoiding and delaying of conflict with disagreeable circumstances.
Here the contending forces are adjusted to balance. It is the very foundation of a
social organisation. So without accommodation, society cannot maintain its balance.
Accommodation is a condition or state of mental and social understanding and is
evident in both professional and personal ways within the society.
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 According to Maclver and Page, ‘Accommodation refers particularly to Community Dynamics

the process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment.’ Ogburn
and Nimkoff state, ‘Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe
the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.’ According to Gillin and Gillin,
‘Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting individuals NOTES
and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the difficulties
which arise in competition, contravention or conflict.’ According to George A.
Lundberg, ‘Accommodation has been used to designate the adjustments which
people in groups move to relieve the fatigue and tensions of competition and
conflict.’According to Biesanz, ‘In one sense, accommodation is the basis of all
formal social organization’.
The several definitions of accommodation reveal its characteristics.
Characteristics of Accommodation
(a) Universal Process: A cursory review of the world history reveals that
accommodation has been around in one way or the other irrespective of the
societies. As a process and practice accommodation has been found in all
societies at all time in all fields of social life. Since no society can function
smoothly in a state of perpetual conflict, accommodation becomes necessary.
(b) Continuous Process: Accommodation is a continuous process. Conflicts
within the social life are inevitable. Whenever and wherever conflict will
occur, accommodation shall take place. Accommodation therefore is not
limited to any fixed social situation or setting.
(c) Both conscious and unconscious process: Accommodation can be
considered as both conscious and unconscious process. It is conscious
when the conflicting individuals or groups make efforts consciously to get
accommodated to situations. However, at times accommodation might take
place unconsciously too.
(d) End-result of conflict: Accommodation is a result of conflict. It is only
after some sort of conflict that the need for accommodating arises. If there
is no conflict, there can be no question of accommodation.
3. Assimilation
Assimilation is yet another integrative or associative social process which is
significant in understanding community dynamics. It is also one form of social
adjustment. It is a process whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of
other group in which they come to live, by adopting its attitudes and values, its
patterns of thinking and behaving, in short, its way of life. It is more permanent
than accommodation and is only possible if the process of accommodation has
been achieved already.
It is necessary to understand that in this process of interaction the dominant
culture prevails and persists. The new culture which is unimportant is submerged

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Community Dynamics into the dominant culture. According to Bogardus, ‘Assimilation is a process
whereby attitudes of many persons are united and thus develop into a united group.’
Ogburn and Nimkoff defines assimilation as ‘the process whereby individuals or
groups once dissimilar become similar, that is, become identified in their interest
NOTES and outlook.’ Biesanz and Biesanz hold the view that, ‘Assimilation is the social
process whereby individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and
goals.’ Hurton and Hunt say that, ‘The process of mutual cultural diffusion through
which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation.’
According to Park and Burgess, ‘Assimilation is a process of
interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories,
sentiments and attitudes of other persons or groups and, by sharing their experience
and history, are incorporated into a common cultural life.’
Characteristics of Assimilation
Several definitions of assimilation have made it clear that assimilation takes place
when individuals come into close contact with other culture and the dominant
culture takes control in a slow and gradual manner. The definitions also reveal
various characteristics of the process.
(a) Universal process: No culture in the world history has been possible
without assimilation. The process has evidently shaped societies across the
globe and is therefore universal in nature.
(b) Unconscious process: Unlike accommodation which is consciously done,
assimilation happens gradually and unconsciously. The members of the
society unconsciously assimilate each other.
(c) Slow and gradual process: Assimilation is not a standalone and rapid
process. It is a time taking process and in no way occur all of a sudden.
(d) It is a two-way process: It is based on the principle of give and take.
When one cultural group is in contact with another, it borrows from it certain
cultural elements and incorporates them into its own culture. So it affects
both.
4. Acculturation
The study of acculturation is the study of one aspect of culture change. In case of
two different cultures coming together, the study attempts to answer the phenomenon
of adapting to each other’s behaviours, languages, beliefs, values, social institutions
and technologies. Acculturation should be distinguished from assimilation.
Assimilation refers to the complete loss of original ethnic identity in an individual or
group of individuals leading to absorption into the dominant culture.
The first known use of the term ‘acculturation’ within the social sciences
dates back to 1880 when John Wesley Powell in a report for the US Bureau of
Ethnology. Powell later defined the term as the psychological changes that occur
within a person due to cultural exchange that occurs as a result of extended contact

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between different cultures. Powell observed that, while they exchange cultural Community Dynamics

elements, each retains its own unique culture.

Later, in the early twentieth century, acculturation became a focus of American
sociologists who used ethnography to study the lives of immigrants and the extent
NOTES
to which they integrated into US society. W.I Thomas and Florian Znaniecki
examined this process with Polish immigrants in Chicago in their 1918 study, ‘The
Polish Peasant in Europe and America,’ while others, including Robert E. Park
and Ernest W. Burgess, focused their research and theories on the outcome of this
process known as assimilation.
In itself, ‘acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when
groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand
contact with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both
groups.’1 Acculturation is the study of the cultural transmission process.2
Characteristics of Acculturation
(a) It is gradual: Acculturation takes place gradually. Concrete objects like
tools, utensils, and ornaments are generally the first things adapted by the
newcomers to any culture. The transfer of in-tangible elements, such as
patterns of behaviour, takes place long after the newcomers’ initial exposure
to the new culture, if at all.3
(b) It is not a conscious process: Acculturation is to a large extent not a
conscious process. For example, immigrants living in a particular country
are often unaware of the degree to which they have adopted culture of that
country. It is only revealed when they return to their homelands after having
lived in the other country for a number of years do they realize how much
they have changed.
Five Different Strategies and Outcomes of Acculturation
Outlining the various ways that individuals and groups acculturate, Berry identified
two issues. The first is the degree to which people wish to maintain their heritage,
culture and identities. The second issue is the degree to which people wish to have
contact with those who are outside their group and participate with them in the
daily life of the larger society. Preferences with respect to these two issues lead to
the adoption of four different strategies that Berry termed as assimilation, separation,
integration and marginalization.
(a) Assimilation: This strategy is used when little to no importance is placed
on maintaining the original culture, and great importance is put on fitting in
and developing relationships with the new culture. The outcome is that the
person or group is, eventually, culturally indistinguishable from the culture
into which they have assimilated. This type of acculturation is likely to occur
in societies that are considered “melting pots” into which new members are
absorbed.

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Community Dynamics (b) Separation: This strategy is used when little to no importance is placed on
embracing the new culture, and high importance is placed on maintaining
the original culture. The outcome is that the original culture is maintained
while the new culture is rejected. This type of acculturation is likely to occur
NOTES in culturally or racially segregated societies.
(c) Integration: This strategy is used when both maintaining the original culture
and adapting to the new one are considered important. Adopt the dominant
culture while also maintaining own culture. This is a common strategy of
acculturation and can be observed among many immigrant communities
and those with a high proportion of ethnic or racial minorities. Those who
use this strategy might be thought of as bicultural, may be known to code-
switch when moving between different cultural groups, and is the norm in
what are considered multicultural societies.
(d) Marginalization: This strategy is used by those who place no importance
on either maintaining their original culture or adopting the new one. The
result is that the person or group is marginalized— pushed aside, overlooked
and forgotten by the rest of society. This can occur in societies where cultural
exclusion is practiced, thus making it difficult or unappealing for a culturally
different person to integrate.
2.3.2 Disintegrative Processes
Let us now discuss the disintegrative process.
1. Competition
Every form of life is in constant struggle with the impersonal forces of nature that
exist everywhere in the natural world. Almost all the societies have witnessed
competition in one form or the other. It is an elementary, universal and impersonal
form of social interaction. It is elementary in the sense that it is basic to all other
forms of interaction. Unknowingly all of us are involved in several ways in a vast
web of competitive relationships.
Competition therefore is one of the most important fundamental disintegrative
social processes. It is a form of opposition or social struggle. It is a contest among
individuals or groups to acquire something which has limited supply or insufficient
in quantity and not easily available. It is characterized by non-co-operation. Park
and Burgess define competition as ‘an interaction without social contact.’ E.S.
Bogardus define competition as ‘a contest to obtain something which does not
exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand.’ According to Majumdar,
‘Competition is the impersonalized struggle among resembling creatures for goods
and services which are scarce or limited in quantity.’ Horton and Hunt opine that,
‘competition is the struggle for possession of rewards which are limited in supply,
goods, status, and power, love anything.’ H.P. Fairchild states that, ‘Competition
is the struggle for the use or possession of limited goods.’

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 According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell, ‘Competition is an Community Dynamics

impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for

satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not have’. In the words
of Biesanz and Biesanz, ‘Competition is the striving of two or more persons or
groups for the same goal which is limited so that all cannot share it.’ From the NOTES
above definitions it may be concluded that competition is a process in which
individuals or groups try to obtain thing or things which have limited supply and
which they cannot achieve or share collectively.
Characteristics of Competition
A cursory review of the several definitions proposed by authors the characteristics
of competition can be listed below:
(a) Universal process: Competition is a universal process that exists in all
societies including the ecosystem.
(b) Continuous process: Yet another characteristic of competition is that it is
a never ending process. It is a continuous process and shall always be
present.
(c) Impersonal process: Competition is very impersonal in nature.
Competitors do not compete with each other but for the attainment of goals
which are scarce.
(d) Governed by norms: Competition of any kinds is governed by set rules.
Competition of any kind does not take place in the absence of rules and
regulations. Even the smallest of the game will have set rules and code of
conduct. Competitors are expected to use fair means to achieve success.
(e) Competition is impersonal struggle: Park and Burgess defined
competition as ‘interaction without social contact.’
(f) It is conducive to progress: Competition provides the individuals better
opportunities to satisfy their desires for new experiences and recognitions.
(g) It is unconscious: Competition is unconscious till it is not converted into a
personal rivalry. The competitors get into the role unconsciously while
focusing on the goals and rewards.
Roles of Competition
Competition is considered as a disintegrative process. However, several sociologists
especially the functionalists view competition in a positive way. According to them,
each and every process contributes in the development of the social world and
competition is no exception. Some sociologists say that it is even more basic than
the process of cooperation. Hobbes had remarked that the struggle is the basic
law of life. Rousseau and Hegel also corroborated their views. Later on, in Darwin’s
theory of evolution, the principle of ‘survival of the fittest’ also stressed the
importance of competition in society. The various roles that competition plays in
the society include:
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Community Dynamics (a) It serves the function of allocating scarce rewards among the competitors.
(b) It has the additional function of stimulating both individual and group activity
in a manner to increase the total productivity of the competitors. It furnishes
motivation to excel or to obtain recognition or to achieve reward.
NOTES
(d) It assigns place to each individual in the hierarchical social system. It
determines who is to perform what function.
(e) It tends to enhance one’s ego and helps in satisfying it.
(f) It is conducive to progress and welfare of the society. It spurs individuals
and groups to exert their best efforts to fulfil their goals.
2. Conflict
Yet another disintegrative process that must be taken into account during the process
of community organization is that of conflict. Conflict as a conscious form of
disintegrative social process is universal and is present in human society since time
immemorial. Unlike competition which is unconscious disintegrative process yet
not violent, conflict as a process is personal and becomes hostile.
Kingsley Davis defines conflict, ‘as a modified form of struggle.’ Maclver
and Page state that, ‘Social conflict included all activity in which men contend
against one another for any objective.’A.W. Green says, ‘conflict is the deliberate
attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others.’ Majumdar defines
that, ‘conflict is an opposition or struggle involving an emotional attitude of hostility
as well as violent interference with autonomous choice.’ Gillin and Gillin state that,
‘Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by
directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.’
Characteristics of Conflict
A review of several definitions of the term conflict outlines a number of characteristics.
These are:
(a) Universal process: Conflict is all pervasive and has existed in all societies
all the time. The process is said to have existed universally.
(b) Conscious process: Unlike competition which is an unconscious process,
the process of conflict is a conscious one. It is a deliberate act by the people
involved.
(c) Personal process: The process of conflict is also personal in nature. The
conflicting parties are aware of each other at a personal level and aim to
cause maximum loss to each other. Several sociologists have observed and
stated that conflict is a kind of personal struggle.
(d) Intermittent process: Unlike competition which is a continuous process,
conflict is not continuous but an intermittent process. Conflict can be seen
as taking place all of a sudden and end in the same way.

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 (e) Conflict is violence based: Sometimes conflict takes the form of violence. Community Dynamics

Violence is harmful to the growth of the society and retards the progress as
it creates a number of problems.
Causes of Conflict
NOTES
(a) According to Freud and some other psychologists, the innate instinct for
aggression in man is the main cause of conflict. Generally it arises from a
clash of interest within groups and societies and between groups and
societies. The significant causes are:
(b) Individual difference: It is true that, we, human beings, are not alike by
nature, attributes, interests, personalities etc. These differences may lead to
conflict among human beings.
(c) Cultural differences: The culture of a group differs from the culture of the
other group. The cultural differences among the groups sometimes cause
tension and lead to conflict.
(d) Differences of opinion regarding interest: In fact, the interests of different
people or groups occasionally clash. For example we can say that interests
of the employers and employees vary in many respects which may ultimately
leads to conflict among them.
(e) Social change: Social changes occur off and on in each and every society.
Conflict is an expression of social disequilibrium. Social change is the cultural
log which leads to conflict.

Check Your Progress

1. What is community dynamics?
2. What are the two categories of social process?
3. Define accommodation.
4. How does E.S. Bogardus define competition?

2.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Community dynamics is the process of change and development within

communities. It strives to bring about positive social change through
community-based programming.
2. Sociologists have classified social processes in many ways. Many of them
have classified them into two categories, namely, conjunctive social process
and disjunctive social process.

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Community Dynamics 3. Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man attains a
sense of harmony with his environment.
4. E.S. Bogardus define competition as ‘a contest to obtain something which
does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand.’
NOTES

2.5 SUMMARY

 Community dynamics is the process of change and development within

communities. It strives to bring about positive social change through
community-based programming.
 A clear understanding of community dynamics facilitates the development
projects and increases their chances of being successful.
 Sociologists have classified social processes in many ways. Many of them
have classified them into two categories, namely, conjunctive social process
and disjunctive social process.
 The major kinds of associative processes include co-operation,
accommodation, assimilation and acculturation.
 Dissociative social processes are also called the disintegrative or disjunctive
social processes.
 A few important types or dissociative processes are competition and conflict.
 One of the most basic forms of integrative processes within the community
is that of cooperation.
 According to A.W. Green, ‘Cooperation is the continuous and common
endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that
is commonly cherished.’
 The term accommodation refers to understanding, adjustment or agreement.
It is a process of getting along in spite of differences.
 The study of acculturation is the study of one aspect of culture change. In
case of two different cultures coming together, the study attempts to answer
the phenomenon of adapting to each other’s behaviours, languages, beliefs,
values, social institutions and technologies.
 Outlining the various ways that individuals and groups acculturate, Berry
identified two issues. The first is the degree to which people wish to maintain
their heritage, culture and identities. The second issue is the degree to which
people wish to have contact with those who are outside their group and
participate with them in the daily life of the larger society.
 Competition is considered as a disintegrative process. However, several
sociologists especially the functionalists view competition in a positive way.

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  Kingsley Davis defines conflict, ‘as a modified form of struggle.’ Maclver Community Dynamics

and Page state that, ‘Social conflict included all activity in which men contend
against one another for any objective.’

NOTES
2.6 KEY WORDS

 Assimilation: It means to become like others, or help another person to

adapt to a new environment.
 Acculturation: It is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change
that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing
culture of the society.
 Integration: It means to mix with and join society or a group of people,
often changing to suit their way of life, habits, and customs.

2.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What is the importance of community dynamics?
2. List the characteristics of cooperation.
3. What are the causes of conflict?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Examine the various integrative processes within a community.
2. Describe the different strategies and outcomes of acculturation.
3. Discuss the different disintegrative processes within a community.

2.8 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.

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Community Dynamics Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
NOTES
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.
Endnotes
1. R. Redfield, R. Linton, and M. J. Herskovits, “A Memorandum for the
Study of Acculturation,” American Anthropologist, XXXVIII (1936), 149-
52.
2. M.J. Herskovits, Man and his Works (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949),
p. 523.
3. Ralph Linton, Accultu,ation in Seven American Indian T,ibes (New York:
Appleton, 1940), pp.485

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 Leadership

UNIT 3 LEADERSHIP
Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Leadership: Definition and Characteristics
3.2.1 Theories of Leadership
3.3 Leadership Types in Different Communities
3.4 Symbols, Rituals, Apathy, Prejudice and Individual Predisposition
3.4.1 Community Power Structure and Political Organizations
3.4.2 Factions and Sub Groups in Community Organization
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you learnt about community dynamics. Here, the discussion
will turn towards leadership in community organizations.
Leadership is the art of motivating and influencing subordinates to perform
their duties ‘willingly’ and effectively to achieve the set community organizational
goals. It is important that the followers ‘willingly’ follow their leader. A true leader
motivates the followers to follow and induces a belief in them that they will gain by
the policies of the leader. A dictatorship under which the subordinate have to
perform, would not be considered as true leadership.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyse characteristics of leaders
 Explain various theories of leadership such as Trait Theory, Behavioural
Theory, Path-Goal Theory, Contingency Theories and so on
 Discuss various leadership styles such as autocratic, participative and laissez-
faire
 Examine community power structure and political organizations in the
community

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Leadership
3.2 LEADERSHIP: DEFINITION AND
CHARACTERISTICS

NOTES Leadership is an integral part of community organizational management and plays

a vital role in managerial operations. If there is any single factor that differentiates
between successful and unsuccessful community organizations, it could be
considered as dynamic and effective leadership. Perhaps, it would be a valid
assumption to state that the major cause of most business leaders, even though
management primarily relies on formal position power to influence people whereas
leadership stems from a social influence process. However, management is an
integral component of technical as well as social processes.
Leadership is not an attribute of business alone. In the army, in the
government, in universities, in hospitals and anywhere else where people work in
groups, the leadership function emerges. There must be somebody to guide that
group. The group leader may also be an informal leader, one who emerges from
the ranks of the group according to consensus of the members.
Leadership may be defined as the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates
to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement
of group objectives. Most management writers agree that, ‘leadership is the process
of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts towards goal
achievement in a given situation.’
It is important to have the element of willingness in the above definition. This
element differentiates successful and effective leaders from the ‘common run of
the managers’. Motivating and influencing people to move towards a common
goal are all essential elements of management but the ‘willingness’ of the followers
to be led, highlights a special quality that puts a leader high above others.
Based on these elements of the leadership function, the leadership may be
defined as:
L = F (f,g,w,s) where leadership (L) is a function (F) of
f = followers
g = goal
w = a measure of willingness on the part of subordinates, and
s = a given situation
Formal and Informal Leadership
Leadership can be formal or informal. The formal leadership occurs when a person
is appointed or elected as an authority figure. For example, anyone who is
appointed to the job of a manager is also given the authority to exercise formal
leadership in relationship to his subordinates. Similarly, a formally elected leader
of a country or a state acquires the authority of leadership and in giving direction
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42 Material
 The informal leadership emerges when a person uses interpersonal influence Leadership

in a group without designated authority or power. These leaders emerge in certain

situations because of their charm, intelligence, skills or other traits and to whom
other people turn to for advice, direction and guidance. Religious and civic leaders
fit into this category. Successful managers who exercise their given authority in a NOTES
formal way are also capable of exercising informal leadership relationships with
people both within as well as outside the organization.
Leadership characteristics
A leader has certain inherent qualities and traits which assist him in playing a directing
role and wielding commanding influence over others. Some of these traits according
to Jago are:
1. Energy, drive
2. Appearance, presentability
3. A sense of cooperativeness
4. Enthusiasm
5. Personality-height and weight
6. Initiative
7. Intelligence
8. Judgement
9. Self-confidence
10. Sociability
11. Tact and diplomacy
12. Moral courage and integrity
13. Will power and flexibility
14. Emotional stability
15. Knowledge of human relations
These traits are not universal in nature, nor do all the leaders have all these
traits. Not all these traits work all the time. While some of these characteristics
differentiate successful managers and leaders from unsuccessful ones, it is the
behaviour of the leaders, either as a result of these characteristics or otherwise,
which is more tangible and obvious and less abstract in nature. The leadership
behaviour is directly related to individual employee morale. These are some of the
indicators, which to some degree reflect the effectiveness of leadership behaviour.
Many studies have been conducted in order to identify and separate such
characteristics and personal traits that are unique to the behaviour of successful
leaders. These traits could then be set up as standards against which the profiles of
leaders could be matched and judged. However, such attempts have not been
successful. According to Ralph Stogdill, who studied the subject of leadership
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Leadership most extensively, ‘a person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession
of some combination of traits, but the pattern of personal characteristics, activities
and goals of the followers’.

NOTES 3.2.1 Theories of Leadership

Over the last 80 years, a number of different theories and approaches to studying
leadership have been developed. Prior to 1945, the most common approach to
the study of leadership concentrated on leadership traits. It was thought that leaders
possessed and exhibited some unique set of qualities that distinguished them from
their peers. Because this line of investigation did not produce consistent outcomes,
research centred on other theories such as behavioural and situational approaches
to leadership identification. These theories are examined in more detail as follows:
Trait Theory
The trait theory rests on the traditional approach which describes leadership in
terms of certain personal and special characteristics which are not acquired by
knowledge and training but are considered inherited. This theory emphasizes that
leaders are born and not made and that leadership is a function of inborn traits.
Some of these inborn traits are considered to be intelligence, understanding,
perception, high motivation, socio-economic status, initiative, maturity, need for
self-actualization, self-assurance and understanding of interpersonal human relations.
In the earlier studies, the existence of these traits became a measure of leadership.
It holds that possession of the traits permits certain individuals to gain position of
leadership. Since all individuals do not have these qualities, only those who have
them would be considered potential leaders. It was further believed that training
individuals to assume leadership roles was not possible and such training would
be helpful only to those who had these inborn leadership traits to start with.
The trait theory of leadership has suffered from lack of conclusiveness and
over-simplifications. As Eugene E. Jennings concluded, ‘fifty years of study have
failed to produce one personality trait or a set of qualities that can be used to
discriminate leaders and non-leaders.’ The old assumption that ‘leaders are born’
has never been substantiated in several decades of research. The critics have
charged that the theory focuses attention only on the leader and disregards the
dynamics of the leadership process. Also, the theory ignores the situational
characteristics which may result in the emergence of a leader.
Some of the other weaknesses and failures of trait theory are:
1. All the traits are not identical with regard to the essential characteristics
of a leader.
2. Some traits can be acquired by training and may not be inherited.
3. It does not identify the traits that are most important and those that
are least important in identifying a successful leader.

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 4. The traits required to ‘attain’ leadership may not be the same that are Leadership

required to ‘sustain’ leadership.

5. It fails to explain the many leadership failures in spite of the required
traits.
NOTES
6. It has been found that many traits exhibited by leaders are also found
among followers without explaining as to why followers could not
become leaders.
7. It ignores the environmental factors which may differ from situation to
situation.
8. It is difficult to define traits in absolute terms. Each trait can be explained
in variety of terms. For example, intelligence cannot be accurately.
9. The extent and influence of traits would also depend upon the level of
leadership in an organization. A supervisor of production, for example,
does not need or use the same traits as the president of the company.
The lower level management requires more technical skills while at
top level management, human and conceptual skills are highly significant.
Thus it would be unreasonable to assume that these traits are uniformly
distributed at all managerial levels.
The traits theory approach has been criticized as lacking predictability. There
are probably no personality traits that consistently distinguish the leader from his
followers. According to B. Solomon, ‘History is replete with non-trained, non-
academic Fords, Edisons and Carnegies who could not even claim a grammar
school education, yet managed to become leaders whose influences was felt around
the globe. As for appearance of robust health, need we mention more than the
delicate Gandhi or George Washington or Carver, the frail, shriveled, insignificant
little negro who was one of America’s greatest scientists and so many more like
them. As for high ideals and find character act, where would Hitler, Capone or
Attila the Hun rate here?’ Similarly, if tall people were more inclined to be leaders
then how could such short people as Nepolean or the most respected Prime
Minister of India, Lal Bahadur Shastri have risen to a high leadership gives rise to
a logical criticism against its validity.
Behaviour theory
This theory studies leadership by looking at leaders in terms of what they ‘do’.
This is in contrast to trait theory which seeks to explain leadership in terms of who
the leaders ‘are’. Thus according to behaviour theory, leadership is shown by a
person’s acts more than by his traits. The leadership effectiveness is determined in
terms of leader-subordinate interaction and outcome. Research studies conducted
by Katz, Maccoby and More, suggested that leadership behaviour be defined
along employee-centred dimension and production-centred dimension
complementing each other so that the employee’s performance and productivity is
enhanced.
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Leadership Further in-depth investigations into this approach have been conducted at
Ohio State University. These studies isolate two particular factors affecting the
leadership dimension. These are:
Consideration: It refers to the extent to which there is a rapport between the
NOTES
leader and the group, a mutual warmth and trust, a concern for the needs of the
members of the work group, an attitude that encourages participative management,
two-way communication and respect for the feedback of the followers.
Initiating structure: It refers to the extent to which a leader is task oriented and
his ability and concern in utilizing resources and personnel at Optimum level. It
involves creating a work environment so that the work of the group is organized,
coordinated, sequential and organizationally relevant so that people know exactly
what is to be done and how it is to be done. The structure involves having the
leader to organize and define the role each member is to assume, assign tasks to
them and push for the realization of organizational goals. An important discovery
made by the Ohio studies was that the leader does not necessarily have to rate
high both on consideration as well as structure element. He could be high on one
and low on the other and still lead the group successfully. Because initiating structure
dimension includes planning, coordinating, directing, problem solving, criticizing
poor work and pressuring subordinates to perform better and consideration means
friendliness and consultation with subordinates, these two elements may seem to
be in conflict with each other. However, according to Weissenberg and Kavanaugh,
these two elements are considered to be relatively independent dimensions of a
leader’s behaviour. This means that a high score on one dimension does not
necessarily mean a low score on the other. Thus, consideration and initiating
structure can be shown in various combinations as depicted in Figure 3.1:

Fig. 3.1 Combinations of Consideration and Initiating Structure

Thus a manager with high structure and high consideration rates high in directing
and controlling his subordinates and has a high level of concern and warmth towards
employees. Such managers have subordinates who are more satisfied, have fewer
grievances and stay longer with the organization. There is also evidence that such
managers who exhibit high levels of both consideration and initiating structure
generate higher levels of subordinate performances.
One advantage of this theory is that these two dimensions of leadership
behaviour are tangible and observable and do account for a major part of the

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leader behaviour. Even though a causal connection of these two dimensions with Leadership

performance has not been clearly demonstrated, their relationship to leadership

effectiveness has been quite obvious.

Managerial grid NOTES

Another aspect of Behavioural Theory of leadership is represented by the
Managerial Grid. It was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton and plays
an important part in managerial behaviour in organizational development. In general,
behavioural scientists have separated the two primary concerns in organizations,
namely, the concern for production and concern for people. They believed that a
high concern for production necessarily meant low concern for people and high
consideration for workers meant tolerance for low production. However, the
managerial grid model emphasized that both concerns should be integrated to
achieve the objectives of the organization. It assumes that people and production
factors are complementary to each other rather than mutually exclusive.
According to Rao and Narayana, the concern for production is not limited
to things only, and concern for people cannot be confined to narrow considerations
of interpersonal warmth and friendliness. Production can be measured in terms of
creative ideas of people that turn into useful products, processes or procedures,
efficiency of workers and quality of staff and auxiliary services. Similarly, concern
for people includes concern for the degree of personal commitment of
complementing the work requirement assigned to each person, accountability based
upon trust rather than fear or force, sense of job security and friendship with co-
workers leading to a healthy working climate.
The management grid is built on two axis, one representing the ‘people’ and
the other the ‘task’. Both the horizontal, as well as the vertical axis are treated as
a scale from 1 to 9 where 1 represents the least involvement and 9 represents the
most involvement, so that the coordinates (1, 1) would indicate minimum standards
for worker involvement and task design, and coordinates (9, 9) would indicate
maximum dedication of the workers and highly structured operations. Such an
involvement would reflect upon the managerial orientation towards tasks and
towards workers who are expected to perform such tasks. Blake and Mouton
have identified five coordinates that reflect various styles of leader behaviour. The
managerial grid figures and these styles are shown in Figure 3.2.:

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Leadership

NOTES

Fig. 3.2 Managerial Grid Diagram

The managerial grid diagram as shown in Figure 3.2 can be interpreted as

follows:
 Coordinates (1, 1). This represents an impoverished management and
the manager makes minimum efforts to get the work done. Minimum
standards of performance and minimum worker dedication.
 Coordinates (9, 1). Excellent work design. Well Established procedures.
Minimum worker interference. Orderly performance and efficient
operations.
 Coordinates (1, 9). Personal and meaningful relationship with people.
Friendly atmosphere and high morale. Loosely structured work design.
 Coordinates (9, 9). Ultimate in managerial efficiency. Thoroughly
dedicated people. Trustworthy and respectable atmosphere. Highly
organized task performances. Known as team management style, it relies
upon interdependence of relationships based upon commitment of
employees.
 Coordinates (5, 5). Known as the middle-of-the-road management style,
it is concerned with balancing the necessity to get the work done while
maintaining worker morale at a satisfactory level. The goal is to achieve
adequate organizational performance.
This managerial grid provides a reasonable indication of the health of the
organization as well as the ability of the managers. The model assumes that there
is one best or most effective style of management, which is the style indicated by
coordinates (9, 9) also known as team management style. It is the objective of all
management to move as close to this style as possible, for managers who emphasize
both high concern for people as well as productivity are presumed to be more
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successful. Accordingly, managers should be carefully selected on the basis of Leadership

their ability to coordinate people and tasks for optimum benefit.

The managerial grid model, however has become controversial on the basis
of lack of empirical evidence supporting whether the team management style is the
NOTES
best management style. Even Blake and Mouton offer conceptual, rather than
empirical arguments as to why the team management style should be the best
style, when conditions are favourable.
Contingency theories
All the leadership theories discussed so far attribute leadership performance on
the basis of certain traits or in terms of leader’s behaviours. The contingency theories
state that an analysis of leadership involves not only the individual traits and behaviour
but also a focus on the situation. The leadership behaviour is used in combination
with workgroup contingencies to predict performance outcomes. The effectiveness
of leader behaviour is contingent upon the demands imposed by the situation. The
focus is on the situation in which leadership is exercised and not upon the leader.
Different types of situations demand different situations. Similarly, a successful
leader under one set of circumstances may be a failure under a different set of
circumstances. For example, Winston Churchill was considered a successful prime
minister and an effective leader of England during World War II. However, he
turned out to be much less successful after the war when the situation changed.
The contingency approach, known also as situational approach defines
leadership in terms of his ability to handle a given situation and is based on the
leader’s skill in that given area. This approach can best be described by a
hypothetical example developed by Robert A. Baron. Imagine the following scene:
The top executives of a large corporation are going in their limousine to meet the
president of another large company at some distance. On the way, their limousine
breaks down many miles from any town. Who takes charge of the situation?
Who becomes the situational leader? Not the president or the vice-president of
the company, but the driver of the car who knows enough about the motor to get
the car started again. As he does or oversees the repair, he gives direct orders to
these top echelons of the organization, who comply. But once the car starts and
they arrive at the meeting, the driver surrenders his authority and becomes a
subordinate again.
This example suggests that in a given situation, the person most likely to act
as a leader is the one who is most competent for the situation or for a given group
as the case may be. Thus, in defiance of the trait theory, some shy and introvert
person may take command of leadership if he meets the group’s requirements
under given circumstances. However, it must be understood that it would require
the leaders to change their behaviour in order to fit the changed situation, if
necessary, rather than having to change the situation to suit the leadership behaviour
style. This means that the leaders must remain flexible and sensitive to the changing
needs of the given group.

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Leadership While this approach emphasizes that external pressures and situational
characteristics and not the personal traits and personality characteristics determine
the emergence of successful leaders in performing a given role, it is probably a
combination of both types of characteristics that sustains a leader over a long
NOTES period of time. A leader is more successful when his personal traits complement
the situational characteristics.
According to Szilagyi and Wallace, there are four contingency variables
that influence a leader’s behaviour. First, there are the characteristics of the leader
himself. These characteristics include the personality of the leader relative to his
ability to respond to situational pressures as well as his previous leadership style in
similar situation. The second variable relates to the characteristics of the
subordinates. The subordinates are important contributors to a given operational
situation. The situation will very much depend upon whether the subordinates
prefer a participative style of leadership and decision making and what their
motivations in this situation are. Are the subordinates motivated by intrinsic
satisfaction of performing the task well or do they expect other types of
reinforcements?
The third factor involves the group characteristics. If the group is highly
cohesive it will create a more cordial situation than if the group members do not
get along with each other so that the leadership style will vary accordingly. The
fourth situational factor relates to the organizational structure. The organizational
structure is the formal system of authority, responsibility and communication within
the company. Factors system of authority, responsibility and communication within
the company. Factors such as hierarchy of authority, centralized or decentralized
decision making and formal rules and regulations would affect the leader behaviour.
All these factors are diagrammatically shown in Figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Contingency Variables

Contingency theories of leadership attempt to account systematically for

any relationship between situational factors and leadership effectiveness. There
are four such main theories that have been proposed. These are discussed in more
detail as follows:
Fiedler’s contingency theory
Fred Fiedler was one of the earliest proponents of a leadership model that explicitly
Self-Instructional accounted for situational factors. He proposed, in 1967, a theoretical explanation
50 Material
for interaction of three situational variables which affect the group performances. Leadership

These three variables are (1) leader-member relations, (2) task structure and (3)
leader’s positional power. These variables determine the extent of the situational
control that the leader has.
NOTES
Leader-member relations: This relationship reflects the extent to which the
followers have confidence and trust in their leader as to his leadership ability. A
situation in which the leader-member relations are relatively good with mutual trust
and open communications is much easier to manage than a situation where relations
are strained.
Task structure: It measures the extent to which the tasks performed by
subordinates are specified and structured. It involves clarity of goals, as well as
clearly established and defined number of steps required to complete the task.
When the tasks are well structured and the rules, policies and procedures clearly
written and understood, then there is little ambiguity as to how the job is to be
accomplished.
Position power: Position power refers to the legitimate power inherent in the
leader’s organizational position. It refers to the degree to which a leader can make
decisions about allocation of resources, rewards and sanctions. Low position power
indicates limited authority. A high position power gives the leader the right to take
charge and control the situation as it develops.
The most favourable situation for the leader then would be when the leader
group relations are positive, the task is highly structured and the leader has substantial
power and authority to exert influences on the subordinates. The leadership model
proposed by Fiedler measures the leadership orientation and effectiveness with a
differential type of attitude scale which measures the leader’s esteem for the ‘least
preferred co-worker’ or LPC as to whether or not the person the leader least like
to work with is viewed in a positive or negative way. For example, if a leader
would describe his least preferred co-worker in a favourable his least preferred
co-worker in a favourable way with regards to such factors as friendliness, warmth,
helpfulness, enthusiasm, and so on then he would be considered high on LPC
scale. In general a high LPC score leader is more relationship oriented and a low
LPC score leader is more task-oriented.
A high LPC leader is most effective when the situation is reasonably stable
and requires only moderate degree of control. The effectiveness stems from
motivating group members to perform better and be dedicated towards goal
achievement. A low LPC leader would exert pressure on the subordinates to work
harder and produce more. These pressures would be directed through organizational
rules, policies and expectations.
One of the basic conclusions that can be drawn from Fiedler’s contingency
model is that a particular leadership style may be more effective in one situation
and the same style may be totally ineffective in another situation, and since a
leadership style is more difficult to change, the situation should be changed to suit
the leadership style. The situation can be made more favourable by enhancing Self-Instructional
Material 51
Leadership relations with subordinates, by changing the task structure or by gaining more
formal power which can be used to induce a more conducive work setting based
upon personal leadership style. Fiedler and his associates also developed a
leadership training programme known as LEADER MATCH, giving the manager
NOTES some means and authority to change the situation so that it becomes more
compatible with the leader’s LPC orientation. Studies conducted by Strube Garcia
have shown strong support for Fiedler’s approach.
Path-goal theory
The path-goal theory of leadership, as proposed by House and Mitchell, proposes
that the effectiveness of leaders can be measured from their impact on their
subordinates’ motivation, their ability to perform effectively and their satisfaction
with their tasks. This model emphasizes that the leader behaviour be such as to
compliment the group work setting and aspirations so that it increases the
subordinate goal achievement level and clarifies the paths to these goals. This
approach is based upon the expectancy theory of motivation and reflects the
worker’s beliefs that effort would lead to successful outcomes. The leader sets up
clear path and clear guidelines through which the subordinates can achieve both
personal as well as work related goals and assists them in achieving these goals.
This will make the leader behaviour acceptable and satisfying to subordinates
since they see the behaviour of the leader as an immediate source of satisfaction
or as a source of obtaining future satisfaction.
This approach is largely derived from the path-goal approach motivation.
To motivate workers, the leader should:
(a) Recognize subordinate needs for outcomes over which the leader has
some control.
(b) Arrange for appropriate rewards to his subordinates for goal
achievement.
(c) Help subordinates in clearly establishing their expectations.
(d) Demolish, as far as possible, the barriers in their path of goal
achievement.
(e) Increase opportunities for personal satisfaction which are contingent
upon satisfactory performance.
The path-goal model takes into consideration the different types of leadership
behaviour. There are four such types of leadership styles that would support this
approach depending upon the nature of the situation.
These are:
Directive: Directive leadership is the style in which the leader provides guidance
and direction to subordinates regarding job requirements as well as methodology
for job accomplishment. This style is required when the demands of the task on
hand are ambiguous and not clearly defined. But when the task is inherently clear
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or clarification is otherwise available, then a high level of directive leadership is not Leadership

required and may, in fact impede performance.

Supportive: Supportive leadership is a style in which the leader is concerned with
the needs and well-bring of his subordinates. The leader is friendly and approachable
NOTES
and treats his subordinates as equals. This approach has the most positive effect,
specifically on the satisfaction of those followers who are working on unpleasant,
stressful or frustrating tasks that are highly repetitive.
Achievement-oriented: This type of support helps the subordinates to strive for
higher performance standards and increase confidence in their ability to meet
challenging goals. This is especially true for followers who have clear cut and non-
repetitive assignments.
Participative: This leadership approach encourages subordinate’s participation
in the decision making process. The leader solicits subordinate’s suggestions and
takes the suggestions into consideration before making decisions.
The contingency factors
The specific leadership style that is most effective is contingent upon two situational
factors. These factors are:
Characteristics of subordinates: The leadership style selected by the leader
should be compatible with the ability, experience, needs, motivations and
personalities of the followers. Subordinates who perceive their own ability to be
high would not appreciate a directive approach and would be highly motivated by
a supportive leadership style. People who believe that what happens to them is a
result of their own behaviour are more satisfied with a participative leadership
style and people who believe that what happens to them is a matter of chance or
luck, prefer a directive style of leadership.
Environmental factors: The environmental factors are those which are beyond
the control of the subordinates but are significant in affecting their satisfaction or
on their ability to perform effectively. These include the structure of the work
tasks, openness of communication, extent of feedback provided, formal authority
system of the organization and the nature of interaction within the work group. If
the task is one of a routine nature and well-structured, and the organizational
authority system is formal and the group norms are clear and respected, then a
directive leadership style will be unnecessary. Additionally, such a leadership will
be motivational which helps subordinates cope with the environmental uncertainties,
environmental sources of threats and frustration and remove any other barriers to
performance and also make sure that subordinates’ satisfactory performance is
adequately rewarded.

Life-cycle theory

The life-cycle theory of leadership has been developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth
Blanchard. The model focuses on the ‘maturity’ of the followers as a contingency
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Leadership variable affecting the style of leadership. The ‘maturity’ of the subordinates can be
defined as their ability and willingness to take responsibility for directing their own
behaviour in relation to a given task. The level of such maturity would determine
the leader’s emphasis on task behaviours (giving guidance and direction) and
NOTES relationship behaviour (providing socio-emotional support). ‘Task behaviour’ can
be defined as the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and
people what to do, how to do it, when to do it, where to do it and who is to do it.
Task behaviour is characterized by one-way communication from the leader to
the follower and this communication is meant to direct the subordinate to achieve
his goal.
Similarly, ‘relationship behaviour’ is defined as the extent to which the leader
engages in two-way or multi-way communication. The behaviours include listening,
facilitating and supportive behaviours. ‘Maturity is the crux of the life-cycle theory.
It has been defined previously as reflecting the two elements of ability and the
willingness on the part of the followers. Ability is the knowledge, experience and
skill that an individual or a group has in relation to a particular task being performed
and the willingness refers to the motivation and commitment of the group to
successfully accomplish such given tasks.’
The style of leadership would depend upon the level of maturity of the
followers. Figure 3.4 diagram suggests four different styles of leadership for each
stage of maturity and a particular style in relationship to its relative level of maturity
is considered to be the best ‘match’.

Fig. 3.4 Styles of Leadership

Source: Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard, ‘Management of Organizational Behaviour’:
Utilizing Human Resources.’ Prentice Hall, 1982, p.152.
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54 Material
These various combinations of leadership styles and levels of maturity are explained Leadership

in more details as follows:

(S1) Telling: The ‘telling’ style is best for low follower maturity. The followers
feel very insecure about their task and are unable and unwilling to accept
NOTES
responsibility in directing their own behaviour. Thus, they require specific directions
as to what, how and when to do various tasks so that a directive leadership
behaviour is more effective.
(S2) Selling: The ‘selling’ style is most suitable where followers have low to
moderate maturity. The leader offers both task direction and socio-emotional
support for people who are unable to take responsibility. The followers are confident
but lack skills. It involves high task behaviour and high relationship behaviour.
(S3) Participating: This leadership approach involves high relationship behaviour
and low task behaviour and is suitable for followers with moderate to high maturity
where they have the ability but are unwilling to accept responsibility requiring a
supportive leadership behaviour to increase their motivation. The leader has open
door policy with open channels of communication and encourages his followers to
perform their tasks well.
(S4) Delegating: Here the employees have both, the high job maturity and high
psychological maturity. They are both able and willing to be accountable for their
responsibility towards task performance and require little guidance and direction.
It involves low relationship and low task leader behaviour.
The life-cycle theory of leadership requires that leaders attend to the demands of
the situation as well as the feelings of the followers, and adjust their styles with the
changing levels of maturity of the followers so as to remain consistent with the
actual levels of maturity.
Personal Characteristics of Leaders
Leadership is an intangible quality and its effectiveness can best be judged by the
behaviour and attitudes of followers. Even though, personal backgrounds and
personalities differ widely, some of the factors such as education and socio-economic
status are poor indicators of judgments of successful leaders. However, some
behavioural characteristics may be common to most of the successful and effective
leaders. Some of these characteristics are:
Ability to inspire others: This ability may be due to an internal ‘charisma’ which
is an inborn trait and may not be a learnable factor.
Problem solving skills: An effective leader has developed the patience and
ability to look at the problem from various angles and get down to the cause of the
problem and he tries to solve the problem from its roots rather than the symptoms
of the problem.
Emotional maturity: Emotional stability and maturity is a major ingredient for
effective leadership. It pertains to good adjustment to life, calm, cool and calculated
reaction to undesirable situations and obstacles and normal acceptance of success Self-Instructional
Material 55
Leadership as well as failure. Such leaders are self-confident, rational and are open hearted
towards differences in opinions and opposing viewpoints. They generally have a
happy family life and have a balanced outlook towards life and the world. They
are warm and sensitive and not vindictive in nature.
NOTES
Ability to understand human behaviour: A leader must understand the needs,
desires and behaviour of his subordinates and show respect for such desires. He
is emotionally supportive and is careful enough to avoid ego threatening behaviour.
He must give credit to subordinates when their efforts are successful.
Verbal assertiveness: A leader must be an effective orator and must be confident
of his views and opinions. He must communicate his views honestly and in a straight
forward manner without fear of consequences.
Willingness to take risks: Routine work, no matter how well-done, never makes
a leader. Successful leaders always charter the unknown. They must accept and
seek new challenges. However, the risks must be calculated ones and outcomes
of actions be reasonably predicted. Should these risks result in failure, a leader
must take full blame and responsibility and not shift blame on others, even though
they may be operative factors. He must be willing to tolerate frustration and defeat
and learn from these failures.
Dedication to organizational goals: A leader must demonstrate his dedication
and commitment to the organization’s mission, goals and objectives by hard work
and self-sacrifice. He must make sure that his followers fully understand the
organizational objectives and are equally dedicated and willing to work for these
objectives.
Skill in the art of compromise: Setting differences is a valid part of leadership
and genuine differences must be solved by compromise and consensus. This will
induce faith in the fairness of the leader. He must be willing to give in where necessary
and must be able to take criticism with grace. However, he must not compromise
for the sake of compromising or just smooth sailing only and must be willing to
take a stand on controversial issues and accept the consequences of his stand.

3.3 LEADERSHIP TYPES IN DIFFERENT

COMMUNITIES

The leadership styles can be classified according to the philosophy of the leaders.
What the leader does determines how well he leads. A style of leadership is a
‘relatively enduring set of behaviours which is a characteristic of the individuals,
regardless of the situation.’ Some of the more significant leadership style are
discussed as follows:
Autocratic or dictatorial leadership
Autocratic leaders keep the decision making authority and control in their own
hands and assume full responsibility for all actions. Also, they structure the entire
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56 Material
work situation in their own way and expect the workers to follow their orders and Leadership

tolerate no deviation from their orders. The subordinates are required to implement
instructions of their leaders without question. They are entirely depended on their
leader and the output suffers in the absence of the leader.
NOTES
The autocratic leadership style ranges from tough and highly dictatorial to
paternalistic, depending upon whether the leader’s motivational approach is threat
and punishment or appreciation and rewards. In highly autocratic situations, the
subordinates develop a sense of insecurity, frustration, low morale and they are
induced to avoid responsibility, initiative and innovative behaviour. The autocratic
leader believes that his leadership is based upon the authority conferred upon him
by some source such as his position, knowledge, strength or the power to punish
and reward. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of autocratic leadership
are as follows:
Advantages
(a) Autocratic leadership is useful when the subordinates are new on the job
and have had no experience either in the managerial decision making process
or performing without active supervision.
(b) It can increase efficiency and even morale when appropriate and get quicker
results, specially in a crisis or emergency when the decision must be taken
immediately.
(c) The paternalistic leadership is useful when the subordinate are not interested
in seeking responsibility or when they feel insecure at the job or when they
work better under clear and detailed directives.
(d) It is useful when the chain of command and the division of work is clear and
understood by all and there is little room for error in the final accomplishment.
Disadvantages
(a) One way communication without feedback leads to misunderstanding and
communications breakdown.
(b) An autocratic leader makes his own decisions which can be very dangerous
in this age of technological and sociological complexity.
(c) Since it inhibits the subordinate’s freedom, it fails to develop his commitment
to the goals and objectives of the organization.
(d) Since it creates an environment which provides for worker resentment, it
creates problems with their morale resulting in poor productivity in the long
run.
(e) It is unsuitable when the work force is knowledgeable about their jobs and
the job calls for team work and cooperative spirit.

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Leadership Participative or democratic leadership
In this type of leadership, the subordinates are consulted and their feedback is
taken into the decision making process. The leader’s job is primarily of a moderator,
NOTES even though he makes the final decision and he alone is responsible for the results.
The management recognizes that the subordinates are equipped with talents and
abilities and that they are capable of bringing new ideas and new methodologies to
work setting. Thus the group members are encouraged to demonstrate initiative
and creativity and take intelligent interest in setting plans and policies and have
maximum participation in decision making. This ensures better management-labour
relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. This type of leadership is
especially effective when the workforce is experienced and dedicated and is able
to work independently with least directives, thereby developing a climate which is
conducive to growth and development of the organization as well as the individual
personality. The feasibility and usefulness of the participative decision making style
is dependent on the following factors:
1. Since participative decision making process is time consuming, there should
be no urgency to the decision.
2. The cost of participation of subordinates in the decision making should not
be more than the benefits derived from the decision.
3. The input from the subordinates should be free from any fear of repercussions
in case such input in conflict with the views held by the management.
4. The participation of subordinates should not be of such a degree as to be
perceived as a threat to the formal authority of management.
5. Subordinates should be sufficiently responsible so that there is no leakage
of confidential information to outside elements.
In such situations, participative style of decision making has several
advantages. These are:
(a)Active participation in the managerial operations by labour assures rising
productivity and satisfaction.
(b)Workers develop a greater sense of self-esteem due to importance given
to their ideas and their contribution.
(c)The employees become more committed to changes that may be brought
by policy changes, since they themselves participated in bringing about
these changes.
(d)The leadership induces confidence, cooperation and loyalty among
workers.
(e)It results in higher employee morale.
(f) It increases the participants’ understanding of each other which results
in greater tolerance and patience towards others.
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58 Material
 It has been demonstrated by numerous researches that participation by Leadership

subordinates improves quality of work, enhances an easy acceptance of changes

in the organization and improves morale and loyalty.
Notwithstanding numerous advantages and great reliance on participative
NOTES
leadership, it has several disadvantages. Some of these are:
(a)The democratic leadership requires some favourable conditions in that
the labour must be literate, informed and organized. This is not always
possible.
(b)This approach assumes that all workers are genuinely interested in the
organization and that their individual goals are successfully fused with
the organizational goals. This assumption may not always be valid.
(c)There must be total trust on the part of management as well as employees.
Some employees may consider thus approach simply an attempt to
manipulate them. Accordingly, the employees must be fully receptive to
this approach to make it meaningful.
(d)Some group members may feel alienated if their ideas are not accepted
for action. This may create a feeling of frustration and ill-will.
(e)This approach is very time consuming and too may viewpoints and ideas
may make the solid decision more difficult and may be a source of
frustration to impatient management.
(f) Some managers may be uncomfortable with this approach because they
may fear an erosion of their power base and their control over labour.
(g)This approach relies heavily on incentives and motivation of recognition,
appreciation, status and prestige. However, labour may be interested in
financial incentives instead of prestige.
Laissez-faire or free-reign leadership
In this type of leadership, the leader is just a figure-head and does not give any
direction but delegates the authority to subordinates so that they must plan, motivate,
control and otherwise be responsible for their own actions. The leader acts
principally as a liaison between the group and the outside elements and supplies
necessary materials and information to group members. He lets the subordinates
develop their own techniques for accomplishing goals within the generalized
organizational policies and objectives. The leader participates very little and instead
of leading and directing, he becomes just one of the members. He does not attempt
to intervene or regulate or control and there is complete group or individual freedom
in decision making. This type of leadership is highly effective when the group
members are highly intelligent and are fully aware of their roles and responsibilities
and have the knowledge and skills to accomplish these tasks without direct
supervision.

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Leadership This type of leadership is evident in research laboratories where the scientists
are fairly free to conduct their research and make their decisions. Similarly, in a
university or a college, the chairperson of a division does not interfere in the
professor’s teaching method, but only assigns the courses to be taught. From then
NOTES onwards, the professors area very much their own leaders.
Advantages
(a) It creates an environment of freedom, individuality as well as team spirit.
(b) It is highly creative with a free and informal work environment.
(c) This approach is very useful where people are highly motivated and
achievement oriented.
Disadvantages
(a) It may result in disorganized activities which may lead to inefficiency and
chaos.
(b) Insecurity and frustration may develop due to lack of specific decision-
making authority and guidance.
(c) The team spirit may suffer due to possible presence of some uncooperative
members.
(d) Some members may put their own interests above the group and team
interests.
Check Your Progress
1. List some traits of a good leader.
2. Define trait theory.
3. What are the advantages of autocratic leadership?
4. What are the disadvantages of democratic leadership?

3.4 SYMBOLS, RITUALS, APATHY, PREJUDICE

AND INDIVIDUAL PREDISPOSITION

Understanding communities is one of the key requirements before any kind of

community organization can take place. Within communities there are certain
elements that bind them and few others that break them apart.
Communities of today are facing lots of challenges. The ancient social
relations, emotional bonds and sentimental ties are no more significant and visible.
The community consciousness is rapidly lowering down. Dirty politics has entered
into the peaceful life of the community people and they are divided into different
political groups and sub-groups. The joint family system is fast disintegrating and
strains on human mind are increasing. Communal disharmony, gender inequality,
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among different classes like cultivators, industrial workers, daily wage earners, Leadership

alteration of property relations in favour of the less privileged and impact of macro
policies at micro levels are some current issues which require immediate intervention
while working with communities, institutions and organizations.
NOTES
The section shall provide a broad understanding of issues, which are affecting
the dynamics of the healthy life-styles and functioning of the communities and
organizations.
Let us begin by discussing the role of symbols.
Role of Symbols in Community Organization
Someone might not accept that symbols play an important role in community
organization. However, the symbols play a very vital role in the process of
community organization. ‘Symbols’ speak to the wholeness of being human. They
are holistic in that our intellect and psyche come together in symbols to express the
otherwise inexpressible. Symbols have a past, present and future. Our collective
memory, our present understanding and dreams for the future can be united in
symbols.
Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines symbol as ‘something
that stands for or suggests something else by reason of relationship, association,
convention, or accidental resemblance.’ Building on this definition several theorists
propose that symbols can be physical objects or artefacts, individual or groups
behaviours, as well as verbal expressions.
The integral elements of symbol are unlimited, bounded only by human
experience and creativity. Colour, form, sound, gesture, movement, texture, pitch,
and rhythm and so on impart a unique quality as ‘read’ by the group or individual.
The power inherent in symbols is the ability to speak to the innermost depths of
our individuality while binding us to the collective whole of the group. Symbols
from time immemorial have been significant in societies across the world. Homo
sapiens with their gifted abilities especially the mind, beautifully constructed the
role of symbols in life around them. According to Dr. Nandkumar, the symbol, it
would appear then, is a natural starting point of a journey of discovery and
realization; the starting point, the face set towards the goal, the ardour of journey
all are somehow implied in the symbol.
Over the years, symbols began to interpret all the aspects of human life
including religion. In fact the very nature of religious truths being intangible gave
rise to the maximum use of symbols that added to interpretation and greater
understanding of religious truths. Symbols therefore have certain characteristics
which are listed below:
 Symbols are understood as well as believed.
 Symbols help in translating the abstract to concrete.
 Symbols introduce unknown to familiar.
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Leadership  Symbols provide models to guide.
 Symbols assist in greater understanding.
Symbols have very important and necessary functional properties. These
NOTES play a very important role in the entire process of community organization. The
functions of symbol include:
 Symbols act as a medium for transmitting the culture.
 Symbols facilitate securing the group.
 Symbols promote social harmony.
 Symbols safeguard social sentiments and ideals.
Role of Rituals in Community Organization
Similar to symbols, rituals also play very important functions in communities and in
the process of community organization. Like symbols, the language of rituals is
symbolic and they have the abilities to transmit complex meanings. According to
D’Aquili, Laughlin, and McManus, ‘the ritual activities engage both right and left
brain modes of processing information.’1
According to Moore & Myeroff, ‘A ritual is a set of behaviours given special
meaning and set apart from ordinary daily life.’2 Myeroff further writes, ‘Rituals
have significance far beyond the information transmitted. They may accomplish
tasks, accompany routine and instrumental procedures, but they always go beyond
them, endowing some larger meaning to activities they are associated with.’3
According to Driver, ‘Rituals provide a moment to step back from the routine
and experience oneself as being part of the larger group. One experiences an
enhanced sense of self with the awareness of connection to the community.’4
Within the communities ritual have major roles to play. Several sociologists
that align with the functionalists’ perspective have outlined the functions that rituals
play within a society. Accordingly rituals are believed to fulfil the following functions:
 Rituals influence community spirit, by mirroring the community and its
values, sustaining its social order, and highlighting connections within the
community.5
 In addition, rituals promote the stability of the group, provide a safe
setting for addressing personal and social problems, and validate the
society’s customary way of doing things. 6
 Furthermore, rituals go beyond preserving the status quo; they can also
be an agent of transformation for both individuals and groups.7
Rituals also pass through at least three stages. According to Van Gennep,
rituals include three stages.8 The first stage is Separation, during which preparations
are made, knowledge is passed on, and the scene is set for the ritual. The second
one is the Transitional stage, when the participants experience and take part in the
ritual events. The third one is the Incorporation stage, in which people reconnect
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with their community, bearing their new status, and bringing with them new Leadership

information and awareness.

Role of Apathy in Community Organization
While the symbol and rituals contribute positively towards the process of community NOTES
organization, certain elements exist that hamper the process of community
organization and often jeopardize the projects for their wellbeing. Apathy is one
such element which must be taken care of in order to ensure smooth functioning of
community projects.
Apathy is defined as ‘a lack of interest or concern’ and can also result in
many problems within communities that suffer from this ailment. Identifying and
recognizing early warning signs of apathy are very important in being able to prevent,
or otherwise, address it.
Apathy can result in:
 Lack of communities’ interest in the projects related to them.
 Lack of volunteers to serve in the projects tailored for their wellbeing.
 Reduced trust on stakeholders involved in the project.
 Decrease in social cohesion.
 Decrease in joint or collaborative social action.
Role of Prejudice in Community Organization
Prejudice has been prevalent throughout human history. It has impacted communities
irrespective of the societies. Every society has witnessed prejudice at some point
of time between its members. Prejudice has to do with the inflexible and irrational
attitudes and opinions held by members of one group about another. Being
prejudiced usually means having preconceived beliefs about groups of people or
cultural practices.
Prejudice affects the everyday lives of millions of people across the globe.
Prejudice held by individuals unnaturally forces on others who are targets of their
prejudice a false social status that strongly influences who they are, what they
think, and even the actions they take. Prejudice shapes what the targets of prejudice
think about the world and life in general, about the people around them, and how
they feel about themselves. Importantly, prejudice greatly influences what people
expect from the future and how they feel about their chances for self-improvement,
referred to as their life chances. All of these considerations define their very identity
as individuals.
Community organization can be severely affected if prejudice is not controlled
in a timely and effective manner. Several examples exist where merely being
prejudiced against a particular section of the society has cost it gravely. In India,
we have witnessed a prejudiced caste system, prejudiced gender relations and all
the more that has surely hampered our growth.
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Leadership Sociologists and psychologists hold that some of the emotionality in prejudice
stems from subconscious attitudes that cause a person to ward off feelings of
inadequacy by projecting them onto a target group. By using certain people as
scapegoats—those without power who are unfairly blamed—anxiety and
NOTES uncertainty are reduced by attributing complex problems to a simple cause: ‘Those
people are the source of all my problems.’ Social research across the globe has
shown that prejudice is fundamentally related to low self esteem. By hating certain
groups (in this case, minorities), people are able to enhance their sense of self
worth and importance.
Social scientists have also identified some common social factors that may
contribute to the presence of prejudice and discrimination:
 Socialization. Many prejudices seem to be passed along from parents
to children. The media—including television, movies, and advertising—
also perpetuate demeaning images and stereotypes about assorted
groups, such as ethnic minorities, women, gays and lesbians, the disabled,
and the elderly.
 Conforming behaviours. Prejudices may bring support from significant
others, so rejecting prejudices may lead to losing social support. The
pressures to conform to the views of families, friends, and associates
can be formidable.
 Economic benefits. Social studies have confirmed that prejudice
especially rises when groups are in direct competition for jobs. This
may help to explain why prejudice increases dramatically during times
of economic and social stress.
 Authoritarian personality. In response to early socialization, some
people are especially prone to stereotypical thinking and projection based
on unconscious fears. People with an authoritarian personality rigidly
conform, submit without question to their superiors, reject those they
consider to be inferiors, and express intolerant sexual and religious
opinions. The authoritarian personality may have its roots in parents
who are unloving and aloof disciplinarians. The child then learns to control
his or her anxieties via rigid attitudes.
 Ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate others’ cultures
by one’s own cultural norms and values. It also includes a suspicion of
outsiders. Most cultures have their ethnocentric tendencies, which usually
involve stereotypical thinking.
 Group closure. Group closure is the process whereby groups keep
clear boundaries between themselves and others. Refusing to marry
outside an ethnic group is an example of how group closure is
accomplished.
 Conflict theory. Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their
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 invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority Leadership

groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of

violence against others to protect their interests. As a result, members of
underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to
improve their circumstances. NOTES
For decades, sociologists have looked to ways of reducing and eliminating
conflicts and prejudices between groups:
 One theory, the self esteem hypothesis, is that when people have an
appropriate education and higher self esteem, their prejudices will go
away.
 Another theory is the contact hypothesis, which states that the best
answer to prejudice is to bring together members of different groups so
they can learn to appreciate their common experiences and backgrounds.
 A third theory, the cooperation hypothesis, holds that conflicting groups
need to cooperate by laying aside their individual interests and learning
to work together for shared goals.
 A fourth theory, the legal hypothesis, is that prejudice can be eliminated
by enforcing laws against discriminative behaviour.
Role of Individual Predisposition in Community Organization
Individual predisposition within community organization can have both positive
and negative impact. In its basic form an individual predisposition is a process of
creating their own ‘subjective social reality’ from their perception of the input. An
individual’s construction of social reality, not the objective input, may dictate their
behaviour in the social world.9
Individual predisposing factors in the communities can function as targets
for change in public discourse and dispositions in both positive and negative ways.
The following are different kinds of predisposing factors that affect the community
organization process and must be clearly understood:
 Awareness and Knowledge: Presence of knowledge is not always
sufficient for bringing individual or collective behaviour change. For any
positive change in a community based project, a level of awareness in
anticipated in an individual. Also the level of knowledge and awareness
are intrinsic to an individual and vary from person to person.
 Beliefs: Beliefs are convictions that something is real or true. These
differ within the communities, cultures and even families.
 Values: Values are the moral and ethical propositions people use to
justify their actions. They determine whether people consider any
behaviours to be right or wrong. Similar values tend to be held by people
who share generation, geography, history, or ethnicity. Values are
considered to be more entrenched and thus less open to change than
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Leadership beliefs or attitudes. Of interest is the fact that people often hold conflicting
values.
 Attitudes: Attitudes are relatively constant feelings directed toward
something or someone that always contain an evaluative dimension.
NOTES
Attitudes can always be categorized as positive or negative. Attitudes
are distinct from values in that they are directed toward specific persons,
objects, or actions and are based on one or more values. They differ
from beliefs in that they always include some evaluation of the person,
object or action.
 Existing Skills: If a person does not possess certain skills that are
necessary for completion of a specific behaviour, then acquiring those
skills would fall under the category of enabling factors. If, however, a
person comes to a situation already equipped with the skills needed to
successfully perform the behaviour, then those skills may predispose
that person to behave in a particular fashion and thus are considered
predisposing factors.
 Self-Efficacy: Self efficacy is an important individual predisposition
that plays a significant role in community organization. It is the person’s
perception of how successful he or she can be in performing a particular
behaviour.
3.4.1 Community Power Structure and Political Organizations
Power in a community is the ability to affect the decision making process and the
use of resources, both public and private, within a community. Power is not a dirty
word and must not be taken into consideration negatively. Power is simply the
capacity to bring about change. It is the energy that gets things done. For an
effective community organization it is necessary and important to know about
community power structures in order to more effectively implement and maintain
projects that are meant for the benefits of the locally led conservation initiatives.
To completely understand the concept of power forces us to look into the
sources and structures that influence local communities. It is very important to do
this exercise and explore the relationships that shape cooperative efforts.
Power in communities has many sources and therefore can come from a
variety of places. The following sources of power are commonly found in
communities:
 Connections - the ability to network and build useful relationships with
other powerful individuals and organizations.
 Large numbers of people - provide evidence of support for an idea.
 Rewards - the ability to give recognition, visibility, money, or other tangible
items.

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  Personal traits - an individual’s charisma, creativity, charm, leadership Leadership

abilities or some combination of these characteristics can foster the

respect and loyalty of others.
 Legitimate power - the position (office, title) of the leader. Usually, the
NOTES
higher the office, the more powerful the person.
 Expertise - knowledge, skill, and talent, combined with respect for the
skill.
 Information - the ability to channel - or withhold - information.
 Coercion - the attempt to influence others using a negative style, such as
using intimidation or manipulation.
Sociologists have also proposed various theories to identify kinds of power
structures that exist within the society and deeply affect the communities. One of
the kinds is the pluralist power structure. In the pluralist structure, power is
distributed among many groups. These groups may include coalitions of like-minded
people, unions, professional associations and business lobbyists. Another important
power structure is the elitist structure. The elitist power structure is characterised
by a small group of individuals controlling the power, resources, and agenda of the
public. The hierarchical structure has few at the top making decisions and rules for
the rest. Yet another power structure which is not so relevant in today’s capitalist
world is that of class power structure proposed and promoted by Marxist
ideology. According to the theory those that control the economy, control the
political agenda.
Understanding power structures is very important in order to take better
decisions for community organization. Following are the important take away in
favour of power structures:
 Know who has the authority to make community decisions
 Know who controls/influences resources
 Know who is not part of the decision making process that should be.
 Know how to build community power from both within and outside of
the community.
 Enable us to develop more inclusive, effective community programs.
3.4.2 Factions and Sub Groups in Community Organization
Factionalism is referred to as the competition between factions with an ultimate
objective of controlling or having access to scarce resources or power. The
phenomenon is evidently present in many forms in all parts of the world. Several
anthropologists and sociologists have undertaken numerous studies on factionalism
and factions. Most of the studies can be categorised into three main types:

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Leadership  Village studies
 Studies on factions within political parties
 Attempts at generalisations of politics of factionalism in Indian political system
NOTES In the context of villages, it is an important social process connected with
the power structure. In the context of political parties factionalism refers to the
conflict or competition between or among several groups to capture the party
organization. The objective of such conflict is always power. Thus factionalism
refers to antagonism between groups. Factionalism is an intrinsic part of political
life. In many societies factions have become endemic with a range of cultural and
symbolic trappings.
A review of numerous studies undertaken on factions in villages and political
parties reveal that dissociative nature of factionalism. The strength of the factions
depends on wealth, manpower and ability to mobilize resources and influence
from outside the village. Today, factionalism has taken an ugly face and is posing a
serious threat to the traditional unity and solidarity of our communities across the
nation.
Minority Groups and Community Organization
The term minority connotes discrimination. Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined
a minority group as ‘any group of people who, because of their physical or
cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they
live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as
objects of collective discrimination.’10
Note that being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority
group; sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their
lack of power. It is the lack of power that is the predominant characteristic of a
minority, or subordinate group. For example, consider apartheid in South Africa,
in which a numerical majority (the black inhabitants of the country) were exploited
and oppressed by the white minority.
According to Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958), a minority group
is distinguished by five characteristics:11
(a) unequal treatment and less power over their lives,
(b) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin colour or language,
(c) involuntary membership in the group,
(d) awareness of subordination, and
(e) high rate of in-group marriage.
The importance of consultation with community at large about various projects
for their benefits, needs and priorities is receiving increasing emphasis across the
policy making bodies. Enabling people’s participation in community based projects
is the dream every project implementing agency strive for. However, several factors
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68 Material
 Role of minority groups is therefore important in lieu of community Leadership

organization and community based projects. Their involvement is necessary as

they represent a group which is outnumbered. Also their alienation might reduce
the social cohesion within the communities and increase factionalism which can
turn violent at times. NOTES
The minority groups in India are safeguarded by several constitutional
measures provided in the Constitution of India. The government of India also has
earmarked several schemes and budgets specifically for the minority communities.

Check Your Progress

5. Define symbol.
6. What is factionalism?

3.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Some traits of a good leader are:

 Energy, drive
 Appearance, presentability
 A sense of cooperativeness
 Enthusiasm
2. The Trait Theory rests on the traditional approach which describes leadership
in terms of certain personal and special characteristics which are not acquired
by knowledge and training but are considered inherited. This theory
emphasizes that leaders are born and not made and that leadership is a
function of inborn traits. Some of these inborn traits are considered to be
intelligence, understanding, perception, high motivation, socio-economic
status, initiative, maturity, need for self-actualization, self-assurance and
understanding of interpersonal human relations.
3. Some advantages of autocratic leadership are:
(i) Autocratic leadership is useful when the subordinates are new on the
job and have had no experience either in the managerial decision
making process or performing without active supervision.
(ii) It can increase efficiency and even morale when appropriate and get
quicker results, especially in a crisis or emergency when the decision
must be taken immediately.
4. Some disadvantages of democratic leadership are:
(i) The democratic leadership requires some favourable conditions in that
the labour must be literate, informed and organized. This is not always
possible. Self-Instructional
Material 69
Leadership (ii) This approach assumes that all workers are genuinely interested in the
organization and that their individual goals are successfully fused with
the organizational goals. This assumption may not always be valid.
5. Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines symbol as ‘something
NOTES
that stands for or suggests something else by reason of relationship,
association, convention, or accidental resemblance.’
6. Factionalism is referred to as the competition between factions with an
ultimate objective of controlling or having access to scarce resources or
power.

3.6 SUMMARY

 Leadership can be defined as the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates

to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically in order to
achieve the desired organizational goals. A dictatorship under which the
subordinates have to perform, would not be considered as leadership. A
true leader motivates the following to follow and induces a belief that the
followers will gain by the policies of the leader.
 Generally speaking, leaders are known to possess energy, intelligence, self-
confidence, patience, maturity and a charismatic appearance and attitude.
Whether these characteristics are inherited or learned is still a subject of
debate. Which ones of these characteristics are important and necessary
for leadership is not explainable. Many of these traits are also exhibited by
followers and it is not explained as to why followers could not become
leaders.
 Leaders are also judged by their behaviours as leaders irrespective of the
characteristics. If a manager has high consideration for the welfare of his
subordinates and his policies, procedures and work assignments are all
acceptable to the subordinates then such manager would be considered as
a good leader.
 Contingency theories of leadership propose that leadership can also be a
function of the situation, so that the effectiveness of the leader’s behaviour
is contingent upon the demands imposed by the given situation. This approach
defines leadership in terms of the leader’s ability to handle a given situation
and is based upon his skill in that particular area. This means that a successful
leader under one set of circumstances may be a failure under a different set
of circumstances. For example, Winston Churchill was an effective leader
of Britain during war time but failed to sustain such leadership during peace
time.
 It is also possible to become a leader, if you know what the followers want
and you have the resources or the know-how to satisfy these needs and
wants, irrespective of the traits of the leader himself. This approach is known
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 as the path-goal theory. The leader sets up clear path and clear guidelines Leadership

through which the subordinates can achieve both personal as well as work
related goals and assists them in achieving these goals. The job of the leader
becomes even easier when the subordinates are sufficiently mature, where
the maturity of the subordinates can be defined as their ability and willingness NOTES
to take responsibility for direction their own behaviour in relation to a given
task.
 There are three different types of leadership styles. There are autocratic
leaders who make their own decisions and expect the subordinates to
implement these decisions and accept no deviation from it. Then there are
democratic type of leaders where the leaders ask the subordinates for input
and feedback before making decisions and such input and feedback is taken
into consideration very seriously. Finally there is laissez-faire style of
leadership where the leader is simply the provider of information and
resources and the subordinates are free to chart their own courses of actions
and activities. The leader lets the subordinates develop their own techniques
for accomplishing goals within the generalized organizational policies and
objectives.
 All leaders are expected to be able to inspire and motivate others. They
should possess the skills of problem solving as well as skills of effective
communication. They should be emotionally mature and should be able to
understand human behaviour. They should be dedicated to the purpose of
achieving organizational objectives and should be willing to take limited
calculated risks when making decisions and during the decision
implementation process.
 The integral elements of symbol are unlimited, bounded only by human
experience and creativity. Colour, form, sound, gesture, movement, texture,
pitch, and rhythm and so on impart a unique quality as ‘read’ by the group
or individual.
 The power inherent in symbols is the ability to speak to the innermost depths
of our individuality while binding us to the collective whole of the group.
 Similar to symbols, rituals also play very important functions in communities
and in the process of community organization.
 Prejudice has been prevalent throughout human history. It has impacted
communities irrespective of the societies. Every society has witnessed
prejudice at some point of time between its members.
 Power in a community is the ability to affect the decision making process
and the use of resources, both public and private, within a community.
 Factionalism is referred to as the competition between factions with an
ultimate objective of controlling or having access to scarce resources or
power.
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Leadership  The importance of consultation with community at large about various
projects for their benefits, needs and priorities is receiving increasing emphasis
across the policy making bodies.

NOTES
3.7 KEY WORDS

 Prejudice: It means a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or

actual experience.
 Ethnocentrism: It is the tendency to evaluate others’ cultures by one’s
own cultural norms and values.
 Ritual: It is a set of behaviours given special meaning and set apart from
ordinary daily life.
 Self-Efficacy: It is the person’s perception of how successful he or she
can be in performing a particular behaviour.
 Values: It refers to principles or standards of behaviour; one’s judgement
of what is important in life.

3.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the various characteristics associated with effective leadership?
Which of these characteristics are more important than others and why?
2. What is the Trait Theory of leadership. What are the various criticisms of
this theory? Are these criticisms valid? If so, why?
3. How does the Behaviour Theory of leadership differ from the Trait Theory
of leadership? Which theory is more applicable in a democratic society and
why?
4. What do you understand by the Managerial grid? Is it possible to achieve
the coordinates (9, 9) on this grid? If so, is it really necessary?
5. Write a short note on minority groups in community organizations.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain and compare the various contingency theories of leadership.
2. How does the maturity of the followers determine or impact upon the style
of leadership?
3. Is Vroom-Yetton model considered as a contingency theory of leadership?
Support your answer with examples and reasons.
4. Compare the three leadership styles. Under what situations would each
style be effective? Give examples.
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72 Material
 5. Explain in detail the personal characteristics of leaders. Are some of these Leadership

characteristics inherited? If so, identify these characteristics and explain as

to why you consider these characteristics as inherited.
6. Examine the role of prejudice in community organizations.
NOTES

3.9 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.
Endnotes
1. D’Aquili, E. G.Laughlin, C. D. Jr., & McManus, J. (Eds.) (1979). The
Spectrum of ritual: A biogenetic structural analysis, New York: Columbia
University Press.
2. Moore, S. F. & Myehroff, B. G. (Eds.). (1977). Secular ritual. Assen, The
Netherlands: Van Gorcum
3. Myehroff, B. G. (1977). We don’t wrap herring in a printed page: Fusion,
Frictions & Continuity in Secular Ritual. In S. F. Moore & B. G. Myerhoff
(Eds.), Secular ritual (pp. 199 – 224). Assen, The Netherlands: Gorcum
4. Driver, T. F. (1991). The magic of ritual: Our need for liberating rites that
transform our lives & communities: New York: Harper Collins
5. Imber –Black, E., & Roberts, J. (1992). Rituals for our times: Celebrating,
healing, and changing our lives & our relationships. New York: Harper
Collins
6. Hallowell, A. I. (1941). The social function of anxiety in a primitive society,
American Sociological Review, 6, 869-881
7. Turner, V., (1986). Dewey, Dilthey and drama: An essay in the anthropology
of experience. In V. W. Turner and E. M. Bruner (Eds.), The anthropology
of experience (pp. 33-44). Champaign: IL: University of Illinois Press
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Material 73
Leadership 8. Van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage (M.B. Vizedom & G. L.
Caffee, Trans.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
9. Bless, H.; Fiedler, K. & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals
construct social reality. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.
NOTES
10. Wirth, Louis. 1945. “The Problem of Minority Groups.” The Science of
Man in the World Crisis, edited by R. Linton: 347. In Hacker, Helen Mayer.
1951. Women as a Minority Group
11. Wagley, Charles, and Marvin Harris. 1958. Minorities in the New World:
Six Case Studies. New York: Columbia University Press.

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 Community Organization
BLOCK - II
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION, COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION AND MODELS OF
NOTES
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION

UNIT 4 COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Concept, Definition, Objectives
4.3 Philosophy
4.4 Approaches
4.5 Principles and Skills
4.5.1 Community Organization as Method of Social Work
4.6 Models of Community Organization
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.8 Summary
4.9 Key Words
4.10 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.11 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you learnt about leadership. In this unit, the discussion will
turn towards community organization. A community organization refers to organizing
whose goal is to make desired improvements to a community’s social health, well-
being, and overall functioning. Community organization occurs in geographically,
psychosocially, culturally, spiritually, and/or digitally bounded communities. The
unit will examine the meaning, objectives, philosophy, and models of community
organization.

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the concept and objectives of community organization
 Explain the principles of community organization
 Examine community organization as a method of social work
 Describe the various models of community organization Self-Instructional
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Community Organization
4.2 CONCEPT, DEFINITION, OBJECTIVES

Community organizing is a way of bringing human beings together to address

NOTES problematic social conditions. As a focussed collective effort, organizing requires
sound analytical, political, and interactional skills. A vital aspect of those skills for
professional organizers involves a continuous pattern of systematic planning, ‘doing’,
reflecting again (theorizing) and acting strategically to build a group that can achieve
its aims. Community organization is rooted in the reform tradition of professional
social work and such values as self-determination, self-sufficiency, empowerment,
and social justice.
Objectives
The goals of community organization are:
 To get information about the resources and needs.
 To arouse the people to work for the welfare of the community.
 To create sounds ground for planning and action.
 To create a sense of cooperation integration and unity among the people.
 To motivate the people to take better participation in the developing
community programs.
 To highlight the causes of various problems affecting the community and
hinder the way of progress and development.
 To implement programs required for the fulfilment of people basic needs.
 To develop better understanding among the people about the issues and
needs.
 To mobilize the resources to create a suitable ground for the basic needs
completion and eradication of problems.
 To bring coordination between the individuals, groups and organization to
focus their point and challenge their objectives for fulfilment.
 To launch necessary reforms in the community for eradication of community
evils.
 To develop democratic leadership among people through their participation
in community programs.
 To develop the idea of ability and better thinking to work for the betterment
of community.
 The basic aim and objective of community organization is to abolish the
differences among individuals, develop spirit of common interest and sacrifice
and also participate collectively in community programs.
 To organize the people for the promotion and progress of community.
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 Community Organization
4.3 PHILOSOPHY

The early attempts in community organization were an outcome of the serious

problems, i.e., problems of unemployment, poverty etc. faced by the communities. NOTES
Thus, many organizations and social agencies grew to provide support to the
community. Soon, it was realized that all these efforts need to be co-ordinated and
streamlined so as to avoid duplicity of work and to reduce the gap in the delivery
of services to the community. At one point of time we might ask, what has been the
driving force behind all these efforts that prompted the people to render services
to the community? Let us look at the philosophy of community organization, which
may throw some light on this theme.
The fundamental aspect of the community organizations is the principle of
‘cooperative spirit’ which promotes the people to unite together to address a
common issue. Community organization recognizes the spirit of democratic values
and principles and community organization is about is creating democratic
involvement. Organizing is about empowering. When people unite together, barring
all discriminations and get involved in the community organizations, they develop
confidence. This empowerment comes when people learn skills to help themselves
and others. The collective action helps in community building.
The community organization also recognizes the power of individual. It
believes, through the collective strength of the people, better teamwork and adopting
scientific methods can make comprehensive social problems. Another philosophy
is that of coordination. It is concerned with the adjustments and inter-relations of
the forces in the community life for a common welfare. Community organization is
therefore, is a continuous process in which adjustments are made and remade to
keep pace with the changing conditions of community life.

4.4 APPROACHES

A lot of effort has been in the field of community organization, and this has led to
the formulation of various approaches to community organization. Generally, these
community organizing efforts are centred on identity communities and issue-specific
communities. Neighbourhood organizing is one form of community organizing; this
method is nothing but solving the problems that people in the community face in
the day-to-day life. There are three types of approaches to neighbourhood
organizing as discussed below.
(i) Social work approach: In this approach, the society is viewed as a social
organism, and therefore the efforts are oriented towards building a sense of
community. The community organizer whose role is of an ‘enabler or an
advocate’ helps the community identify a problem in the neighbourhood
and strives hard to achieve the needed social resources by gathering the
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Community Organization existing social services and by lobbying with some in power to meet the
needs of the neighbourhood.
(ii) Political activist approach: The basic philosophy of this approach is based
on the assumption that the more representation for the organization, the
NOTES
stronger the organization. In the political activist approach, the community
is seen as a political entity and not as a social organism. The neighbourhood
is viewed as a collective pack of potential capable of acquiring power. The
role of the community organizer is to help the community to understand the
problem and create a solution and mobilize resources of the community to
resolve the issues. The role of the community organizer is to help the
community understand the problem in terms of power; and take necessary
steps to mobilize the community.
The problem of the neighbourhood is always identified as absence of power
and in the interest of gaining power for the neighbourhood. The organizers
face many problems and conflicts with different groups and people with
different interests related to the problem, who in turn are faced with conflicts
with other groups. Since most of the community organizers come from
outside the community, the community organization faces the issues like the
equality of power relations and leadership within the community.
Unlike the social work approach to community organization, the political
activist approach has the potential to create stable, democratic and effective
organizations of neighbourhood residents by seeing its role as ‘meeting power
with power’.
(iii) Neighbourhood maintenance/community development approach: This
approach has emerged out of both the previous approaches—social work
approach and political activist approach—within the same neighbourhood
movements. It is seen in the form of civic associations. This association
uses peer group pressure to provide services in the community. This strategy
is used to pressurize the official to deliver services to the community, but at
times this approach takes the form of political activist approach as they
realize that the goals can be achieved only through confrontations. In this
approach, one can notice the characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and
confrontation, and such organizations view themselves as more proactive
and development minded.
Saul Alinsky’s Approach to Community Organizing
In 1945, Saul Alinsky, one of the founders of modern neighbourhood organizing,
reflected deeper into the different approaches of community organizing. According
to Alinsky, social change and community organization can be primarily both reformist
and revolutionary, or either of the two, depending on how fundamental the social
changes are, which are sought. According to him, the organizations with a reformist
stand primarily try hard to modify or reform the system; they make efforts to make
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it the existing system fall in line with the requirements of the community members. Community Organization

Whereas, the revolutionary organizations question core assumptions and propose

radically different alternatives to the existing system. For example, changing the
basic gender roles, or eradicating untouchability etc.
NOTES
Saul Alinsky propounded two distinct approaches/traditions to organizing.
These are:
(i) Social mobilization tradition: In this approach, the core strategic
goal is to get community members to act together; to gain power
through better people’s participation. This is based on the assumption
that such mass mobilization will make those in power comply with the
demands of the community. In this tradition, emphasis is on the mobilizing
effort i.e., contacting people and encouraging them to become socially
and politically active. Social mobilization tradition encourages people
to petition vigorously, protest, carry out demonstrations, and not to
fear direct action and confrontation. Social mobilization efforts are in
other words labelled as ‘campaigns’, for they utilize collective power
to create change. Moreover, the changes brought about through the
campaigns are sometimes less significant, than the strength and unity
that comes about through such mobilization i.e., empowerment of the
community members.
(ii) Social production tradition: In this approach, the strategic goal is to
acquire services, material goods and resources for the community
members in need. The core emphasis is on achieving the outcome i.e.,
helping those in need with the problems they face. In order to achieve
the core goal of acquiring goods/services for the target group/s or to
attempt redistribution of resources/benefits, the supporters of this
tradition are more likely to work with those in power. People are
encouraged to learn to participate in the political system and to manage
relationships with agencies that provide services. The social production
initiatives are usually labelled as ‘projects’ for they are primarily
endeavours to create services that benefit those in need directly. It is
to be noted that Alinsky preferred the term ‘community organizing’
over ‘community organization’ and laid emphasis on power, pressure
and high profile public actions and interventions.
External and Internal Resources
To implement the proposed plan of action, requisite resources in the community
are to be assessed, identified and mobilized in the beginning. These resources may
be in the form of money, time, manpower and material. An estimate is made and
the sources are identified for mobilization. It is important to strike a balance between
internal and external resources. The community organizer must involve the
community in identifying the potential sources (internal and external) from which to
obtain resources.
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Community Organization The internal resources of the community are of primary importance and so
they have to be tapped. The community can provide resources in the form of
space, materials, money/service charges, manpower (volunteers and advisors).
However, where necessary, drawing upon resources from outside the community
NOTES also becomes important.
External resources may be in the form of funding, expert advice, technical
assistance etc. What is required in dealing with most community issues/problems
is an awareness in the community about ‘what we can do for development’ and
‘when and where the external aid is required’. To attempt to deal with the problems
for which local resources are inadequate may simply cause frustration and a sense
of failure in the community members in the long run. At the same time, too much
reliance on external resources often leads to over dependency on outside help.
Communities just like individuals seldom use their own resources to the full.
In communities, where the process of community organization is initiated and
continued, people are often surprised when they tap their ‘self-sufficient’ resources
and capacities to carry out the community initiatives.
Directive vs Non-directive modes of community organization
In a directive mode of community organization, the planning is initiated by the
planner, the formulated planning system, and other professionals, from the initiation
phase to the final phase of the process. On the other hand, in the non-directive
mode of community organization, the planner serves the role of a counsellor and a
friend in need in a planning process in which the community members are enabled
to make decisions, plan, and carry out the social project on their own. The
assumption is that the more people do for themselves, with the assistance of
professionals, the greater will be their chances of achieving a solution to social
problems that is more suitable to their needs and their lifestyle (Mullender and
Ward, 1990).
To examine the extent to which these two modes are applicable in real-life
situations, a community organizer can ask the DARE questions:
 Who Determines the planning goals?
 Who Acts in order to achieve the planning goals?
 Who Receives benefits from the planning activity?
 And who Evaluates the activity?
The more the community and its members determine the goals, act to achieve
them, enjoy the outcomes of the planning and evaluate to what extent the action
was worthwhile, the more they direct themselves rather than being directed by
others (Rubin and Rubin, 1992). The degree to which the professional intervention
is directed has a further meaning.
It needs to be kept in mind that directive community planning relates to the
community as an object of the planning—a planned community; whereas, non-
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directive community planning sees the community as a subject—the planning Community Organization

community. From a community’s viewpoint, the important question is not

professional or technical but rather a question of control. Thus, when we change
our viewpoint, and shift from the professionals to the local people, the important
questions change into political questions from professional ones (Marris, 1987). NOTES
The non-directive mode of community organization leads to transition from existing
social system to a new social system promoting common welfare. In this process,
people who are objects remain silent; whereas, and their interpretation of real-life
situations is not taken into account. People who are subjects are very much aware
of their issues/problems. This is why they actively participate in community
programmes after making a subjective interpretation of their situations.

4.5 PRINCIPLES AND SKILLS

Principles of community organization, in the sense in which the term is used here
are generalized guiding rules for the sound practice. Principles are expressions of
value judgments. The principles of community organization, which are being
discussed here, are within the frame of and in harmony with the spirit and purpose
of social work in a democratic society. We are concerned with the dignity and
worth, the freedom, the security, the participation, and the wholesome and abundant
life of every individual. This implies following the principles of democracy,
involvement of the marginalized, transparency, honesty, sustainability, self-reliance,
partnerships, cooperation, etc.
In the literature of community organization we find various sets of principles.
Dunham (1958) has presented a statement of 28 suggested principles of community
organization. He grouped those under seven headings.
(i) Democracy and social welfare,
(ii) Community roots for community programs,
(iii) Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional
service,
(iv) Cooperation,
(v) Social Welfare Programs,
(vi) Adequacy, distribution, and organization of social welfare services,
and
(vii) Prevention.
Ross (1967) outlined specific principles – the elementary or fundamental
ideas regarding initiation and continuation of community organization processes.
These principles have been discussed in terms of the nature of the organization or
association and the role of the professional worker. The twelve principles identified
by Ross are:

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Community Organization 1. Discontent with existing conditions in the community must initiate and/
or nourish development of the association.
2. Discontent must be focused and channelled into organization, planning,
and action in respect to specific problems.
NOTES
3. Discontent which initiates or sustains community organization must be
widely shared in the community.
4. The association must involve leaders (both formal and informal)
identified with, and accepted by major sub-groups in the community.
5. The association must have goals and methods and procedures of high
acceptability.
6. The programme of the association should include some activities with
an emotional content.
7. The association should seek to utilize the manifest and latent goodwill
which exists in the community.
8. The association must develop active and effective lines of
communication both within the association and between the association
and the community.
9. The association should seek to support and strengthen groups which
it brings together in cooperative work.
10. The association should develop a pace of work relative to existing
conditions in the community.
11. The association should seek to develop effective leaders.
12. The association must develop strength, stability and prestige in the
community.
Keeping in mind the actual practice situations in India, Siddiqui (1997) have
worked out a set of 8 principles.
1. The Principle of Specific Objectives
2. The Principle of Planning
3. The Principle of Peoples Participation
4. The Principle of Inter-Group Approach
5. The Principle of Democratic Functioning
6. The Principle of Flexible Organization
7. The Principle of Optimum Utilisation of Indigenous Resources
8. The Principle of Cultural Orientation
4.5.1 Community Organization as Method of Social Work
Community organization is one of the primary methods of social work. It deals
with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. As a method
of social work community organization can solve the problems of many people in
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the community through their collective involvement. Community organization and Community Organization

community development are inter-related as two sides of the same coin. The
community organization includes other methods of social work, that is, group work,
and casework. The power structure plays a role in the community organization.
The social workers need to know the community power structure to practice NOTES
community organization method. Community organization method is used for
empowering people for their development. The details are provided for social
work student to understand and practice community organization effectively.
Community organization as macro method of practice in social work
Community organization is considered as a Macro method of practice in social
work. [Arthur E. Fink] It is used for solving community problems. The term Macro
is used because of its ability to involve a large number of people in solving the
social problems. Community organization is a macro method because community
organization can be successfully implemented at local level of community, or at
state level of community, or at regional level of the community or at very large
international level of community. For example, community organization is possible
for pollution control at local, state, regional national and international levels. It is a
macro method because; casework deals with only one person, group work deals
with limited number of participants. But community organization deals with number
of people and so it is called as macro method. For example, poverty cannot be
solved by using individual approach like casework as there are many people
affected by poverty. Individual approach is not practical due to the magnitude of
the problem. We have to use a method, which can help a large number of people.
While comparing other methods of social work community organization as macro
method is useful for solving social problems like poverty.
Community Organization as a problem solving method
In community organization method the community is the client. Community
organization solves the community problems and fulfils the needs of the community.
Many of the community problems like social injustice, poverty, inadequate housing,
poor nutrition, lack of health, lack of medical services, unemployment, pollution,
exploitation, bonded labour system, illicit arrack, dowry, female infanticide, women
and children trafficking, drug trafficking etc. can be solved by using community
organization method. In problem solving generally we use three basic aspects.
They are study, diagnosis, and treatment. The problem has to be studied. For this
we have to collect information regarding the problem. From the information collected
we have to find out the causes. This is called as diagnosis. Based on the findings,
or diagnosis a solution is evolved that is called as treatment. We consider this
model as medical model because doctors study the patient find out the causes for
illness and based on findings, treatment or medicine is provided. Similar model is
used in community organization method. Problems are solved with involvement of
people. The resources are mobilized to solve the problems. This method is applicable
for Indian situations because in India a large number of people are affected by
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Community Organization poverty or other poverty related problems. They need solutions. For this
community organization as a problem solving method can solve community
problems. For example people in the dry area suffer due to a lack of water for
their cultivation. With the help of the community organizer and people’s participation
NOTES watersheds can be made and ground water level is increased. Water stored during
rainy season can help the people to continue cultivation. Here the whole village
problem is related with water for irrigation and drinking purpose, which is solved
by using community organization method.
Community organization method is used for the following:
(a) To meet the needs and bring about and maintain adjustment between
needs and resources in a community.
(b) Helping people effectively with their problems and objectives by
helping them to develop, strengthen, and maintain qualities of
participation, self-direction and cooperation.
(c) Bringing about changes in community and group relationships and in
the distribution of decision-making power.
(d) The resources of the community are identified and tapped for solving
the community problems.
Community welfare councils and community chests
These are discussed in detail in Unit 14.

4.6 MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Jack Rothman introduced three basic models of community organization in 1968—

(i) locality development, (ii) social planning, and (iii) social action. These three
models construct were revised and refined in 2001, when Rothman took into
account the changes in practices and conditions in communities. According to
him, these three modes of intervention to purposive community change can be
discerned in contemporary communities (like America) and many European
countries. But, ‘community intervention’ is the general term used to cover the
various forms of community level practice, and has been used instead of the term
‘community organizing’, as it has been found to be a useful overarching term to
employ.
The three modes of intervention, according to Rothman, are discussed below.
(i) Locality development: This characterizes those methods of work,
which were used by community groups in settlement houses and in
‘colonial’ community development work. Here, the main focus is on
community building process. Working with the community’s broad,
representative cross section, the community workers try to attempt to
accomplish change objectives by facilitating the community to set up
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84 Material
 of leadership and participant education are elements of prime Community Organization

importance in this process. Also, both leadership and participation

hold a valuable place for this process to be effective.
This approach presupposes that community change should be pursued
NOTES
through broad participation by people at the local community level in
determining the goals and taking civic action. It is a community building
endeavour laying strong emphasis on the notions of mutuality, plurality,
participation and autonomy. It fosters community building by promoting
process goals: community competency (the ability to solve problems
on a self help basis) and social integration (harmonious interrelationships
among different ethnic and social class groups). The approach is
humanistic and strongly people-oriented, with the aim of ‘helping people
to help themselves’. Leadership is drawn from within the community,
and direction and control are in the hands of the local people.
(ii) Social planning: In this community organization method, the scope
encompasses traditional to health and welfare even though the arena
and scope were widened in the 1960s to include large public
bureaucracies, urban renewal authorities and city planners. The effort
is mainly on resource allocation and on achieving of task goals. While
in this approach the early emphasis rested on social services’
coordination, its focus is increased to encompass programme
development as well as planning in all of the chief social welfare
institutions. They rely heavily on rational problem-solving methods and
application of methods that are technical, like systems and research
analysis. This approach lays stress on and cherishes expertise, and at
the same time it gives due importance to leadership.
These elements are drawn in a rather extreme manner, and there exists
quite a bit of overlap between the elements. Yet it is useful to have a
focus on difference as it draws attention to various dimensions like the
process, the role of the plan and the tension between the dominant
groups and the state and those who feel that they have been left out.
By and large, the concern in social planning is with task goals—
conceptualizing, selecting, arranging and delivering goods and services
to people in need. Besides fostering coordination among social and
political agencies, avoiding duplication and filling gaps in services are
important areas of concern. Planning and policy are grouped together
as both involve assembling and analysing data for solving social
problems.
Two contemporary imperative constraints impacting this mode of social
intervention are: (a) planning has become highly interactive and diverse
interest groups rightfully go into the defining of goals and setting the
community agenda, and it involves value choices that go beyond the
purview of the expert or bureaucrat; and (b) impact of reduced Self-Instructional
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Community Organization governmental spending on social programmes, due to economic
constraints, leading to a lower reliance on the elaborate, data driven
planning approach.
(iii) Social action: This is used by both organizations and groups that are
NOTES
looking to change institutional policies or to make modifications in the
distribution of power. Examples are found in social movements and in
civil rights groups. The methods used in this form of community
organization are generally abrasive, and the value of participation clearly
expressed by users of this approach. This approach looks at expertise
and leadership as being symbolic ‘enemies of the people’.
Rothman emphasized confrontational tactics like demonstrations,
strikes, marches, boycotts and other disruptive or attention-seeking
activities as disadvantaged groups frequently rely on ‘people power’,
which has the potential to pressurize the authorities in making favourable
decisions. Practitioners of this approach mobilize low power
constituencies and equip them with skills to impact power. This
approach has been used widely by AIDS activists, civil rights power
groups, environmental protection organizations, feminist groups, labour
unions and radical political action movements. Human service
professionals have not been prominent in the social action area, but
there has been participation on a small-scale basis.
Table 4.1: Basic Assumptions of Rothman’s Model

Practice Change Staff role Constituents Target of Change

model goal change strategy
Community Increase Coordinator Citizens Programmes Develop
development community or enabler participants or services a
capacity catalyst consensus
and among
integration groups
Social Change Advocate Victims of The power Mobilize
action resources negotiator oppression structure people to
and power or activist constituents, take
dynamics employers action
against
the
powerful
Social Problem Expert data Consumers Community Collect
planning solving analyst; of service systems data;
problem chose the
solver best plan

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 Table 4.2: Basic Assumptions of Transformative Model Community Organization

Practice Change goal Staff role Constituents Target of Change

model change strategy
Transformative Personal and Expert Experts on Individuals; Teaching, NOTES
social change teacher, own lives, society group
equal change consensus,
partner, agents, confront
learner learners the
powerful
Feminist Women Equal Partners, Individuals, Group
empowerment partner, change change consensus,
facilitator, agents, services to confront
activist Decision- meet needs, the power
makers patriarchy structure
Multicultural Social change Equal Learners, Individual Dialogue,
to cultures partner, decision- and group group
together facilitator, makers, attitudes, consensus,
learner partners social confront
change the
powerful

The days of radical action appear to be over as apparent in the attacks on

welfare and on notions of popular participation. Yet, the tradition of community
organization remains alive and with increased focus on the popularity of notions
like ‘community practice’.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the fundamental aspect of community organization?
2. Differentiate between directive and non-directive mode of community
organization.
3. What are the three basic models of community organization?

4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The fundamental aspect of community organizations is the principle of

‘cooperative spirit’ which promotes the people to unite together to address
a common issue.
2. In a directive mode of community organization, the planning is initiated by
the planner, the formulated planning system, and other professionals, from
the initiation phase to the final phase of the process. On the other hand, in
the non-directive mode of community organization, the planner serves the
role of a counsellor and a friend in need in a planning process in which the

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Community Organization community members are enabled to make decisions, plan, and carry out
the social project on their own.
3. Jack Rothman introduced three basic models of community organization in
1968—(i) locality development, (ii) social planning, and (iii) social action.
NOTES

4.8 SUMMARY

 Community organizing is a way of bringing human beings together to address

problematic social conditions.
 As a focussed collective effort, organizing requires sound analytical, political,
and interactional skills.
 The early attempts in community organization were an outcome of the serious
problems, i.e., problems of unemployment, poverty etc. faced by the
communities. Thus, many organizations and social agencies grew to provide
support to the community.
 The fundamental aspect of the community organizations is the principle of
‘cooperative spirit’ which promotes the people to unite together to address
a common issue.
 A lot of effort has been in the field of community organization, and this has
led to the formulation of various approaches to community organization.
Generally, these community organizing efforts are centred on identity
communities and issue-specific communities.
 In 1945, Saul Alinsky, one of the founders of modern neighbourhood
organizing, reflected deeper into the different approaches of community
organizing.
 According to Alinsky, social change and community organization can be
primarily both reformist and revolutionary, or either of the two, depending
on how fundamental the social changes are, which are sought.
 To implement the proposed plan of action, requisite resources in the
community are to be assessed, identified and mobilized in the beginning.
These resources may be in the form of money, time, manpower and material.
 In the literature of community organization we find various sets of principles.
Dunham (1958) has presented a statement of 28 suggested principles of
community organization. He grouped those under seven headings.
 Community organization is one of the primary methods of social work. It
deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems.
 As a method of social work community organization can solve the problems
of many people in the community through their collective involvement.
 Jack Rothman introduced three basic models of community organization in
1968—(i) locality development, (ii) social planning, and (iii) social action.
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  These three models construct were revised and refined in 2001, when Community Organization

Rothman took into account the changes in practices and conditions in

communities.

NOTES
4.9 KEY WORDS

 Cooperation: It is a voluntarily arrangement in which two or more entities

engage in a mutually beneficial exchange instead of competing.
 Coordination: It means the organization of the different elements of a
complex body or activity so as to enable them to work together effectively.
 Social Welfare: It can be defined as the group of assistance programs
designed to ensure the well-being of a nation’s citizens.
 Social Work: It means work carried out by trained personnel with the aim
of alleviating the conditions of those people in a community suffering from
social deprivation.

4.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What is meant by ‘community organization’?
2. What is the philosophy behind community organizing?
3. List the objectives of community organizing.
4. Write a short note on Saul Alinsky’s approach to ‘community organizing’.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the three approaches to neighbourhood organizing.
2. Explain the various principles of community organizing.
3. Discuss community organization as a method of social work.
4. Explain Rothman’s model of community organization.

4.11 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.

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Community Organization Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
NOTES
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Community Participation

UNIT 5 COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION
NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Community Participation: Concept
5.3 Imperatives and Types
5.4 Components of Community Work
5.4.1 Community Relations
5.5 Methods and Techniques
5.5.1 Constraints of Participation
5.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.7 Summary
5.8 Key Words
5.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.10 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

Citizen and community participation can be facilitated by stressing the benefits to

be gained. This will work only so long then the benefits must become obvious. The
intangible benefits as well as the tangible should be emphasized. These are frequently
omitted and are, by far, the true gains of community action by adopting online
participating model.
The Internet facilitates sharing of the key ingredient of participation –
information – to assist vision formation, informed decision-making, scenario-building
and the like with an appropriate organizational structure available for expressing
interest. This may require organizing a more neutral group than may be in existence
in a community. However, in some situations, existing groups are adequate.
However, people will not continue to participate unless the experience is rewarding,
or at least not too distasteful.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the meaning and concept of community participation
 Analyse the different types of community participation
 Describe the methods and techniques of community participation
 Explain the components of community work
 Understand the meaning of community relation Self-Instructional
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Community Participation
5.2 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION: CONCEPT

The most important element for building an empowered community is active

NOTES participation. Participation is not only important for empowered community, but
also for the community’s success in resolving its issues. Research and statistics
studies show that community organizations with high rates of participation apply
for and receive more funding than those that have less participation and less publicity.
In addition, participating communities achieve greater citizen satisfaction with their
community. Participation of the members of a community may vary from one place
to the other, but all such communities will share the basic same characteristics.
These characteristics are as follows:
 In a participative community, many people are involved and the business is
not run by elite leadership, rather it is a team work of members from various
strata.
 Participating communities are open to all groups that want to be involved.
Here, the responsibilities are shared so that the special talent and interests
of causative organizations are involved.
 Participating communities publicize their work so that everybody is aware
and updated with what is happening and what the progress is at each stage
and at each step. Citizens are well informed about the activity and the
opportunities that exist for individual participation with the community in
significant positions.
 In a participating community, any kind of an idea from anybody is welcome.
Anybody can express their views and ideas, and there is nothing that can
be considered or ignored to be a bad proposal. All the ideas are treated
with respect and are considered to be sources of inspiration to generate
more ideas with potential value for the entire community. Participating
communities give confidence to the population to present their best for mutual
benefits.
 Participation communities are not discriminatory in nature or have distinctions
among various groups of personalities, or as types of personalities who
offer themselves to community development. Everybody is actively
welcomed immaterial of their race, caste, creed or physical ability; and
who actively reach out to build inclusive participation, and create and support
meaningful volunteer opportunities.
Of all the empowerment principles, active citizen participation is perhaps
the most important of all the empowerment principles. It not only leads to developing
true independent processes, but research shows that it also leads to higher rates

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of resource attainment and use, high number of people coming to offer service on Community Participation

their own, and a brighter community spirit. Briefly, participation is the main spirit of
a community with power. Community participation is far more than a requirement,
and it is a condition for success. There are research studies, which prove that the
NOTES
communities that engage and involve more of their members in the community
development work; they raise more resources, achieve better results, and develop
a more holistic approach, which proves beneficial even for future citizens.
The most important principal of participation is that a number of people get
involved. The community participation is no longer considered a special privilege
of knowledgeable with just a handful of the same leadership again and again running
the community affairs. Participating communities involve a number of people in
their work, have many centres of activity, and are capable of digging deep into the
natural enthusiasm and talents of their members/volunteers. The participants’ ideas
are not considered good or bad—all ideas are accepted and treated with due
respect—which is a way to not just encourage the provider of the idea, and also a
way to encourage and propel others to put forward their ideas and inspirations
without hesitation.
In a participating community, there will not be any discrimination in various
groups and types of personalities who volunteer themselves forward to be involved
in community service. Participating communities know and realize that we are all
equal and that we have equal share in the work benefits and its costs. The entire
community is defeated in the absence of this realization.
Participating communities do not wait for diverse group for involvement as
they realize that the past discrimination, inexperience and individual reluctance can
stop the entire community’s development. They go to all citizens and invite active
contribution for the community’s development.
As a result, participating communities function and make it clear that they
are not controlled by any group or by any one philosophy. Their leadership is used
for discussion of various viewpoints, than pushing their own agenda. Leaders are
not egoistic but focused on functioning, high quality and open minded decision-
making in community activities.
Community participation is not an idle principle. Communities that have
chosen to follow it, find that they derive satisfaction and joy that comes from open
community involvement, but they also achieve results faster and greater benefit to
the community on the whole. Communities with higher rates of active participation
have control of their governing bodies, better empowerment and as per the result
end up getting resources necessary to implement their plans. Most important action
to attract and involve democratic participation is to welcome it, they know when
they are welcome and when they are not. Where they are truly welcomed, people
will stay associated with community work for long. Attracting and involving new
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Community Participation participation takes a lot more than just a smiling face. Some efforts that can be
made to increase participation are as follows:
 Be glad for the opportunity for new contributions, despite any resentment
NOTES that they were not present to help with already completed jobs.
 Explain where things stand, so participants can fit into the process easily.
 Offer a variety of opportunities, so newcomers can find roles that fit their
talents and interests.
 Take newcomers’ ideas seriously, even when they represent viewpoints
that have previously been considered and rejected and be patient.
 Do not leave them out by making decisions among the ‘old-timers’.
A community organizer must be able to identify those leaders who will
encourage the participation of other members of their groups. So, leadership from
within a community can facilitate mobilization, organization and participation of
the community in joint initiatives to resolve issues, and hence is the key to enlisting
democratic participation. Turning towards a transparent participative process is
not an easy task. This means accepting a difficult decision-making process, until
the new groups and new working patterns are fully established. For some leaders,
it means giving up ego and commitment to much cherished personal roles in others’
favour to share leadership that needs to be accepted and acknowledged; as there
is transition in the community, and there is change in an individual’s own perspective
about the community.
In community participation, one needs to strengthen people’s capacity in
determining their values and priorities, and in acting upon these, which is the basis
of community practice. Capacity building as part of community organization is
being perceived as an approach to development rather than being a set of pre-
packaged interventions. It is not about doing development for the needy, but assisting
people to plan and exercise their own choice of strategies utilized in development.

5.3 IMPERATIVES AND TYPES

Community participation is provided and facilitated by various legal provisions. In

many countries constitution provides the basic framework for empowerment of
both the urban local government and the citizens. The mechanism of creation of
wards committees, local groups, self-help groups, etc provides the structure for
citizens’ participation. Institutions of local government are highly participatory,
primarily by virtue of their close interface with local communities. It enables
ownership of local development initiatives, which contributes to successful
implementation of local development initiatives. Participation, in order to be
meaningful, requires institutional capacity of the local governments to come up to

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the aspirations of local communities. Fiscal strength constitutes the most important Community Participation

parameter of institutional capacity. Citizen and community participation, therefore,

becomes an imperative in strengthening fiscal strength of local government through
generation of local government revenue and efficient allocation of the locally raised
NOTES
resources to various local development initiatives. Community participation aims
at involving the citizens in municipal functions, e.g., setting priorities, budgeting
provisions, etc. They provide for the participation of citizens in the decision making
process on local issues.
5.3.1 Types of Community Participation
Participation can be viewed from different perspectives and there are several types
of participation. They include:
 Passive participation: People participate by being told what is going to
happen or has already happened through unilateral announcement by
administration.
 Participation in information giving: People participate by answering
questions posted by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or
similar approaches and do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings.
 Participation by consultation: People participate by being consulted, and
external people listen to views and may modify these in the light of people’s
responses but do not involve them in decision-making.
 Participation for material incentives: People participate by providing
resources, for example labour, in return for food, cash, or other material
incentives, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the
incentives end.
 Functional participation: People participate by forming groups to meet
predetermined objectives related to the project after major decisions have
been made.
 Interactive participation: People participate in joint analysis, development
of action plans, and formation or strengthening of local institutions.
 Self-mobilisation: People participate by taking initiatives independent of
external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external
institutions for resources and the technical advice they need, but retain control
over how resources are used.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the most important principle of all the empowered principles?
2. State the aim of community participation.

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Community Participation
5.4 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNITY WORK

Let us analyse the components of community work.

NOTES 1. Effective community leadership: Healthy communities have, and develop,
public leaders who work together to enhance the long-term future of the
community. Community leadership must be responsive, honest, efficient,
enlightened, fair and accountable. It should have the ability to bring the
community together to participate in open, neutral dialogue on important
issues. Leaders should be representative of their community and be able to
envision an economically secure, environmentally sound and socially viable
future. Leaders should understand the challenges facing the community and
be able to take advantage of opportunities within the community and in
cooperation with neighbouring ones. Leadership should empower community
members to assist in resolving community issues.
2. Informed citizen participation: In a healthy community, citizens actively
participate through voting in local elections, serving on local boards, attending
public hearings, and being involved in civic organizations and community
activities. The increasing complexity of municipal operations is limiting the
ability of government to meet community needs, escalating the importance
of active citizen involvement and volunteerism.All sectors within a community
– private, public, and non-profit – must each take responsibility for the
community’s civic education and exchange information with the public. All
citizens need to develop knowledge and skills to contribute to community
life. Shared problem solving and planning for the future as a community
increases local pride and commitment.
3. Fostering healthy families, individuals, and youth: Most communities
face a variety of challenging social issues, such as substance abuse, domestic
abuse, poverty, and other concerns related to the elderly, youth, and families.
Addressing these concerns effectively takes the coordinated efforts of the
public, private, and non-profit sectors. Support services such as adequate
child day care, comprehensive after-school, youth, teen, and senior
programs, preventative health and substance abuse programs, parenting
and family support programs, and effective human service networks help
strengthen the social fabric of a community.
4. Lifelong education and learning: Education is a lifelong endeavour, much
more extensive than just the school system. It starts at home, continues
through childhood and the teen years, and progresses throughout adult life.
People of all ages need to develop knowledge and skills in order to improve

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 the quality of their own lives and those of their families, and to contribute Community Participation

more effectively to community life. Programs of higher education and lifelong

learning provide local businesses with a pool of trained employees. Other
formal and informal learning opportunities allow community members to
NOTES
discover hidden talents and develop an array of interests and skills. Lifelong
learning allows citizens to manage their lives more effectively in a changing
economy and to participate in increasingly complex municipal operations
with greater knowledge and skill.
5. Community services, facilities, and utilities: A community provides many
essential facilities and services to its members - public facilities such as
municipal buildings, schools, parks, pathways and trails, roads, libraries, a
recycling center, and cemeteries, and services and utilities such as police,
fire, ambulance, highway maintenance, information dissemination, and
possibly water, and sewer. These key functions sharply influence the
community’s quality of life.
6. Recreation and cultural heritage: Recreational and cultural activities
nurture the body and soul of a community - individual and team sports,
outdoor activities, art, crafts, music, dance, theatre, holidays, festivals, and
celebrations. Recreational opportunities allow community members to
experience and appreciate the community’s diversity of natural and human
resources. Cultural activities reflect and build a community’s positive sense
of itself and strengthen the fabric of social interactions within the community.
7. Economic strength: The private, public and non-profit sectors are all
important in attracting new investment and in developing new businesses
that suit the character of the community and meet its needs. The need to
sustain successful workplaces is an important factor to the health of a
community. The more often money circulates within the community before
leaving, the more the community benefits. A healthy community includes
access to a variety of environmentally sound businesses, industries, and
institutions that provide reasonable wages and benefits to workers, engage
in family-friendly policies, provide workers with opportunities to develop
marketable skills, and contribute to the overall wellbeing of the community.
8. Community identity exploration: A community can more effectively
manage its growth through the prudent use of local zoning districting and
ordinances and planning regulations that guide how land is divided, used,
and developed. These tools allow the community to regulate the development
of residential areas, commercial districts, and the village centres. These are
key considerations in managing growth while maintaining community

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Community Participation character. Another important factor in the development of a healthy
community is the diversity of the housing. This encompasses availability,
affordability, and location, all of which affect the lives.
NOTES 5.4.1 Community Relations
Community relations can be defined as the relationship that a company, organization,
etc. has with the people who live in the area in which it operates. A
comprehensive community relations programme can help any organization achieve
visibility within its community of community members, especially the elderly,
disabled, and low-income families.
Building and sustaining relationships are at the heart of organizing
communities. The strength of community lies in the strength of the connections that
we have with each other. With strong connections, people have the power to
make real change. Building these connections takes time; but it is worth it.
Relationships are often the source of our greatest joys and greatest challenges.
Understanding relationships is no simple task. People are so unique and complex
that there is no easy formula.
Whether you are a “leader” or a follower, you have the ability to build a
community of friends, colleagues, associates, allies, partners, and buddies around
you. Together, there is no telling what you can do.

5.5 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

The community meetings at the village level (that comprise a series of open and
follow-up meetings) basically frame the progression of participatory rural appraisal
(PRA) activities. Tools of intervention are always used in combination with the
information collected by applying a selected technique. Some common tools used
in a PRA are discussed below.
Mapping
The mapping exercise offers the researcher/organizer who is evaluating the physical
characteristics of a community with all the other information regarding the socio-
economic conditions and how the participants in the community work recognize
their community. The maps are created by the members of the community on the
ground or on a large sheet of paper. Such an activity proves to be a success in
drawing people’s attention towards it. Such a map stands as a generating point for
group/community discussions.
Steps in mapping are as follows:
(i) The community organizer in this initial step explains to the group to
what a map entails and what the models are.
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 (ii) He assembles the community members at a specified place; a spot Community Participation

which can accommodate all the members, preferably with sitting

arrangement, and with enough space to show an image representing
the entire community space.
NOTES
(iii) The community organizer then does ask people to first depict the most
central location of the village according to them. For example, in India
the village temple is generally the most centrally located plot; and is
the main venue for conducting mass events in the village.
(iv) He permits the community to choose the place, the procedure/way,
and the resources to be used in drawing the map. The community
organizer ensures that local resources and symbols are used to indicate
various things on the village map.
(v) The community organizer happens to be a very good observer in the
process, and does ask relevant questions to understand the village
community better without being intrusive.
(vi) He documents the map on its completion, takes pictures, makes a
sketch of what it looks like (use the same symbols that have been
used), and so on.
In order to understand the various aspects of a community in terms of its
resources, social structure and economic condition, for community organizing one
needs to make people to break the ice in some way or the other. It is the community
that comes together to draw the map; and to draw the map there should be a use
of whatever resources are available in the community e.g., sticks, stones, chalk,
leaves, and so on. The symbols used should be some local depiction understood
by all members of the community. It would be preferable if not too many aspects
are shown in one map. Drawing one map for one or two issues of the community
is considered to be ideal. The three-dimensional models of a place can at times be
more effective in planning future aspects of how the community envisages its
surroundings in the future.
Types of Maps
The various kinds of community mapping are discussed below:
(a) Historical maps: These are the text changes that have happened in a
community and so have utility. For instance, to generate discussion on the
causes and effects of environmental degradation; maps exemplify the
individual households that make up the community and different symbols
are used to display specific household, level, characteristics, relative wealth,
levels of resource use, number of school-age children in or out of school,
membership/involvement in a community group or project activity, and so
on.
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Community Participation (b) Personal maps: These maps can display the perceptions of dissimilar
sections of the community (men and women, rich and poor etc.), in terms
of the limitations of the community and working around them.
NOTES (c) Thematic maps: These maps represent a particular topic or a set of topics,
e.g., water sources. Farm plans and grazing lands maps depict cropping
patterns, cycles, types of crops, grazing lands’ size, common property
resource management institutions, herd size and its management.
(d) Social maps: These maps show the population by household with a gender
and age breakdown. These can also serve as a census map; or they can
represent distribution of wealthy and poor households. First the households
are marked, then the enumeration of each household, and the male and
female ratio in each household, is marked with different symbols. Social
maps can also be used to map child mortality, literacy rate, and so on.
Diagramming
Pictoral representations always play a crucial role in making an issue more
comprehensive in approach and ‘easy-to-understand’ for the members of the
community.
Types of diagrams
The various types of diagrams are discussed below.
(a) Venn diagrams: It is another type of mapping exercise only, called
‘institutional maps’, or ‘chapatti diagrams’. Institutional maps are those maps
that are within the community and depict the relation and the visibility of
decision-making. In this, people are asked to cut out circles or just draw
round circles, immaterial that the cuttings are formal or informal. The
importance of a group is shown and displayed by the size of the circle. The
bigger the size of the circle, the more significant will the group. The degree
of closeness for these people is depicted by the degree of overlapping. The
greater the overlapping, the wider the interaction and integration within the
groups. This method can be used in case of a huge group, and where there
is need to produce an agreement vision of the community’s social
infrastructure, or can be taken care by each individual to describe the varying
perceptions e.g., on the basis of gender, project staff and community
members, or project participants and non-participants.
(b) Pair wise carding: The community organizer can also use the pair wise
carding method, in which each card represents a specific issue or problem.
When a card is considered against another card to decide which problem is

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 bigger, all the decisions are recorded in a matrix form. The final decision is Community Participation

made by counting the number of times a card has been chosen. This reflects
the magnitude of priority given to that card and its problem in reality. Often
made with circular cards of different sizes and colours, the cards are placed
NOTES
in relation to one another on a base area. The most common usage is for the
mapping of institutional concepts, with area (size) representing importance,
and degree of overlap representing intensity of interaction. Men and women,
wealthy and poor, young and old, may well produce different diagrams,
and the differences are often instructive. This exercise can lead to more
intensive interviews with key informants, focus group discussions, and
participant observations.
(c) Webs: Webs are used for representing interactions of cause and effect, and
it depicts multiple linkages between the items. For example, in a sudden
flood situation, the causes may not be one or two factors, but an entire host
of factors like deforestation, no construction of barriers on the rivers (dams),
not building the houses on raised platforms, no proper drainage, and so on.
(d) Trees: Trees, or rivers, in a diagram represent any branching relationship
such as cause and effect.
Absolute and relative timelines
An absolute timeline shows actual dates, mostly those which were locally
memorable events, e.g., a major famine, a forced resettlement, a war or civil
disturbance. It can be used as benchmark and should be taken from the elderly
population in the community for more accuracy in data. When dates are hard to
get, then the approximation of time proves beneficial, and this is relative timeline.
Seasonal calendars
It is a simple tool to use with communities since they have a strong grasp of the
seasonal changes i.e., “cyclical phase”. It is a useful entry into timeliness of events,
how labour is organized and what natural resources are used, and at what times.
Another very valuable application of seasonal calendars is at the site inspection
stage of project preparation, where the information can be useful for scheduling
research visits to coincide with particular activities or periods when participation
will be easier because people are less busy on essential tasks. The community
organizer should ensure that seasonal calendars have the names of the seasons
along the top (or down the side) and corresponding spaces for thematic information.
This could include such things as rainfall, agricultural activity, pastoral activity, or
collecting activity. Some items may just be indicated on a present/absent basis.

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Community Participation Semi-structured interviews
These interviews are spontaneous and more casual. The interviewer is the learner
in this case. The interview is surrounded about what the person knows and their
NOTES experience. In such an interview, the best thing that should be done is asking the
right question, listening and then taking notes.
Transect walks and observation
A transect walk is normally done along with mapping, and this is basically a walk
around the area which has been mapped. It allows the researcher to observe the
smaller nuances, which might not necessarily be shown on the map. Here, interaction
with the community may happen in a casual way along the walk, it might also lead
to some observations that the researcher should note down. It is important to note
who conducted the walk, when (season, time of day, etc.).
Focus Group Discussions
Focus group, which is generally a small group, can be an ideal follow-on to a
representational activity, such as a map, diagram or matrix. Key informant interviews
can often develop into focus group interviews, frequently to their benefit. In most
of the cases, researchers use them in combination rather than relying on a particular
technique. This is a participatory research.
Ranking
The group ranks certain resources or aspects based on their perspective. It can
be done in three ways:
(a) Pair ranking: A list of the various resources is taken and each resource is
compared to the rest in the list and people have to select which resource is
more important. Once each resource has been compared to all others, a
tally is done of which resource was selected the most and which the least,
with others in between.
(b) Preference ranking: A preference matrix is a tool that allows the qualitative
comparison of very different things. Either by some kind of voting, or through
discussion and consensus, informants can generate a simple list of preferences
or choices. The preference ranking is concerned with assessment of different
options or items by the participants after they assess these products. This
technique mainly makes use of a graphical approach with the options/items
plotted against the horizontal axis along with the elicited criteria on the vertical
axis. The preference ranking method not only reveals interesting differences
of opinions among the various members of the group, but also acts as an

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 interesting introductory exercise. It is often interesting to note the differences Community Participation

in the preferences and views of men and women as they vary to a great
extent. Various discussion or subsequent interviews with individuals also
help in pointing out these discrepancies.
NOTES
(c) Wealth ranking: Wealth ranking, or well-being ranking, can be a sensitive
issue. It is used to get an overall picture of the socio-economic stratification
of the community. The definitions for “rich” and “poor” are based on how
the community will define them. Separate piles of cards can be made or
else stones, beans, seeds etc., may also be used. It can be used to assess
targeting efforts for various groups.
PRA need not be confined to rural settings, and may not necessarily be
participatory. The concentrated power of formalization of community knowledge
through participatory techniques can generate an impressive amount of information
in a relatively short time, leaving time for more selective structured formal surveys
where they are more needed and valuable.
5.5.1 Constraints of Participation
Let us discuss the various constraints of participation. These are mainly the following:
1. The political conditions/power structures of the country and project
area: These may vary in different forms and degrees from a decentralized,
laissez-faire and/or free enterprise system to a fully centralized, strongly
planned and/or controlled one. They may vary furthermore in regard to
their degree of stability. Accordingly, widely differing situations can be found
ranging from full support of the central and/or local government to
participation of the poor to indifference and hostility versus this approach.
In fact, in a number of countries the urban and rural elites, particularly the
latifundists and landlords, influence the political and administrative structures
to such an extent that any policy to encourage genuine participation of rural
people is either inexistent, or strongly opposed, and/or by various means
neutralized or strained. For example, by prohibitive legislation, exasperating
government control, alleged unavailability of funds and/or personnel and so
on.
2. Legislative obstacles: In various countries freedom of association either
does not exist or only formally; in other ones where the right of association,
including of small farmers, labourers, etc., is recognized in the laws, the
labour legislation is inadequate and/or scarcely applied in practice. Under
the influence of vested interest groups the laws might further be interpreted
and/or applied in such ways that (part of) the rural poor are prevented from
organizing themselves.

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Community Participation 3. Administrative obstacles: Centralized public administrative systems that
control decision-making, resource allocation and information, may ostracize
participation. The staff in such structures frequently disdain people’s
involvement. Also complex, bureaucratic procedures impede genuine
NOTES
participation as well as one-way, top-down planning performed solely by
professionals; the same can be said of rural development planning done in
urban centres and hardly based on need assessments in the field.
4. Socio-cultural impediments: A serious obstacle is the widespread mentality
of dependence, sense of frustration as well as distrust in officials among low
income rural people. The latter are frequently dominated by local elites to
whom they have to leave key decision-making. All this forms part of the
“culture of poverty” of the silent, excluded majority for whom survival is the
sole aspiration. Furthermore, the poor form a heterogeneous “group”: there
are various categories with class, caste, tribal and religious differences and
also with different interests, needs, access to resources as well as potentials.
Accordingly, also participation must be planned and promoted according
to different local contexts and factions.
5. Other impediments: The isolation and scattered habitat of the poor, their
low levels of living and heavy workloads especially of the women.
Furthermore, their weak health conditions, low level of education and of
exposure to non-local information, ignorance of their rights to self-organize
groups and lack of leaders and know-how to move in this direction in order
to promote their interests.
Some constraints of implementing and supporting agencies are the following:
1. There is often pressure from the side of implementing institutions and/
or of supporting government or donor agencies to produce visible
results quickly: quantity of funding and results prevails over quality.
Unlike tangible physical infrastructure works and production outputs,
most of the arduous participation efforts remain less visible and
measurable as they have to focus - prior to concrete productive actions
- principally on training, changes of attitudes and fostering of awareness
of local needs and potentials.
2. Many implementing agencies are designed for centralized planning,
decision-making and implementation; such set-ups do not favour
participation.
3. There is usually lack of skilled staff to promote participation. It is
indeed often problematical to find well-motivated and capable
animators for group formation and action. And yet the latter are the
key women and men to make a project successful as they live and

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 work directly with the intended beneficiaries. Most participatory Community Participation

projects obtained, however, eventually well-performing group

promoters (in various instances from the extension field staff), also
through effective training.
NOTES
Check Your Progress
3. How can community relations be defined?
4. How does the mapping exercise help the researcher?
5. What are personal maps?

5.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Of all the empowerment principles, active citizen participation is perhaps

the most important of all the empowerment principles.
2. Community participation aims at involving the citizens in municipal functions,
e.g., setting priorities, budgeting provisions, etc. They provide for the
participation of citizens in the decision making process on local issues.
3. Community relations can be defined as the relationship that a company,
organization, etc. has with the people who live in the area in which it operates.
4. The mapping exercise offers the researcher/organizer who is evaluating the
physical characteristics of a community with all the other information regarding
the socio-economic conditions and how the participants in the community
work recognize their community. The maps are created by the members of
the community on the ground or on a large sheet of paper.
5. Personal maps can display the perceptions of dissimilar sections of the
community (men and women, rich and poor etc.), in terms of the limitations
of the community and working around them.

5.7 SUMMARY

 The most important element for building an empowered community is active

participation. Participation is not only important for empowered community,
but also for the community’s success in resolving its issues.
 Participation of the members of a community may vary from one place to
the other, but all such communities will share the basic same characteristics.
 Of all the empowerment principles, active citizen participation is perhaps
the most important of all the empowerment principles.

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Community Participation  It not only leads to developing true independent processes, but research
shows that it also leads to higher rates of resource attainment and use, high
numbers of people coming to offer service on their own, and a brighter
community spirit. Briefly, participation is the main spirit of a community with
NOTES power.
 The most important principal of participation is that a number of people get
involved. The community participation is no longer considered a special
privilege of knowledgeable with just a handful of the same leadership again
and again running the community affairs.
 In a participating community, there will not be any discrimination in various
groups and types of personalities who volunteer themselves forward to be
involved in community service. Participating communities know and realize
that we are all equal and that we have equal share in the work benefits and
its costs.
 A community organizer must be able to identify those leaders who will
encourage the participation of other members of their groups. So, leadership
from within a community can facilitate mobilization, organization and
participation of the community in joint initiatives to resolve issues, and hence
is the key to enlisting democratic participation.
 In community participation, one needs to strengthen people’s capacity in
determining their values and priorities, and in acting upon these, which is the
basis of community practice.
 Community participation is provided and facilitated by various legal
provisions. In many countries constitution provides the basic framework
for empowerment of both the urban local government and the citizens.
 Citizen and community participation, therefore, becomes an imperative in
strengthening fiscal strength of local government through generation of local
government revenue and efficient allocation of the locally raised resources
to various local development initiatives.
 Healthy communities have, and develop, public leaders who work together
to enhance the long-term future of the community. Community leadership
must be responsive, honest, efficient, enlightened, fair and accountable.
 Most communities face a variety of challenging social issues, such as
substance abuse, domestic abuse, poverty, and other concerns related to
the elderly, youth, and families.
 Community relations can be defined as the relationship that a company,
organization, etc. has with the people who live in the area in which it operates.
A comprehensive community relations programme can help any organization
achieve visibility within its community of community members, especially
the elderly, disabled, and low-income families.

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  The community meetings at the village level (that comprise a series of open Community Participation

and follow-up meetings) basically frame the progression of PRA activities.

Tools of intervention are always used in combination with the information
collected by applying a selected technique.
NOTES
5.8 KEY WORDS

 Social maps: These maps show the population by household with a gender
and age breakdown. These can also serve as a census map; or they can
represent distribution of wealthy and poor households.
 Absolute timeline: An absolute timeline shows actual dates, mostly those
which were locally memorable events, e.g., a major famine, a forced
resettlement, a war or civil disturbance.

5.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. State the characteristics of community participation.
2. What are some of the efforts that can be made to improve community
participation?
3. Write a short note on community relations.
4. What are the different types of maps?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the concept of community participation.
2. What are the different types of community participation? Discuss.
3. Describe the different components of community work.
4. Discuss the methods and techniques of community participation.

5.10 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
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Community Participation Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
NOTES
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Methods of Community

UNIT 6 METHODS OF COMMUNITY Organization

ORGANIZATION
NOTES
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Methods of Community Organization: Planning, Education,
Communication and Community Participation
6.2.1 Other Concepts in Community Organization
6.3 Community Organization as an Approach to Community Development
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

The concept ‘community’ has a varied understanding but the basic conception of
community remains the same throughout definitions opined by different thinkers. A
thinker says that ‘community is a concept to describe a social organization that is
considered fundamental to traditional society, which is often regarded as natural
grouping based on ties of shared blood, language, history, territory and culture’
(Upadhya, 2006). Another thinker sees community as ‘a human system of more
than two people in which the members interact personally over time, in which
behaviour and activity are guided by collectively-evolved norms or collective
decisions, and from which members may freely secede’ (Boothroyd & Eberle,
1990). The concept of ‘community’ has been understood from the dimensions of
geographical aspect, interaction pattern, infrastructure, economic system, values,
ideas, belief system held by people living within boundaries of the small-sized
locality to a nation. Community brings a sense of unity among people where through
mutual interdependence people meet their needs on a day-to-day basis and sustain
life. In doing so, the community at times lags behind where the basic needs of the
people remain unmet, where people do not get organized to take care of the
needs and demands of others. In general, through provisioning of basic amenities,
people within communities can have access to a decent standard of living which
also make them realize their fullest potential to become a contributing member of
the society.
Community organization is one of the primary methods of social work that
aims to bring changes in the quality of life of people living in a particular community.
As defined ‘community organization’ can be understood as “a collection of people
who have become aware of some problem or some broad goal, who have gone
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Methods of Community through a process of learning about themselves and about their environment, and
Organization
have formulated a group objective” (Roberts, 1979). Definition by Murray G.
Ross gives us an in-depth and most elaborate understanding of the concept of
community organization. He defines community organization as “a process by
NOTES which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them, develops
confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and external) to deal
with them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative and collaborative
attitudes and practices in the community” (Ross, Community Organization, 1955).
The definition begins with the author clearly stating that community organization is
a process which means that it is a journey where one (i.e. community worker)
moves from the starting point of entering into a community, involving people to
understand their own concerns and unite them to move towards dealing with them
in alignment with the shared objectives planned to solve the problems of the
community, collectively. As a professional community worker, one has to initiate
the process and develop capacities within people of the community to function as
a unit in dealing with community issues.

6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyse the different methods of community organization
 Describe community organization as an approach to community development
 Differentiate between legislative and non-legislative promotion

6.2 METHODS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:

PLANNING, EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION
AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

Community worker has to be aware of the basic principles of community

organization and must be equipped with skills to monitor the process. In community
organization, the professional community worker plays a passive role in community
development as he/she make the community people realize the need for uniting to
identify their own problems. The process does not stop at only making them identify
their problems, but develop objectives in response to identified problems/concerns
and make an assessment of the strengths of the community in the form of internal
resources along with arranging resources from outside the community. To make it
more of a democratic process and to ensure the sustenance of the developed
ability of the community as a whole to deal with future concerns, people from
within the community are encouraged to participate in the process and develop a
collaborative attitude. Hence, this process enhances the ability of the whole
community to organize and work towards community development.
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Let us analyse the different methods of community organization. Methods of Community
Organization
A. Planning
Planning provides a blueprint of the activities intended to achieve the goals, as
mentioned in the school textbooks for simplest understanding that “planning is NOTES
deciding in advance what to do and how to do” (NCERT, 2018). It involves
brainstorming on what an individual is venturing in to and how others would form
a team to accomplish assigned tasks directed towards goal achievement. Planning
not only provides an outline of the actions needed by each individual in a team but
also foresees the challenges or hurdles that they might encounter in the course of
meeting the planned objectives. A very common proverb “failing to plan is planning
to fail” draws our attention towards the importance of planning.
Planning holds similar relevance in the practice of community organization
as well, where community worker consciously makes planning a continuous process
which relies on implementation and evaluation basis. Since community worker
plays a role of facilitator in the process of community organization, he/she actuates
the brainstorming exercise among the community people to organize themselves
and make conscious efforts to identify the common concerns of their community in
order to address them. People’s participation is key in effective community
organization, as the ultimate aim of this method is community development where
every individual must receive direct or indirect benefit out of the process. All-
round development is what is intended from the process of community organization.
So, planning must be done from an inclusive perspective. In the process of
community organization, planning also helps the worker and the community people
to identify the available resources within the community and need for resources
that are to be arranged from outside the community are recognized and worked
upon in advance. Planning in community organization must take into account ends,
means, resources, implementation and monitoring.
B. Education
As a method, education has a very crucial role to play in the process of community
organization. It is evident from the situation/condition that there is a need for a
community worker in a community, and it can only be visualized when the community
people are not equipped with the will, confidence, ability or techniques to deal
with the common concerns of the community. A professional community worker is
familiar with the process of community organization and also have skills to begin
the process right from scratch. On the other hand, people in the community are
well aware of their own living conditions and have awareness of the contributing
factors to a certain extent. They have indigenous knowledge regarding their concerns
which might be missing in the community worker who could be an outsider.
Education, in such context, would mean sharing of information held by both i.e.
the community worker and indigenous community people with one another to
leverage on what they hold. Community worker as a professional practitioner can
share with the community people the basics of the process of community
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Methods of Community organization, which in turn may develop will and confidence within them to believe
Organization
in the process and act towards the goal of community development.
C. Communication
NOTES In case of community organization, community people are the constituents who
deliberately come together to be part of the process of identifying community
needs and problems along with resources (internal or external) in order to address
them through collaborative efforts. Communication is the process through which a
dialogue between interested people is initiated to convey messages to one another
in alignment with the context they have come together to cooperate. The clarity in
the conveyed message means effective communication has taken place where the
receiver has well understood what conveyer wanted him/her to. Understanding of
barriers that may disrupt the communication process help people working in teams
to minimize the impact of such blockades and maximize effectiveness.
Community organization is a team-based work, where community people
through voluntary cooperation work towards community development.
Communication holds true in such scenario where a team of large size is to be
communicated about the process and active engagement of every individual is
expected so that they contribute positively based on their strengths and abilities in
the process. Clear communication regarding goals to be achieved, roles to be
assumed, tasks to complete, resources to be arranged etc. must be established
from the community worker’s end to the people who have developed will to unite
and cooperate for the development of community intended through the process of
community organization. While being necessary for the sustenance of the community
organization process, effective communication is also unequivocally a requisite for
generating community participation without which every effort of community worker
would go in vain.
D. Community Participation
Eliciting participation of the community people is one of the key agendas of
community worker or the organization involved in this practice. H. Y. Siddiqui
opined the principles of community organization has placed the “principle of people’s
participation” as one of the principles that influence the practice of community
organization (Siddiqui, 1997). Social work profession has adopted certain values
where the first and foremost value is about considering human beings as worthy of
respect. No individual can be underestimated or discriminated on grounds of any
differences. Community organization adheres to the same value where community
participation is seen as of the utmost priority. It must be kept in mind that community
organization and community development differ from one another where the latter
is the end and the former on are means to the end. Establishing community
organization as an ongoing process, by eliciting people’s participation not only
mean accomplishing the small tasks but remain united in future too in order to deal
with the community’s concerns collectively.

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 Community participation as a method is crucial not only to keep the community Methods of Community
Organization
on track of working towards planned objectives but also to outlaw any sort of
stratification that refrains particular sub-group of the community from benefitting
equally as others do from the process. Community participation blurs the boundaries
that foster division and exclusivity and promote unification for the common cause. NOTES
In its course, community participation ensures that everyone gets heard right from
the planning stage to implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
All these methods including planning, education, communication and
community participation are interlinked. Community organization can be thought
of in the absence of these methods until these are incorporated by the community
worker one cannot visualize the development of the community through community
organization. Absence of planning would result in a directionless effort, restricted
education from either side may result in an incomplete understanding of the
community organization process from people’s end and would also make the
community worker unable to comprehend the community and its concerns properly.
Without communication none can come to common grounds for the process of
community organization as people would have their ideas, views and opinions go
whether unheard or unintelligible. For sustenance of the process, it is a prerequisite
that people from within the community must participate and develop abilities to
deal with their concerns collectively by cooperating with one another.
6.2.1 Other Concepts in Community Organization
Let us analyse some other concepts in community organization.
A. Collective decision making
Collective decision making depends on the level of participation as seen on a
continuum ranging from the highest level of it to ‘no participation’ at all. According
to different studies, the highest level of participation of the community members is
manifested when people engage in “self-planning” (Wandersman, 1979) and when
there is full “community control” (Brager & Specht, 1965), (Arnstein, 1969) &
(Hollnsteiner, 1977) over the community organization process. Participation is
induced not only to yield positive results but also to develop capacities within
people to actively engage and learn the leadership skills to manage their future
matters with their enhanced abilities. Collective decision making is representative
of full community control over the process of community organization where the
members of the community engage in self-planning with minimal external facilitation
provided by the community worker. Collective decision making also ensures that
no individual remains left out from being heard, actively taking part in the
implementation and benefitting from the process and the end result. Collective
decision making must take into account the purpose, systematic approach,
representation and inclusion, efficiency and effectiveness, independent and impartial,
transparency and clarity of information, etc. (Bajok, Jusic, Mihajlovic, Sarenac,
& Skoric, 2012).
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Methods of Community B. Involvement of groups and organizations
Organization
‘The association must involve leaders (both formal and informal) identified with,
and accepted by, major sub-groups in the community’ (Ross, Community
Organization, 1967). For the initiation and continuation of the community organization
NOTES
process, a set of specific principles have been outlined by Murray G. Ross, the
aforementioned is one of them. This brings our attention to two different sets of
understanding: firstly, that every community has various sub-groups and
representation of each of them is necessary. Full participation can only be visualized
when no sub-group is discriminated on social, creed, caste, sex, age-based identity
or due to its political affiliation. Secondly, every individual or representatives of
sub-groups must have their say in the process of community organization. The
purpose of community organization would be lost if unification and development
of cooperative and collaborative attitude among community members are
compromised.
The process of community organization is more concerned about making
community members aware of their concerns have their morale boosted to get
unified and bring in picture different organizations which work to address specific
issues in tandem with the planned goals. The expertise of different organizations
within and outside the community is optimally utilized to substantiate the efforts
and have a targeted approach in addressing identified issues of the community.
The facilitator in the process of community organization must endeavour to make
efforts of different organizations coordinated, which are working on different issues
within the same community.
C. Resource mobilization
The resource is defined as ‘something material or abstract that can be used to
satisfy some human want or deficiency’ (Goodall & Kirby, 1979). Community
organization is a process whereby community people themselves identify their
needs and problems, and in doing so, the people also look for internal resources
that can be used to meet the needs and immediate requirements in pursuit of long-
term goals. Internal resources are indicators of the strength of communities which
enable them to become self-sufficient through proper channelizing of identified
resources to meet the planned objectives. In instances where internal resources
are either exhausted or not present at all, the community in consultation with its
people and through facilitation seek resources from sources outside the community.
D. Community action
According to Richard Bryant, community action has two different interpretations.
Firstly, he says that ‘community action may denote a particular approach to
organizing local groups and welfare publics; an approach in which the political
impotence or powerlessness of these groups is defined as a central problem and
strategies are employed which seek to mobilize them for the representation and
promotion of their collective interests’, on the other hand it believes that ‘community
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action may be used as a general term to denote any planned attempt to involve Methods of Community
Organization
local groups or welfare publics either in voluntary self-help schemes or as
participants in the process of statutory policy making and service implement’
(Bryant, 1972). In both the interpretations, the central idea is that community
action is an organized effort where participation of community people is induced NOTES
to take appropriate action towards the betterment of their society and their own
social-well bring through improved social conditions within the community.
According to Bryant, key features of community action involve action settings,
problem definitions, goals, strategies, role of local leaders and professional change
agents.
E. Legislative and non-legislative promotion
‘Social workers engage in many types of cause advocacy, such as legal advocacy,
legislative advocacy, self-advocacy, and system advocacy’ (Cox, Tice, & Long,
2018). Community work does not only include organizing the un-professionals
into groups which can actively engage in tasks related to the improvement of
conditions within the community they live in, rather it goes little further in involving
the town/village level, block level, district level as well as state level government
machinery into the pursuit of community development. Legislative promotion entails
activities that draw attention of the elected officials towards the needs and concerns
of the community. All the formal and informal leaders of the community are
recognized as key stakeholders in bringing change to the society through sustained
efforts. Engagement of such stakeholders can ensure provisioning of resources or
services, at times material provisioning also in line with the needs of the community.
People in the community make plans to convey their common concerns to the
elected officials and expect from them, their involvement in its resolution through
coordinated efforts.
F. Coordination
Coordination refers to the synchronization of different activities, approaches and
efforts to avoid duplication of functions in order to have focused endeavour to the
goal achievement. It is common to have numerous community workers and
community change organizations within the same community who have a single
agenda of promotion of social well-being of community people but they have
different approaches to the same goal. In a situation like this, there emerges
duplication of plans and actions because of the overlapping nature of activities
organized and implemented by different community change organizations or
community workers that also create chaos among community people. It leads to
wastage of resources, time and affects the overall approach incorporated for the
community organization. It does not only refer to coordination among various
agencies but also concerned with adjustments and inter-relations of the forces in
the community life for the common welfare.

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Methods of Community
Organization 6.3 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AS AN
APPROACH TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

NOTES It has often appeared that concepts of community organization and community
development have been understood as synonymous to one another which is a
misconception. Though there exists an undeniable link between both, where one
leads to others. As defined by Brahmadev Mukerji, ‘Community development is
a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the
active participation and if possible with the initiative of the community’ (Mukerji,
1961). As defined by Murray G. Ross, community organization is a ‘process by
which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them, develops
confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and external) to deal
with them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative and collaborative
attitudes and practices in the community’ (Ross, Community Organization, 1955).
If we examine both the definitions, it can be learned that community development
sounds more like a visualization of a community where people will have better
living standards which through people’s participation which is an end that one
strives to achieve through a movement. On the other hand, community organization
sounds exactly as a process through which goals of community development would
be achieved. To establish that they are not synonymous, it is important to understand
how they differ in principle from one another from the following points:
 Community development is target-oriented which seeks to achieve
development in the community whereas community organization is process-
oriented that aims to build cooperative and collaborative attitude among
members of the community to have sustained impact on the lives of people
and in their approach to deal their communities’ concerns.
 Community development takes into account all-round development of social,
economic and cultural aspects of the society as an outcome of the process,
whereas community organization is concerned more about the adjustment
of needs and resources within a community.
 Community development may not actively engage people in making collective
decisions with respect to matters relating to their community whereas
community organization promotes greater participation of people in order
to build capacities within them.
Community organization is the most relevant and appropriate approach to
community development since goals of meeting basic needs are ensured through
the positive results yielded by the efforts as well as people of the community also
become self-reliant in terms of developing abilities to stand united, locate internal
or external resources and plan activities in consultation with the community worker
that best suit the needs of their community.

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 Methods of Community
Check Your Progress Organization

1. What all points should planning in community organization take into

account?
NOTES
2. What is a community organization?
3. What does collective decision making depend upon?
4. How has Brahmadev Mukerji defined community development?

6.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Planning in community organization must take into account ends, means,

resources, implementation and monitoring.
2. Community organization is a team-based work, where community people
through voluntary cooperation work towards community development.
3. Collective decision making depends on the level of participation as seen on
a continuum ranging from the highest level of it to ‘no participation’ at all.
4. As defined by Brahmadev Mukerji, ‘Community development is a movement
designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active
participation and if possible with the initiative of the community’.

6.5 SUMMARY

 The concept ‘community’ has a varied understanding but the basic conception
of community remains the same throughout definitions opined by different
thinkers. A thinker says that ‘community is a concept to describe a social
organization that is considered fundamental to traditional society, which is
often regarded as natural grouping based on ties of shared blood, language,
history, territory and culture’.
 The concept of ‘community’ has been understood from the dimensions of
geographical aspect, interaction pattern, infrastructure, economic system,
values, ideas, belief system held by people living within boundaries of the
small-sized locality to a nation.
 Community organization is one of the primary methods of social work that
aims to bring changes in the quality of life of people living in a particular
community. As defined ‘community organization’ can be understood as “a
collection of people who have become aware of some problem or some
broad goal, who have gone through a process of learning about themselves
and about their environment, and have formulated a group objective”.

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Methods of Community  As a professional community worker, one has to initiate the process and
Organization
develop capacities within people of the community to function as a unit in
dealing with community issues.
 Planning involves brainstorming on what an individual is venturing in to and
NOTES
how others would form a team to accomplish assigned tasks directed towards
goal achievement.
 Planning holds similar relevance in the practice of community organization
as well, where community worker consciously makes planning a continuous
process which relies on implementation and evaluation basis. Since
community worker plays a role of facilitator in the process of community
organization, he/she actuates the brainstorming exercise among the
community people to organize themselves and make conscious efforts to
identify the common concerns of their community in order to address them.
 Social work profession has adopted certain values where the first and
foremost value is about considering human beings as worthy of respect. No
individual can be underestimated or discriminated on grounds of any
differences.
 Community participation blurs the boundaries that foster division and
exclusivity and promote unification for the common cause. In its course,
community participation ensures that everyone gets heard right from the
planning stage to implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
 Collective decision making is representative of full community control over
the process of community organization where the members of the community
engage in self-planning with minimal external facilitation provided by the
community worker.
 Collective decision making also ensures that no individual remains left out
from being heard, actively taking part in the implementation and benefitting
from the process and the end result.
 The process of community organization is more concerned about making
community members aware of their concerns have their morale boosted to
get unified and bring in picture different organizations which work to address
specific issues in tandem with the planned goals.
 Community organization is a process whereby community people themselves
identify their needs and problems, and in doing so, the people also look for
internal resources that can be used to meet the needs and immediate
requirements in pursuit of long-term goals.
 Co-ordination refers to the synchronization of different activities, approaches
and efforts to avoid duplication of functions in order to have focused
endeavour to the goal achievement.

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  It is common to have numerous community workers and community change Methods of Community
Organization
organizations within the same community who have a single agenda of
promotion of social well-being of community people but they have different
approaches to the same goal.
NOTES
 Community organization is the most relevant and appropriate approach to
community development since goals of meeting basic needs are ensured
through the positive results yielded by the efforts as well as people of the
community also become self-reliant in terms of developing abilities to stand
united, locate internal or external resources and plan activities in consultation
with the community worker that best suit the needs of their community.

6.6 KEY WORDS

 Social work: It is an academic discipline and profession that concerns itself

with individuals, families, groups and communities in an effort to
enhance social functioning and overall well-being.
 Group decision-making: It is a situation faced when individuals collectively
make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no
longer attributable to any single individual who is a member of the group.

6.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the concept of community organization.
2. How is education important in community organization?
3. What does collective decision making involve?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the different methods of community organization.
2. How can community organization be seen as an approach to community
development? Comment.

6.8 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.

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Methods of Community Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
Organization
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
NOTES
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Phases of Community
BLOCK - III Organization

PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION,

INTERVENTION AND APPLICATION OF
COMMUNITY SETTINGS NOTES

UNIT 7 PHASES OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Phases of Community Organization
7.2.1 Related Concepts in Community Organization
7.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.6 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.7 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Social work has emerged comparatively in recent years and has established itself
as a helping profession. Very recently, in comparison to long-existing traditional
fields of knowledge and other professions, social work has worked tremendously
to evolve and guide practice backed with the proper knowledge base. ‘Vigorous
development in any profession appears to be dependent upon specialization’.
McMillen has put forth the idea that the development and expansion of any
profession relies heavily on the specialization achieved in each component present
within the field. Specialization comes when a single component from the entire
field is bracketed and extensive research is carried out keeping in view the long
term goal to substantiate the current practices and bring new ideas/processes/
techniques through evidence-based inculcation.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the different phases of community organization
 Explain the concepts of study and assessment
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Phases of Community  Describe continuation and community study
Organization
 Discuss evaluation and modification

NOTES 7.2 PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

As mentioned in the book Community Organization – A Process in Social

Work by Woufne McMillen, prior to the recognition of professional social work,
there existed philanthropic activities that were often termed as ‘charity’, ‘care of
the poor’ and ‘the abetment of pauperism.’Among all other concepts in professional
social work, social casework was singled out and careful as well as detailed analysis
to affect the intensive development of the practice was carried out. With social
casework being the first method in the social work profession to be extensively
worked and strengthened; social group work and community organization followed
the suit. It is evident from the introductory texts written in a book on ‘community
organization’ titled Analysing Community Work by Keith Popple, the first edition
of which came in the year 1995. He opens his book with the statement that
“community work is an area of practice that is both imprecise and unclear”
progressing on to say that “community work, then, is a contradictory activity that
suffers from being under-theorized and under-researched” (Popple, 1995, p. 1).
Still, the author defines community work in most basic and simpler way possible,
as he says that “community work is not a profession like any other. It is a profession
dedicated to increasing the expertise of non-professionals, to increase the capacity
of people, in difficult and disadvantaged situations, getting more control over their
collective circumstances. Community workers stimulate and support groups of
people working to improve conditions and opportunities in their own
neighbourhoods. The immediate aims are often concrete – better amenities, housing,
job-opportunities; the underlying aim is an increase in confidence, skill and
community self-organizing power which will enable the participants to continue to
use and spread these abilities long after the community worker has gone” (Popple,
1995, p. 5).
In context of community work practice, Weil and Gamble in year 1995
outlined broader objectives, which are “(a) to develop organizing skills and abilities
of individuals and groups, (b) make social planning more accessible and inclusive
in a community, (c) connect social and economic involvement in grassroots
community groups, (d) advocate for broad coalitions in solving community
problems, and (e) infuse the social planning process with the concern for social
justice” (Weil & Gamble, 1995). Another book titled Community Practice:
Theories and Skills for Social Workers by David A. Hardcastle, Patricia R.
Powers written with Stanley Wenocur in the year 1997. “Community practice is
the core of social work and necessary for all social workers, whether generalists,
specialists, therapists, or activists” (Hardcastle, Powers, & Wencour, 1997).
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Let us now study the different phases of community organization. Phases of Community
Organization
A. Study (Preparatory Phase)
The study phase in the community organization process can also be understood as
the preparatory phase as it involves pre-organizing considerations. This study phase NOTES
generally takes into account the major goal of clarifying pre-existing conditions
that will affect the organizing process. Community organizer needs to be well-
versed with the principles, theories, techniques, and skills required to practice
community work, alongside, a thorough understanding of the community in to
which the worker is entering. “Be clear about the purposes or goals of the
engagement effort and the populations and/or communities you want to engage”
(Clinical and Translational Science Awards Consortium, 2011, p. 46). The
community worker may come from a different background with little knowledge
about the community he/she is entering into and to elicit the participation of people,
the worker must get acquainted with the dynamics that persist in the community.
Also, in order to build rapport with the people to proceed towards community
organizing steps, the worker has to spend time comprehending the community.
The preliminary study makes the worker aware of the geographical aspect,
segregations in the community, living conditions of people, dynamics that shape
the community living, interaction pattern within members of the community and
general visible issues of the community. Community organizing relies on principles
of empowerment, development of competence within community people, eliciting
active participation and “starting from where people are” (Nyswander, 1956).
B. Assessment (Pre-helping Phase)
Community coalition action theory in assessment and planning construct posits
that “successful implementation of effective strategies is more likely when
comprehensive assessment and planning occur” (Butterfoss & Kegler, 2009). The
aim of this phase is to gather specific information about the community in continuation
with the previous studies, gather information on the general situation of the
community, identifying needs and problems and gathering information about the
available resources. Analysis entails breaking complex topics into manageable parts
to gain a better understanding of the situation. Proper analysis of the existing
structures and forces within the community along with strength and weaknesses
would provide insight into the worker regarding what to focus upon. The assessment
would acquaint the worker with key intervention areas and help in visualizing what
strategies need to be worked upon to have effective implementation.
C. Discussion (Helping Phase)
Engagement and planning about intervention involve strategizing in consultation
with people of the community. People from within the community need to partake
actively in the process since the community worker plays a passive role. First and
foremost task in the helping phase is organizing people who wish to volunteer at
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Phases of Community the beginning of the process later those people are made to form a core group
Organization
ensuring participation of each subgroup present in the community. “While the
community organization worker plays a variety of roles in different situations, he is
basically concerned with enabling people’s expression and leadership to achieve
NOTES
community organization goals, and not try to have control, domination, or
manipulation” (Pathare, 2010).
Discussion holds importance because community worker must not express
that he/she is in charge of the process rather present as a facilitator who would
guide the process of community organization. People from within community must
not develop a dependence on the community worker as his/her role is time-bound,
also, people must develop leadership to gain full community control where they
are able to self-organize and tackle issues of common concerns that are faced by
the community. Discussion initiated by the community worker is intended to aware
people about the analysis that has been done to assess the situation, possible
solutions, strategies to achieve the goal, multiple plans of action, need for creation
of core group, use of immediately available resources, need for arrangement of
resources from outside the community, need for engagement of different
organizations who can extend support to the people organized to address their
own community issues, etc.
D. Organization (Helping Phase)
Within the structures construct of the community coalition action theory drafted
in context of health promotion and practice, it is stated that “formalized rules,
roles, structures, and procedures improve collaborative functioning and make
collaborative synergy more likely by engaging members and pooling resources”
meanwhile, the coalition membership construct of the theory holds that “more
effective coalitions result when the core group expands to include a broad
constituency of participants who represent diverse interest groups and
organizations.” (Butterfoss & Kegler, 2009). Organizing is the key to community
participation and channelizing the pooled human resources to work towards the
accomplishment of tasks in a coordinated manner. As defined by Ross, the process
of the community work, in course of organizing, essentially necessitates that it
must “extend and develop cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices
in the community” (Ross, 1955). Organizing the people volunteered for cooperation
is necessary to step in the process of community work; assignment of roles and
responsibilities so that no overlapping and chaos creeps in when the people start
engaging into action. Collaborative and cooperative attitude and practice do not
mean there wouldn’t be a difference of opinions, disagreements with one another,
tensions and conflicts, but with community worker’s timely recognition of such
forces with orderly arranged roles and responsibilities, they can be stopped from
being disastrous and disruptive for the process.

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E. Action (Helping Phase) Phases of Community
Organization
During rapport building, identification of needs and problems and resources
available within the community, organizing volunteered people into working groups
along with forming a core committee, community worker strategize the plan of NOTES
action and define timeline to execute them in an orderly fashion to achieve the
decided goals, collectively. Action phase in community work begins after finalizing
the goals, breaking them into small tasks, developing effective lines of communication
to manage coordination between community worker and the organization involved
in community work. The planned action must have high acceptability among the
community people as well the goals, methods, and procedures; rightly identified
among principles of community work by Murray G. Ross. Action contains different
tasks such as “involving key people committed to the decided goals, identifying
problems, ascertaining their possible causes, prioritizing and selecting specific
problems to be addressed; meanwhile achieving process goal, broadening
involvement, development of strategies and tactics and implementing them to
achieve goals” (Department of Alcohol and Drug Programs, 1988). The action
planned must be in line with the existing conditions and areas that need immediate
intervention. Goals of different nature; immediate intervention goals, short term
goals and long term goals must be identified after prioritizing them according to its
widespread and ability to affect the overall living conditions of people in the
community. This stage resembles with the performing stage relevant for founded
groups to work for a common cause. Performing appears when “the team finally
starts working as a cohesive whole, and effectively achieve the tasks set of
themselves” (Community Research Project, 2016). Actions are regularly and closely
monitored to see how the team is progressing.
F. Evaluation (Ending Phase)
In context of implemented programme under the action phase of community work
process, the ending stage necessitates evaluation which can be defined as “the
systematic collection of information about the activities, characteristics, and
outcomes of programs, for use by people to reduce uncertainties, improve
effectiveness, and make decisions” (Patton, 2008). Community worker or the
organization involved in a community work process cannot abruptly withdraw and
leave people in a directionless situation rather gradual withdrawal is planned
followed by the positive results noticed in the evaluation phase. Evaluation simply
takes into account the key indicators decided by the implementers as milestones
to assess whether or not the group has worked in lines with the plan and has
achieved them with efficiency. Evaluation informs the group to either objective set
by the team has been achieved or there’s a need for improvisation in the plan or it
requires an overhaul in the current plan of action. It is futile wasting resources on
something which cannot yield satisfactory or desired results, so the evaluation
plays its critical role in assessing that and informing the working teams to address
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Phases of Community the loopholes on immediate basis. Facilitators’ role in the community work process
Organization
with a particular community is limited, professional community worker is well aware
of the fact that the “programs should be initiated, developed, modified, and
terminated on the basis of the needs of the community and on the basis of the
NOTES
availability of other comparable services” (Pathare, 2010).
7.2.1 Related Concepts in Community Organization
Let us study the related concepts in community organization.
A. Modification
A community worker is more concerned about organizing people into groups who
can further take up the task of community development once they have learned
the process. Community work is a process-oriented task where key achievement
of community worker is making the community people united and learned to be
self-reliant to address their community concerns on their own. Initiating task of
evaluation and re-strategizing according to the results of evaluation by bringing
modifications in the plan, is an attempt to educate people with the process to
follow them in the absence of community worker. “Based on the evaluation,
necessary modifications are decided and introduced. In order to bring about a
permanent solution to the selected problem, it is to be tackled effectively with the
modifications suggested” (Christopher, 2010). In a modification, the plan of action,
strategy or tactics involved in achieving planned goals, are relooked and modified
plan or strategy is incorporated.
B. Continuation
Continuation coincides with the term ‘sustaining the work” in the process of
community work, as it is evident from Ross’s definition that it is not a one-time
task rather a process that acquaints people of the community to sustain it for
longer. “The changes that communities seek often require more time than typically
funded by an external agent. In addition, although not all efforts merit continuation,
problems may return when the interventions - and even the collaborative processes
that support them - are no longer in place” also “the process of sustaining the
work can help community initiatives plan and implement efforts for the long haul.
When groups engage in the process of sustaining the work, they can develop the
necessary commitment, capacity, and resources” (Community Tool Box, 2019).
Continuation refers to the intensified implementation of the existing plan when the
evaluation informs that the current plan of action need intensive implementation or
changes are made if it no longer helps in goal achievement. Community organization
is a process initiated by community worker to make community people act together
in solving community issues, and keep the effort continued even if community
worker no longer extends support.

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C. Community Study Phases of Community
Organization
According to Social Work Macro Practice 6th edition, ‘community’ has a varying
perspective as it can be seen “as a matter of geography, collective relationship
(network) and identity or interest” (Netting, Kettner, McMurtry, & Thomas, 2017). NOTES
Community is not restricted only to a geographic idea but can be conceptualized
more in an abstract manner. Robert Redfield identified the small community as the
basic unit of society that is characterized by certain defining qualities such as
distinctiveness, small-size, self-sufficiency and homogeneity of inhabitants. Though
there exist homogeneity in inhabitants, the distinctiveness leads to the diversity that
differentiates one community from another in many aspects, makes it of critical
importance for the community worker to get a thorough understanding of the
community he/she is venturing to initiate the process. Each community’s uniqueness
manifested in the values, belief system, practices, traditions, socio-economic
conditions, interaction pattern, dynamics, etc. demand an in-depth study of it, to
begin with the community organizing process and sustain the effort addressing
possible challenges through identifying them in advance.

Check Your Progress

1. What does the study phase of community organization take into account?
2. State the aim of the assessment phase.
3. What is community work?

7.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The study phase of community organization generally takes into account the
major goal of clarifying pre-existing conditions that will affect the organizing
process. Community organizer needs to be well-versed with the principles,
theories, techniques, and skills required to practice community work,
alongside, a thorough understanding of the community in to which the worker
is entering.
2. The aim of the assessment phase is to gather specific information about the
community in continuation with the previous studies, gather information on
the general situation of the community, identifying needs and problems and
gathering information about the available resources.
3. Community work is a process-oriented task where key achievement of
community worker is making the community people united and learned to
be self-reliant to address their community concerns on their own.

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Phases of Community
Organization 7.4 SUMMARY

 Among all other concepts in professional social work, social casework

NOTES was singled out and careful as well as detailed analysis to affect the intensive
development of the practice was carried out.
 With social casework being the first method in the social work profession
to be extensively worked and strengthened; social group work and
community organization followed the suit.
 In context of community work practice, Weil and Gamble in year 1995
outlined broader objectives, which are “(a) to develop organizing skills and
abilities of individuals and groups, (b) make social planning more accessible
and inclusive in a community, (c) connect social and economic involvement
in grassroots community groups, (d) advocate for broad coalitions in solving
community problems, and (e) infuse the social planning process with the
concern for social justice”.
 The study phase in the community organization process can also be
understood as the preparatory phase as it involves pre-organizing
considerations. This study phase generally takes into account the major
goal of clarifying pre-existing conditions that will affect the organizing process.
 The community worker may come from a different background with little
knowledge about the community he/she is entering into and to elicit the
participation of people, the worker must get acquainted with the dynamics
that persist in the community. Also, in order to build rapport with the people
to proceed towards community organizing steps, the worker has to spend
time comprehending the community.
 Community coalition action theory in assessment and planning construct
posits that “successful implementation of effective strategies is more likely
when comprehensive assessment and planning occur”.
 Analysis entails breaking complex topics into manageable parts to gain a
better understanding of the situation. Proper analysis of the existing structures
and forces within the community along with strength and weaknesses would
provide insight into the worker regarding what to focus upon.
 Engagement and planning about intervention involve strategizing in
consultation with people of the community. People from within the
community need to partake actively in the process since the community
worker plays a passive role.
 Organizing is the key to community participation and channelizing the pooled
human resources to work towards the accomplishment of tasks in a
coordinated manner. As defined by Ross, the process of the community
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 work, in course of organizing, essentially necessitates that it must “extend Phases of Community
Organization
and develop cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the
community”.
 During rapport building, identification of needs and problems and resources NOTES
available within the community, organizing volunteered people into working
groups along with forming a core committee, community worker strategize
the plan of action and define timeline to execute them in an orderly fashion
to achieve the decided goals, collectively.
 A community worker is more concerned about organizing people into groups
who can further take up the task of community development once they
have learned the process.
 Community work is a process-oriented task where key achievement of
community worker is making the community people united and learned to
be self-reliant to address their community concerns on their own.
 Continuation coincides with the term ‘sustaining the work” in the process of
community work, as it is evident from Ross’s definition that it is not a one-
time task rather a process that acquaints people of the community to sustain
it for longer.

7.5 KEY WORDS

 Community studies: It is an academic field drawing on both sociology

and anthropology and the social research methods of ethnography and
participant observation in thestudy of community.
 Community coalition action theory: It is a type of IOR used to build
consensus and actively engage diverse organizations and constituencies in
addressing community issue or problems.

7.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between preparatory phase and pre-helping phase.
2. Write a short note on the ending phase.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the different phases of community organization.
2. Explain some of the related concepts of community organization.

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Phases of Community
Organization 7.7 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

NOTES Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Intervention Strategies in

UNIT 8 INTERVENTION Community Settings

STRATEGIES IN
NOTES
COMMUNITY SETTINGS
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Community-Based Interventions: Awareness Building
8.2.1 Negotiating
8.2.2 Lobbying
8.2.3 Resource Mobilisation
8.3 Resolving Group Conflicts
8.3.1 Programme Planning and Service Delivery
8.4 Monitoring and Evaluation
8.4.1 Developing Human Resource
8.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.9 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you learnt about the phases of community organization. In this
unit, the discussion will turn towards intervention strategies in a community setting.
An intervention can be considered a mixture of program elements or strategies
designed to produce behaviour changes or improve health status among individuals
or an entire population. The most effective interventions are those that encompass
multiple strategies and produce desired and lasting change.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss intervention strategies in community settings
 Explain the concepts of negotiating, lobbying, and resource mobilization
 Examine how to resolve conflict

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Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings 8.2 COMMUNITY-BASED INTERVENTIONS:
AWARENESS BUILDING

NOTES The community as target refers to the goal of creating healthy community
environments through broad systemic changes in public policy and community-
wide institutions and services. Implementing effective interventions is a key process
to help communities target and change community conditions for behavioural and
population-level improvements.
An intervention is a combination of program elements or strategies designed
to produce behaviour changes or improve health status among individuals or an
entire population. Interventions may include educational programs, new or stronger
policies, improvements in the environment, or a health promotion campaign. The
main aim of monitoring is to assess whether an intervention is going as planned,
and whether any change in focus and/or activity is necessary.
Difference between an intervention and a strategy
A strategy is a set of methods or activities to teach your child something. An
instructional intervention may include strategies. But not all strategies are
interventions. The main difference is that an instructional intervention is formalized,
aimed at a known need and monitored.
What is a healthy community?
A healthy community is one in which all residents have access to a quality education,
safe and healthy homes, adequate employment, transportation, physical activity,
and nutrition, in addition to quality health care.
Organizing
Organizing is the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed,
defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing relationships
for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives. Community organizing is a process where people who
live in proximity to each other come together into an organization that acts in their
shared self-interest. Community organizers work with and develop new local
leaders, facilitating coalitions and assisting in the development of campaigns.
Community organizing is the work of bringing people together to take action
around their common concerns and overcome social injustice. Community
organizers reach out and listen, connect and motivate people to build their collective
power. When people are organized, communities get heard and power begins to
shift creating real change for good.

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Peoples Participation Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings
In a democratic society participation gives the ordinary citizen a means of voicing
his opinion and of showing by his behaviour and action that he is able to take on
responsibilities. It gives the ordinary citizen a chance to show his willingness to NOTES
carry out constructive public work and to demonstrate his good citizenship by
other means than periodically exercising his right to vote.
Participation cannot be imposed on the people from the above, it should be
voluntary and based on will to participate. Participation should be of direct
involvement and not through the representatives, where they (representatives)
represent the interest of rich rather than the interest of poor majority. However, in
a vast country like ours direct participation of the people is possible only at the
local level. Under the existing Indian social system, equitable participation of the
poor in the process of development can be regarded as a gradual process. It can
be accelerated only when the poor become conscious of their rights and privileges
and built up strength to achieve justice for themselves in the sharing of benefits of
development.
People’s participation or involvement can be better understood in four senses:
1. Participation in decision-making;
2. Participation m implementation of development programme.
3. Participation m monitoring and evaluation of development programmes
and
4. Participation in sharing the benefits of development.
People’s participation can be ensured through the formation of people’s organization
and group actions. People’s organization, be it formal or informal, gives them the
power to negotiate and bargain, recognition, status and cohesive strength as a
community. It gives them accessibility to information, resources, check exploitation
and injustices and effect fair distribution of resources. Effective participation needs
integration of components/ activities and their proper and timely coordination.
8.2.1 Negotiating
Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by
which compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.
In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible
outcome for their position (or perhaps an organization they represent). However,
the principles of fairness, seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are
the keys to a successful outcome.
Specific forms of negotiation are used in many situations: international affairs,
the legal system, government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships as
examples. However, general negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a

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Intervention Strategies in wide range of activities. Negotiation skills can be of great benefit in resolving any
Community Settings
differences that arise between you and others.
Stages of Negotiation
NOTES In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured
approach to negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to
be arranged in which all parties involved can come together. The process of
negotiation includes the following stages:
 Preparation
 Discussion
 Clarification of goals
 Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
 Agreement
 Implementation of a course of action
8.2.2 Lobbying
Lobbying is a term that includes activities of influencing the decision makers, both
political and all other decisions for which the community or individuals are concerned
about. Lobbying is a targeted activity and is mainly consisting of a direct influence
on the decision-making person.
Lobbying is the process of influencing public policy. It involves developing
and implementing strategies to persuade those in power. Social work education
provides opportunities to gain the knowledge and skills necessary for engaging in
lobbying efforts. Lobbying is an important lever for a productive government.
Without it, governments would struggle to sort out the many, many competing
interests of its citizens. Fortunately, lobbying provides access to government
legislators, acts as an educational tool, and allows individual interests to gain power
in numbers.
8.2.3 Resource Mobilisation
Resource mobilization refers to all the means that an organization should acquire
to implement its action plan. It is a process, which will identify the resources
essential for the development, implementation and continuation of works for
achieving the organizations.
Community mobilization is the act of encouraging and engaging the community
to participate in the creation of safe cities and communities for women and girls.
Thus, community mobilization is important because the community itself is ultimately
responsible for and affected by situations of safety or insecurity.

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 There are two types of resource mobilization theory: Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings
1. Political
2. Economic
The economic model explains collective activity as a consequence of NOTES
economic aspects. It contends that grievances are not adequate to explain the
creation of social developments. Rather than this, access to and control over assets
is the important factor. The laws of demand and supply explain the flow of assets
to and from the movements, and that individual activities are represented by sound
decision theory. The political model highlights the political battle rather than the
financial components.
Importance of resource mobilization involves
1. Guarantees the continuation of an association’s administration procurement
to customers
2. Supports organizational sustainability
3. Takes into account scale-up and improvement of items and administrations
currently offered by the organization
4. Organization, both in private and public sectors, must be in the business of
creating new business to stay in business.
Mobilization of Resources
Mobilizing is the process of assembling and organizing things for ready use or for
a achieving a collective goal. The term mobilization of resources should be seen in
the same context. Mobilization of resources means the freeing up of locked
resources.
Types of Resources in India
 Natural Resources: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Water, Spectrum etc.
 Human Resources: The labour force and intellectual capacity of a nation.
The proper utilization of these resources leads to the generation of economic
resources – savings, investment capital, tax etc. While mobilization of resources is
considered, the mobilization of economic resources (financial resources) should
also be studied. Resource mobilization is actually a process of raising different
types of support for your organization. As stated above, it can include both cash
and in-kind support.
Resource mobilization can also be called as the process of getting resource
from resource provider, using different mechanisms, to implement the organization’s
work for achieving the pre-determined organizational goals. It deals in acquiring
the needed resources in a timely-cost effective manner. It advocates upon having
the right type of resource, at the right time, at right price with making right use of
acquired resources thus ensuring optimum utilization of the same.
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Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings
Check Your Progress
1. What is an intervention?
NOTES 2. What is negotiation?

8.3 RESOLVING GROUP CONFLICTS

There are several common causes of conflict at work, but most are categorised
by who in the workplace is involved. The four main categories are:
 Intrapersonal: This is when a person experiences inner turmoil, such as
disagreeing with the values of the company or being a perfectionist.
 Interpersonal: This is conflict between two or more individuals; it may be
an isolated incident or an ongoing issue.
 Intragroup: This refers to the conflict between one or more people in the
same group or team.
 Intergroup: These involve several different teams and are often difficult to
handle without external support or preventative/corrective action.
Categorized by who in the workplace is involved.
Each of these require different intervention methods. It also takes the skill
of a manager who is focused on reaching positive results, such as encouraging
people to more actively respect and work around differences and help their co-
workers.
Inter-Group Conflict
When a conflict takes place between two or more groups it is called ‘inter-group
conflict’.
The causes of inter-group conflict are as follows:
1. Scarce Resources
2. Conflicting Interest
3. Exercise of Power
4. Intra-Group Conflict
A group often consists of persons of similar values, attitude, interests and
goals. Group interests are generally the same but individual interest and goal may
differ from person to person in a group. The result is conflict. Thus, a conflict
between two or among some members in a group may be referred to as ‘intra-
group conflict’. Intra-group conflict may take place owing to the following reasons:
1. Difference in Goal
2. Denial of Responsibility
3. Ineffective Control over the Group
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 4. Ideological Differences Intervention Strategies in
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5. High Degree of Competition
6. Communication Gap
The most common factor that leads to conflict situations within organizations NOTES
are misunderstandings. Conflict can arise from misunderstandings due to poor
communication, lack of planning, poor staff selection, frustration, stress and burnout.
Conflicts in a community
Any time when we bring people together we will have more than one opinion
instantly on anything. The number of times we might have heard of arguments in a
group of people over some of the silliest things. It is human nature. We want
others to agree with our point of view. We want everyone to see things our way,
and yet, we also know if we all shared the same view there would be something
seriously wrong with us.
Conflict typically stems from three basic types: task conflict, interpersonal
conflict, and procedural conflict.
Task Conflict: Deals with disagreement about the substance of the discussion.
These conflicts can result in improved decision quality. Also, a conflict based on
the task can result in a better more thought-out ‘flow’ through the decision process.
This can be a positive conflict and resolution.
Interpersonal Conflict: Often described as personality clash. This occurs when
individuals disagree with another individual for reasons unrelated to the issue being
discussed. This conflict will usually take the form of antagonistic remarks against
personal characteristics of another person.
Procedural Conflict: This conflict results when there is a disagreement over the
procedures followed to accomplish a goal of the community. This conflict can be
a positive form of conflict as it can lead to new procedures being formed and even
possibly new goals being defined.
Resolution to Conflict
There are a number of steps resolved in proper conflict resolution. Let us examine
them.
Recognize and acknowledge existence of conflicts
Sometimes recognizing conflict is more difficult then we may admit. Identifying not
only that conflict exists but also the type of conflict. If we do not recognize a
conflict then clearly we cannot resolve it.
Analyze the existing situation
Once we have recognized and acknowledged the existence of the conflict we
need to analyze the situation. What is the current situation? How severe is the
conflict? What are the possible outcomes and what are some worst-case scenarios? Self-Instructional
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Intervention Strategies in This is not a step to skip. Before being able to properly resolve a conflict we need
Community Settings
to be able to step back and look at the entire situation.
Encourage communication
NOTES Here is where it starts to get a little more intensive. This point in conflict resolution
is where passions start to get involved, tempers have the greatest chance of flaring
and resolution becomes more difficult. But communication cannot be and should
not be avoided. Here are some items to attend to while encouraging positive and
constructive communication.
 Free discussion
 encourage accurate communication
 Listen and raise questions
 Allow free expression
 Supply relevant information and facts
 maintain objectivity (no emotional pleas)
 Focus on the issue and not people
 be gracious when successful
8.3.1 Programme Planning and Service Delivery
The steps for program planning are discussed below.
Steps for Program planning
1. Identify the purpose for your work plan. Work plans are written for various
reasons.
2. Write the introduction and background
3. Determine the goal(s) and objectives
4. Develop the objectives
5. List your resources
6. Identify any constraints
7. Who is accountable?
8. Write your strategy
Designing and planning is important for projects and programmes alike. It
refers to the ‘process of setting goals, developing strategies, outlining the
implementation arrangements and allocating resources to achieve those goals’
(UNDP 2009). There are several approaches to programme and project design.
The main advantages of planning are as follows:
 Planning increases the efficiency of an organization.
 It reduces the risks involved in modern business activities.
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  It facilitates proper coordination within an organization. Intervention Strategies in
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 It aids in organizing all available resources.
 It gives a right direction to the organization.
 It is important to maintain good control. NOTES
 It helps to achieve the objectives of the organization.
 It motivates the personnel of an organization.
 It encourages managers’ creativity and innovation.
 It also helps in decision-making.
Service Delivery Model for Programme Planning and Evaluation: Case
Study
Source: Developed by Link Alma DODD
What is Service Model?
The National Programs Team adopted a Service Model in order to build a common
language for accountability and evaluation across the organization. A Service Model
is a tool that may be useful in planning and evaluating programs, committee work
and other collaborative projects. Logic models represent a visual way of expressing
the rationale or thought behind a program.
Planning Process
Our planning process revolves around our basic definition of programming. We
define programs as a comprehensive approach to solving a problem or addressing
a need or issue within a community. A program is not a onetime event or single
activity. A program should include a series of related activities focused on achieving
a predetermined set of goals and objectives. Our Service Model contains six
components with Inputs-Outputs-Outcomes being central to the common basis of
the model.
Planning Elements
Situation: Service models are built in response to an existing situation. We identify
the problem or priority the program is responding to and the expected benefit
to specific audiences.
 Inputs: The inputs are the resources available to make your program work.
Resources could include the people, the money or the community resources
that are necessary to operate the program. Inputs lead to Outputs.
 Outputs: The activities, products, methods, and services you use represent
your outputs. Examples of program activities include research, training,
technical assistance and other services. Outputs lead to Outcomes.
 Outcomes: The results and benefits for groups, individuals or communities
represent outcomes. They may include direct products, services or events
delivered through planned activities.
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Intervention Strategies in  External Factors: These are the outside forces that affect the
Community Settings
implementation and success of the program.
 Assumptions: Assumptions are the beliefs we have about why our program
will work.
NOTES
Evaluation Planning
An evaluation plan to assess the program can be superimposed using the service
model format. Evaluation involves asking key questions about the program.
Developing appropriate and measurable indicators during the planning phase is
key to a sound evaluation. Link your activities and results in order to ensure success.

8.4 MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Monitoring and evaluation provide information on what an intervention is doing,

how well it is performing and whether it is achieving its aims and objectives; guidance
on future intervention activities; an important part of accountability to funding
agencies and stakeholders.
Plans for monitoring and evaluation should be made at the beginning of an
intervention development process.
Monitoring
Monitoring is the regular collection of information about all project activities. It
shows whether things are going to plan and helps project managers to identify and
solve problems quickly. It keeps track of project inputs and outputs such as:
 activities
 reporting and documentation
 finances and budgets
 supplies and equipment
Monitoring is an ongoing activity that should be incorporated into everyday
project work.
Evaluation
An evaluation asks whether a project is achieving what it set out to do, and whether
it is making a difference. If this is happening the evaluation seeks to understand
how and why the intervention has worked so well. If the project is unsuccessful,
questions are raised as to what could have been done better or differently.
Evaluations thus keep track of key outcomes and impacts related to the different
project components, assessing whether the objectives, aims and goals are being
achieved.
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 Who should be involved in monitoring and evaluation? Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings
Monitoring is routinely carried out by project staff, project partners and peer
educators as they keep track of their work. Evaluations can be performed by
external agencies or by project staff, peer workers and stakeholders, or by a
NOTES
combination of the latter three groups and external agencies. External involvement
lends technical expertise and objectivity to evaluations. However, the use of project
staff and peer networks in an evaluation builds their capacity and provides a sense
of ownership of the results. Moreover, the familiarity of peer workers and project
staff with, for example the sex work context may lead to a more realistic picture of
an intervention, and informants may be more willing to talk openly with project
workers than to outsiders. A combination of the two approaches can provide the
most useful information. (Source: WHO)
8.4.1 Developing Human Resource
Human resources development (HRD) refers to the vast field of training and
development provided by organizations to increase the knowledge, skills, education,
and abilities of their employees. In many organizations, the human resources
development process begins upon the hiring of a new employee and continues
throughout that employee’s tenure with the organization.
Many employees come into an organization with only a basic level of skills
and experience and must receive training in order to do their jobs effectively.
Others may already have the necessary skills to do the job, but do not have
knowledge related to that particular organization. HR development is designed to
give employees the information they need to adapt to that organization’s culture
and to do their jobs effectively.
What is the purpose of HRD?
Human resources development can be viewed, in some ways, in the same manner
that a coach views his athletic team. While a coach may recruit players who already
have some skill and ability, the point of continued practice is to strengthen those
skills and abilities and make even better athletes.
HR development has the same goal: to make better employees. The purpose
of HR development is to provide the ‘coaching’ needed to strengthen and grow
the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an employee already has. The goal of
development and training is to make employees even better at what they do.
Check Your Progress
3. What is intragroup conflict?
4. What is the most common factor that leads to conflict situation within
organizations?
5. What is monitoring?

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Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings 8.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. An intervention is a combination of program elements or strategies designed

to produce behaviour changes or improve health status among individuals
or an entire population.
2. Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process
by which compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument
and dispute.
3. Intragroup conflict refers to the conflict between one or more people in the
same group or team.
4. The most common factor that leads to conflict situations within organizations
are misunderstandings.
5. Monitoring is the regular collection of information about all project activities.
It shows whether things are going to plan and helps project managers to
identify and solve problems quickly.

8.6 SUMMARY

 The community as target refers to the goal of creating healthy community

environments through broad systemic changes in public policy and
community-wide institutions and services.
 A strategy is a set of methods or activities to teach your child something. An
instructional intervention may include strategies. But not all strategies are
interventions.
 Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process
by which compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument
and dispute.
 Lobbying is a term that includes activities of influencing the decision makers,
both political and all other decisions for which the community or individuals
are concerned about.
 Resource mobilization refers to all the means that an organization should
acquire to implement its action plan.
 There are several common causes of conflict at work, but most are
categorised by who in the workplace is involved.
 Conflict typically stems from three basic types: task conflict, interpersonal
conflict, and procedural conflict.

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  Designing and planning is important for projects and programmes alike. It Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings
refers to the ‘process of setting goals, developing strategies, outlining the
implementation arrangements and allocating resources to achieve those
goals’.
NOTES
 Monitoring and evaluation provide information on what an intervention is
doing, how well it is performing and whether it is achieving its aims and
objectives; guidance on future intervention activities; an important part of
accountability to funding agencies and stakeholders.
 Evaluations can be performed by external agencies or by project staff, peer
workers and stakeholders, or by a combination of the latter three groups
and external agencies.
 Human resources development (HRD) refers to the vast field of training
and development provided by organizations to increase the knowledge,
skills, education, and abilities of their employees.

8.7 KEY WORDS

 Lobbying: The act of attempting to influence business and government

leaders to create legislation or conduct an activity that will help a particular
organization.
 Negotiation: The process of discussing something with someone in order
to reach an agreement with them, or the discussions themselves.

8.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What do you understand by the concept of people’s participation?
2. List the stages of negotiation.
3. What is the purpose of human resource development?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss community based interventions.
2. Explain the concept of resource mobilization.
3. Examine the concept of conflict. How can conflicts be resolved?

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Intervention Strategies in
Community Settings 8.9 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

NOTES Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Application of Community
BLOCK - IV Organization in
Different Settings
SOCIAL ACTION: DEFINITION,
CONCEPT AND STRATEGIES
NOTES

UNIT 9 APPLICATION OF
COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION IN
DIFFERENT SETTINGS
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Application of Community Organization in Rural, Urban and Tribal Areas
9.3 Application of Community Organization in Target Groups: Children,
Youth, Women, Aged and Dalits
9.3.1 Children
9.3.2 Youth
9.3.3 Women
9.3.4 Aged
9.3.5 Dalits
9.4 Community Organization in Emergencies
9.5 Community Organization at Local, State and National Level
9.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.7 Summary
9.8 Key Words
9.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.10 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

Community organization can be practised in different communities or settings. The

community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the basis of geographical
location. The other classification of the community can be based on the caste,
religion, occupation and other aspects. These communities are under different
settings where community organization can be put into practice. Community
organization is applied when the community takes initiative in solving the problems
and meetings the needs. In such a situation, the community plays different roles in
dealing with the various needs and problems.
Usually within the community, either the interested people or the people
who are affected by an issue take up the lead in addressing the problem. In other
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Application of Community words, they form the community and undertake different roles in solving the
Organization in
Different Settings problems and needs get fulfilled. But such a process does not take place so easily
and hence someone has to take the lead. When the initiative is not forthcoming on
the part of the community, an external agent or an outsider or a community organizer
NOTES steps in and works with the community.
The community organizer depending on the setting, situation and the problems
applies appropriate roles. The roles are likely to vary according to the settings,
problems and needs. Community organization can be used by the community
organizer in different areas or settings like rural, urban, tribal, institutional, non-
institutional settings. Whatever may be the settings depending upon the model of
community organization, like locality development, social planning and social action,
the community organizer has to apply different roles respectively. Therefore, a
community organizer has to be familiar with all the roles of community organization.

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain community organizations in rural, urban and tribal settings
 Discuss the functioning of community organizations for the welfare of women,
minority and elderly people
 Analyse assistance provided by community organizations in emergencies
 Describe the measures taken by community organizations at the local, state
and national level

9.2 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION IN RURAL, URBAN AND
TRIBAL AREAS

We will begin our discussion by alluding to the community organizations functioning

in the tribal areas followed by urban and rural areas.
Tribal areas which are also referred to as Scheduled Areas in the Indian
Constitution are basically areas that are declared by the President to be Scheduled
Areas. Rural area is characterized by a population which is more than 5000, the
density is more than 300 per square kilometre and more than 75 per cent of the
people are engaged in agricultural activities. Whereas tribal areas have the similar
characteristics except its geographical location is in hilly regions. It has been
observed that interpersonal relationship and receptiveness is high and positive in
rural and tribal areas, whereas in urban area the primary relationship within the
community is rather low. Organizing rural and tribal people is less difficult compared
to urban people.

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 More than organization, it has been seen that rural and tribal areas require Application of Community
Organization in
awareness in order to deal with day-to-day issues. Many steps have been taken Different Settings
by the government to improve conditions in these areas, including setting up a
separate department for tribal affairs. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was constituted
in October 1999 with the objective of providing more focused attention on the NOTES
integrated socio-economic development of the most underprivileged sections of
the Indian society namely, the Scheduled Tribes (STs), in a coordinated and planned
manner. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the nodal Ministry for the overall policy,
planning and coordination of programmes for development of STs. To this end,
the Ministry of Tribal Affairs undertakes activities that flow from the subjects
allocated under the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961.
Apart from this, there are various institutions that contribute on their own level for
the development of tribal areas, some of which have been listed below.
(i) The Indian National Trust for the Welfare of Tribals
With the five E’s (Environment, Economics, Equity, Ethic and Ecology) at the core
of its thinking, the Indian National Trust for the Welfare of Tribals (INTWOT),
founded in 1996, promotes tribal development in several states of India. INTWOT
operates in several parts of India with large significant tribal populations as well in
city areas where tribals have sometimes migrated to Orrisa, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi. The Trust’s work is supported by
relationships with several national and international funding agencies, as well as
various ministries within the Government of India. The trust is an income tax-
exempt (from India 80 G and from USA 501C3) non-profit, non-religious, non-
political, and non-governmental organization. A number of more specific goals
define the path the organization takes in its efforts:
 To uplift and improve the living and social conditions of tribes residing in the
forested areas and elsewhere, with special emphasis on efforts to end their
exploitation by promoting awareness and knowledge about their rights and
benefits through legal aid and guidance.
 To help them obtain a steady income for their livelihood.
 To provide training to tribals to run small-scale businesses that allows them
to earn for themselves.
 To provide them opportunities for education—primary, higher and
technological.
 To operate as a mediator between the government bodies and the tribals,
and as a channel for the development and welfare of the tribals.
 To work as a social entrepreneur to achieve the above mentioned targets.
Activities: The main thrust of economic activities is to enhance income from existing
resources and create additional employment opportunities for the tribals with
optimum utilization of local sources and skills. Each programme initiated by
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Application of Community INTWOT is followed by an awareness-building effort among the community where
Organization in
Different Settings the programme is introduced. Some key programmes of the Trust are outlined below.
Cultivation of vegetables: Vegetable cultivation supported by INTWOT has
been a major economic activity in the hilly areas of Jharkhand, and has resulted in
NOTES
increasing income; this has set a model for surrounding villages.
Basket-making: Women of different tribal communities are engaged in bamboo
stick works organized for basket making and bamboo crafts. Seed money is
provided to them by INTWOT in several hamlets of Gumla, Lohardaga and
Palamau districts of Jharkhand and in the Sonebhadra district of Uttar Pradesh to
initiate the purchase of bamboo for their business. Proceeds from the sale of the
products are reinvested in other economic activities locally.
Bee-keeping: Traditionally, in some villages of Gumla district of Jharkhand people
used to procure honey through a very crude method. They used to set ablaze the
honeycombs in the jungles, a cruel process that is additionally wasteful, leading to
comparatively less honey being gathered. Some women from ten families were
selected from this area and modern techniques of bee-keeping, which are eco-
friendly and more productive, were transferred to them.
Cultivation of Mentha arvensis: Dozens of villagers learned the cultivation of
the herb Mentha arvensis in Palkot block of Gumla. Earlier though people were
aware of this herb; they were unaware of its multipurpose utility (in medicines,
cosmetics, air-freshness, bio-diversity conservation and environment protection etc.).
With the help of charts and published literature INTWOT’s trainers provided this
knowledge, and thereafter the Trust provided field training for its growth and harvest.
Scientific agriculture: In the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, INTWOT is
bringing about socio-economic development through the use of science and
technology in agriculture. Important components of this effort include adaptive
research on innovative agricultural technology leading to breeding improved
varieties, efficient agro-techniques, standardized chemical and biological control
of pests and crop diseases, and the production and use of energy from bio-waste.
Health and drinking water: The provision of medicinal services and safe drinking
water are the major initiatives of INTWOT in the drought-prone areas of Palamau
and its vicinity. In 20 remote villages in this region, and in the rehabilitation colonies
of Delhi, many medical camps are organized regularly.
Bio-diversity conservation: Thousands of indigenous people of Kalahand,
(Orrisa) are dying of starvation. Simply giving them the packets of bread and
medicine does not help much. INTWOT has initiated an integrated programme
for the self-sufficiency of tribals of Kalahandi. In this project, the cultivation of
medicinal, cosmetic and aromatic plants is in practice. The development and
maintenance of a nursery, the distribution of seeds and saplings to interested farmers,
the technical training of farmers—these efforts are integrated into a sustainable
effort. The local communities obtain knowledge of markets, and the confidence
and awareness to plan their economic activities accordingly.
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Capacity Building of NGOs: INTWOT is active in capacity building work Application of Community
Organization in
with the NGOs of Orrisa. Organizations are trained to use their skills optimally, Different Settings
and encouraged to form networks of non-governmental efforts that are mutually
reinforcing. Leadership skills are taught and the NGOs can adopt self-assessment
mechanism to rate their work. NOTES

(ii) Samata
It is one of the NGOs that is opposing the proposed bauxite mining in Vizag
Agency and are now demanding that the proposed environment public hearing by
the AP Pollution Control Board on behalf of APMDC slated for October 3 at
Chintapalli be postponed indefinitely till the government places the issue before
the Tribal Advisory Council (TAC). Samata is in the forefront in opposing the
mining, dashed letters to the President of India and State Governor, seeking them
to direct local officials to postpone the hearing.
(iii) Naxal Heritage Conservation Trust (NHTCT)
Naxal Heritage Conservation Trust is a Non-Profitable Social Group that is dedicated
for the preservation and conservation of the local art, culture, traditions and festivals.
(v) South Vihar Welfare Society for Tribal (SVWST)
It is a non-profitable, non-governmental, non–political organization established in
1998 by a group of dedicated social workers with the motto to bring human
dignity their basic human rights and self-confidence among people through
awareness and motivation for socio-economic changes among the poorest of the
poor. The basic concern of this organization is to serve the poor and disadvantage
community irrespective of sex, caste and creed religion or national and to create a
just society by empowering the people to be self-reliant through different activities.
The organization encourage youth to develop leadership qualities to remove
inequality and injustice from every nook and corner of the society to play major
role in the process of social changes and to create classless, oppression-free society
based on non-violence and universal brotherhood. Thus, the members are dedicated
to work for socio-economic development of the most neglected and deprived
group of the society.
Community Organization in Urban and Rural Areas
Despite chaos and poverty, every village or neighbourhood has some kind of
organization. With respect to their problems, environmental health workers and
disaster prevention planners need to understand the form and level of organization
in under-developed and developing areas. A good understanding of an area which
requires community organization or service will help the population to understand
their situation and mobilize them to reduce their vulnerability to hazards. Community
organization at the formal or political level in rural areas can be divided into three
groups which are as follows:
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Application of Community (i) Those headed by traditional leaders such as chiefs, elders and others.
Organization in
Different Settings (ii) Those headed by appointed leaders such as selected local representatives.
(iii) Those headed by elected local representatives such as municipal bodies
NOTES Apart from the following arrangements, there are also many kinds of traditional
or informal social relations. For instance, people may exchange labour and services,
there may be patterns of kinship and friendship, and religious groups or special-
interest groups may provide a common centre.
Similarly, in urban areas, informal organizations may include the following:
(i) Workers’ guilds or trades unions, which may unite people practising
the same trade or working for the same employer.
(ii) Cultural and sports clubs, such as carnival dance clubs or local football
clubs.
(iii) Political action groups, which often link people in very efficient
communication networks.
It has been observed in rural areas that ties of kinship are much stronger in
comparison to urban areas. The ties of kinship are stronger in the rural areas as an
individual’s tribe, clan or elders have considerable influence on the individual’s
decision making.
Some other examples of informal rural organization may include the following:
(i) Rural industries: This may include plantation work or logging and
others, which may create a sense of solidarity among the workers
concerned.
(ii) Cooperative societies for farmers or other producers: These can
be a major resource; but on the other hand, they will not be useful if
they are unpopular because of high service charges, late payments to
farmers, or even corruption.
(iii) Health establishments and schools: These often provide a social
focus in rural areas (the local school head or teacher may enjoy high
prestige and be a leader in the community).
It has been seen that a lot of recently-created informal urban settlements are
emerging in the fast-growing cities of the world. The emergence of such recently-
created informal urban settlements are accompanied with great challenges as they
lack both the traditional social structures found in the rural areas and the formal
structures which are a striking feature of the established urban areas.
Individuals who are residing in these recently-created informal urban
settlements are more susceptible to disasters due to the nature of land they are
settled on. This vulnerability is enhanced by the high levels of poverty. Social service
workers and health workers should be aware of the potential usefulness of all
these kinds of social organizations. They may provide, for example, a forum for
the discussion of risk reduction, a source of local knowledge and experience of
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the hazards faced in an area, and an efficient communications network for Application of Community
Organization in
disseminating messages and ideas. Different Settings
Apart from these, local or non-governmental organizations, at the national
and international level, may have ongoing projects in an area that may provide a
NOTES
foundation for new work on vulnerability reduction and emergency preparedness
such as literacy groups, micro-enterprise support groups, and health and sanitation
projects. It is essential to understand the history and nature of the area before
initiating a new project. This will prove helpful in understanding the problems of
the area and how they are perceived by the community and local authorities.
Changes in the world are taking place at a very increased pace. Due to new
inventions and technological developments, life has become more convenient and
easy. However, it has been observed that both urban and rural areas need assistance
to tackle the numerous problems that come with transition. There are many people
and groups who selflessly volunteer to help the community, some of which are as
follows:
(i) Goonj: This NGO is known to channelize unused material lying idle
at urban homes to far-flung villages of India as an economic resource.
Though they deal with all kinds of under-utilized material, the main
focus is on clothing. Goonj is a legal foundation which has been
registered under the Societies Act. It is also registered for exemption
under Section 80 G and 12 A, and for foreign contributions under
FCRA. It has its own offices and paid staff in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
Kolkata, Bangaluru, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Saharsa (project office),
Kurnool, and Andra Pradesh (project office).
(ii) Sammaan Foundation: The purpose of establishing Sammaan
foundation was empowering the downtrodden and linking them with
the mainstream through education, training and financial support. More
specifically, at the moment, Sammaan is working towards organizing
the rickshaw-pulling class of people by providing them with
opportunities to earn their livelihood. It is taking giant strides in areas
like women empowerment, health services, employment generation,
micro credit and children’s education.
(iii) Akshaya Trust: The mission of Akshaya trust is to care for the
helpless, forsaken, mentally ill, old, sick and the roadside destitute
who live in Madurai. This is accomplished by providing love and
affection, healthy food, rehabilitation opportunities. Their sole aim is
to restore human dignity.
(iv) Smile Foundation: Formed in 2002, the Smile foundation comprises
corporate professionals who had a target of providing universal
education and health care services to the underprivileged, thereby
changing their lives forever. They aim to set the foundation for nation
building by making the downtrodden emerge as productive assets.
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Application of Community (v) Udaan Welfare Foundation: The Udaan Welfare foundation was
Organization in
Different Settings formed with a mission to empower lives of the downtrodden. Their
main areas of focus are children, destitute women, senior citizens and
environment protection. Till date, they have launched various health
NOTES and education initiatives involving children and destitute women. They
even have a cancer chemotherapy centre as one of their main projects.
(vi) Pratham: It is one of the largest NGO which works towards educating
the underprivileged children in the slums of Mumbai. Their team
comprises people from various fields who expertly bring their
experiences and perspectives and work together to create a bright
future for children. The programmes of Pratham are designed in such
a way that enrolment of children in schools increases, their learning
levels increase, and those people who are unable to attend school
receive education in a proper manner.
(vii) LEPRA Society: It actively promotes quality healthcare through
various initiatives. It aims to support various health programmes in the
prevention and control of diseases like AIDS, Leprosy, and
Tuberculosis. Their programmes are mainly focussed to communities
which are poor comprising women and children.
(viii) Deepalaya: It is a development-based NGO which works on issues
pertaining to the poor and the downtrodden, especially children. It
has successfully made inroads into slums of Delhi and initiated rural
development in Haryana and Uttarakhand. It works in collaboration
with both governmental and non-governmental agencies and makes
interventions in the state’s policy making. Their areas of focus include
education, healthcare, gender equality, vocational training, empowering
other NGOs which have the same vision and upliftment of the
differently-abled.
(ix) Uday Foundation: Based in New Delhi, the Uday foundation provides
support to the families of children suffering from critical disorders,
congenital defects and other diseases and syndromes which affects
their health, growth and education. It has launched various health related
projects for the common man in general. Their special focus is child
rights i.e., providing a right to live with dignity. It is more of a parents’
support group who tackle the problem of saving the lives of the
country’s future. They also support research to develop new healthcare
technologies.
(x) HelpAge India: Since its establishment in 1978, HelpAge India has
constantly been striving to raise resources to protect the rights of India’s
senior citizens. They are involved with the local and national government
to implement policies which will be beneficial to the elderly. Their
objective is to make the senior citizens aware of their rights so that
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152 Material
 also working constantly to make the society aware of the concerns Application of Community
Organization in
regarding the elderly and also promoting better understanding of similar Different Settings
issues.
Though local communities are often able to overcome obstacles put up by
NOTES
local and national authorities, a supportive approach will make an outstanding
difference to the cause of urbanization and the removal of poverty. In order to deal
with problems which occur due to the transition from rural to urban along with the
issues of poverty, it becomes essential that the planners and policymakers to revise
the assumptions which fuel their anti-urban bias. They should be able not only to
move with the flow but also to direct it towards improving the urban habitat and
reducing poverty.
Therefore, population institutions and specialists also need to play a key
role in supporting community organizations, social movements, governments and
the international community in improving the nature and form of future urban
expansion, and thus enhancing its power to reduce poverty and promote
environmental sustainability. A concerted international effort at this critical time is
crucial to clarify policy options and provide information and analyses that will
support strategies to improve our urban future.
Working with Displaced Population
A displaced person (DP) is an individual who has been forced to leave their present
dwelling due to external factors such as war, revolts, natural calamities, etc. This
phenomenon is also referred to as ‘forced migration’. This term was initially used
during the Second World War which resulted in the refugee outflows from Eastern
Europe. The term DP was used specifically to describe a person removed from
his native country as a refugee, prisoner or a slave labourer. However, in the past
half-century or so, the connotation of the word DP has been significantly broadened.
Nowadays, a displaced person may also be a person who is a forced migrant and
sometimes confused with the term ‘refugee’. This increases confusion between
the general descriptive class of anyone who has left his home and the subgroup of
legally defined refugees who enjoy specified international legal protection.
According to international surveys, there are about 26 million people
worldwide who are currently living in situations of internal displacement resulting
from conflicts or human rights violations. These people were forced to flee their
homes as their lives were in danger. Unlike refugees, internally displaced persons
(IDPs) are those individuals who do not cross international borders. What is
shocking is that though IDPs have outnumbered refugees by the ratio of 2:1 their
problems do not receive the same attention as those of refugees. Since IDPs
receive little or no attention from any sort of authoritative or governmental body,
they are widely exposed to violence and other human rights violations during the
course of their displacement. In their situation, they have limited access to basic
necessities such as food, proper lodging, education, health care, employment and
others.
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Application of Community A numbers of IDPs are caught in desperate situations amidst fighting or in
Organization in
Different Settings remote and inaccessible areas cut-off from international assistance. Others have
been forced to live away from their homes for many years, or even decades,
because the conflicts that caused their displacement remain unresolved.
NOTES
Displacement is not a foreign concept to India as there have been numerous
instances which have eventually led to the displacement of its citizens. According
to recent data, there were several distinct episodes of displacement which were
caused by armed conflict and ethnic and communal violence. Many episodes of
displacement took place in India in the last quarter or so, which are as follows:
 In Jammu and Kashmir, people remained displaced since 1990 due to
separatist violence targeting the Hindu minority.
 It has been seen in the north-eastern states that there were long-term
IDPs who had fled their homeland to avoid conflicts between the
government forces and the non-state armed groups. This situation
became even more strained with the violence between ethnic groups.
 In 2005, central India witnessed displacement caused by the armed
conflicts over land and mineral resources which pitted the government
forces and the allied militias against the Maoist insurgents.
 Gujarat became the stage for communal violence between the majority
Hindu population and the Muslim and Christian minorities in 2002.
 Similar acts of communal violence were witnessed in Orrisa in the year
2007–2008.
Till date it has been seen that displacement continues. It has been observed
in early year 2011 that nearly 50,000 people were forced to flee their homes due
to inter-ethnic violence between Rabha and Garo people in the north-eastern states
of Assam and Meghalaya. In November, more than 3,000 people were forcibly
evicted from floating islands on Loktak Lake in Manipur by local authorities,
allegedly as a counter-insurgency measure. In central India, the armed conflict
continued, probably leading to new displacement.
It is estimated that at least 506,000 people were living in displacement at
the end of 2011 due to such conflicts and violence. This is a very conservative
estimate, as it includes only identified IDPs living in camps. The majority of IDPs
in India, however, were believed to be living outside camps, with large numbers
dispersed in cities. In addition, many of those who had moved out of camps,
including those who had returned, were unlikely to have found a durable solution
to their displacement, and are, therefore, viewed as part of India’s internally
displaced population.
Many of India’s IDPs had insufficient access to basic necessities such as
food, clean water, shelter and healthcare. Those in protracted situations still struggled
to access education, housing and livelihoods. Tribal IDPs in camps in Chhattisgarh

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in central India faced the risk of attacks by both government forces and government- Application of Community
Organization in
allied militia, on the one hand, and Naxalite insurgents, on the other. Different Settings
IDPs’ attempts to integrate in the place of displacement or settle elsewhere
in India have generally not been supported by the government. At the same time,
NOTES
a number of displaced groups have faced barriers to their return to their place of
origin. Although Muslim IDPs in Gujarat continue to endure very poor living
conditions, their hopes of return are dim since Hindu extremist groups have taken
over their original homes and land. Christian IDPs in Orrisa have been discouraged
from returning, as some returnees have been forced to convert to Hinduism.
Where the return of IDPs has been possible, doubts have remained about
its sustainability in the absence of information on their situations. In the north-east,
the return of more than 35,000 Bru people displaced from Mizoram state to Tripura
state in 1997 and then 2009 and 2010 continued in 2011. By the end of 2011, up
to 5,000 people had been able to go back to Mizoram; but once there, many had
to settle in temporary camps as Mizo organizations associated with their original
displacement strongly resented their return.
There is no national policy, legislation or other mechanism to respond to the
needs of people displaced by armed conflict or generalized violence in India. The
Central Government has generally devolved responsibility for their protection to
state governments and district authorities. These bodies are often unaware of IDPs’
rights or reluctant to offer support, particularly in those cases where they have
played a role in causing the displacement.
As of 2011, no ministry at the central level was mandated to ensure the
protection of IDPs, and no Central Government agency was responsible for
monitoring the number and situation of people displaced, returning, settling
elsewhere in India or seeking to integrate locally. Humanitarian and human rights
organizations had limited access to IDPs. Nonetheless, some national agencies
and human rights bodies, including the National Commission for Protection of
Child Rights, advocated on behalf of people internally displaced by conflict and
violence.

Global Overview 2011: People internally displaced by conflict and violence in India
Number of IDPs At least 506,000
Percentage of total population Less than 0.1%
Start of current displacement situation 1990
Peak number of IDPs (Year) Undetermined
New displacement At least 53,000
Causes of displacement Armed conflict, deliberate policy or
practice of arbitrary displacement,
generalized violence, human rights
violations
Human development index 134
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Application of Community
Organization in
Different Settings Check Your Progress
1. When was the Ministry of Tribal Affairs constituted? What was the main
NOTES objective of the Ministry?
2. What was the main objective of establishing the South Vihar Welfare Society
for Tribal (SVWST)?

9.3 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION IN TARGET GROUPS:
CHILDREN, YOUTH, WOMEN, AGED AND
DALITS

Community organization can be used by the community organiser in different areas

or settings like, rural, urban, tribal, institutional and non-institutional settings. It
also varies for different stakeholders or target beneficiaries. So a programme targeting
children at risk will be different than that of programme targeting women. Even the
programme targeted at women livelihood initiatives will be different than that of
women’s reproductive health.
Community organization, therefore, is not as easy as it may sound and appear.
It is a very delicate and complex process and requires thorough understanding of
risks and challenges associated with each and every target beneficiary.
9.3.1 Children
Children are very vulnerable components of society. They are always at risk both
indoors and outdoors. Several issues are evident with children of all ages. The
issues also range from general issues like health and education and severe ones
like trafficking, child labour and physical abuse.
According to a recent report of UNICEF, following are the common issues
faced by children in India. The identified issues clearly reveal that they affect children
of all ages irrespective of gender.
 Infant mortality remains as high as 63 deaths per 1,000 live births. Most
infant deaths occur in the first month of life, with up to 47 per cent in the
first week.
 Children in India continue to lose their lives to vaccine-preventable
diseases such as measles, which remains the biggest killer. Tetanus in
newborns also remains a problem.
 Around 46 per cent of all children under the age of three are too small
for their age, 47 per cent are underweight and at least 16 per cent show
signs of wasting. Many of these children are severely malnourished.

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  Anaemia affects 74 per cent of children under the age of three, more Application of Community
Organization in
than 90 per cent of adolescent girls and 50 per cent of women. Different Settings
 Diarrhoea remains the second major cause of death among children,
after respiratory-tract infections. Unhygienic practices and unsafe drinking
NOTES
water are some of its main causes.
 More than 122 million households in the country are without toilets.
Even though toilets are built in about 3 million households every year,
the annual rate of increase has been just 1 per cent in the past decade.
 India has an estimated 220,000 children infected by HIV. It is estimated
that 55,000 to 60,000 children are born every year to mothers who are
HIV-positive.
 20 per cent of children aged 6 to14 years are still not in school. Several
problems persist; issues of ‘social distance’ arising out of caste, class
and gender differences deny children equal opportunities.
 With an estimated 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous
occupations, India has the largest number of child labourers under the
age of 14 in the world.
It is clear that dealing with the issues listed above will require a separate
strategy for each one of those and, therefore, a separate community organization
process shall represent each of them. Several organizations in the country, including
government and non-governmental are working with their respective strategies
towards betterment of their target beneficiaries. Child Rights & You, Railway
Children, Child In Need Institute, Kailash Satyarthi Children’s Foundation,
Smile Foundation, Pratham and many more NGOs are instrumental in bringing
about changes in issues concerning our children. However, the vision, mission,
objectives, strategies, processes and activities of all the ones are different.
9.3.2 Youth
600 million population in India is younger than 25 years of age and close to 70 per
cent of the total population is less than 40 years of age. Near about 40 per cent of
the Indian population is aged between 13 to 35 years that is defined as youth
according to the National Youth Policy. Such a huge population of young is not
only exceptional in India but also in the world. In case, this demographic dividend
is not used properly then it may result in demographic disaster in India. Youth in
India are undergoing several issues that require them to be organized and seek
support for their well-being and development. Education, skilling, livelihood, health
including HIV are many other issues affecting young adults.
Youth organizing is a youth development and social justice strategy that
trains young people in community organizing and advocacy, and assists them in
employing these skills to alter power relations and create meaningful institutional
change in their communities. Youth organizing relies on the power and leadership
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Application of Community of youth acting on issues affecting young people and their communities. Young
Organization in
Different Settings people themselves define issues and youth organizing groups support them as they
design, implement and evaluate their own change efforts. Employing activities such
as community research, issue development, reflection, political analysis, and direct
NOTES action, youth organizing increases civic participation and builds the individual and
collective leadership capacity of young people.
Youth organizing skills include the following:
 Analysis of community governance structures including dissection of
decision-makers;
 Analysis of mainstream socialization—corporate commercialism, media
imaging and pop culture;
 Practice of issue analysis, power analysis and communication skills;
 Importance of building relationships and alliances with peers and adult
allies; and
 Recognition of limits of engagement without organization and/or
mobilization
The process of youth organizing occurs in four overlapping cycles. These
are the following:
 Development and Skill Training
 Community Assessment and Issue Identification
 Campaign Development and Implementation
9.3.3 Women
Women have long been active leaders in grassroots collective action. Across the
world, women make up the majority of participants at political events, constitute
the primary force behind mass mobilization efforts, and do the bulk of the day-to-
day work that sustains community organization.1 Women’s community organization
is often overlooked in the mainstream social movement literature. This is mainly
because it does not often culminate in large-scale social movements. However,
women’s expertise in reinforcing collective identities through social networks
contributes to their strength in building communities.2 Their strength in community
building sustains community organizations and neighbourhood.
Women around the world are living a life full of struggles. The inequality and
inequity are both characteristic features of their lives. Access to education,
employment opportunities, reproductive health and rights, maternal health, gender
based violence, water and sanitation and gender equality are poignant issues related
to women of all ages in almost all regions of the world.
Several organizational initiatives across the world have been taken to mobilize
women for rights. Few of the prominent organization working for women issues
worldwide are the following:
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  Women’s Global Empowerment Fund Application of Community
Organization in
 Centre for Reproductive Rights Different Settings

 Women for Women International

 School Girls Unite NOTES
 TIME’s UP Legal Defense Fund
 Every Mother Counts
 Equality Now
 Pathfinder International
 Care
9.3.4 Aged
A man’s life is normally divided into five stages namely: infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual finds
himself in different situations and faces different problems. Old age is viewed as an
unavoidable, undesirable and problem ridden phase of life. Problems of aging
usually appear after the age of 65 years.
Ageing in India is exponentially increasing due to the impressive gains that
society has made in terms of increased life expectancy. With the rise in elderly
population, the demand for holistic care tends to grow. By 2025, the geriatric
population is expected to be 840 million in the developing countries.3 It is projected
that the proportion of Indians aged 60 and older will rise from 7.5 per cent in
2010 to 11.1 per cent in 2025.4
An aging population puts an increased burden on the resources of a country
and has raised concerns at many levels for the government in India. The aging
population poses both medical and sociological problem. The elderly population
suffers from high rate of morbidity and mortality due to infectious diseases. The
demographic transition in India shows unevenness and complexities within different
states. This has been attributed to the different levels of socio-economic
development, cultural norms and political contexts. Hence, it will be a herculean
task for policy makers to address the geriatric care that will take into account all
these determinants. Care for the elderly is fast emerging as a critical element of
both the public and private sectors.
Lack of infrastructure, changing family structure, lack of social support,
social inequality, availability, accessibility and affordability of healthcare and
economic dependency are major issues that concern the ageing population.
Community organization around issues that concerns the ageing population
must take into account several insights to make life better for the ones affected.
World Health Organization has identified the significance of the problem and
advocated the concept of an age-friendly city based on its own active ageing
framework.5
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Application of Community According to WHO, active ageing is the process of optimizing opportunities
Organization in
Different Settings for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people
age. In an age-friendly city, policies, services, settings and structures support and
enable people to age actively by:
NOTES
 recognizing the wide range of capacities and resources among older
people;
 anticipating and responding flexibly to ageing-related needs and
preferences;
 respecting their decisions and lifestyle choices;
 protecting those who are most vulnerable; and
 promoting their inclusion and contribution to all areas of community life.
Several government schemes are present in India that work on several issues
pertaining to the aged population. Other than government initiatives NGOs like
Help Age India, Elders Clubs International Foundation, Dignity Foundation, Agewell
Foundation, Harmony India, International Longevity Centre India, and several
others are continuously building support around the cause of supporting the aged
population.
9.3.5 Dalits
There are 260 million Dalit people around the world, 166,635,700 of whom live
in India. Dalit people are at the bottom of a hierarchical caste system determined by
birth. Though several laws exist for the Dalits, they have been exploited and
humiliated since time immemorial.
Dalits are the victims of numerous deprivations in different spheres of life.
Over the years several Dalit movements, organized by Dalit themselves, have
taken place to showcase and protest against social discrimination and exploitation
in society.
Dalit movements represent the voluntary and collective endeavour of the
downtrodden castes to resist the injustice and indignity being imposed on them.
Across the country, they are rising in anger against ongoing discrimination, violent
oppression and denial of human dignity.6 However, the representation and
interventions of several organizations and movements have not produced the desired
results for Dalit society so far.
The social and political organizations of Dalits, as agents of grassroots
mobilization and empowerment, have great potential to tackle these deprivations,
yet they have a long way to go. The ‘Dalit politics’ of mainstream political parties
is primarily aimed at protecting their own interests rather than that of Dalits. They
count Dalits merely as a vote bank and are discriminated at different levels within
the party. They are not given crucial roles in the party leadership or in the decision-
making process. As part of caste discrimination, domination by the upper castes is

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prevalent in the party. Besides, though the role of Dalit political parties is crucial in Application of Community
Organization in
empowering Dalits politically, their influence among the Dalit masses is not Different Settings
widespread or potent enough. They are often unable to stand united and the disunity
among organizations constitutes a major problem in tackling different Dalit concerns.
They often fail in politically mobilizing the people or in organizing diverse and NOTES
frequent agitations and protests. Consequently their political interventions often
tend to concentrate on conscientization programmes. However, recently there has
been a growing tendency among the Dalit masses to organize and transform
themselves into a politically empowered people. The emerging concept of Dalit
communitarian politics is a positive sign of their growing political consolidation.

9.4 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN

EMERGENCIES

Community organizations possess unique resources and expertise that are difficult
or impossible to replicate within the government. In case of any emergencies the
community initiatives can undertake full array of services residents need. But
recognizing diverse resources within the community is only the first step. The second
and harder step is to include these organizations in planning, building trust and
familiarity in advance of emergencies. In the situation of any emergency including
fire, flood, draught, famine, earthquake and war or any other emergency situation
the community organization must be very effective and efficient. The efficiency
and effectiveness are not on the spot outcomes but rather pop-up only when a
thorough community participation has taken place from time to time. Almost all
the emergency situations demand calm yet protocol oriented action. A clear
demarcation of “things to do” and “things not to do” is a must. For instance, in
case of fire a community volunteer might be expected to support the firemen by
clearing the traffic but not by jumping into the fire or doing something extraordinary.
Preparing and organizing communities for emergency management, therefore,
requires a systematic approach. The following are the primary steps involved in
emergency management.
 Understand community complexity
 Recognize community capabilities and needs
 Foster relationships with community leaders
 Build and maintain partnerships
 Empower local action
 Leverage and strengthen social infrastructure, networks and assets
Today, almost all the nations of the world have understood the important of
involving communities in the emergent situations and have endorsed the concept
of Community Based Disaster Management.

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Application of Community Top-down management approaches could not address the requirements of
Organization in
Different Settings vulnerable communities. A careful analysis of disasters and losses shows that the
increase in disaster occurrence and consequent losses is because of the gradual
increase in happening of small- and medium-scale disasters. Therefore, it is essential
NOTES to adopt a new strategy that straightway involves vulnerable people in planning
and implementing mitigation measures. It is called bottom-up approach and has
been accepted because communities are considered the most suitable judges of
their own vulnerability and can make the best decisions concerning their own
well-being.
The objective of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is to
cut down vulnerabilities and strengthen the capacity of the people in coping with
hazards. A comprehensive evaluation of a community’s exposure to hazards and
an analysis of their particular vulnerabilities and capacities is the basis for projects,
activities and programmes which can bring down disaster risks. Since a community
is involved in the entire process, its needs and inherent resources are taken into
consideration. Therefore, it is more probable that suitable interventions should be
used. People’s participation is concerned with both processes and content. The
community should have direct gains from improved disaster risk management.
It contributes to a shift towards safer conditions, livelihood security and
development which is sustainable. It emphasizes the fact that the community is not
just the key actor but also the recipient of the risk curtailment and development
process.
A few academicians distinguish between community participation and
involvement. Usually in community participation a particular community takes
responsibility at all stages of a programme, comprising planning and implementation.
Community involvement, on the other hand, connotes a ‘less than’ ideal
situation, wherein the community participates in a programme which has already
been designed by someone else.
Implementing CBDM involves some essential features:
 The central role of the community: The emphasis is on long-and short-
term disaster management accomplished with the help of the local
community.
 Reducing vulnerability as the basis of CBDM: Disaster management
activities revolve around decreasing vulnerable conditions and the basic
reasons of vulnerability. The key strategy of vulnerability reduction is to
increase the resources of the community, its capacities and coping
strategies.
 Connection to the development process: Disasters are taken as
unmanaged development risks and unresolved problems of the
development process.

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  CBDM must result in the overall improvement in the quality of life of the Application of Community
Organization in
majority of poor people as well as enhancement in the quality of natural Different Settings
environment.
 CBDM ensures people’s empowerment—physical safety, more access
NOTES
and control of resources, participation in decision-making, enjoyment
of the benefits of a healthy environment.
 Community as the basic resource in reducing disaster risk.
 The community is the basic element and the key beneficiary of disaster
risk reduction. In the community, particular attention is devoted to the
conditions of the most vulnerable as well as to their mobilization in
reducing disaster risk.
 There is community participation in the entire process of disaster risk
management involving situational analysis, planning and implementation.
 The use of multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral approaches.
 CBDM ensures the participation of various community stakeholders to
reduce disaster risk for expanding the resource base. The local community
is connected with the intermediate and national and even international
level for addressing the criticalities of vulnerability issues.
 An entire range of approaches for reducing disaster risk is utilized.
 CBDM is a dynamic and involving framework. The lessons from
practical life are included in the theoretical framework of CBDM. This
sharing of methodologies, experiences and tools by communities and
CBDM practitioners enriches practice over a period of time.
There are various strategies for community-based risk reduction:
(i) Self-insurance options
 Strengthening people’s prevailing livelihoods for increasing or maintaining
the present level of income and production—irrigation (expansion, better
water management), draft animal dispersal, enhanced soil fertility and
livestock and seed dispersal. The strategy appears to be effective for
internal refugees coming back to their abandoned lands; former farm
workers who cultivate and expand their occupied lands; and in instances
where irrigation systems can be rehabilitated after floods, typhoons and
earthquakes. The result is that the period of food shortage is decreased
by many months.
 Strengthening people’s coping strategies to cut down risks. It means
crop diversification, promoting and producing disaster resistant and other
indigenous crops. The benefit is that, in case one crop fails, the other
will survive.
 Enhancing social and organizational support structures, as well as
improving post-harvest facilities and storage techniques. It ensures better
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Application of Community reserves of food at household/community level; hence, the number of
Organization in
Different Settings food shortage months is brought down significantly.
(ii) Conducting seasonal-based action. Many disasters are seasonal by nature.
NOTES  Effective means of combating these disasters involve developing seasonal
cycles of preparedness, for example, disaster resistant crops, post-
harvest facilities, seed banks and so forth.
(iii) Encouraging long-term investments
 Fallback resources in the community, such as forest reserves, planting
of trees around the house, establishment of village pharmacy, training of
village health workers, education or functional literacy, all of which are
long-term investments.
 They reduce people’s long-term vulnerability. It involves land use and
management planning within the community.

9.5 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AT LOCAL,

STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL

Community organization can take place in different settings. In practice, the settings
may include a regional pattern encompassing the local, state and national levels.
Several government bodies, NGOs, CBOs, social leaders and political leaders
engage themselves at all these levels for organizing communities on issues that
concern them the most.
In India at the local level, both in rural and urban locations, community
organization is undertaken by government bodies, NGOs, CBOs, social leaders
and political leaders. For example, in rural areas the Panchayati Raj personnel are
involved in undertaking such processes ahead. Gram Sabha mobilization and
organization is such an attempt to organize communities around issues of priority.
Endless number of NGOs and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) are
present and involved into varied activities for the local communities. Social leaders
like Anna Hazare and others have demonstrated successful examples of community
organization at their respective locations. AMUL or Anand Milk Union Limited is
a perfect example of a large scale community organization for enhancing well-
being of the community.
State level community organization initiatives are primarily advocacy based.
The state locations are the centers of planning and budget making. Most of the
government departments, NGOs, cooperatives and so forth are represented at
the level. These bodies are involved in policy-making, drafting and approving
budgets and establishing procedures of monitoring and evaluation. Departments
like district magistrate office, chief secretary office and several others are created
for the same reasons. Several NGOs have their state headquarters in state capitals
for similar work.
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 Community organization at the national level through government intervention Application of Community
Organization in
is the same as the state level interventions. The bureaucrats are responsible for Different Settings
drafting policies for the states, creating budgetary provision and formulating
guidelines for their execution and evaluation. Several schemes in all the priority
areas are formulated at the national level and diverted to local levels via the state. NOTES
In terms of community led initiatives at the national level few examples could
be listed in the country. The recent movement organized by the farmers demanding
the revision of Minimum Selling Price (MSP) is one such movement. In some
parts of the country, community health workers joined hands seeking revision of
their salaries. Politically also, several political volunteers have been gathering to
protest the ruling governments from time to time. Anna Hazare’s demonstration to
formulate and appoint the Lokpals through Lokpall bill is an example of national
level community organization.
Check Your Progress
3. List some youth organizing skills.
4. What is the main objective of Community Based Disaster Management
(CBDM)?

9.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was constituted in October 1999 with the
objective of providing more focused attention on the integrated socio-
economic development of the most underprivileged sections of the Indian
society namely, the Scheduled Tribes (STs), in a coordinated and planned
manner.
2. South Vihar Welfare Society for Tribal (SVWST) is a non-profitable,
non-governmental, non–political organization established in 1998 by a group
of dedicated social workers with the motto to bring human dignity their
basic human rights and self-confidence among people through awareness
and motivation for socio-economic changes among the poorest of the poor.
3. Youth organizing skills include the following:
 Analysis of community governance structures including dissection of
decision-makers;
 Analysis of mainstream socialization—corporate commercialism, media
imaging and pop culture;
 Practice of issue analysis, power analysis and communication skills;
 Importance of building relationships and alliances with peers and adult
allies; and

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Application of Community  Recognition of limits of engagement without organization and/or
Organization in
Different Settings mobilization
4. The main objective of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM)
is to cut down vulnerabilities and strengthen the capacity of the people in
NOTES
coping with hazards. A comprehensive evaluation of a community’s exposure
to hazards and an analysis of their particular vulnerabilities and capacities is
the basis for projects, activities and programmes which can bring down
disaster risks.

9.7 SUMMARY

 Community organization can be practised in different communities or

settings. The community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the
basis of geographical location.
 Usually within the community, either the interested people or the people
who are affected by an issue take up the lead in addressing the problem. In
other words, they form the community and undertake different roles in solving
the problems and needs get fulfilled.
 Tribal areas which are also referred to as Scheduled Areas in the Indian
Constitution are basically areas that are declared by the President to be
Scheduled Areas.
 INTWOT operates in several parts of India with large significant tribal
populations as well in city areas where tribals have sometimes migrated to
Orrisa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi.
 Naxal Heritage Conservation Trust is a Non-Profitable Social Group that is
dedicated for the preservation and conservation of the local art, culture,
traditions and festivals.
 Despite chaos and poverty, every village or neighbourhood has some kind
of organization. With respect to their problems, environmental health workers
and disaster prevention planners need to understand the form and level of
organization in under-developed and developing areas.
 Changes in the world are taking place at a very increased pace. Due to new
inventions and technological developments, life has become more convenient
and easy. However, it has been observed that both urban and rural areas
need assistance to tackle the numerous problems that come with transition.
 A displaced person (DP) is an individual who has been forced to leave their
present dwelling due to external factors such as war, revolts, natural
calamities, etc. This phenomenon is also referred to as ‘forced migration’.
 According to international surveys, there are about 26 million people
worldwide who are currently living in situations of internal displacement
resulting from conflicts or human rights violations.
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 A numbers of IDPs are caught in desperate situations amidst fighting or in Application of Community
Organization in
remote and inaccessible areas cut-off from international assistance. Others Different Settings
have been forced to live away from their homes for many years, or even
decades, because the conflicts that caused their displacement remain
unresolved. NOTES
 Children are very vulnerable components of society. They are always at
risk both indoors and outdoors. Several issues are evident with children of
all ages. The issues also range from general issues like health and education
and severe ones like trafficking, child labour and physical abuse.
 Youth organizing is a youth development and social justice strategy that
trains young people in community organizing and advocacy, and assists
them in employing these skills to alter power relations and create meaningful
institutional change in their communities.
 Women’s community organization is often overlooked in the mainstream
social movement literature. This is mainly because it does not often culminate
in large-scale social movements.
 A man’s life is normally divided into five stages namely: infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual
finds himself in different situations and faces different problems.
 Lack of infrastructure, changing family structure, lack of social support,
social inequality, availability, accessibility and affordability of healthcare and
economic dependency are major issues that concern the ageing population.
 Dalits are the victims of numerous deprivations in different spheres of life.
Over the years several Dalit movements, organized by Dalit themselves,
have taken place to showcase and protest against social discrimination and
exploitation in society.
 Community organizations possess unique resources and expertise that are
difficult or impossible to replicate within the government. In case of any
emergencies the community initiatives can undertake full array of services
residents need.
 The objective of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is to
cut down vulnerabilities and strengthen the capacity of the people in coping
with hazards.
 Community involvement, on the other hand, connotes a ‘less than’ ideal
situation, wherein the community participates in a programme which has
already been designed by someone else.
 Community organization can take place in different settings. In practice, the
settings may include a regional pattern encompassing the local, state and
national levels. Several government bodies, NGOs, CBOs, social leaders
and political leaders engage themselves at all these levels for organizing
communities on issues that concern them the most.
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Application of Community  Community organization at the national level through government intervention
Organization in
Different Settings is the same as the state level interventions. The bureaucrats are responsible
for drafting policies for the states, creating budgetary provision and
formulating guidelines for their execution and evaluation.
NOTES
9.8 KEY WORDS

 Geriatric care: It refers to the healthcare of the elderly individuals.

 Active ageing: It is the process of optimizing opportunities for health,
participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age.
 Displaced person (DP): This term refers to an individual who has been
forced to leave their present dwelling due to external factors such as war,
revolts, natural calamities, etc.

9.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the work of community organizations in rural and
urban areas.
2. Mention the measures taken by the Government of India for the welfare of
the displace population.
3. Name the various NGOs and community organizations working for the
welfare of children, women and elderly people.
4. Briefly mention community organization at the local, state and national level
in India.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the activities of various community organizations that have
contributed to the development of the tribal areas.
2. How do community organizations assist in emergency situations?
3. Explain the various strategies for community-based risk reduction.

9.10 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
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Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in Application of Community
Organization in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press. Different Settings
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
NOTES
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.
Endnotes
1. Bennet, B. M. (1995). Black Women’s Collectivist movement organizations:
Their Struggles during the “Doldrums”. In M. M. Ferree& P. Y. Martin
(Eds.), Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women’s Movement,
pp. 199-219, Philadelphia: Temple University Press
2. Abrahams, N. (1996). Negotiating power, identity, family and community:
Women’s community participation. Gender & Society, 10(6): 768-797
3. WHO (2002) Tufts University School of Nutrition and Policy. Keep fit for
life: Meeting the nutritional needs of older persons. WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland.
4. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division (2008) World Population Prospects (2008 Revision).
5. Active ageing: a policy framework. Geneva, World Health Organization,
2002
6. Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga, Towards Understanding Indian Society,
CSS, Tiruvalla, 2003, p.196.

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Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
UNIT 10 COMMUNITY ORGANIZER:
ROLES AND
NOTES
RESPONSIBILITIES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Roles of a Community Organizer
10.3 Models of Community Organization
10.4 Methods of Community Organization: Use of Social Work Methods
10.5 Skills in Community Organization
10.5.1 Information Gathering and Assimilation Skills
10.5.2 Observation Skills and Analytical Skills
10.5.3 Active Listening and Responding Skills
10.5.4 Organizing Skills
10.5.5 Resource Mobilization Skills
10.5.6 Conflict Resolution Skills
10.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.7 Summary
10.8 Key Words
10.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.10 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

In community organization practice, one needs to have not only certain skills, but
also the knowledge about the process and steps of community organization to
apply in different settings through appropriate roles. In this unit, we will analyse the
role of a community organizer along with the models of community organization.
Besides, the unit will also explore the different skills needed for community
organizing—information gathering, assimilation, observation, analytical and
organizing skills, and skills in listening and responding. This unit also discusses the
resource mobilization and conflict resolution skills required in community
organization practice

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the role of a community organizer
 Describe the models of community organization
 Examine social planning, social action and community liaison
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  Explain the information gathering and assimilation skills required for Community Organizer:
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community organizing
 Describe the observation, analytical and organizing skills in listening and
responding
NOTES
 Understand the use of social work methods in community organization
 Analyse the resource mobilization and conflict resolution skills required in
community organization practice

10.2 ROLES OF A COMMUNITY ORGANIZER

A community organizer with the required characteristics and skills and the
knowledge about the process of community organization will be able to apply the
same in different settings in the form of appropriate roles. The different roles of a
community organizer are discussed here. These roles are neither exhaustive nor
mutually exclusive.
1. Communicator: The community organizer transfers or transmits information,
thought, knowledge and so forth to the members of the community. Sharing
of information enables the community to be better prepared and equipped
with information.
2. Enabler: The community organizer facilitates the process in the community
for a change. He does not carry out any work by himself but he enables the
community to do the work. The organizer gives importance to the process
than the product. By the role of enabler the organizer would create
independency among the people by which he/she avoids the dependency
syndrome.
3. Animator: In any process of community organization the organizer
encourages, provides direction and guidelines to proceed in carrying out
the different activities. As an animator the Community Organizer plays a
vital role in eliciting the active participation of the people from planning till
evaluation especially ensuring life in all the dealings of the issues and problems.
4. Guide: The community organizer instead of doing anything on his own
guides the members of the community in the process of community
organization. The community organizer is not a person to shoulder the
responsibility or solving problems of the people. Instead he has to make the
people to respond for which the organizer provides the various avenues
and shows different roots while dealing with the community problems.
5. Counsellor: The community organizer understands the community and
enables the community to understand itself. At the time of difficulty the
individuals or the groups are provided with the required counselling so as to
proceed in the correct direction. When people are in need there should be
someone to listen to them.
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Community Organizer: 6. Collaborator: The community organizer joins hands in performing his task
Roles and Responsibilities
with his colleagues with other like-minded people and organizations.
Nowadays organizations approach a problem not with their personal capacity
but they also depend on the neighbouring organization. Therefore the role
NOTES of collaborator is very much needed for networking of similar and like-
minded organizations and efforts for a common cause.
7. Consultant: The community organizer enjoys the confidence of the people
and advises them in matters of vital interest. The community organizer
becomes a person with lots of knowledge and information which is being
shared with the people. As a consultant the community organizer makes
himself available to the people who are in need.
8. Innovator: The community organizer innovates, performs, and improves
the techniques, content in the process of community organization. This gives
a lead to the people of the community and enables them to try out new
ways and means to find solutions to the needs and problems. Community
organizer is not a person to maintain the system that exists but he should be
a person to introduced new ways and means to climb up the development
ladder.
9. Model: The community organizer commands perfection as a community
organizer and serves as a source of inspiration. The role of the organizer is
to become an example while working with the people. By proper planning
in approaching a problem and execution of the plan and documenting the
whole process will be of greater help to others. The problem solving process
becomes a model to others.
10. Motivator: The community organizer acts as a motivator by stimulating
and sustaining active interest among the people for reaching a solution to
the needs and problems. The community organizer encourages the
community to take up a minor task and complete it successfully which would
enable the people to take up difficult task.
11. Catalyst: In the process of community organization the community organizer
retains his identity at the same time enables the people to be empowered.
The people gain accessibility and control over resources and acquire skills
in decision making. As a catalyst the organizer is able to increase the response
level of the people. The catalyst role further enables the people to become
independent and become expert in responding to their own needs.
12. Advocate: The role of the advocate is to be a representative or persuade
the members of the community and prepare them to be a representative as
well as represent the issues to the concerned body to bring a solution to the
unmet needs. The advocacy role is an important role in the present context.
The community organizer in the role of an advocate represents the interests
of the community to gain access of services or to improve the quality of
services which may be hampered by other forces.
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 13. Facilitator: The community organizer helps the community to articulate Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
their needs, clarify and identify their problems, explore resolution strategies,
select and apply intervention strategies, and develop their capacities to deal
with their own problems more effectively. A facilitator helps client systems
alter their environment. NOTES
14. Mediator: The community organizer intervenes in disputes between parties
to help them find compromises, reconcile differences, or reach mutually
satisfying agreements. A mediator is involved in resolving disputes between
the members of the community and other persons or the broader environment.
15. Educator: The community organizer as an educator conveys information
to the community and the broader environment. Organizer provides
information necessary for coping with problem situations, assists the
community in practicing new behaviours or skills, and teaches through
modelling. The community organizer provides information necessary for
decision making.

10.3 MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

A model is a medium through which a person looks at the complex realities. It is a

simplistic version of a complex situation. Models serve as a reference for the
work and give us a clear understanding of what would happen. They describe
strategies for accomplishing a vision, the appropriate steps to be taken to get
there. Some models grow out of the specific ideologies of change and some in
response to concrete situations.
Model of community organization by Rothman
Since 100 years people in various situations and from different countries have
been trying to address the issues of social welfare. The study of the history helps
us to know the drastic changes that took place. A major shift from the charity
approach to the professional delivery of services.
Jack Rothman has introduced three basic models of community organization.
They are:
 Locality development
 Social planning
 Social Action
1. Model A- Locality Development
Locality development model is a method of working with community groups. It
was earlier used by the settlement houses. In this model, the important focus is on
the process of community building. Leadership development and the education of
the participants are the essential elements in the process.
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Community Organizer: According to Murray Ross the “process of self-help and communal action
Roles and Responsibilities
is valuable in its own right”. The model of locality development is based on this
particular thought process. It was originated from the traditional community
organization practice. The main focus of this model is whole community or a part
NOTES of it. The basic belief is that communities have some common needs and interests
and once the people realize this need and work together democratically they can
take appropriate steps to improve the quality of life.
Here the role of the community organizer is to enhance the involvement of
the people in the community and help the community to plan and help them find a
solution to the problem. It is similar to the work of community development, which
is done in the underdevelopment world.
It refers to the community organization practice when a worker or an agency
attempts to develop various schemes and programs to meet the needs of the target
population in a defined area. It also includes coordination of various agencies
providing a variety of services in the area.
2. Model B- Social Planning
It refers to the type of community work where a worker or agency undertakes an
exercise of evaluating welfare needs and existing services in the area and suggests
a possible blue print for a more efficient delivery of services, it is termed as social
planning. It is concerned with social problems such as housing, education, health,
childcare and so on. It is aimed to affect a larger population. The community
planner works in greater capacity with the government and is often identified with
power structure of the community but interested in the needs and attitudes of the
community.
3. Model C- Social Action
According to Friedlander W.A. (1963), “Social Action is an individual, group or
community effort within the framework of the social work philosophy and practice
that aims to achieve social progress, to modify social policies and to improve
social legislation and health and welfare services”. Another model of community
organization suggested by Rothman is that of social action. According to him social
action is a strategy used by groups or sub communities or even national organizations
that feel that they have inadequate power and resources to meet their needs. So
they confront with the power structure using conflict as a method to solve their
issues related to inequalities and deprivation.
In this type of community organizations the community organizer uses all
means to pressure the power structure to give in to demands. The role of organizers
may differ depending the issues they get involved in. The role may be of advocate,
activist, agitator, broker or negotiator. This organizing process goes through different
stages. So the role of the organizer will also change as per the roles of the organizer
at each stage.
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 This model was commonly used during the 1960’s. This has been used as a Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
means to redress the social problems of the nation, redistribute the resources and
power to the poor and powerless. Social action as a model has an important role
in community organization.
NOTES
Community Liaison
A community liaison is a person who liaises between two organizations to
communicate and coordinate their activities. A liaison serves as a very important
connection between community members like a link between residents of a particular
community to the organization that provides a particular service. A community
liaison officer must have excellent communication skills, strong organizational skills
and must have the ability to work with a wide variety of people.

10.4 METHODS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:

USE OF SOCIAL WORK METHODS

Community Organization is one of the primary methods of social work. It deals

with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. As a method
of social work community organization can solve the problems of many people in
the community through their collective involvement. Community organization and
community development are inter-related as two sides of the same coin. The
community organization includes other methods of social work, that is, group work,
and casework. The power structure plays a role in the community organization.
The social workers need to know the community power structure to practice
community organization method. Community organization method is used for
empowering people for their development. The details are provided for social
work student to understand and practice community organization effectively.
Community Organization as Method of practice in social work
Community organization is considered as a macro method of practice in social
work. The term macro is used because of its ability to involve a large number of
people in solving the social problems. Community organization is a macro method
because; community organization can be successfully implemented at local level
of community, or at state level of community, or at regional level of the community
or at very large international level of community. For example, community
organization is possible for pollution control at local, state, regional national and
Inter- national levels. It is a macro method because; casework deals with only one
person, group work deals with limited number of participants. But community
organization deals with number of people and so it is called as macro method. For
example, Poverty cannot be solved by using individual approach like casework as
there are many people affected by poverty. Individual approach is not practical
due to the magnitude of the problem. We have to use a method, which can help a
large number of people.
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Community Organizer: Community Organization as a Problem solving method
Roles and Responsibilities
In community Organization method the community is the client. Community
organization solves the Community Problems and fulfills the needs of the community.
Many of the community problems like social injustice, poverty, inadequate housing,
NOTES
poor nutrition, lack of health, lack of medical services, unemployment, pollution,
exploitation, bonded labour system, illicit attack, dowry, female infanticide, women
and children trafficking, drug trafficking etc. can be solved by using community
organization method. In problem solving generally we use three basic aspects. They
are study, diagnosis, and treatment. The problem has to be studied. For this we
have to collect information regarding the problem. From the information collected
we have to find out the causes. This is called as diagnosis. Based on the findings,
or diagnosis a solution is evolved that is called as treatment. We consider this
model as medical model because doctors study the patient and find out the causes
for illness. Based on findings, treatment or medicine is provided. Similar model is
used in community organization method. Problems are solved with involvement of
people. The resources are mobilized to solve the problems. This method is applicable
for Indian situations because in India a large number of people are affected by
poverty or other poverty related problems. They need solutions. For this
community organization as a problem solving method can solve community
problems. For example people in the dry area suffer due to lack of water for their
cultivation. With the help of the community organizer and people’s participation
watersheds can be made and ground water level is increased. Water stored during
rainy season can help the people to continue cultivation. Here the whole village
problem is related with water for irrigation and drinking purpose, which is solved
by using community organization method.

Check Your Progress

1. List the names of a few roles of a community organizer.
2. What are the three basic models of community organization introduced by
Rothman?

10.5 SKILLS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Interpersonal skills are also referred to as ‘people skills’ or ‘communication skills’.

Interpersonal skills involve using skills like active listening and tone of voice, in this
way it includes delegation and leadership. It is how well a community worker
communicates with someone and how well he behaves or carries himself in front
of the community members.
The social communications and other interactions made by the community
organizer to bring out the required outcomes for the community’s well-being are
termed as a community organizer’s interpersonal skills. The term ‘interpersonal
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skills’ refers to the level and standard of ability of a person to operate within an Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
organization through his way of social communication and interaction. Basically,
interpersonal skills are all about the way people interact and relate to one another
due to social communication. As an illustration, it is generally understood that
when people give respect they get respect. When respect is communicated through NOTES
interaction and behaviour to the community organizer practitioners, it enables the
person to avoid conflict and increases the participation or cooperation of people
in completing tasks successfully.
Having great interpersonal skills proves the professional talent of a community
organizer and results in lesser conflicts and increases the well-being of the community
in a crisis. In informal situations, these skills allow communications between
professionals to be at ease and comfortable. The practitioners who possess
interpersonal skills are capable of controlling their emotions and responding in an
appropriate way in social conflict situation. The main objective of a community
organizing is to produce lasting power for the organization that stands for the
community. This lasting power can gather people in a community organization to a
place before any significant decision is made. Coalitions are facilitated by the
community organizing workers as they help in the development of new local leader
and assisting them in their campaigns.
When understanding the interpersonal skills of the community organizer, it
is also important to study the parts in any communication, which are as follows:
 Data Carried.
 Message received, both verbal or gestural.
 Information transfer between community members and others through
various forms like symbols, signs and body language.
The communication strategy involves three constituents:
(i) The person who is communicating.
(ii) People who are the listeners.
(iii) Information conveyed in the communication.
The community organization practitioner who communicates with proper
qualifications and training earns credibility with the members of a community and
other concerned people. Listeners are important part of any communication, and
it is necessary to know about the listeners to formulate an effective communication
strategy.
10.5.1 Information Gathering and Assimilation Skills
Effective information gathering can bring out the following:
 Utilization of time efficiently and effectively develops critical thinking through
the use of sifting/sorting techniques.
 Expansion of the outlook and informs subject understanding through the
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Community Organizer: Information gathering can be used for a variety of reasons. But the main
Roles and Responsibilities
benefit is gathering knowledge in vast boundaries instead of being attached to the
boundaries created by ourselves, involves acquiring lot of information and different
opinions and approaches that enhances the knowledge. A broad and well
NOTES researched knowledge gathering will help a lot in developing approaches and
opinions that becomes a key element in community achievement. Information
gathering has various means to find out relevant and appropriate sources—the
person who is likely to achieve the most out of it.
An imaginative and a different approach towards gathering information paves
way to exploring more interesting and beneficial results in terms of being able to
present a rational and balanced insight in everything. The following procedure
broadly defines an effective information gathering strategy. This process embodies
several different stages that are essential to the implementation of an effective
search.
Information gathering strategies are as follows:
 Review
 Carry out search
 Identify search areas
 Plan search activities
 Record keeping
 Problem analysis
 Adapt search method to appropriate/available tools
Thinking about what is required and why it is required will limit the breadth
of the information that is looked up to and will limit the search for gathering
information. These questions are fine for the initial stages so that it does not mislead
the track of the information that is searched for, and create an idea of how much
information is needed. Factors like what kind of information is required, why the
information is required, what level of information is required, what is already known,
and what information is required, are the levels of understanding that should be
displayed and so on. Once the answer to the question ‘why information is supposed
to be gathered’ is identified, then the next question ‘what kind of information is
needed’ should be identified. Once what is supposed to be gathered is identified,
then how it is supposed to be gathered should be found out. There are various
search tools available, and one can always explore all the tools and means that can
relate to and help effectively to gather as much as knowledge as required.
General vs specific
Gathering information should be measured according to the nature of work that is
being carried out and the information should be related to it. The information
gathering techniques should avoid both the danger of being too general or too
much informed on that is not necessary to be gathered, and being too specific in
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missing some vital information. Choice of work areas should reflect the information Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
that is needed and should not involve wastage of time in searching where the
information should be searched for considering the level of information that is
supposed to be gathered.
NOTES
Flexibility
Flexibility is required while searching for information and establishing key subject
areas around which the information should be gathered. It is very important to see
what subject notations are searched for because every storage or recovery system
will not have the same kind of subject notation. The community organizer needs to
think and work out a range of words that are synonymous and reflect the subject
area being searched for. Computerized systems will often show search result that
are similar or related to the subject area or the particular keyword given for searching
the appropriate content.
When the right sources of information are being searched for, it is very
much recommended to be careful on whom to ask and where to ask. The community
organizer should be very careful on the proximity and the probability of collecting
inaccurate information, which would not be sufficient for the level of information
required.
Planning to search is an important phase when it comes to gathering
information. This is the phase where exactly all the plans are put into action.
It will be good to estimate:
 The time required for this action.
 Importance of carrying out the search.
 The places where information can be looked for.
 The steps taken to approach the subjects.
 Accessibility of the subject.
Plan the search according to what is needed and where it could be found
and if it is easily accessible. In a lot of cases, the community organizer has to adapt
to the plans to respond to the sources currently available. One has to be flexible
so as to gain as much information as possible from different people with different
mindsets and approaches, and to make decisions without being biased with the
information gathered. It may pay dividends to spend a little time familiarizing oneself
with the characteristic language of each new information retrieval. Carrying out a
search does not result only with the required information, but also allows the
community organizer to explore all the information related to the required information
or contradictory opinions. Still it is important to stick to what is relevant and what
is needed, what can enhance one’s work within original guidelines. Simply coming
across something that is interesting might not make that point relevant to the
information required to the preset task. It is good to refer again to the original
search criteria to avoid being misled or losing track from what is supposed to be
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Community Organizer: looked for and where the search begin. Check how much the information gathered
Roles and Responsibilities
is relevant to the current performing task.
The community organizer also needs to adhere to the given guidelines if the
resources should be sifted successfully and look at the priorities that are related to
NOTES
subject of concern. The information system that is created for an organization
should meet the requirements of the people who are its end users.
To obtain the information, it is very important to know or prepare certain
techniques to gather information so that no information is ignored, and the nature
and functions of an organization are clearly understood. The main purpose of
gathering information is to determine the information requirements of an organization.
Research
Research is a critical first step in finding an effective solution to a problem. Acting
before researching can waste time and energy. It can also reinforce the stereotype
of active groups as highly vocal, but largely uninformed. That stereotype is often
used as an excuse for dismissing calls for greater public participation in local
decision-making. The steps that can be followed in this sequence are:
(i) Gathering existing information
(ii) Finding out what people want
(iii) Conducting a research on the decision-making process
A strategy should be prepared to gather information and it should consist of
identifying information sources, evolving a method of obtaining information from
the identified sources and using an information flow model of organization.
Information Gathering Methods
The basic methods of gathering information are as follows:
(i) Searching for information: Information can be gathered by interviewing
the members of the community, social institutions, and other people of the
society who may be directly or indirectly connected with the issue or problem
of the community. Besides interviews, group discussions also help the
community organizer in gathering information. It is not possible to obtain all
information in a single interview; more than one interview session is essential.
(ii) Interviewing technique: There are some guidelines to ensure a successful
interview session:
 Make a prior appointment with the members of the community to be
interviewed and meet them at the allotted time.
 Study the problem/s of the community and meet people and experts on
the concerned field.
 State the purpose of interview.

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  Be punctual and pay attention to what the people have to say and know Community Organizer:
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their interpretation on their problems.
 Obtain both quantitative and qualitative information.
 Discriminate between essential and desirable requirements. NOTES
 Do not prolong interview and summarize the information gathered during
the interview and get the confirmation on the same by the community
members.
(iii) Use of questionnaires: Questionnaires are useful for collecting statistical
data. Sometimes, the questionnaires are not promptly replied and several
follow-ups/personal interviews may be required to get questionnaires back
from respondents. But if the questionnaires are short, the probability of
getting the reply is high. In community work, data has to be collected from
large number of people, and so the use of questionnaires for information
gathering proves to be very useful.
The community organizer in order to disseminate the information to the
people can use different techniques like skit, role plays, street plays, and audio
and video shows. The organizer can train the people in all these communicative
techniques. This will be more effective if he is able to organize the small children
and train them in this regard. The children are an effective communicative channel
and a fast reaching channel.
The local groups like women’s group, youth groups are other channels for
communication. By giving the responsibility to such groups to communicate to all
other members in the community will also be helpful in reaching out the whole
community. There should not be any secrecy or suppression of information which
would only create undesired results.
10.5.2 Observation Skills and Analytical Skills
The effort of a community organizer should be to observe the needs of the community
in first place. Such observation involves a range of well-defined methods like
informal interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective
discussions, analyses of personal documents produced within the group, self-
analysis, results from activities undertaken off or online, and life histories (for the
community). Although the method is generally characterized as qualitative research,
it can (and often does) include quantitative dimensions. Traditional participant
observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from
several months to many years, and even generations. An extended research time
period means that the community organizer is able to obtain more detailed and
accurate information about the community and its members. Observable details
(like social practices) and more hidden details (like taboo behaviour) are easier to
observe and interpret in a long period.
A strength of observation and interaction over extended time periods is the
one where researchers (community organizers) can discover discrepancies between
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Community Organizer: what participants say—and often believe—should happen (the formal system)
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and what actually does happen, or between different aspects of the formal system;
in contrast, a one-time survey of people’s answers to a set of questions might be
quite consistent, but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the
NOTES social system or between conscious representations and behaviour.
Analytical skills for community practice can be developed in held placements,
through action assignments, or in the classroom (Johnson, 1996). People can find
it difficult to develop a consistent set of skills in the held due to diversity in the
types of macro field settings available to them. People can be placed in unions,
election campaigns, social planning organizations, or traditional community
organizations.
A review of the literature on teaching community organization practice (Austin,
1986; Fisher, 1995; Halseth, 1993; Karger and Reitmeir, 1983; Rivera and Erlich,
1998) suggests a number of analytical or technical skills that people should acquire:
 Legislative research
 Budgeting
 Grant writing
 Information gathering and processing
 Participatory action research
 Political analysis
 Population forecasting and social indicator analysis
 Power analysis
 Programme development and planning
 Needs assessment
 Resource development
These skills can be used across practice settings, interventions and situations.
Analytical methods help the practitioner identify community problems, plan
interventions, and conduct evaluations.
Working a case will often result in a mass of seemingly unrelated facts.
Making sense of it requires the consideration of all possible problems and solutions
using analytical or problem-solving skills by a community organizer.
Traditionally, investigators have used deductive reasoning when solving cases.
Logicians no longer consider the view of deduction proceeding from the general
to the specific to be correct. It is correct, however, to say that deduction is based
on a premise or premises. If a premise is incorrect, then the conclusion may be
incorrect. Organizers need tenacity and determination as well as good interpersonal
and analytical skills. They must interact with and influence diverse groups of people,
not all of whom share the same values, goals, and strategies.

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 Models of community organizing including mass mobilization, social action, Community Organizer:
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grass-roots empowerment, leadership development and advocacy, as well as newer
community building approaches are assessed for effectiveness in the current
conservative climate. Special attention is paid to issues of gender, class, race and
ethnicity and sexual orientation in organizing. NOTES

10.5.3 Active Listening and Responding Skills

Active listening is a technique involving communication which requires keen
listening, understanding, interpreting and evaluating whatever is heard. This ability
also helps in reducing conflicts in any kind of relationship, strengthens cooperation
and fosters a lot of understanding.
Active listening is about a structured way of listening and responding to
others focusing attention on the speaker. It comprises three steps/elements: (i)
comprehending, (ii) retaining, and (iii) responding.
(i) Comprehending: The shared meaning between parties in a
communication transaction is called ‘comprehension’. The first
challenge for the listener is to identify the speech recognizing what the
words mean and what the sounds mean. The second challenge is being
able to tell the difference between breaks that can be discerned or
speech segmentation. This becomes significantly more difficult with
an unfamiliar language because the speech sounds blend together into
a continuous cluster. Determining the context and meanings of each
word is essential to comprehending a sentence.
(ii) Retaining: Retaining is the second step in the listening process. All
that we remember from what we hear and understand from the words
is called ‘retaining’; and memory is essential for it. All retain different
memories. Not necessary that the listener understands what the speaker
wanted to convey. The listener could have misunderstood the
information. However, human memories are fallible; we forget things
and everything cannot be remembered. This is because we cram a
lot. When a person crams, lot of information gets stored in the short-
term memory. After sometime, when the information is no longer
needed, that information is thrown out of the memory even before it
can get settled in the long-term memory. When very less importance
is given to the information, it loses its meaning. Lack of motivation
might be another reason that does not make the listener to pay more
attention to the speaker. To avoid all this, we need to use the given
information or store it somewhere as soon as it is received to lessen
the proximity and the probability to forget that information. Retention
is reduced when the brain is occupied by too many things.
(iii) Responding: Responding is basically the communication between
the person who is speaking and the person who is listening. The term
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Community Organizer: ‘responding’ comes when the other person who is listening replies
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back to what the speaker has been saying verbally or by a gesture.
This reaction is given in order to make the speaker understand that
the message is being conveyed or that the listener is actually paying
NOTES attention and listening to what the speaker wants to convey. If the
response of the listener is verbal, the roles of the listener and the speaker
will interchange. Whereas the response being non-verbal, the roles of
both remain to be the same, because the listener remains calm and the
speaker is not interrupted. Based on the response, the speaker has to
decide whether to continue or stop and wait for the other person to
finish talking.
It is very important for a speaker to notice the body language and the
behaviour of the listener and vice versa. Having the ability to understand the body
language and the behaviour of the speaker or the listener gives an idea or an
accurate meaning of the information and the interest level shown in listening to the
information communicated respectively.
Marshall Rosenberg had conceived a four-step process that can help one
facilitate active listening. When we focus on what is being said, and observe it, feel
it rather than judging it or diagnosing it, we discover the depth of our own
compassion. Active listening enhances certain qualities such as attentiveness,
empathy and respect.
There is a huge difference between active listening and empathic listening.
Active listening involves a process of retention by the listener where he should be
able to reflect whatever the speaker had tried to convey in the same understanding
that the speaker had and wanted to convey. Active listening has its processing of
the information, which done mostly by the brain; but in empathic listening, the
processing of the information should be done with the maximum involvement of
both heart and brain; and here, the listener has to feel and understand what the
speaker intends to convey.
Barriers to Active Listening
Listening barriers can be based on both psychological and physical fitness. Certain
other factors such as speakers’ accents, vocabulary, and misunderstandings due
to cultural assumptions often stop the listening process and affect the speaker.
Very often, the listener’s own ideas influence the information given by the speaker,
which results in ineffective listening, and hence ineffective communication. These
barriers to active listening are as follows:
(i) Shift response: Shift response is the general tendency in a conversation to
affix the attention to oneself. There is competition everywhere and everybody
wants attention, this is a ‘me-oriented’ technique. The listener changes roles
with the speaker and starts sending information where the speaker becomes
the listener. This is a type of conversational narcissism; it is a tendency of
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to the speaker. A ‘support response’ is the opposite of a shift response; it
is a method of giving attention and an effort to cooperate and focus the
conversational attention on the other person.
NOTES
(ii) Competitive interrupting: When a person stops speaking because
someone else starts speaking in between, it is called ‘interrupting’.
Interruption takes place when one dominates the conversation in order to
take control of the conversation. Here, both the original speaker and the
person interrupting fight to take control over the conversation. This technique
is similar to shift response and can be used in the same way. The main
motive is to gain attention from others by taking control over the
conversation. However, in shift response there is some sort of orderliness
were just one person speaks at a time while in competitive interrupting
people do not wait for others to finish talking, and they do not care to lend
a ear to the person talking, instead priority is given only in emphasizing
one’s own viewpoint. Also, in shift response the agenda topic loses track in
the talk flow, while competitive interruption might bring out a point on the
same lines. Interrupting might create a chaos and a hustle in the environment
which can also end up in rivalry. In general, competent communicators try
to avoid interrupting in their conversation. However, there are non-
competitive reasons for interrupting such as a show of support or enthusiasm,
or asking for clarification.
(iii) Glazing over/Pseudo listening: In glazing listening, the listener does not
even pretend to be listening. Usually, the brain processes the words much
faster than the speaker can speak. So a person who is a competitive
communicator will use this difference to start thinking about the conveyed
message. Pseudo listening, on the other hand, is pretend listening; the listener
uses a polite face and tries to do everything to show that the listener is being
attentive and that actually the speaker’s message is being conveyed. But in
reality, the listener is taking all the efforts only to act that he is listening and
understanding the message conveyed by the speaker.
(iv) Stage hogging: This happens when the speaker feels that he should keep
on talking and does not allow others to talk. The speaker shows out a clear
no-no to listen to anything but just talk.
To overcome listening barriers and implement active listening, one should
overcome emotions during the conversation and understand what the speaker
wants to convey with a broad mind, without any kind of prejudice. Here the
listener should understand, try to paraphrase the information, and then clarify if
there is something missing in the content as understood by the listener and overcome
all types of environment distractions. The listener should not argue or judge anything
prematurely. It is not good to judge or argue prematurely. Moreover, the listener
considers the background of the speaker, both cultural and personal, to benefit as
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convey the information in a more efficient way because the speaker will realize
that people are actually listening. At times, the speaker uses certain words that will
bring out what exactly the speaker wants to say. It makes the understanding between
NOTES the listener and the speaker quite easy. Taking notes on the message will help a lot
in retaining the information conveyed.
Active listening is used almost in all the scenarios where the information is
conveyed the way it is suppose to be to the listener. It is used in group’s help
programmes the most in fostering better understanding between individuals and
paves way to mutual understanding. Active listening can be used in whichever way
the listener is comfortable using which might determine the level of quality
understanding. A listener can use whatever way he is comfortable to be involved in
active listening each resulting in different levels of quality. Active listening makes
people open up and talk to each other comfortably which helps in building cordial
relationships with each other. In this way, misunderstandings and conflicts are
avoided.
10.5.4 Organizing Skills
Planning skills are the ability to conceive, develop and implement plans with purpose
of accomplishing short- and long-term goals. Planning and organizing are important
skills in community organization practice; where systematically a person develops
plans; prioritizes, organizes and manages resources in order to accomplish set
goals within a defined time period for the well-being of the community.
Communication within the community and between the community and the
organizer is inevitable. There needs to be transparency in the dealings for which
formal and informal meetings have to be organized and information have to be
shared. The sharing of information enables collective responsibility and decision-
making in community organization.
In community work practice, organizational skills signify the planned,
coordinated approach and purposeful action of people working through collective
action to reach a common goal for community welfare by people’s participation
via a system of coordinated division of labour. This action is usually framed by
formal membership and form (institutional rules) in community work.
The managers of social service organizations need specific skills for setting
organizational goals, planning services, hiring staff, enhancing staff development,
raising funds, and evaluating service delivery. The community managers committed
to delivering services to historically oppressed communities should be ideologically
committed to the political empowerment of organizational clients, community
residents, and organizational staff. Staff and clientele in empowerment-oriented
organizations should be encouraged to work in partnership with one another for
the effective delivery of services. Consequently, clients can become empowered
only if staff receives appropriate training and managerial support that allows them
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that recognizes that both clients and staff bring essential resources to community
organization. Community organizing within social work has contributed its
knowledge, skills, and leaders to these causes, and also has its own tradition.
NOTES
10.5.5 Resource Mobilization Skills
Organizational resources include money, human beings, equipment and materials
that an organization draws upon to meet its needs. The ways in which an organization
acquires the required resources and the sources of those resources determine
what the organization is and what it can be. To survive, an organization must
understand the importance of mobilizing resources, particularly local resources.
Community-based organizations have to make decisions on where to invest
their energies to mobilize resources. They must decide when to focus on non-
financial resources and when to seek financial resources. When seeking financial
resources, they must consider whether to generate funds themselves, or to seek
funds from other organizations. There are six issues that a community organizer
should take into account during the mobilization of resources. These are as follows:

(i) Vulnerability: This scheme tells about the dependency factor, and thus
increases the exposure to external events and other organizations. For
instance, a social work institution receives its full funding from a bestower
and is dependent on him, hence that makes the institution exposed to external
decisions and pressures. The social work institution that is less vulnerable
has higher chance of its sustenance.
(ii) Sensitivity: Resource mobilization can help in sensitizing the organization
to local community and can give insight and inspiration. Sustainability can
be achieved by reinforcing and strengthening the organization by mobilizing
its resources. In this case, the resource mobilization clearly gives idea about
concepts, knowledge and skills of resource management. Low sensitivity
means that external changes do not cause immediate severe disruption; high
sensitivity means that they do.
(iii) Criticality: It is the importance of the resource for the operation of the
social work institution or any particular activity. Is the replacement of the
resource possible? For instance, it becomes nearly impossible to replace a
core technical staff or fund raising team in an organization. Such resources
are known as ‘highly critical’ resources.
(iv) Consistency: Adoption or the change of a blend of resources without
threatening an organization or activity. For instance, the organization would
not be able alter the composition of the implementation team. ‘High
consistent’ resources are the ones that can be altered without a compromise
in the resource itself.

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Community Organizer: (v) Autonomy: Independency of an organization in taking decisions and
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negotiations while using a resource and saying a ‘no’ to the resource when
not necessary, measures being autonomous.
(vi) Compatibility: The new resources should be compatible with the older
NOTES
resources. On account of the new resource being incompatible with older
one, replacing the old one or modification of the organization is the resolve.
The agility and adaptability of an organization can be achieved by using
resources that are of desirable nature i.e., resources that have low vulnerability,
low sensitivity, low criticality, high consistency, substantial autonomy, and
high compatibility.
Resource mobilization on whether and to what degree is to be focused on
human resources, material resources or financial resources is the first strategic
move of an organization as it depends on external funds and mobilization of financial
resources is dominating. Apart from mobilizing funds, mobilizing volunteers and
community resources keeps the organization near the community-based roots.
During mobilizing funds, challenges faced by the organization are when they are
generating funds that reduces threat to being autonomous which means less
vulnerability to outsiders, less sensitivity, and the ability to replace critical resources
because the organization can decide where to put the surplus produce and having
a greater control of the organization is achieved.
10.5.6 Conflict Resolution Skills
A person who is against another person often contradicts the second person’s
opinion on any issue, even the issues where his opponent may be right, and therefore
he turns unfair. This has the effect of denying an idea that is actually worth
implementing and could end up being successful. This conflict becomes stronger
when someone listens to the other person only to point out the flaws in it and not
to accept any valid and a genuine point in the idea. The reaction might be defensive
and can have negative impact as well. On the other hand, when both the human
beings (or groups) involved understand each other immaterial of the conflicts
between them, there are great chances for cooperation and mutual co-existence.
This increases the possibility of collaborating and resolving the conflict.
Problems of the community involve the affected people and the others who
are the cause for the problem. Therefore, there could be a conflict between these
two groups, or between the people and the system. The community organizer is
equipped with the skill of identifying the conflicting situation and making the people
to understand the conflict the work out the ways and means to find solutions to the
conflict.
The ways in which the conflicts are resolved have an impact on the community
members and on the success of the implementation of the plan. The most important
step in preparing a conflict awareness strategy is creating an awareness among the
community members about the probability of conflict, the attitude of the
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over to cope up with the issues that arise. This creates steps to flush out the aspect
of precipitating the issue and it completely eliminates the possibilities of any kind
of plans of the team activities or decisions. By creating such awareness among the
community members that the conflict is expected or that it is inevitable, expectations NOTES
can be set for positive resolutions. The final step is to build strategies in order to
highlight the need of an effective strategy to bring out a positive solution. This can
be discussed with the community members through the following:
 A discussion about the quality of the conflict solution.
 A discussion about what the members and other people can contribute
to it.
 An assurance from all every individual can contribute something for
conflict resolution.
Monitoring and Evaluation in Community Organization
Assessing the quality and quantity of public services and other government activities
are done through a process called community monitoring and evaluation (CME).
In addition to collecting data about the government’s performance, CME serves
to strengthen the relationship between the citizens and the state by making them
aware of their entitlements and the promises that the government made to them. It
also enlightens them about the tools that are needed to ensure that both the
entitlements and promises are received by them.
CME is a flexible methodology and not a specific technique. It involves
gathering evidences that indicates government’s performances. Budget tracking
and community score cards are special activities that are involved in this process.
CME is an evolved form in community monitoring and evaluating. The
effectiveness of this process in gauging developmental projects has led to it being
adopted by various development agencies. Emphasis is given to both monitoring
and evaluating, and also in encouraging the communities to express the views and
concerns so as to bring about mutual development of both the projects and the
lives of the citizens.
In general, the objectives of CME are:
 Creating awareness of the entitlements and strengthening their capacities
to hold the government responsible to attain these entitlements.
 Government–citizen relationships are to be strengthened in order to
ensure that the government plays a proactive role in catering towards
the needs of the citizens.
 Seeing to it that the government promises are fulfilled.
 Reduction in poverty and improvement in living standards of poor
communities are other objectives of CME.
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Community Organizer: Steps in community monitoring and evaluation
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The steps involved in community monitoring and evaluation are as follows:
(i) Build trust with the community and identify the issues for monitory:
NOTES Gaining trust from the community is important for securing their commitment.
This ensures sustainability and rigour of monitoring work. The initial
assessments are to be perfect for effective development of the processes.
Power relations within the community are to be understood properly and
relationships with each member of the community should be based upon
power relations; vulnerable members like women and children are to be
dealt with directly.
(ii) Define the monitoring objectives: The table gives below provides an
idea regarding the policy inputs, outputs, outcomes and impact, and the
monitoring objectives by taking the education sector into consideration:
We want to count these: The supervising motive is to:
The salary given to the teachers is Administering about the salaries reaching
provided by the government. the teachers on time.
The outcome as a result of the inputs To keep a check on the students attending
given. For instance, Children coming to the school.
school.
Enhancements as result if the changes. To administer on the improvements in the
For instance, the increase in children’s literacy levels of the children.
literacy
The positive consequences of the changes To keep track of the count, number of
in the lives of the people. children leaving school and getting jobs.
For example, young people getting jobs
or pursuing further education.

The positive consequences of the changes in the lives of the people. For
example, young people getting jobs or pursuing further education. To keep
track of the count, number of children leaving school and getting jobs.
It may not be possible to monitor objectives in all four areas, so organizations
may need to select priority objectives to focus on. Monitoring objectives in
all four areas is not possible, so the objectives to be focused on are selectively
prioritized by organizations as they need. Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Relevant and Time-bound (SMART) are the main monitoring objectives.
(iii) Gather evidence: For collecting data, one can use quantitative methods
such as household surveys, qualitative methods like focus group discussion
or a mix of both. A survey could help establish whether there has been an
improvement in, people’s perceptions about the length of time spent in the
same condition. The evidence that is gathered should represent the situation.
It might not be possible to speak to every individual of the community, and
at the same time interviewing just one or two will not bring out rigorous
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 evidence about the community. So sample size is very important when it Community Organizer:
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comes to monitoring. The openness of the research, legitimacy, free
agreement and respect for security on all sides are important factors. Finally,
involving communities in the analysis of the results is fundamental to ensure
the benefits of the community organizer’s initiatives. NOTES
(iv) Use the results: Involving the community directly ensuring that the
community representatives attend meetings with local or national government
brings out the authenticity of the evidence being provided. So at times, the
community organizer helps in taking a relevant government representative
to the community to discuss his findings. If there is a cordial relationship
with the government officials, it should be easier to take them there. If there
has to be some alternative for the actions to be carried out other than the
government, splashing out some bytes of the information for the media is
another way, which in turn generates public pressure on the government.
Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PME) is a very distinct approach
with the involvement of a wide range of people like the local people in the community,
community organizations, non-government organization, and development agencies
working united for creating a plan to bring out successful results and what actions
should be followed once the information is gathered and the plan is made. PME
brings out an opportunity to make the people involved in the programme to
understand their capacity, analyse what is needed in the programme, understand
the results and work according to it. These are the most essential factors to establish,
own and implement their own monitoring and evaluation systems.
Planning for the inevitable means preparing planning to fight back and
building up confidence to face any kind of obstacle that comes on the way to a
perfect organizing. This needs lot of focus and attention to bring out the correct
solutions. This has to be done because if there are conflicts in the implementation
of a plan, it will become a reason to hold back, regroup, rethink, reevaluate and
take positive steps.
The most important initiative for producing a positive resolution is to prepare
the attitude and the way things are approached by the community members and
the community organizer/s. Then the plan is structured for creating a resolution for
the conflict. Certain rules which have to be followed while communicating should
be followed by the community. These rules should not be new to the community
members.
To emphasize the significance of the conflict resolution, the plan will be
given to everybody involved in the project formally in a written format at the initial
stages of the project. People tend to start moving along and working with ease
when the rules and guidelines are clear. By providing these, way before the project
starts, it gives a clear mindset to the people working in the project and avoids any
kind of misconception. It makes the community members comfortable with each
other. Expansion of the environment is necessary to include supplementary
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Check Your Progress
3. What are the three constituents of a communication strategy?
NOTES 4. Name a few information gathering strategies.
5. What are the steps involved in community work research?
6. Name the three steps/elements in active listening.
7. What is meant by ‘pseudo listening’?
8. Name the six issues taken in account during resource mobilization.

10.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A community organizer plays a variety of roles such as it acts as a

communicator, enabler, animator, counsellor, guide, consultant, innovator,
motivator, catalyst, educator etc.
2. Jack Rothman has introduced three basic models of community organization.
They are:
 Locality Development
 Social Planning
 Social Action
3. The three constituents of a communication strategy are:
(i) The person who is communicating.
(ii) People who are the listeners.
(iii) Information conveyed in the communication.
4. Information gathering strategies are as follows:
 Review
 Carry out search
 Identify search areas
 Plan search activities
 Record keeping
 Problem analysis
 Adapt search method to appropriate/available tools
5. The steps that can be followed in community organization research are:
 Gathering existing information.
 Finding out what people want.
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 Conducting a research on the decision-making process.
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 6. Active listening comprises three steps/elements: Community Organizer:
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 Comprehending
 Retaining
 Responding NOTES
7. Pseudo listening is pretend listening; the listener uses a polite face and tries
to do everything to show that the listener is being attentive and that actually
the speaker’s message is being conveyed. But in reality, he takes all the
efforts only to act that he is listening and understanding the message conveyed
by the speaker.
8. The six issues taken in account during resource mobilization are:
 Vulnerability,
 Sensitivity,
 criticality,
 consistency,
 autonomy, and
 compatibility

10.7 SUMMARY

 The community organizer transfers or transmits information, thought,

knowledge and so forth to the members of the community. Sharing of
information enables the community to be better prepared and equipped
with information.
 The community organizer facilitates the process in the community for a change.
The organizer gives importance to the process than the product. By the role
of enabler the organizer would create independency among the people by
which he/she avoids the dependency syndrome.
 As an animator the Community Organizer plays a vital role in eliciting the
active participation of the people from planning till evaluation especially
ensuring life in all the dealings of the issues and problems.
 The community organizer is not a person to shoulder the responsibility or
solving problems of the people.
 The community organizer understands the community and enables the
community to understand itself. At the time of difficulty the individuals or the
groups are provided with the required counselling so as to proceed in the
correct direction.
 The community organizer enjoys the confidence of the people and advises
them in matters of vital interest.
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Community Organizer:  The community organizer innovates, performs, and improves the techniques,
Roles and Responsibilities
content in the process of community organization.
 The community organizer acts as a motivator by stimulating and sustaining
active interest among the people for reaching a solution to the needs and
NOTES
problems.
 As a catalyst the organizer is able to increase the response level of the
people. The catalyst role further enables the people to become independent
and become expert in responding to their own needs.
 The community organizer in the role of an advocate represents the interests
of the community to gain access of services or to improve the quality of
services which may be hampered by other forces.
 The community organizer helps the community to articulate their needs,
clarify and identify their problems, explore resolution strategies, select and
apply intervention strategies, and develop their capacities to deal with their
own problems more effectively.
 The community organizer as an educator conveys information to the
community and the broader environment.
 A model is a medium through which a person looks at the complex realities.
It is a simplistic version of a complex situation. Models serve as a reference
for the work and give us a clear understanding of what would happen.
 Jack Rothman has introduced three basic models of community organization.
They are locality development, social planning, and social action.
 Locality development model is a method of working with community groups.
It was earlier used by the settlement houses. In this model, the important
focus is on the process of community building. Leadership development
and the education of the participants are the essential elements in the process.
 The type of community work where a worker or agency undertakes an
exercise of evaluating welfare needs and existing services in the area and
suggests a possible blue print for a more efficient delivery of services, it is
termed as social planning.
 According to Rothman, social action is a strategy used by groups or sub
communities or even national organizations that feel that they have inadequate
power and resources to meet their needs. So they confront with the power
structure using conflict as a method to solve their issues related to inequalities
and deprivation.
 A community liaison is a person who liaises between two organizations to
communicate and coordinate their activities. A liaison serves as a very
important connection between community members like a link between
residents of a particular community to the organization that provides a
particular service
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 Community organization is considered as a macro method of practice in Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
social work.
 Community organization solves the Community Problems and fulfills the
needs of the community. Many of the community problems like social
NOTES
injustice, poverty, inadequate housing, poor nutrition, lack of health, lack of
medical services, unemployment, pollution, exploitation, bonded labour
system, illicit attack, dowry, female infanticide, women and children
trafficking, drug trafficking etc.
 The social communications and other interactions made by the community
oganizer to bring out the required outcomes for the community’s well-being
are termed as a community organizer’s interpersonal skills.
 The main objective of a community organizing is to produce lasting power
for the organization that stands for the community.
 Listeners are important part of any communication, and it is necessary to
know about the listeners to formulate an effective communication strategy.
 The community organizer should be very careful on the proximity and the
probability of collecting inaccurate information, which would not be sufficient
for the level of information required.
 Information can be gathered by interviewing the members of the community,
social institutions, and other people of the society who may be directly or
indirectly connected with the issue or problem of the community.
 In community work, data has to be collected from large number of people,
and so the use of questionnaires for information gathering proves to be very
useful.
 The community organizer in order to disseminate the information to the
people can use different techniques like skit, role plays, street plays, and
audio and video shows.
 An extended research time period means that the community organizer is
able to obtain more detailed and accurate information about the community
and its members.
 Active listening is about a structured way of listening and responding to
others focusing attention on the speaker. It comprises three steps/elements:
(i) comprehending, (ii) retaining, and (iii) responding.
 Shift response is the general tendency in a conversation to affix the attention
to oneself.
 Planning and organizing are important skills in community organization
practice; where systematically a person develops plans, prioritizes, organizes
and manages resources in order to accomplish set goals within a defined
time period for the well-being of the community.

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Community Organizer:  The social work institution that is less vulnerable has higher chance of its
Roles and Responsibilities
sustenance.
 Apart from mobilizing funds, mobilizing volunteers and community resources
keeps the organization near the community-based roots.
NOTES
 The community organizer is equipped with the skill of identifying the conflicting
situation and making the people to understand the conflict, work out the
ways and means to find solutions to the conflict.
 Assessing the quality and quantity of public services and other government
activities are done through a process called community monitoring and
evaluation (CME).

10.8 KEY WORDS

 Community organizer: It refers to a person whose job is to coordinate

cooperative work and campaigning carried out by local residents to promote
the interests of their community.
 Social planning: It refers to a process for planning social services programs,
services, and policies.
 Social action: It refers to an act which takes into the account of actions and
reactions of individuals (or ‘agents’).
 Analytical skills: It refers to the skill of performing an analysis. Such skills
include the ability to apply logical thinking in order to break complex problems
into their component parts.
 Active listening: It refers to a technique that is used in counseling, training,
and solving disputes or conflicts. It requires that the listener fully concentrate,
understand, respond and then remember what is being said.

10.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Give a brief account of the locality development model of community
organization.
2. What do you understand by community liaison?
3. Write a short note on the ethics in community organization.
4. Differentiate between ‘general’ and ‘specific’ data gathering in community
organization.
5. What is the difference between ‘active listening’ and ‘empathic listening’?

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 6. Write a short note on community organization as a problem-solving method. Community Organizer:
Roles and Responsibilities
7. Write a short note on the six issues taken into account in resource
mobilization.
Long Answer Questions NOTES
1. Discuss the different roles of a community organizer in detail.
2. Give a detailed account on the observation and analytical skills of a
community organizer.
3. Explain the barriers to active listening. Also, elaborate on how to overcome
such barriers.
4. What are the organizing skills of a community organizer? Discuss.
5. Give a detailed account on the resource mobilization skills of community
organizer.
6. Explain the conflict resolution skills of a community organizer.

10.10 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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Social Action

UNIT 11 SOCIAL ACTION

NOTES Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Concept, Definition, and Meaning of Social Action
11.2.1 Social Work and Social Action
11.2.2 Importance of Effective Leadership
11.2.3 Social Legislation as a Form of Social Action
11.3 Objectives, Characteristics, Principles, Methods, and Techniques
11.4 Social Action as a Method of Social Work
11.4.1 Social Action and Social Reform
11.4.2 Scope of Social Action in India
11.5 Enforcement of Social Legislation Through Social Action
11.5.1 Social Legislation
11.5.2 Approaches: Rights and Advocacy Based Approaches
11.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.7 Summary
11.8 Key Words
11.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.10 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit provides the reader an insight into the concept of social action as an integral
part of sociology. Max Weber, an important architect of social science, presents the
notion of sociology as a scientific inquiry with its own repertoire of empirical reality.
According to him, the ‘highly ambiguous’ term ‘sociology’, can be defined as ‘the
interpretative understanding of social action in order to arrive at a casual explanation
of its causes and effects’. Action is social as long as it takes into account the behavior
of others. In other words, the notion that social action cannot exist in isolation forms
the central notion of Weber’s conceptualization. This co-dependence of individuals
in society not only forms the fundamental understanding of sociology but also sheds
light on the larger process of socialization. The core meaning of social action can be
located in the collective and not in the singular.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of social action
 Discuss social action as social work and in terms of social reform
 Describe the scope of social action and enforcement of social legislation in
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 Social Action
11.2 CONCEPT, DEFINITION, AND MEANING OF
SOCIAL ACTION

The concept of social action is at the center of Max Weber’s social ideas. According NOTES
to him, all social concepts hinge on the central idea of social action. According to
Weber’s observation social action is that action of an individual which is influenced
by the action and behavior of other individuals which also modifies or determines
its direction. Simply stated, social actions are those actions which are influenced,
guided or determined by the actions of other individuals. Pointing out the importance
of a sociologist’s ability to grasp the subjective quality of human action, Weber
wrote, ‘a correct causal inter-pretation of a concrete course of action is arrived at
when the overt action and the motives have both been correctly apprehended and
at the same time their relation has become meaningfully comprehensible.’ Weber
makes a subtle analysis of the concept of social action, wherein it is regarded as
quintessentially human once it is seen in the light of its motive.
11.2.1 Social Work and Social Action
Social action is a process of change which is brought about by the deliberate
effort of a group or community. As early as 1922, Mary Richmond, one of the
early pioneers of the profession, referred to social action as one of the four
processes involved in social work. In fact, according to Richmond, social action
was an integral part of the concept of social work which emerged out of liberal,
rational and democratic traditions. Early efforts to promote the settlement movement
in the US to change the system of charities into a program of family welfare were
motivated by a desire to ameliorate the conditions that prevailed at that time. The
question that needs to be discussed, relates to the stage when curative and
preventive services start using the process of action for bringing about desired
changes. Here we will trace the process of social action and discuss its use in the
practice of social work.
As a process of bringing about desired changes, social action includes the
following elements:
 Although action might begin with the initiative of one or more individuals,
group action is essential for its fulfillment.
 Action has to be organized and given the shape of a movement.
 Belief in social progress should motivate participants.
 Action should be in accordance with established democratic practices,
within the constitutional rights of a citizen.
 The authority of the group arises out of the consent of its members.
The force behind social action lies in group compulsion. A judicious blending
of these elements under proper leadership, together with persistent striving and Self-Instructional
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Social Action continuous education, helps achieve the desired change. There are, however, some
differences between social work professionals and the nature of social action. The
first question that arises is: is social action a separate process, or is it part of the
three recognized methods of social case work, social group work and community
NOTES organization? According to some, social action is subordinate to community
organization. Others consider it to be complimentary to community organization.
In addition to this, there are viewpoints that critique the involvement of compulsion
and coercion in promoting social action. The involvement of education is being
acknowledged and public opinion in favor of it is being mobilized to initiate social
action. The overall objective has to be the greatest good of the greatest number
for fulfilling the principles of democracy. Vested interests have to be opposed
firmly. Social justice has to be at the very root of all social action.
By its very nature, the application of the process of social action has to be
selective. Every effort should be made to bring about desired changes in the nature
of social services and social welfare services through education, discussions and
deliberations among concerned parties whether it is the government or private
parties. Social action should be used only when social advances do not occur
through voluntary action. Social action should arise out of the conviction that social
justice calls for such action and the specific situation that requires change is a
matter of urgency and cannot be left to the slow process of gradualism or voluntary
acceptance. Having realized this, leaders in social action should ensure the following:
 Unity of philosophy, opinion and purpose
 Better professional preparation
 Integrated and continuing programs of social study and research
 Freedom to work jointly with labor unions, professionals and business
organizations and civic and other community groups, towards common
objectives
The starting point of any social action is identifying the problem. This calls
for a study of all factors which are both directly and indirectly related to the situation
undertaking their detailed analysis. A study of the situation should also help in
indicating a solution. The sources of the study may include records, case studies,
unmet needs, recurrent complaints, newspaper reports, observations by people
and community-wide surveys. The usual methods of research may include tests
for a working hypothesis, collecting factual statistics and logical inferences. In
order to sustain public interest, it is necessary to suggest specific solutions or
cures for a given situation against which social action is initiated. In addition to
presenting facts to indicate the nature and extent of the problem, social research
should also present data to demonstrate that the situation is remediable. Cooperating
individuals and groups should be given an opportunity to help in identifying the
problem, to review the facts in relation to it and to participate in planning a possible
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solution. Educating the public should be the objective of social action. Education Social Action

should be directed not only at the need but also at the type of cure that is likely to
be effective. A beginning should be made with a strong core of supporters, and
efforts at education and involvement should gradually extend to areas where there
is least evidence of vested interests. Even when overall community support is NOTES
secured, efforts should be made continuously to locate cells of hidden resistance.
These efforts should either be isolated or dissolved before the organizational process
is given full momentum. Besides individual contacts, group discussions and group
participation are effective sources of influence.
11.2.2 Importance of Effective Leadership
The selection of proper leadership is essential for the success of any social action
movement. Discovering, training and disciplining leadership should be carefully
planned. In selecting leaders, it is necessary to guard against sentimental and
hysterical individuals. Worthy and well-meaning people are the first to respond to
any urgent call. Social action attracts all types of personalities. While some may
seem normal, there are others who may appear obsessed. These individuals could
also be battle scarred. Moreno’s Who Shall Survive gives a detailed account of
how social drama, as a form of exhibition for social action, can prove to be useful
as a treatment for emotionally disturbed individuals.
Significance of indigenous leadership
It is necessary to put the unquestionable zeal of all individuals to work, with
judgment, care and understanding. If social action is to lead to the enactment of
legislation, some of these individuals may be useful for lobbying by correspondence
and contacts. Some of them may prove useful in influencing pressure groups.
Efforts, however, should be made to involve indigenous leadership as these people
can speak the language of the cause more effectively. Indigenous leaders should
not only know each other but should also trust each other despite differences of
opinion on extraneous issues. They should continue to promote participation of
the people. The effectiveness of social action is dependent on the extent of mass
support that the program enjoys. People should feel that it is their cause and also
their program. This will mean comparative anonymity for organizing individuals,
agencies and groups. The leadership should also be representative of all the affected
people. Such a cross-section will undoubtedly accentuate difficulties in community
organization, but it will help guarantee effective and lasting results.
11.2.3 Social Legislation as a Form of Social Action
Social legislation is one form of social action which is attempted most frequently in
a democracy. If legislation is contemplated, various agencies such as the concerned
public administration, members of the legislature and members of the subject
committee have to be contacted and provided with detailed information on the
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Social Action need for the legislation. Continuous education of the public and their elected
representatives on a given legislation needs to be planned and sustained. Many
legislative bills do not get enacted because of lack of skills in handling them at
different stages of consideration. Therefore, it is necessary to plan a strategy for
NOTES providing concerned individuals and groups with information. Propagating expert
opinion on a given legislation helps in developing public opinion. Asystem of lobbying
for social legislation needs to be developed by professional organizations as very
little is being done in this direction at the moment. One should recognize that social
action does not end with the enactment and signing of social legislations. The real
test of social action is in the execution of policies. Therefore, social action requires
perseverance and constant vigilance.
Extensive studies have been done in recent years on the various aspects of
group dynamics—on communication and social change relating to group decisions,
overcoming resistance, stationary and quasi-equilibria, social conformity,
interaction, isolation, acceptance, rejection, cohesiveness, deviance, assimilation
and help in understanding the development and implications of social action.
Professor W. H. Sprott in his ‘Josiah Mason Lectures’ delivered at the University
of Birmingham traces the influence of these studies in social sciences on social
action. These studies clarify various aspects of social action which were hitherto
unknown.
However, in spite of the clear conceptual acceptance of social action as a
process of social work, and in spite of an advanced body of knowledge available,
how is it that there is limited evidence of measures of social action taken either by
individuals, professionals, social workers or by professional organizations? This is
not an easy question to answer. Social action is universally limited to a few inspired
individuals and groups. Although training in social work includes the subject of
social action, it is one of the many topics that the subject covers. To a considerable
extent, conviction among students depends on the conviction of the teachers in the
schools of social work and that of fieldwork supervisors. Besides, the urgency for
social action seems to have lessened since Independence. There are other ways,
which are easier and more comfortable, for redressing grievances, and for getting
change introduced through social legislation. In fact, in recent years social action
measures in the country have been added to social legislation. Unfortunately, most
of these legislations remain in statute books and much remains to be done for their
implementation. Besides, the climate for social action does not exist even for such
urgent issues like untouchability, civil liberties and exploitation of women and children
in industrial areas. Under the circumstances, it is difficult to promote social action
for securing social services and social welfare services. The social awareness that
was prevalent in the pre-Independence era needs to be revived. A professional
social worker, in his/her capacity as a citizen and a worker in a social welfare
agency or institution and as a member of the profession, is obliged to take social
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action to modify those conditions which lead to social problems. A social worker Social Action

is in a unique position to know and be a witness to prevailing social problems that

require change. His/her training equips him/her to promote social action. Social
research and methods of group work and community organization provide him/
her the wherewithal to take such action. NOTES

Check Your Progress

1. What is social action according to Weber’s observation?
2. What should leaders in social action ensure?
3. According to Weber, what do all social concepts hinge on?

11.3 OBJECTIVES, CHARACTERISTICS,

PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND TECHNIQUES

One of the earliest definitions was given by Mary Richmond (1922) who considered
social action in terms of ‘mass betterment through propaganda and social
legislation’. This definition however, is too general and fails to bring out the
distinguishing features of social action. A more elaborate definition was given by
Friedlander (1963): ‘Social action is an individual, group or community effort,
within the framework of social work philosophy and practice that aims to achieve
social progress, to modify social policies and to improve social legislation and
health and welfare services.’
Gabriel Britto brings out the ‘conflict’ element when he states that:
Social action is a conflictual process of varying intensity initiated and
conducted by the masses or by a group of elites, with or without the
participation of the masses in the action against the structures or
institutions or policies or program or procedures of the government
and/or relevant agencies and/or power groups to eradicate/control
any mass socio-economic-political problem with a view to bringing
betterment to any section of the under-privileged at a level larger than
that of a sociologically defined community.

Objectives of social action

The objectives of social action is to properly shape and develop socio-cultural
environment, in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all the citizens.
Mishra (1992) has identified following goals of social action:
 Prevention of needs
 Solution of mass problems
 Improvement in mass conditions
 Influencing institutions, policies, and practices
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Social Action  Introduction of new mechanisms or programs
 Redistribution of power and resources
 Decision-making
NOTES  Effect on thought and action structure
 Improvement in health, education, and welfare
Principles of social action
Gabriel Britto has described the following principles of social action:
(a) Principle of credibility building: This principle suggests to create a public
image of the leadership, the concerned organization and the followers of the
movement should act as promoter and supporter of justice, equity, and
truth.
(b) Principle of legitimization: Legitimization is the process of convincing the
public that the movement’s objectives are legal and morally right.
(c) Principle of dramatization: Dramatization is the principle of mass
mobilization by which the leaders of a movement motivates the population
by emotional appeal to heroism, sensational news, powerful slogans, and
other techniques.
(d) Principle of multiple strategies: Achieving the goals and objective of
social action requires the application of multiple strategies. Four strategies
have been identified by Zeltman and Duncan. These are Educational strategy,
Persuasive strategy, Facilitative strategy, and Power strategy.
(e) Principle of dual approach: This principle suggests that social actionist
should build counter system, which is believed to be beneficial to the needs
of the mobilized public on self-help basis without involving opponents.
Counter system must be built up and traditional systems inputs be
transformed in any developmental operation.
(f) Principle of manifold programs: This principle recommends three
categories of programs such as social program, economic programs, and
political programs.
Strategies of social action
Desai (1984) has classified the strategies for social action into three categories:
(a) Bargaining, negotiating, and advocacy: These strategies could include
technique of bargaining, negotiation, and publicity which leads to discomfort
for the target of change. Advocacy through the media, ‘Satyagraha’, and
‘March’ method could also be used to persuade and change the target
group.

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 (b) Conflictual/confrontational: This strategy assumes that strong pressure Social Action

tactics become necessary in some critical circumstances such as

demonstration, civil disobedience, or direct action.
Techniques and methods of social action NOTES
Social action involves variety of tactics, often a combination of them depending on
the philosophy and ideological beliefs of the sponsors. Some of the techniques
have been explicitly identified and are listed below:
 Fact finding
 Publicity, advocacy, using both formal and non-formal media.
 Education, awareness building, and concretization
 Mobilizing support and favorable opinion through the establishment of
institutional system and political process
 Expressing anger, warmth, and hatred in dramatic and innovative ways
 Cooperation and collaboration
 Using slogans
 Negotiation, bargaining, and arbitration
 Disruption (interrupt the progress of) and mild coercion (mild resistance,
protest, marches, morcha, strikes, boycotts, fasts, gheraos, etc.)
 Strong coercive tactics (extra-legal measures and direct action)
Steps of social action are:

 Identifying the problems (in this case injustice), diagnosing it, gathering
information about who the principle actor are, what roles they play, what
interest they have and what benefit they derive
 Determining the position to be taken
 Identifying the social action goals that is, expected outcome
 Mobilizing support using both non-formal and formal methods and locating
the network of influence and power
 Setting up the machinery to carry out the struggle, canvas action, and provide
leadership.
 Laying down the strategy. A well-drawn out plan indicating the series of
action and their networking among leaders should be made
 Laying down the communication channels and the decision making loci of
the social action movement.
 Carrying out the action

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Social Action  Reviewing the implementation of the strategy, weighing alternative
approaches, and working out alternative plans
 Sustaining the pressure
NOTES
11.4 SOCIAL ACTION AS A METHOD OF SOCIAL
WORK

Social work has six methods of working with people that is, casework, group
work, community organization, social action, social welfare administration, and
social work research. These methods are the techniques of enabling the people
for better social functioning. Social action, as a method of professional social work
practice, is an organized effort to change or improve social and economic institutions
through organization and mobilization of the community people. Unlike other social
work methods, social action emphasizes on long-term essential changes in
established social institutions. Social action covers movements of social, religious
and political reform, social legislation, racial and social justice, human rights, freedom,
and civic liberty. Previously, social action was considered as a tool within the field
of community organization, but now it has been considered as a separate technique
of social work and as such a fourth process (H. Y. Siddiqui, 1984).
A method of professional social work is a technique or approach having
characteristics like: an established process with easily recognizable stages, based
on the philosophy of social work, having principles or guidelines or theories, and
skills of working with people, which are learned and refined through professional
guidance. Social action is a method of professional social work aimed at solving
social problems through redistribution of power and resources. Its objective is to
achieve social justice and empowerment of the community. Social action mobilizes
the general population to bring about structural changes in the social system.
11.4.1 Social Action and Social Reform
Social action has a place, relevance, and need at every stage of a society’s
development. The main actors in social reform may come from social and religious
groups. Social action interests cut across different communities. An important
objective of social reforms is to consolidate the change through legislation.
Social Reform is a kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change,
or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes.
In this way, a reform movement is distinguished from more
radical social movements such as revolutionary movements. The profession
of social work has the potential both to meet individual needs and to engage
in social change. However, the profession’s position between the individual and
society often forces practitioners to choose either adjusting people and programs
to circumstances or challenging the status quo.
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The religious and social reform of India Social Action

The urgent need for social and religious reform that began to manifest itself from
the early decades of the 19th century arose in response to the contact with Western
culture and education. The weakness and decay of Indian society was evident to NOTES
educated Indians, who started to work systematically for their removal. They
were no longer willing to accept the traditions, beliefs and practices of Hindu
society simply because they had been observed for centuries. Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Keshab Chandera Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekanand,
Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan, etc. are some of the famous example of social reformers
in early India.
11.4.2 Scope of Social Action in India
Social action as a method of bringing about political and economic change although
known to developing countries for liberation from foreign rule, did not find
commitment among social work professionals as such. Those who believed in
social action left the profession and joined the company of social activities.
Research studies
Research studies on identification of social problems have emerged among social
scientists, especially sociologists and social anthropologists; they have also been
found among a few students of social work. Studies on the methodology of social
intervention as well as on strengthening social functions of individuals, groups,
local communities and institutions, are few in number as Ramachandran has
concluded. According to him growth in social work research in India has been
uneven. Greater attention has been paid to writings on social policy, planning and
social administration. The recent development of doctoral studies in some schools
of social work gives hope that there will be advanced studies on adaptation and
effectiveness of social work education in social conditions in Indian society.
Search for specialization
In most developing countries the conflict between generic and specialized courses
of social work in education has come to surface. With increasing employment
opportunities demand for specialized training is also being felt. This began with
separate emphasis on contents for courses in labor welfare and personnel
management which was later extended to streams including medical, psychiatry
and school social work. The detailed requirements for these fields, especially as
these are reflected in case studies, offered opportunities for indigenization. At the
same time, specialization divided professional loyalties and disturbed the unity of
the profession.

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Social Action Fieldwork practices
Fieldwork practices offer the most effective opportunity of understanding people’s
requirements in the background of prevailing cultural traditions and values, and
NOTES thus offer opportunities to indigenize practices. These also provide opportunities
for innovation. Some schools have adopted ‘floating fieldwork’ while others have
taken up the ‘see-saw approach’. The most pronounced adaptation was carried
out by the Department of Social Work, University of Philippines, when it shifted
the faculty and the student body to rural areas for one term, thus adopting a rural
base in learning theory, conducting surveys and research, gathering case studies
and integrating fieldwork with rural requirements. However, this effective effort at
indigenization did not last long in the urban culture of the profession.
A number of meetings and conferences were held by the UN Economic and
Social Commission of Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and by the regional branches
of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the
International Council of Social Welfare (ICSW) to relate social work with regional
requirements. The most deliberative effort was made in Drucker’s study of
‘Exploration’. Unfortunately, the impact of these deliberations has been marginal.
Studying the impact of UN efforts on social work education and practice in the
region will be a valuable exercise.

Check Your Progress

4. Name the methods of social work.
5. What is an important objective of social reforms?
6. Give some examples of famous reformers in early India.
7. What is the most common problem to have emerged among social scientists?

11.5 ENFORCEMENT OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION

THROUGH SOCIAL ACTION

After Independence, the Indian Government declared India to be a welfare state

and also planned to make serious efforts to uplift the suppressed. Social legislations
were passed to this effect and the welfare efforts of individuals, groups and
communities received the government’s support. The Central and State Social
Welfare Departments, Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation,
Ministry of Rehabilitation, Central Social Welfare Board, etc., were set up.
In 1964, the Department of Social Security was created; which was re-
designated as the Department of Social Welfare in 1966; and in 1979 elevated to
the status of an independent Ministry. The establishment of a Social Welfare Ministry
at the Centre was considered necessary not only to integrate the administration of
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social welfare, but also to provide the policy of social development with a driving Social Action

force in India.
The subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare cover child welfare
and development, women’s welfare and development, welfare of the physically NOTES
handicapped, social defense, social welfare planning and research, and so on.
The Ministry provides general direction in social welfare policy formulation,
promoting legislation and amendments to legislation, review of welfare legislation,
implementation of schemes, promotion and assistance to voluntary effort and
coordination. The list of subjects which stand allocated to the Ministry of Social
Welfare show that several subjects administered by other ministries could be
administered by the Ministry of Social Welfare. This may include: social education,
adult education and youth welfare activities (Ministry of Education and Culture);
welfare of labor (Ministry of Labor); legal aid to the poor (Department of Legal
Affairs, Ministry of Law, Justice and CompanyAffairs); and relief and rehabilitation
of displaced persons (Department of Rehabilitation, Ministry of Supply and
Rehabilitation).
The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is the nodal ministry for
overall policy, planning and coordination of programs of development of Scheduled
Castes (SCs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). With regard to sectoral
programs and schemes of development pertaining to these communities, their
coordination is the responsibility of the concerned Central Ministries, state
governments and union territory administrations. The Ministry of Women and Child
Development has been implementing the world’s largest outreach program
of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) providing a package of services
comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-up and referral
services, and pre-school non-formal education. Ministry is also implementing
Swayamsidha, an integrated scheme for empowerment of women. Most of the
programs of the Ministry are run through NGOs. The major policy initiatives
undertaken by the Ministry include universalization of ICDS and Kishori Shakti
Yojana (a nutrition program for teenage girls), establishment of the Commission
for Protection of Child Rights, and enactment of Protection of Women from
Domestic Violence Act.
11.5.1 Social Legislation
No decision was taken on the Code as drafted by the Rau Committee in 1941 by
the Legislative Assembly, the Constituent Assembly or by the first Parliament. It
was debated in the Select Committee between 1947 and 1952. However,
parliamentarians felt that more public opinion was needed on the subject before
taking a decision. In 1952, a fresh Parliament met. It led to the Special Marriage
Act of 1954, which provided for a civil marriage for Indians. Its main feature was
that it fixed the age of marriage for men and women as 21 years and 18 years
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Social Action respectively. No declaration of religion was required. This was followed by the
Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, which provided for a religious ceremony, enforced
monogamy and allowed judicial separation, nullity and divorce in Hindu marriages.
The main provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act corresponded with those of the
NOTES Special Marriage Act, except that in Hindu marriage the age limits were kept at 18
years and 15 years for the bridegroom and the bride respectively. The next piece
of legislation dealt with the subject of intestate succession among women,
introducing inheritance rights for women in equal degree. Other legislation related
to the adoption, which gave women the right to adopt, and to minority and
guardianship.
Other fields in which social legislation was passed related to labor welfare,
child welfare, immoral trafficking of women and children, welfare of backward
classes, etc. In the field of labor welfare, important Acts that were passed included
the Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948; the Employees’ Provident Fund Act,
1952; the Minimum Wages Act, 1948; the Factories Act, 1948; the Plantation
Labor Act, 1951; the Indian Mines Act, 1952; and the Industrial Disputes
(Amendment) Act, 1953. Some of the important Acts passed for social welfare
include the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act, 1956; the
Untouchability Offences Act, 1955; and the Children Act, 1960.
Private and state agencies of social work
Social legislation is only a part of this work. When the state assumed its responsibility
for the advancement of the underprivileged groups, it led to an increase in the
scope of its other activities. The Government had to create an elaborate machinery
for social welfare. But this did not mean that the role of private welfare agencies
was on the decrease. On the other hand, their scope had also increased. The
Government could not cope with all this work and had to develop these welfare
agencies. The necessity for trained workers in the social field was being widely
recognized with the expansion in the field of social work and the resolutions of the
early social conference session seemed inadequate.
Rehabilitating the refugees
To render assistance to a large number of displaced people, who migrated after
Partition in 1947, the Ministry of Rehabilitation was set up. Its mandate was to
cope with the problems of physical, social and economic rehabilitation. The program
focused on economic rehabilitation, housing and education. By 1961, the
government had completed its task of rehabilitating the refugees from West Pakistan.
However, the pouring in of refugees from East Pakistan still continued. A large-
scale plan was implemented to resettle refugees from East Pakistan in the
Dandakaranya area, which spreads over the three states of Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

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 There have been some repatriates from Burma, Ceylon, Mozambique Social Action

(Africa), etc. As a result of Indo-Pakistan conflict, some people were displaced

from border areas in Punjab, Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. Schemes for
resettlement on agricultural land were also undertaken in Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. It may be mentioned NOTES
here that due to mass repression by the Military Regime in West Pakistan in March
1971, there was a large influx of refugees from East Pakistan numbering more
than 10 million. However, this was a temporary phenomenon and within a year all
the refugees were repatriated to their newly created country—Bangladesh.
Welfare services
In the First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956), the Planning Commission drew a
distinction between the minimum ‘social services’ provided by the state for the
entire community as against the ‘social welfare’ services intended for individuals
and groups in need of special attention.
On this basis, health and education were brought under the category of
minimum services although these services are still to be extended to the entire
population. The responsibility of providing these two services largely rests with
the Government. Compulsory and free education to children up to 14 years of age
is to be provided as laid down in the Constitution of India. The expansion of
medical services is also the responsibility of the Government. In the beginning,
maternity and child welfare services were financed by the Lady Dufferin Fund and
were organized through special societies set up for the purpose or by local branches
of the Indian Red Cross Society. But the responsibility now lies with state
governments and Municipal Boards. Family Planning is another important field of
responsibility that lies with the government.
The provision of welfare services to individuals and special groups comes
under the term ‘social welfare’. After Independence, the Government took positive
responsibility in this field also by assisting private social welfare agencies with
financial help so that they can work effectively. In areas where private agencies
were not forthcoming, the government started its own welfare organizations.
In the beginning, to fulfil these two functions, work was entrusted to various
ministries at the central level, and an autonomous organization known as Central
Social Welfare Board was set up in 1953 under the Ministry of Education. To
review the programs of social welfare, the Committee on Plan Projects appointed
a Study Team on Social Welfare with Renuka Ray as its head in 1959. On its
recommendations, a separate Division of Social Welfare was created in the Ministry
of Education. In 1964, to provide more attention to the welfare activities, an
independent department known as the Department of Social Security was created.
The department was responsible for providing general social welfare, welfare of
backward classes, labor welfare, etc. In 1966, subjects relating to labor welfare
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Social Action were transferred to the Ministry of Labor and Employment. The Department of
Social Security was re-designated as Department of Social Welfare, which looked
after the welfare of women, children, handicapped and underprivileged classes of
the society.
NOTES
The Department of Social Welfare, which is a part of the Ministry of
Education and Social Welfare, now looks after child welfare, women’s welfare,
family welfare, welfare of the physically and mentally handicapped, social defense,
rehabilitation of displaced people, welfare of scheduled castes and backward
classes, etc. As stated earlier, some of these functions were previously handled by
ministries of Education, Health and Home Affairs. For example, the Ministry of
Education was accountable for the education and training of the handicapped,
while the Health Ministry looked after their rehabilitation. The Ministry of Home
Affairs used to look after the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
and also the social defense program, including removal of beggars from society
and preventing immoral trafficking of women and children, etc. The welfare schemes
were administered through the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. The Ministry of Rehabilitation used to look after the needs of widows
displaced from Pakistan and also the destitute women.
The Central Social Welfare Board in the Ministry of Education was created
in August 1953 by a Government of India Resolution. Its main function was to
administer the program of grant-in-aid to existing voluntary welfare organizations,
and to sponsor and assist the development of new welfare services through non-
official organizations. The Central Social Welfare Board set up State Social Welfare
Advisory Boards in the states to implement its program. Besides, it organized a
number of other programs, including economic programs under urban family welfare
projects, welfare-extension projects, aftercare programs, etc.
Although the main social welfare subjects was brought under one department,
i.e., Social Welfare, yet the scope of social welfare is so wide that some subjects
are still handled by other ministries; and therefore, some coordination among them
may be necessary. To look after the welfare of certain social groups, new
departments were created after Independence, and some new welfare schemes
were handled by existing ministries.
The Ministry of Education and Youth Welfare looked after the education of
children, welfare of youth, which includes students and non-students, social
education, etc. The Ministry of Home Affairs carried out Prison Administration.
The Ministry of Health and Urban Development dealt with issues of maternity and
child health, family planning programs and urban community development. The
Ministry of Rehabilitation managed the resettlement of displaced people from East
Pakistan and West Pakistan and also of the repatriates from Burma, Ceylon, Africa,
etc.

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 Ministry of Community Development was created after Independence, which Social Action

was entrusted with the work of implementing Community Development Programs

in rural areas. Similarly, the Ministry of Labor was made responsible for labor
welfare. Welfare in states also received an impetus after Independence. Either the
existing departments were strengthened or new departments were created, NOTES
wherever necessary. But the pattern was not uniform in all the states. For example,
in Uttar Pradesh, a new department of Social Welfare was created in 1954. The
main functions of this department were to provide financial assistance to social
welfare agencies, and to start new agencies, wherever necessary. The Harijan
Welfare Department, previously a part of the Home (Reclamation) Department,
was made an independent unit. Later, this was merged with the Department of
Social Welfare. The Labor Department looked after labor welfare activities. A
Development Commissioner for Community Development programs was appointed
in the rural areas.
11.5.2 Approaches: Rights and Advocacy Based Approaches
Right Based Approach and Advocacy (RBA) is the mainstream program. ‘Right
Based Approach to development focus on the most marginalized and excluded in
society, strengthening their claims to social, political and economic resources’.
RBA is a right based approach to development that brings human rights as a frame
of reference in human development.
When we speak of a right based approach, we are referring to human rights
not legal rights. Human rights is a much broader category, not limited to the rights
guaranteed in national legislation and constitution. Right Based Approach prohibits
development policies or initiatives that violate social or economic rights or increase
inequalities in the pursuit of economic growth. RBA also adds legal force to the
development work and requires the government to prioritize their resources in
accordance with the stated human rights principles and obligations.
Advocacy is an activity by an individual or group that aims to influence
decisions within the political, economic, and social systems and institutions.
Lobbying (often by lobby groups) is a form of advocacy, where a direct approach
is made to legislators on a specific issue or specific piece of legislation. The
principles of the advocacy are:
 Clarity of purpose
 Independence
 Confidentiality
 Person-Centered Approach
 Empowerment
 Equal opportunity

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Social Action  Accountability
 Accessibility
 Supporting advocates
NOTES  Complaints
 Safeguarding

Check Your Progress

8. Why was the establishment of a Social Welfare Ministry at the Centre
considered necessary in India?
9. What is the major role of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment in
India?
10. List the principles of the advocacy.

11.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. According to Weber’s observation, social action is that action of an individual

which is influenced by the action and behavior of other individuals which
also modifies or determines its direction.
2. The leaders in social action should ensure the following:
(a) Unity of philosophy, opinion and purpose
(b) Better professional preparation
(c) Integrated and continuing programs of social study and research
(d) Freedom to work jointly with labor unions, professionals and business
organizations and civic and other community groups, towards common
objectives
3. The concept of social action is at the centre of Max Weber’s social ideas.
According to him all social concepts hinge on the central idea of social
action.
4. The social work has six methods of working with people that is, casework,
group work, community organization, social action, social welfare
administration, and social work research.
5. An important objective of social reforms is to consolidate the change through
legislation.
6. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandera Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
Swami Vivekanand, and Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan are some of the famous
example of social reformers in early India.
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 7. Identification of social problems and uneven growth are some of the problems Social Action

to have emerged among social scientists.

8. The establishment of a Social Welfare Ministry at the Centre was considered
necessary not only to integrate the administration of social welfare, but also NOTES
to provide the policy of social development with a driving force in India.
9. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is the nodal ministry for
overall policy, planning and coordination of programmes of development of
Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). With
regards to sectoral programmes and schemes of development pertaining to
these communities, their coordination is the responsibility of the concerned
Central Ministries, state governments and union territory administrations.
10. The principles of the advocacy are:
(a) Clarity of purpose
(b) Independence
(c) Confidentiality
(d) Person-Centered Approach
(e) Empowerment
(f) Equal opportunity
(g) Accountability
((h) Accessibility
(i) Supporting advocates
(j) Complaints
(k) Safeguarding

11.7 SUMMARY

 According to Weber’s observation social action is that action of an individual

which is influenced by the action and behavior of other individuals which
also modifies or determines its direction.
 The objectives of social action is to properly shape and develop socio-
cultural environment, in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all
the citizens.
 Social action involves variety of tactics, often a combination of them
depending on the philosophy and ideological beliefs of the sponsors.
 Social action, as a method of professional social work practice, is an
organized effort to change or improve social and economic institutions
through organization and mobilization of the community people.

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Social Action  Social action has a place, relevance, and need at every stage of a society’s
development. The main actors in social reform may come from social and
religious groups.

NOTES  Social action as a method of bringing about political and economic change
although known to developing countries for liberation from foreign rule, did
not find commitment among social work professionals as such.
 After Independence, the Indian Government declared India to be a welfare
state and also planned to make serious efforts to uplift the suppressed.
Social legislations were passed to this effect and the welfare efforts of
individuals, groups and communities received the government’s support.
 Right Based Approach to development focus on the most marginalized and
excluded in society, strengthening their claims to social, political and economic
resources. Advocacy is an activity by an individual or group that aims to
influence decisions within the political, economic, and social systems and
institutions.

11.8 KEY WORDS

 Social action: Those actions that are influenced by the action and behaviour
of other individuals which also modifies or determines its direction are called
social actions.
 Morcha: An organized march or rally is known as morcha in Hindi language.
 Gheraos: It is a protest in which workers prevent employers or managers
from leaving a place of work until certain demands are met.
 Fieldwork practices: It provides opportunities for innovation.
 Social Welfare: It is the provision of welfare services to individuals and
special groups.

11.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. List the various elements of social action.
2. What are the strategies of social action?
3. What is the scope of social action in India?
4. Differentiate between rights based approach and advocacy based approach.

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Long Answer Questions Social Action

1. Describe social legislation as a form of social action.

2. Explain the objectives, characteristics, principles, methods, and techniques
of social action. NOTES
3. Discuss social action with regards to social work and social reform.
4. Elaborate on the steps taken by the government to help social welfare
activities after Independence.

11.10 FURTHER READINGS

Weber, Max and Gerth, H. 1991. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology.
London: Psychology Press.
Durkheim, Emile. 2013. Emile Durkheim on the division of Labour in Society.
London: Macmillan International Higher Education.
Parsons, Talcott. 1968. The Structure of Social action: A Study in Social Theory
with Special Reference to a Group of Recent European Writers. London:
Forgotten Books.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1984. Social work and Social Action: A Developmental
Perspective. Michigan: Harnam Publications.
Natarajan, S. 1959. A Century of Social Reform in India. Mumbai: Asia
Publishing. House.

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Strategies of Social Action

UNIT 12 STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL

ACTION
NOTES
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Strategies: Preparation of Carefully Worded Statement of Policies
12.3 Preparation of Careful Analysis of Pending Legislations
12.3.1 Procedure of Pending Legislation
12.4 Individual Consultation with Key Legislators on the Implication of
Pending Measures
12.4.1 Persuasion of Influential Organization to Support or Oppose Pending
Legislation
12.5 Creation of Ad Hoc Citizens Committee
12.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.7 Summary
12.8 Key Words
12.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.10 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

Strategies and tactics in social action means to organise strike, boycott, persuade,
negotiate, bargain, etc. In this unit we will take a look at how various strategies
and tactics are used in the process of social action.
Some of such methods include preparation of carefully worded statement
of policies and pending legislations, individual consultation with key legislators,
persuasion of influential organization and creation of ad hoc citizens committees.

12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the strategies that can be used to deal with authorities
 Analyse the procedure for pending legislations
 Discuss the process of individual consultation with key legislators on the
implication of pending measures
 Explain the process of creation of ad hoc citizens committee

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 Strategies of Social Action
12.2 STRATEGIES: PREPARATION OF CAREFULLY
WORDED STATEMENT OF POLICIES

The following strategies can be practised to deal with authorities as and when NOTES
required:
(i) Submission of petition: Submission of petition is a formal written application
(which contains mainly in very brief the issues and problems, their nature
and extent of peoples’ suffering) signed by affected and/or interested persons
and appealing the concern authority to solve the problem on sustainable
ground. This petition is submitted to related officials.
(ii) Persuasion: After submission of petition to the concerned authority when
no response is received from an individual, then persuasion strategy is used.
In persuasion, efforts are made to influence the individual to change their
outlook by providing them needed information. This also involves the
adoption of set of actions/procedures to bring about change by arguing,
giving reasoning, urging and inducing others to accept a viewpoint and resolve
the issues/problems.
(iii) Bargaining: Bargaining is a process of discussion and negotiation between
two parties. The resulting bargain is an undertaking as to terms and conditions
under a continuing service that is to be performed.
(iv) Negotiation: In negotiation, communication linkage is established between
two or more than two groups having disagreement on a particular issue/
problem. The communication linkages are established so that the concerned
groups are able to list out their difficulties, understand each other’s viewpoints,
and come out with mutual decisions. The community organizer may act as
negotiator if it is acceptable to all the concerned parties. Besides it, he
facilitates such development so that the rival groups can come on the same
platform to work out their differences.
(v) Lobbying and advocacy: Lobbying is a technique of influencing the
legislation and creating legislative opinion favourable to the group or interest
on behalf of which the lobby operates. Instead of attempting to influence
legislation directly, the lobbyist may use the technique of ‘pressure group’
lobbing; wherein the pressure group seeks to create an appearance of broad
public support for its objectives. This appearance may be genuine or artificial.
Anyhow, the aim is to influence the legislative policy.
Advocacy involves pleading and fighting for the service of the clients, whom
the service system otherwise rejects. It requires seeking different
interpretations or exceptions to rules and regulations, to clients’ rights to
services and undertaking aware above the blockages to clients in receiving
or using an agency’s services. In advocacy, the worker speaks on behalf of

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Strategies of Social Action client. Before engaging in advocacy, a worker must first be sure that the
client(s) desire(s) the worker to intervene in this manner. The client should
clearly understand the risks involved and be motivated to use the service(s)
if it is obtained. Secondly, the worker must carefully assess the risks involved
NOTES for the client if advocacy is used.
(vi) Conflictual/Confrontational strategies: The basic hypothesis, on which
the conflictual and confrontational strategy is practised, is that those who
are in favour of status quo, and those who are in favour of change, fight with
each other. Hence, the dynamics of conflict is inevitable in the process of
community organization and action initiative. This may invite agitational
techniques like protest, demonstration and civil disobedience or direct action,
etc. However, it must be remembered that it is easier to mobilize people
through protests and demonstration than civil disobedience or direct action,
etc.
Samvardhan
Samvardhan or SD can be implemented effectively by involving a cadre of
community entrepreneurs, focusing on drinking water, natural resource efficiency,
animal husbandry practices, income generation opportunities, and access to, and
effectiveness of, primary education. A large number of young people can join
together and take an initiative of rural renovation or something to contribute from
their side for SD. Facilitating SD initially can happen through fostering education
to everybody including the adults. On the other hand, education cannot be
functioned separately.
It is very essential to understand the other problems that a community faces,
and then the education can be linked to it and improved in a better way. In this
way, education can lead to the achievement of sustainable development. Education
programmes and policies should be updated so that it plays the job of enforcing
the ability and the potential in all the members of the community to construct a
sustainable future.

Case Study 1: Building Cadres for Sustainable Development

Asia Good Practice:
ESD Practice Project
Background
Natural resources are the most important accessible livelihood resource for the
rural population. Since the rural communities live with and are most directly
affected by nature, it is only prudent to think that for the success of any
development effort in the rural areas, their direct involvement in the
implementation process is essential. This has been widely realized today, paving
the way for large-scale adoption of ‘participatory’ approach in development
projects.

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 However, the participatory approach, though most desirable, may neither be Strategies of Social Action
efficient nor effective if the local people (participants) are not adequately and
appropriately equipped with the skill and knowledge needed to partner and
manage such an initiative (by the government or NGOs). In such a scenario, the
initiative may be no more than a spoon-feeding exercise—futile in essence—
failing to have any worthwhile impact on the lives of the stakeholders/target NOTES
beneficiaries.
Cadre Building
Recognizing the immense significance of capacity building (through education
and training) in bringing about sustainable development (SD), the samvardhan
(meaning ‘nurturing’) initiative builds a cadre of sensitive and competent rural
development workers, called the Community Entrepreneurs (CEs), and goes a
step further in modeling its unique education and communication approach, to
make the CEs the agents of change—actually implementing the project’s
developmental activities infused with sustainability dimensions. Gradual, but
eventual, transfer of understanding and skills to the people—who themselves
are the other important and accessible livelihood resource—is in-built in the
implementation design of the project.
The project endeavours to operationalize SD in locale specific realities by bringing
environmental understanding to the stakeholders, and introducing the concept
of Sustainable Natural Resource Management (SNRM) at the grass-roots level.
It aims at improving the quality of life of the tribal communities in the southern
belts of Gujarat, through the trained human resource (CEs), focusing on safe
drinking water, natural resource productivity, animal husbandry practices, income
generation opportunities, and access and effectiveness of primary education.
Substantial effort is made by the project to empower village level self-governance
towards SD, regardless of the project’s existence.
Samvardhan, therefore, envisages effecting a change in the awareness, the
attitudes and the understanding of village communities that ultimately reflects
in the behaviour, leading to sustainable living. It does this by nurturing the
people through education and training (thereby building human and social
capital), rather than solely through external inputs which, in the long-run, remain
piecemeal.
Source: http://www.agepp.net/files/agepp_india4_samvardhan_fullversion_
en.pdf

Cadre development
The growth of the rural cadre is very important and vital in a neo-liberal strategy
ambiance. This is very much obvious in the situation where the principal service
provider is the government and its task in the developing countries start to increase
converging in different countries. Nowadays, services that provide education health,
shelters etc., and are actually taken up more by the private organizations and the
efforts of the government seem very little at times. In such settings, the young
people can play a very important role. They can influence a very strong alertness
among the public and stir them and make them aware of their rights and the service
that the government should be providing for them. Cadre development can also

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Strategies of Social Action work as a moderator that will need people to help in the regions were operations
are held to reach and fulfil their needs. It is accepted by everyone that the efficacy
of knowledge can be improved by passing on knowledge that is more efficient
and creative. In this situation, people who take care of education by supporting it
NOTES with a well-planned and equipped way to convey knowledge with effectiveness.
They must understand the links between environment and development, lives and
livelihoods, and the reality that the underprivileged are the most susceptible and
helpless to environmental dilapidation. People who impart knowledge should
research the basic history of the problem and bring up a plan that can impact well
in the future other than just concentrating on the tangential features.
Networking
It is one of the social work strategies which is put into practice to bring various
diverse social structures together for achieving an end which is common or a goal
which is shared. Networking involves establishing coordinated and collaborative
relationships in order to access the resources of other persons and social systems.
Social workers network human service organizations and other social structures
like business and industry and influential community leaders. Networking promotes
collaboration in identifying service gaps and barriers and encourages inter-agency
planning to address unmet service delivery needs.
Although the problem of unionizing/organizing the poor is complicated, there
are examples where the poor have organized themselves on the basis of common
economic interests, and thereby developing a counterweight that offsets their
lingering import once in local government or by formation of restrictive organizations
based on interest groups, small farmers, cooperatives, landless workers, unions,
association of women organization, rural youth brigades or through organization
of political disadvantaged for direct political action.
Networking is aimed at reinforcing capacity and avoiding fragmentation of
efforts by fostering collaboration, sharing of resources (human, technical,
institutional), as well as the creation of a culture of discussion and communication
among all affected parties. It requires cooperative mechanisms among education
and training institutions, the public and private sector, as and when required. This
has been discussed further in unit 14.
Check Your Progress
1. Define the process of bargaining.
2. How does the technique of lobbying help?
3. State the aim of networking.

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 Strategies of Social Action
12.3 PREPARATION OF CAREFUL ANALYSIS OF
PENDING LEGISLATIONS

The basic function of Parliament is to make laws. All legislative proposals have to NOTES
be brought in the form of Bills before Parliament. A Bill is a statute in draft and
cannot become law unless it has received the approval of both the Houses of
Parliament and the assent of the President of India.
The process of law making begins with the introduction of a Bill in either
House of Parliament. A Bill can be introduced either by a Minister or a member
other than a Minister. In the former case, it is called a Government Bill and in the
latter case, it is known as a Private Member’s Bill.
A Bill undergoes three readings in each House, that is the Lok Sabha and
the Rajya Sabha, before it is submitted to the President for assent.
First Reading
The First Reading refers:
(a) To motion for leave to introduce a Bill in the House on the adoption of
which the Bill is introduced
(b) In the case of a Bill originated in and passed by the other House, the laying
on the Table of the House of the Bill, as passed by the other House.
Second Reading
The Second Reading consists of two stages, First stage and second stage.
First Stage: It constitutes discussion on the principles of the Bill and its provisions
generally on any of the following motions that the Bill be taken into consideration
or that the Bill be referred to a Select Committee of the House or that the Bill be
referred to a Joint Committee of the Houses with the concurrence of the other
House or that the Bill be circulated for the purpose of eliciting opinion thereon.
Second Stage: It constitutes the clause by clause consideration of the Bill, as
introduced in the House or as reported by a Select or Joint Committee, as the
case may be.
In the case of a Bill passed by Rajya Sabha and transmitted to Lok Sabha,
it is first laid on the Table of Lok Sabha by the Secretary-General, Lok Sabha. In
this case the Second Reading refers to the motion that the Bill as passed by Rajya
Sabha, be taken into consideration or the Bill be referred to a Selecting Committee.
Third Reading
The Third Reading refers to the discussion on the motion that the Bill or the Bill, as
amended, be passed.

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Strategies of Social Action Almost similar procedure is followed in Rajya Sabha in respect of Bills
introduced in that House.
After a Bill has been finally passed by the Houses of Parliament, it is submitted
to the President for his assent. After a Bill has received the assent of the President,
NOTES
it becomes the law or Act.
12.3.1 Procedure of Pending Legislation
 A bill pending in other house for more than 6 months is deemed to be
rejected but it does not mean that a bill gets lapsed. The bill which gets
lapsed due to dissolution of the Lok Sabha, gets lapsed and in such case no
joint sitting is called.
 In the joint sitting, the disputed provisions are either fully accepted or fully
rejected. For this, a simple majority is required.
 A bill that is passed by both the houses of the parliament goes to the speaker.
The speaker signs it and then the bill is sent to the president of assent. This
is the last stage of a bill. If the president gives assent to the bill, it becomes
a Law. Once it is a law, it gets entered into the statue book and published in
Gazette.
However, the President may take the following more courses of actions:
 The president returns the bill to the house. If the president returns the bill,
the whole procedure is opened again and it will take the same steps as
mentioned above.
 The president withholds assent, this would mark the end of the bill.
Restriction of certain categories of Bills in Rajya Sabha
A Bill may be introduced in either House of Parliament. However, a Money Bill
cannot be introduced in Rajya Sabha. It can only be introduced in Lok Sabha
with prior recommendation of the President for introduction in Lok Sabha. If any
question arises whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker
thereon is final.
Rajya Sabha is required to return a Money Bill passed and transmitted by
Lok Sabha within a period of 14 days from the date of its receipt. Rajya Sabha
may return a Money Bill transmitted to it with or without recommendations. It is
open to Lok Sabha to accept or reject all or any of the recommendations of Rajya
Sabha.
However, if Rajya Sabha does not return a Money Bill within the prescribed
period of 14 days, the Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of
Parliament at the expiry of the said period of 14 days in the form in which it was
passed by Lok Sabha.

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Analysis of Policy and Legislation Strategies of Social Action

Policy and legislative analyses can include the independent review and analysis of
proposed legislation, the implementation of existing policies, and general policy
questions. For proposed legislation, these reviews can assess the fiscal impact to NOTES
jurisdictions, analyse the comprehensive proposal behind the legislation, and provide
sensible recommendations for improvement. The analysis of implemented policies
can evaluate the implementation of ordinances, laws, and regulations for efficiency
and effectiveness.
Policy and legislative analyses may include:
 Fiscal analysis of proposed legislation or contracts and review of related
financing plans and debt management.
 Comprehensive evaluation of prospective revenue and expenditures
associated with proposed legislation.
 Analysis of general policy questions or ideas, including limited surveys
or benchmarking if appropriate.
 Analysis of implemented policies, including limited benchmarking if
appropriate.
The benefits of policy and legislative analyses include:
 Verification of the appropriateness of the expenditure levels associated
with proposed legislation.
 Confirmation of the thoroughness of the proposed legislation and
recommendations for improving efficiency and effectiveness.
 Assessment of a project’s financial position before committing funds.
 An understanding of the efficiency and effectiveness of existing policies
with recommendations for improvements.
A policy statement is an organization-level document that prescribes
acceptable methods or behaviours. Essentially, a policy is simply the way things
are done within an organization. Policies are different from procedures and standard
operating procedures because they are applicable to an entire organization and
are primarily intended to set direction. Procedures and standard operating
procedures, on the other hand, typically include very specific instructions used to
accomplish defined tasks.
Check Your Progress
4. How does the process of lawmaking begin?
5. State two benefits of policy and legislative analysis.

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Strategies of Social Action
12.4 INDIVIDUAL CONSULTATION WITH KEY
LEGISLATORS ON THE IMPLICATION OF
PENDING MEASURES
NOTES
In order to achieve a legislative advocacy goal, advocates must influence legislators
or members of parliament, government officials and other policy makers. Advocates
should also reach out to their constituents and allies to ask them to influence policy
and decision-makers. First, advocates should identify decision-makers who are
sympathetic to the views and issues, and who are willing to work collaboratively.
These individuals will be able to assist advocates to widen the network of supporters
by recommending others to call, visit and write.
Next, advocates should also identify and interact with officials whose views
vary from the views of the supporters. These individuals will be able to voice the
arguments that are likely to be raised in opposition to the advocacy goal. Even if
these individuals cannot wholeheartedly support the entire effort, they may be
persuaded to support a part of the effort or a single objective in the larger goal.
Whether advocates meet, call or write to those who support or oppose the
advocacy goal advocates should be respectful and always remember the importance
of long-term relationships. This includes being courteous and respectful of the
staff of parliamentarians, government officials and policy makers. Staff have a
great deal of influence and ability to persuade policy makers.
12.4.1 Persuasion of Influential Organization to Support or Oppose
Pending Legislation
Let us analyse the different methods of persuasion.
Individual meetings or briefings: A briefing is designed to present facts and
analysis of proposed legislation to a group of parliamentarians and their staff whereas
an individual meeting literally occurs with a single parliamentarian and possibly
their staff.
In planning individual meetings, advocates should:
 Consider the most appropriate time to hold the meeting or briefing based
on the schedules of the legislature and whether they are in session or
not;
 Research where individual meetings and briefings are typically held in
the legislative office building or at the offices of an NGO – and consider
the most appropriate location based on the message you want to convey;
 Determine what information will be highlighted in the meeting, the purpose
of the meeting and the outcomes that are expected; and
 Send advance information position paper, talking points, bill summary,
etc. but keep the information to a manageable length.
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 In planning briefings, advocates should: Strategies of Social Action

 Make sure to invite the other NGOs and government officials well in
advance at least 5 to 6 weeks and send a ‘Save the Date’ message with
the official invitation 3 to 4 weeks in advance of the briefing.
NOTES
 Make personal invitations to the meeting or briefing as appropriate and
include the legislator’s staff to attend.
 Research the position of the legislator or policy maker in advance of the
meeting and anticipate questions and concerns.
 Develop and practice a concise and understandable three minute
message.
 If more than one individual attends the meeting, meet in advance of the
meeting to determine the roles each person will play (substantive expert,
person providing testimonial, constituent) and at the meeting, introduce
each person and their role.
 If multiple individuals or NGOs participate in the meeting or briefing,
make sure to settle internal disputes privately in advance.
 Make arrangements for the meeting or briefing, including arranging for
an appropriate meeting space, reserving audio-visual equipment,
requesting needed seating, tables, podiums and flip-charts or other inputs
as appropriate.
 Listen to the legislator or policy maker and address concerns and
questions.
 If you do not have information requested, send any information you
offered to send later.
 Follow-up on the meeting with a letter of thanks.
 Keep in touch with supportive individuals.
Letters and Telephone Calls
These methods can also be effective tools for influencing legislators and policy
makers. Advocates should keep the following suggestions in mind.
Letters should:
 Clearly state the issue and objective;
 Explain why the legislator or policy maker should support the position;
 Acknowledge the individual’s ability to influence the issue;
 Tell the legislator or policy maker how to support the position and how
they will benefit from doing so;
 Address potential concerns;
 Be concise;
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Strategies of Social Action  Use the individual’s correct title; and
 Be respectful.
In telephone calls, advocates should:
NOTES
 Outline the issues that will be covered and place the priorities at the top
of the list;
 Capture the legislator’s or policy maker’s attention within the first 30
seconds;
 Be polite;
 Summarize any outcome of the conversation in a letter; and
 Thank the individuals for their time.
In addition to individual meetings, letters, and telephone calls; advocates
will likely have the opportunity to engage in more public discussion about the
issues. Advocates must carefully prepare for such opportunities as much or more
than for the private meetings and calls. The public debate may take the form of a
legislative hearing or perhaps a less formal discussion or forum.
Public Hearings
Public hearings are a more formal way of working with the legislature or parliament.
The advantage of public hearings is that it is a way for advocates to have a substantive
discussion with those who have power and jurisdiction to address the issue at
hand at the parliament and during the parliamentary session. The disadvantage of
the public hearing is that typically, public hearings are subject to parliamentary
procedure, which may limit or otherwise encumber advocates who wish to
participate.
Public Discussion
Another way to engage public debate is through a public discussion, which is
more informal than a public hearing, but still subject to the rules of procedure.
Advocates may benefit from a public discussion of the issue at hand because
more people have the opportunity to participate when a discussion is held outside
the parliament. The disadvantage of the public discussion is that while civil society
experts on the issue may be present, not all members of parliament or the desired
policy makers will participate.
Public Forum
A final way to engage in public debate is by organizing a public forum. The public
forum is organized by the NGO leading the advocacy effort. The NGO may invite
those it wants to participate, hold the forum in a neutral location, and select those
it wishes to make presentations to those attending. The disadvantage is that

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members of parliament need not participate and if they do, the impact on policy Strategies of Social Action

may be minimal because the forum is held outside of the official dialogue.

12.5 CREATION OF AD HOC CITIZENS NOTES

COMMITTEE

This committee is formed for a specific task or objective, and dissolved after the
completion of the task or achievement of the objective. Most committees (other
than the standing committees) are of ad hoc type. This ad hoc citizens committee
is composed of people of great influence or prestige.
The success of the school system depends, to a large extent, on open channels
of communication between the school community and the community at large.
Citizen’s advisory committees are particularly useful in this respect, both in keeping
the Board and Administration informed with regard to community opinion and in
representing the community in the study of specific school problems.
The Board of Education may at any time select a committee of citizens of
the school district to serve as a study group to investigate certain issues. In creating
a new ad hoc advisory committee, the Board shall:
 Advertise in suitable local media its intention to establish a citizen’s ad
hoc committee.
 Specify the method of selecting members to the committee after it is
determined to form an ad hoc advisory committee and the length of time
each member is being asked to serve.
 Approve or disprove the appointment of citizens from those nominated
by the Superintendent or any Board Member; appoint such other
members as may be deemed appropriate.
 Appoint the Board President and the Superintendent or their designs as
ex-officio members of all advisory committees.
 Define the committee assignment in writing in terms of specific topics for
study or well-defined areas of activity.
 Set a date for a preliminary and final report each ad hoc committee shall
select its own chairperson.
Upon completing its assignment, each ad hoc committee shall be dissolved
promptly.
Social action is a secondary method of professional social work. It is used
for mobilizing masses in order to bring about structural changes into the social
system or to prevent negative changes. Certain social problem are like ecological
balancing, bonded labour, child labour, women empowerment, substance abuse,
etc. that can be tackle through the social action.

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Strategies of Social Action The primary objectives or strategy of the social action is to bring about
solution of the mass problem, improve mass conditions and redistribute power
and resources (human, material and moral).

NOTES Check Your Progress

6. State the disadvantage of public forum.
7. What are public hearings? State one advantage.

12.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Bargaining is a process of discussion and negotiation between two parties.

The resulting bargain is an undertaking as to terms and conditions under a
continuing service that is to be performed.
2. Lobbying is a technique of influencing the legislation and creating legislative
opinion favourable to the group or interest on behalf of which the lobby
operates.
3. Networking is aimed at reinforcing capacity and avoiding fragmentation of
efforts by fostering collaboration, sharing of resources (human, technical,
institutional), as well as the creation of a culture of discussion and
communication among all affected parties.
4. The process of law making begins with the introduction of a Bill in either
House of Parliament. A Bill can be introduced either by a Minister or a
member other than a Minister.
5. Two benefits of policy and legislative analysis are:
 Verification of the appropriateness of the expenditure levels associated
with proposed legislation.
 Confirmation of the thoroughness of the proposed legislation and
recommendations for improving efficiency and effectiveness.
6. The disadvantage is that members of parliament need not participate and if
they do, the impact on policy may be minimal because the forum is held
outside of the official dialogue.
7. Public hearings are a more formal way of working with the legislature or
parliament. The advantage of public hearings is that it is a way for advocates
to have a substantive discussion with those who have power and jurisdiction
to address the issue at hand at the parliament and during the parliamentary
session.

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 Strategies of Social Action
12.7 SUMMARY

 The basic function of Parliament is to make laws. All legislative proposals

have to be brought in the form of Bills before Parliament. A Bill is a statute NOTES
in draft and cannot become law unless it has received the approval of both
the Houses of Parliament and the assent of the President of India.
 The process of law making begins with the introduction of a Bill in either
House of Parliament. A Bill can be introduced either by a Minister or a
member other than a Minister. In the former case, it is called a Government
Bill and in the latter case, it is known as a Private Member’s Bill.
 In order to achieve a legislative advocacy goal, advocates must influence
legislators or members of parliament, government officials and other policy
makers. Advocates should also reach out to their constituents and allies to
ask them to influence policy and decision-makers.
 A briefing is designed to present facts and analysis of proposed legislation
to a group of parliamentarians and their staff whereas an individual meeting
literally occurs with a single parliamentarian and possibly their staff.
 Public hearings are a more formal way of working with the legislature or
parliament. The advantage of public hearings is that it is a way for advocates
to have a substantive discussion with those who have power and jurisdiction
to address the issue at hand at the parliament and during the parliamentary
session.
 Ad hoc citizens committee is formed for a specific task or objective, and
dissolved after the completion of the task or achievement of the objective.
Most committees (other than the standing committees) are of ad hoc type.
This ad hoc citizens committee is composed of people of great influence or
prestige.

12.8 KEY WORDS

 Lobbying: The act of attempting to influence business and government

leaders to create legislation or conduct an activity that will help a particular
organization. People who do lobbying are called lobbyists.
 Commissions: These are formal, standing Committees with structure, duties,
and powers established by ordinance. A commission often has an
administrative or functional responsibility, such as performing a review of
economic development or preparing a land use plan.

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Strategies of Social Action
12.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

NOTES Short-Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on the Samvardhan programme.
2. State the benefits of policy and legislative analysis.
3. Comment on the creation of adhoc citizen’s committee.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the strategies that can be used to deal with authorities.
2. Analyse the procedure for pending legislations.
3. How is individual consultation with key legislators on the implication of
pending measures achieved? Discuss.

12.10 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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 Radical Social Work
BLOCK - V
RADICAL SOCIAL WORK AND APPLICATIONS OF
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
NOTES

UNIT 13 RADICAL SOCIAL WORK

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning of Radical Social Work
13.2.1 Techniques of Radical Social Work
13.3 Role of Radical Social Workers
13.3.1 Paulo Freire
13.3.2 Role of Saul Alinsky
13.3.3 Marx
13.3.4 Gandhi
13.3.5 Jayaprakash Narayan
13.3.6 Vinoba Bhave
13.7 Community Organization as a Para Political Process
13.7.1 Role of Social Worker in Community Organization and Social Action
13.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.9 Summary
13.10 Key Words
13.11 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.12 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

Radical social work is a theory that reminds its readers that meaningful practice
should always incorporate elements of political action. Social workers need to
appreciate the public causes of private pain and misery.
Despite many deviations and misinterpretations of the term, a radical concept
historically refers to a political theory and practice that aims to understand the root
causes of social problems. While appreciation of these causes and alleviation of
their detrimental effects on people’s lives are important dimensions of radical social
work, what really differentiates it from mainstream approaches is its emphasis on
action that aims at social change.

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Radical Social Work
13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Explain the meaning of radical social work
 Describe the techniques of radical social work
 Analyse the role of Paulo Freire, Saul Alinsky and Marx in social work
theory
 Discuss the thoughts of Gandhi, Narayan and Bhave as radical social
workers
 Understand community organization as a para-political process

13.2 MEANING OF RADICAL SOCIAL WORK

From the 1970s, radical social work or the ‘old’ radical social work approach
focused mainly on Marxist social theories. It criticized the capitalist system and
traditional social work and launched a call for changes that enabled social work to
change capitalist society and favour the working class.
It is a difficult task to define social work. However, it may be said that
generally, ‘social work’ refers to any activity that is undertaken for alleviating the
hardships that people may face in maintaining a basic economic and social standard
in their lives. It was only in the 20th century that the idea of social work as a career
or a job took root. Even though social work as a profession has only been recognized
in the latter half of the 20th century, the idea has been there since the time the man
realized that he was a social being and that it was his responsibility to lend support
to his fellow beings as and when needed. This activity has several labels, one of
them being ‘charity’ or ‘relief for the poor’. The call of duty for these good samaritans
was at its peak in the aftermath of the two World Wars and the Great Depression,
which caused untold suffering to millions of people all over the globe. It was in this
backdrop that social work came to be identified as a profession. In this it was
assisted by recognized schools, literature, and membership organizations that trained
such workers. Every country has a different outlook towards social work. In
some, it is referred to as almsgiving and in others as voluntary service.
The benefits of social work are twofold: (i) a destitute or an underprivileged
individual is provided with some basic needs, and (ii) the religious or other
obligations of the person performing the social work are met. From an individually
oriented activity, social work has moved into the arena of organized government
or non-government activity. This has happened in many countries over the years.
It was increasingly felt that the requirement was not only to alleviate poverty but
also to identify and remove the reasons that were causing it. This required
institutionalized efforts of volunteers not only with kind hearts but also with trained
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minds. In effect, it meant that those who were providing such a service needed to Radical Social Work

be given some training can how to go about it.

13.2.1 Techniques of Radical Social Work
Let us study the different techniques of radical social work. NOTES

Marxist Perspective
The several social theories that talk about social conflict have roots in the ideas of
Karl Marx (1818-1883), the German theorist and political activist. The Marxist
approach stressed on a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical method of
analysis, a critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and a political
programme of revolution or, at least, reform.
The work that a person does most significantly influences his social life. This is
the basic premise of a materialist view of history. According to Marx, the way in
which work is socially organized and the technology that is used in production strongly
impacts society. He said that everything of value in society comes from human labour.
Thus, according to Marxian philosophy, men and women who are employed are
also making their own society, and creating the conditions for their own existence.
The key elements of this materialist view of history are as follows: ‘In the
social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations,
which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to
a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality
of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the
real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which
correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of
material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It
is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social
existence that determines their consciousness (Marx, 1971).
Marx’s Division of History
Marx divided history into several stages, conforming to broad patterns in the economic
structure of society. The most important stages for Marx’s argument were feudalism,
capitalism and socialism. The greater part of his writing is about applying the materialist
model of society to capitalism. This was the dominant stage of economic and social
development in the 19th century Europe. For Marx, the central institution of capitalist
society is private property. The main aspect of capitalist system is that capital (i.e.,
money, machines, tools, factories, and other material objects used in production) is
controlled by a small minority of the population.
This type of economic-social system creates two opposing classes—the
owners of capital (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat), whose only
property is their own labour time, which they have to sell to the capitalists. Owners
make profits by paying workers less than what their work is worth and, thus,
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Radical Social Work exploiting them. In Marxist terminology, ‘material forces of production’ or ‘means
of production’ include capital, land and labour; whereas ‘social relations of
production’ refer to the division of labour and implied class relationships.
According to Marx, economic exploitation leads to political oppression. It
NOTES
is a vicious system, wherein owners use their economic power to gain control of
the state and turn it into a tool of bourgeois economic interests. For example, they
can use the police force to enforce unfair property rights and make unfair contracts
between capitalists and workers.
Oppression can take subtle forms; like the religion can serve capitalist
interests by placating the masses, and intellectuals can be paid by the capitalists to
justify and rationalize the existing social and economic arrangements. Thus, the
economic structure of society lays the groundwork for the superstructure, including
ideas (e.g., morality, ideologies, art and literature) and the social institutions that
support the class structure of society (e.g., the state, the educational system, the
family, and religious institutions).
Since the social relations of production are controlled by the bourgeoisie,
the dominant ideology in capitalist society is that of the ruling class. Ideology and
social institutions reproduce and perpetuate the economic class structure. According
to Marx, the exploitative economic arrangements of capitalism were the foundation
upon which the superstructure of social, political and intellectual consciousness
was built. To reverse the system and make it more fair, Marx introduced the
method of dialectical analysis. According to this method, which is based on Hegel’s
idealistic dialectic, an existing social arrangement, or thesis, generates its social
opposite, or antithesis, and a qualitatively different social form, or synthesis, emerges
from the resulting struggle.
Marx believed that any exploitative economic arrangement was bound to
fail as it created conditions for its own destruction. For instance, feudalism gave
rise to a class of town-dwelling merchants, whose aim of making profits eventually
led to the bourgeois revolution and the modern capitalist era. Similarly, the class
relations of capitalism will lead to the next stage of socialism.
The class relations of capitalism carry an incongruity—capitalists need
workers, and vice versa, but the economic interests of the two are at odds. Such
contradictions mean conflict and instability, and lead to a class struggle. Added to
this is the capitalist system’s need for more markets and more investments in capital
so as to generate more profits for capitalists. The resulting economic cycles of
expansion and contraction, together with tensions within the working class as it
understands how it is being exploited (and thus attains class consciousness), leads
to a socialist revolution.
Even though this is expected to unfold logically, there is a need for social
criticism and political activity, which will expedite the coming of socialism. Since

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this system is not based on private property, it will not have as many contradictions Radical Social Work

and conflicts as capitalism. Marxists believe that social theory and political practice
are dialectically intertwined.
The role of intellectuals therefore is to engage in praxis, i.e., to combine
NOTES
political criticism with political activity. Theory should be critical since the prevailing
social relations are based on exploitation of the working class.
Feminist Perspective
Feminism as a theory and method has wide implications for social work. The
influence of feminist theory on social work has come to be known as feminist
social work (social work feminists). A feminist perspective can be seen in many
areas of social work such as counselling, group therapy, therapy organizations,
social policy analysis, and research in social work.
The three most recognized perspectives of feminism are: (i) liberal feminism,
(ii) radical feminism and (iii) socialist feminism. Each feminism paradigm has a
different perspective on the nature of injustice and oppression against women.
Each of these has its own set of approaches and strategies to eliminate gender
inequalities. Feminist theories have some similarities (Dominelli, 2002):
 To uphold women’s rights.
 To guarantee freedom from oppression.
 To give women the opportunity to speak for themselves.
 To hear the issues of women.
 To create an alternative lifestyle.
 To integrate theory with practice.
 To find a match between objectives and the ways to achieve them.
 To collate collective solutions those respect the individuality and
uniqueness of every woman.
 To appreciate the contributions of women.
 To use the experiences of women to explain social reality.
(i) Liberal Feminism
The theory of liberal feminism is based on the belief that women have not been
given equal rights, particularly because they have been defined as a group rather
than as individuals. There are several advocates of liberal feminism including John
Stuart Mill, Harriet Taylor, Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, Mary Church Terrel and
Fannie Barrier Williams (Saulnier, 2000). Liberal feminism does not demand
fundamental change in structure; instead it wants that women be considered an
equal part of the existing structure.

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Radical Social Work Core teachings
Education is the key to social change. Bringing up children and doing household
work are the traditional chores of women, which are seen as unskilled jobs. Liberal
NOTES feminism demands political equality between women and men by increasing female
representation in public spaces. Liberal feminists actively monitor elections and
support those men who fight for the interests of women. Today liberal feminism is
close to the model of egalitarian liberalism, and to welfare or the welfare state that
supports the system and meritocracy.
(ii) Radical Feminism
Professional social work aims to improve social functioning capacity of individuals,
groups and communities. In Marxism, a radical approach seeks to give a clear
direction to the client in obtaining services. Radical social workers are more
concerned with the professionalization of social work against the interests of clients
and professional development contrary to the interests of the client.
(iii) Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminism came about in the 1970s. According to Jaggar, this school is a
synthesis of historical materialist approach to Marxism and Engels and ‘the personal
is political’ of radical feminism. However, there are many who are critical of Marx
and Engels as they did not address the oppression and enslavement of women (Saulnier,
2000). Marx states, ‘the material or economic condition is the root of culture and
social organization’. According to him, the significance of human life is the result of
what they produce and how they produce it. Thus, all political and intellectual history
can be understood by knowing the ‘mode of economic production’ by the human
race. Marx argued, ‘that it is not consciousness determines life, but life determines
consciousness’. According to Engels, women and men have important roles in
maintaining the nuclear family. However, because women’s traditional tasks include
maintaining a home and food preparation, whereas the task of men is to search of
food, own and govern slaves, and possess the tools that are needed to implement
these tasks, men have accumulated greater wealth than women. Accumulation of
wealth is what causes male position in the family to become more important than that
of women and in turn encourages the men to exploit its position by taking control of
women and ensure a legacy for their children (Saulnier, 2000).
Core doctrine
Women were not included in the analysis of class, because it was believed that
women did not have a special relationship with the means of production. Therefore,
change in the means of production was a ‘necessary condition’, although not a
‘sufficient condition’, if the suppression of women was to end.
Capitalism reinforces sexism, because there is a difference between paid work
and household work and women were urged to do domestic work. Men’s access to
leisure time, personal services, and luxuries has raised their standard of living.
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Subaltern Perspective Radical Social Work

‘Subaltern’ denotes a person of inferior rank or position in a society; and this term
has been frequently used in post-colonial studies to refer to the colonized, those
who lack agency in society and access to social power. Under this heading are NOTES
included the perspectives of the marginalized classes who have been excluded
from different societies. The term ‘subaltern’ specifically denotes the oppressed
group of at the margins of a society who are struggling against oppression (today,
hegemonic globalization). Still, factors like the context, the time, and the place
exactly determine who, among these groups of people are at the margins of a
society, i.e., are subalterns. For example, in India, women, Dalits, rural people,
tribals, immigrant labourers are considered to form the subaltern group.
Subordination in its various forms has always been the central focus of the
subaltern studies. The last two decades of the 20th century witnessed the emergence
of diverse themes within the subaltern historiographical perspective. It has been
observed that the later volumes of the subaltern studies were dominated by the
desire to analyse the portrayal of subalternity by the dominant discourses. The
decade of the 1980s assumes a special significance due to the fact caste, gender,
and religion became important reference points in history writing, subaltern history
in particular understood the need to document the lives of all the oppressed people,
including peasants and workers, tribals and lower caste women and Dalits, whose
voices were always suppressed.
In India, the Dalit communities have over the years suffered the worst form
of exploitation and oppression under the Hindu caste system, i.e., the world’s
longest surviving hierarchy. In spite of the ongoing atrocities against them, Dalit
communities in today’s world are increasingly asserting themselves. The Church in
India predominantly comprises the Dalit communities. The Dalit communities
actively participated in the proclamation and practice of the gospel, imaging creative
modes of carrying the mission through, and set the agenda of the mission. In this
process, the missionaries, the native evangelists and the masses had to come to
terms with the position of ‘power’ of the missionaries and their own position of
‘powerlessness’.
In the interaction of these two positions, the Dalit communities in India
creatively navigated their quest for the reclamation of identity, self-worth and rights.
Ranajit Guha’s Elementary Aspects of Peasants Insurgency in Colonial
India is considered to be the most crucial work on subaltern history in India. By
returning to the 19th Century peasants’ insurrection in Colonial India, Guha offered
a fascinating account of the peasants’ insurgent consciousness, rumours, mystic
visions, religiosity and bonds of community. He attempted to uncover the true face
of peasants’ existence in colonial India.
Subaltern studies form a part of postcolonial theory in literature and its
application is very constructive in the study of certain texts (e.g., the Dalit Literature).
The subaltern approach being adopted not only for the development of the Dalits
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Radical Social Work and the tribals in India, but is also being applied to the issue of caste. There is also
an attempt to work in partnership to abolish discriminations in terms of power,
class, gender, culture, ethnicity, etc. The move also calls for recognizing and valuing
the potential of the Dalits and tribal groups, and women (generally the illiterate);
NOTES and to develop strategies to tackle the inequalities in the Indian society.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the theory of liberal feminism based on?
2. What were the most important stages of Marx’s argument of history?
3. What did radical social work criticize?

13.3 ROLE OF RADICAL SOCIAL WORKERS

Let us analyse the role of some radical social workers.

13.3.1 Paulo Freire
Paulo Freire is known for his contribution to the community through his radical
approach of social work. His famous book, Pedagogy of Oppressed (1968) is a
source of motivation and inspiration for social workers. Throughout his life Paulo
Freire worked for the poor and illiterate people to increase the political awareness.
He put emphasis on critical dialogue and raising of consciousness. Freire contributed
a lot in the field of education and culture during his tenure in Department of Education
and Culture of the Social Service in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco as Director.
He organized a literacy movement by planning for the establishment of cultural learning
circles. He had also contributed his services in Harvard University in 1969.
Paulo Freire was not in favour of traditional models of education which he
considered was making the learner totally dependent and simply the consumer of
knowledge from the teacher’s end. He explained this education system as the
banking system of the education where students are considered as the empty
accounts and teachers are supposed to fill by their knowledge. He emphasized
that this type of education system destroys the actual essence of relationship
between teacher and a student.
Freire critically stressed that education can never be considered as neutral
in nature. There are only two options for this; one is education as instrument for
change and second is education used for dominating the oppressed. According to
Freire, to form a new relationship between a teacher and student, change in the
curriculum or content is not required but it is the pedagogical approach which can
bring change in the mindset of people. Education should generate discussion among
the learners to make them aware of the surroundings.
Paulo Freire advocated majorly three levels of political awareness. One is
magical consciousness, second is naïve consciousness and third is critical
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consciousness. He mentioned that through education we can make students to move Radical Social Work

from magical consciousness to critical consciousness through dialogue and liberation.

Key points highlighted from the Paulo Freire’s work
 Social worker should treat every person with love and affection irrespective NOTES
of their social status. It is essential to develop trust among the people in the
society.
 Social worker should act as facilitator for bringing change and liberation.
Social worker should not be influenced from the outer aspects of people’s
personality but try to observe what is going on inside the mind.
 Social worker should provide opportunity to people to think creatively and
encourage people for active participation.
 The role of social worker to bring change in the society and in reshaping the
society is of a catalyst. She/he can provide opportunity to the people to
connect with the facts and problems persisting in their life as well as in the
society.
 For a critical dialogue, critical thinking, giving weightage to other’s point of
view and mutual trust is needed.
13.3.2 Role of Saul Alinsky
In 1945, Saul Alinsky, one of the founders of modern neighbourhood organizing,
reflected deeper into the different approaches of community organizing. According
to Alinsky, social change and community organization can be primarily both reformist
and revolutionary, or either of the two, depending on how fundamental the social
changes are, which are sought. According to him, the organizations with a reformist
stand primarily try hard to modify or reform the system; they make efforts to make
it the existing system fall in line with the requirements of the community members.
Whereas, the revolutionary organizations question core assumptions and propose
radically different alternatives to the existing system. For example, changing the
basic gender roles, or eradicating untouchability etc.
Saul Alinsky propounded two distinct approaches/traditions to organizing. These
are:
(i) Social mobilization tradition: In this approach, the core strategic goal is
to get community members to act together; to gain power through better
people’s participation. This is based on the assumption that such mass
mobilization will make those in power comply with the demands of the
community. In this tradition, emphasis is on the mobilizing effort i.e., contacting
people and encouraging them to become socially and politically active. Social
mobilization tradition encourages people to petition vigorously, protest, carry
out demonstrations, and not to fear direct action and confrontation. Social
mobilization efforts are in other words labelled as ‘campaigns’, for they
utilize collective power to create change. Moreover, the changes brought
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Radical Social Work about through the campaigns are sometimes less significant, than the strength
and unity that comes about through such mobilization i.e., empowerment of
the community members.
(ii) Social production tradition: In this approach, the strategic goal is to acquire
NOTES
services, material goods and resources for the community members in need.
The core emphasis is on achieving the outcome i.e., helping those in need
with the problems they face. In order to achieve the core goal of acquiring
goods/services for the target group/s or to attempt redistribution of resources/
benefits, the supporters of this tradition are more likely to work with those
in power. People are encouraged to learn to participate in the political system
and to manage relationships with agencies that provide services. The social
production initiatives are usually labelled as ‘projects’ for they are primarily
endeavours to create services that benefit those in need directly. It is to be
noted that Alinsky preferred the term ‘community organizing’ over
‘community organization’ and laid emphasis on power, pressure and high
profile public actions and interventions.
External and Internal Resources
To implement the proposed plan of action, requisite resources in the community
are to be assessed, identified and mobilized in the beginning. These resources may
be in the form of money, time, manpower and material. An estimate is made and
the sources are identified for mobilization. It is important to strike a balance between
internal and external resources. The community organizer must involve the
community in identifying the potential sources (internal and external) from which
to obtain resources.
The internal resources of the community are of primary importance and so
they have to be tapped. The community can provide resources in the form of
space, materials, money/service charges, manpower (volunteers and advisors).
However, where necessary, drawing upon resources from outside the community
also becomes important.
External resources may be in the form of funding, expert advice, technical
assistance etc. What is required in dealing with most community issues/problems
is an awareness in the community about ‘what we can do for development’ and
‘when and where the external aid is required’. To attempt to deal with the problems
for which local resources are inadequate may simply cause frustration and a sense
of failure in the community members in the long run. At the same time, too much
reliance on external resources often leads to over dependency on outside help.
Communities just like individuals seldom use their own resources to the full.
In communities, where the process of community organization is initiated and
continued, people are often surprised when they tap their ‘self-sufficient’ resources
and capacities to carry out the community initiatives.

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Directive vs non-directive modes of community organization Radical Social Work

In a directive mode of community organization, the planning is initiated by the

planner, the formulated planning system, and other professionals, from the initiation
phase to the final phase of the process. On the other hand, in the non-directive NOTES
mode of community organization, the planner serves the role of a counsellor and a
friend in need in a planning process in which the community members are enabled
to make decisions, plan, and carry out the social project on their own. The
assumption is that the more people do for themselves, with the assistance of
professionals, the greater will be their chances of achieving a solution to social
problems that is more suitable to their needs and their lifestyle (Mullender and
Ward, 1990).
To examine the extent to which these two modes are applicable in real-life
situations, a community organizer can ask the DARE questions:
• Who determines the planning goals?
• Who Acts in order to achieve the planning goals?
• Who Receives benefits from the planning activity?
• And who evaluates the activity?
The more the community and its members determine the goals, act to achieve
them, enjoy the outcomes of the planning and evaluate to what extent the action
was worthwhile, the more they direct themselves rather than being directed by
others (Rubin and Rubin, 1992). The degree to which the professional intervention
is directed has a further meaning.
It needs to be kept in mind that directive community planning relates to the
community as an object of the planning—a planned community; whereas, non-
directive community planning sees the community as a subject—the planning
community. From a community’s viewpoint, the important question is not
professional or technical but rather a question of control. Thus, when we change
our viewpoint, and shift from the professionals to the local people, the important
questions change into political questions from professional ones (Marris, 1987).
The non-directive mode of community organization leads to transition from existing
social system to a new social system promoting common welfare. In this process,
people who are objects remain silent; whereas, and their interpretation of real-life
situations is not taken into account. People who are subjects are very much aware
of their issues/problems. This is why they actively participate in community
programmes after making a subjective interpretation of their situations.
13.3.3 Marx
The several social theories that talk about social conflict have roots in the ideas of
Karl Marx (1818-1883), the German theorist and political activist. The Marxist
approach stressed on a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical method of

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Radical Social Work analysis, a critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and a political
programme of revolution or, at least, reform.
The work that a person does most significantly influences his social life. This is
the basic premise of a materialist view of history. According to Marx, the way in
NOTES
which work is socially organized and the technology that is used in production strongly
impacts society. He said that everything of value in society comes from human labour.
Thus, according to Marxian philosophy, men and women who are employed are
also making their own society, and creating the conditions for their own existence.
The key elements of this materialist view of history are as follows: ‘In the
social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations,
which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to
a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality
of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the
real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which
correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of
material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It
is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social
existence that determines their consciousness (Marx, 1971).
Marx’s Division of History
Marx divided history into several stages, conforming to broad patterns in the economic
structure of society. The most important stages for Marx’s argument were feudalism,
capitalism and socialism. The greater part of his writing is about applying the materialist
model of society to capitalism. This was the dominant stage of economic and social
development in the 19th century Europe. For Marx, the central institution of capitalist
society is private property. The main aspect of capitalist system is that capital (i.e.,
money, machines, tools, factories, and other material objects used in production) is
controlled by a small minority of the population.
This type of economic-social system creates two opposing classes—the
owners of capital (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat), whose only property
is their own labour time, which they have to sell to the capitalists. Owners make
profits by paying workers less than what their work is worth and, thus, exploiting
them. In Marxist terminology, ‘material forces of production’ or ‘means of
production’ include capital, land and labour; whereas ‘social relations of production’
refer to the division of labour and implied class relationships.
According to Marx, economic exploitation leads to political oppression. It
is a vicious system, wherein owners use their economic power to gain control of
the state and turn it into a tool of bourgeois economic interests. For example, they
can use the police force to enforce unfair property rights and make unfair contracts
between capitalists and workers.
Oppression can take subtle forms; like the religion can serve capitalist
interests by placating the masses, and intellectuals can be paid by the capitalists to
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244 Material
economic structure of society lays the groundwork for the superstructure, including Radical Social Work

ideas (e.g., morality, ideologies, art and literature) and the social institutions that
support the class structure of society (e.g., the state, the educational system, the
family, and religious institutions).
NOTES
Since the social relations of production are controlled by the bourgeoisie,
the dominant ideology in capitalist society is that of the ruling class. Ideology and
social institutions reproduce and perpetuate the economic class structure. According
to Marx, the exploitative economic arrangements of capitalism were the foundation
upon which the superstructure of social, political and intellectual consciousness
was built. To reverse the system and make it more fair, Marx introduced the method
of dialectical analysis. According to this method, which is based on Hegel’s idealistic
dialectic, an existing social arrangement, or thesis, generates its social opposite, or
antithesis, and a qualitatively different social form, or synthesis, emerges from the
resulting struggle.
Marx believed that any exploitative economic arrangement was bound to
fail as it created conditions for its own destruction. For instance, feudalism gave
rise to a class of town-dwelling merchants, whose aim of making profits eventually
led to the bourgeois revolution and the modern capitalist era. Similarly, the class
relations of capitalism will lead to the next stage of socialism.
The class relations of capitalism carry an incongruity—capitalists need workers,
and vice versa, but the economic interests of the two are at odds. Such contradictions
mean conflict and instability, and lead to a class struggle. Added to this is the capitalist
system’s need for more markets and more investments in capital so as to generate
more profits for capitalists. The resulting economic cycles of expansion and
contraction, together with tensions within the working class as it understands how it
is being exploited (and thus attains class consciousness), leads to a socialist revolution.
Even though this is expected to unfold logically, there is a need for social
criticism and political activity, which will expedite the coming of socialism. Since
this system is not based on private property, it will not have as many contradictions
and conflicts as capitalism. Marxists believe that social theory and political practice
are dialectically intertwined.
The role of intellectuals therefore is to engage in praxis, i.e., to combine
political criticism with political activity. Theory should be critical since the prevailing
social relations are based on exploitation of the working class.
13.3.4 Gandhi
Gandhi believed in service to others and the pursuit of social justice. These two
ideas match theory and practice of social work. He tried to integrate social service
with social action, wherein he combined both micro and macro interventions. This
is also the aim of social work. Gandhi opposed the Western model of Utilitarianism,
which focused on the greatest good for the greatest number in society. On the
other hand, Gandhi stressed on social justice as fairness to the individual, while
giving precedence to the disadvantaged people. Self-Instructional
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Radical Social Work Gandhi wanted that unjust rules, laws and institutions should be reformed
or abolished. Towards this end, he went to South Africa and made it his mission to
abolish apartheid against Indians. He returned to India and this time Gandhi worked
tirelessly to provide political independence to India. He condemned colonialist-
NOTES influenced industrial capitalism in his ethical response to economic materialism.
When he argued for swaraj or self-rule, he wanted that India should return to her
‘spiritual’ traditions. This reflects the dichotomy that exists between the spiritualism
of East and the materialism of West. The profession of social work is studying the
use of spirituality in its practice. Here Gandhi’s thoughts become relevant. Gandhi’s
ethical system developed out of his lifelong ‘Experiments with Truth’ (Gandhi,
1993). These investigations were on non-Western culture. There have been
innumerable developments since Gandhi, such as advancements in technology
and spread of capitalism. Yet what Gandhi criticized in the industrial age has hardly
disappeared from today’s world (Walz and Canda, 1988). In fact many scholars
believe that the economic developments that are taking place globally are
neocolonial and that violence and terrorism are part of the redeployment of power
from the political to the economic sector. Environmental degradation too is inter-
connected with the economic development. From this perspective, a review of
Gandhian thought is relevant to today’s profession of social work. Gandhian
principles are based on his beliefs such as cooperation over competition,
interdependence over individualism, compassion over self-interest, and social justice
over individual achievement. The cornerstone of Gandhian ethics is service to
others (sarvodaya) and justice for all (satyagraha). Gandhi’s thought on social
development rests on truth, love, harmony, and service to others.
He believed that all life was interdependent and should be harmonious. Gandhi
urged the people to avoid being competitive. Conflict to him was an aberration;
non-violence and cooperation were norms for the universe. People were only an
aspect of the universe and not its focus. He preferred that we think of the world in
holistic terms, with no centre or boundaries. Gandhian ethics changes the Christian
adage from ‘do unto others as you would have them do unto you’ to ‘what you do
to others, you also do to yourself’ (Weber, 1991). According to Gandhi, himsa or
violence against another is himsa against oneself, because the self and all sentient
beings are one. Social work should not be limited to the human social environment
but should include broader environmental issues as well. Whereas Germain (1991)
went along with this ecological perspective on social work, Gandhian thought extended
to include the well-being of the planet, and sustainable and just lifestyles. Social
work should not only concern itself with alleviating poverty but should also attack
trivial and reckless consumption. Thus, any social functioning pattern that could
threaten the planet could be a target for professional intervention. Whereas the NASW
Code of Ethics calls for responsible behaviour vis-à-vis client and community,
Gandhian ethics call for responsible behaviour toward all things.
A Jesuit social worker and scholar by the name of Biestek, published The
Casework Relationship in 1957. He successfully identified the centrality of
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relationship in the helping process, making it an essential part of social work ethics. Radical Social Work

How this relationship was to be interpreted became a subject of inquiry and was
evaluated against several theories. While some of these theories recommended
that objectivity and social distance be maintained with clients, others suggested a
professional relationship. Biestek, like Gandhi, focused on the ethical base of human NOTES
relationship and used it as a guide to professional work. Gandhi, however, went
beyond in his effort to explore the ethics of human relationships. According to him,
the goal of all mankind is love towards all.
The Gandhian ethics advocated that social workers maintain a close,
personal, non-exploitative, and non-manipulative relationship with clients. It is a
disciplined, truthful and non-violent relationship that has to be monitored carefully
through supervision and self-evaluation practices. There can be no compromise
on truthfulness. According to Gandhian ethics, social workers should have complete
honesty in their relationships, especially with clients. The social worker must have
complete regard for the client’s understanding of his own needs and problems (De
Jong and Miller, 1995; Saleebey, 1997). Gandhian thought goes beyond this
expression. Clinical practice theories often achieve their goals by manipulation
(such as paradoxical therapeutic techniques or imposed interpretations of client
behaviour). Moreover, doctors too can fabricate medical information to expedite
a client’s request for services (Reamer, 1982).
Similarly, community workers can urge people to identify those with differing
views as enemies so as to boost their own organization. The Alinsky (1971) school
of organizing, followed in many schools of social work, is a ‘win-oriented’ approach,
which allows workers to compromise the means for the end. From a Gandhian
perspective, dishonest means will lead to dishonest goals. Gandhi (1959) insisted
that every action should be non-violent. Ahimsa has a two-pronged strategy: service
to others and pursuit of social justice. Gandhi’s concept of ahimsa as receiving
through giving is poles apart from the typical view that service to others is an
exhausting activity, which people should shun. By being helpful, a person feels
satisfied, experiences growth, and develops compassion.
Even as Gandhi propounded his theory of self-realization through service
and action, he listed certain principles to go about it. The foremost among these is
material simplicity. He suggested that those who had extra wealth should share it
with those who did not. This would also serve as a guide to those in the profession
of social work.
13.3.5 Jayaprakash Narayan
Jayaprakash Narayan was a radical social reformer who worked for the solution
of basic problems in India specifically poverty and inequality among members of
society. He was the great thinker who always emphasized on the welfare of all
members of the society without any discrimination. He was very disappointed by
observing the inequality in the society in terms of opportunities and unequal
distribution of work. He agreed to the Marx point of view that the reason for
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Radical Social Work inequality in India is mainly due to the uncontrolled means of production in the
society. For solving this problem, it is important to establish the ownership of the
means of production.
Jayaprakash Narayan was influenced with the thought that the power should
NOTES
be given in the hands of masses. He emphasized the importance of socialist party
for the achievement of this objective. He supported the role of people in economic
decision related to them and in favour of strengthening the people with powers to
take decisions for their welfare. In 1934, he established the Bihar Socialist Party
to spread the socialist movement in India. Later he was successful in forming
congress socialist party with the aim to fight against the inequality and exploitation
irrespective of caste, class, creed and sex of the people in the society.
Participatory Democracy
Jayaprakash was also in favour of participatory democracy which actually meant
“swaraj for the people”. He was interested in making full participation of people in
the political system of the country with equal distribution of power from bottom to
top level. With the help of such a system, according to him, all the groups in the
society would be benefitted. It was the democratic view of Jayaprakash Narayan
that laid the foundation for Panchayati Raj System in India.
Total Revolution
Jayaprakash Narayan talked about the “total revolution” in his book Prison Diary
where he mentioned irregularities of distribution of power, opportunities and issues
of exploitation of the people. Various laws have been made to support the poor
people but still in the major parts of the country, people are not getting benefits of
the scheme and programmes made for their welfare. Therefore he advocated the
concept of total revolution in social, economic and political areas in the society.
Jayaprakash Narayan was a great social reformer who was posthumously
awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1998 in recognition of his social works. He always
worked for the welfare of common people in the society.
13.3.6 Vinoba Bhave
Vinoba Bhave was closely associated with the Gandhian philosophy and was also
known as the spiritual heir of Mahatma Gandhi after his death. He believed in the
power of truth and non- violence. After independence, Vinoba initiated the movement
of sarvodya society in 1951 with the objective of welfare of all. He visited many
villages for land donations which give birth to the famous Bhoodan movement. He
considered this movement as the foundation for the Sarvodya Society. Later on
Bhoo Aandolan took the picture of gramdaan where the whole village was being
donated to the poor. He considered the Bhoodan movement and Gramdaan as
the transformational techniques for the establishment of new society.
Vinoba Bhave emphasized that just earning the bread for life should not be our
only aim. For the successful life, one needs moral and spiritual standards in life. He
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was in the favour of spiritual foundation of education to bring quality in the life of a Radical Social Work

person. He considered the value of linking the education with nature through basic
education. Main points related to Vinova Bhave are:
 ‘Bhoodan Movement’ (Gift of the Land) was one of the major
NOTES
contribution for bringing equality in the society.
 He was the first recipient of the international Ramon Magsaysay Award
for Community Leadership in 1958.
 In 1983, he received Bharat Ratna posthumously.
 He was selected as the first Satyagrahi by Mahatma Gandhi.
 He worked very hard to eradicate social evils from the society with the
aim of progress for all.
 To make women self -sufficient, he established Brahma Vidya Mandir
in 1959.
 He motivated people and encouraged them for gramdan—i.e. a
cooperative system where land will be recognized by all.

Check Your Progress

4. Why was Paulo Freire not in favour of traditional models of education?
5. What were the three levels of political awareness as advocated by Paulo
Freire?
6. When did Vinoba Bhave initiate the movement of Sarvodya society?

13.7 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AS A PARA

POLITICAL PROCESS

Community organisation is one of the famous methods of social work in community

setup. It is mainly related with the problem solving approach to deal with various
issues in the society. It is a collective effort to empower the community people for
their welfare. It is very important for a social worker to know about the social
structure and importance of empowering the community people for their
development. In other methods of social work like case work, we deal with the
individuals on one to one basis and in the group work; it is based on the group
activities. In this important method of community organization, social worker deals
with the community issues and problems. The efforts are planned to make community
so organized that it helps in developing the capacity of people to face the challenges
and solve the issues related to community people. This method is very useful for
making balance between needs and resources of community. It also helps in bringing
changes by distribution of powers among community people and makes them
capable of taking decisions.

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Radical Social Work 13.7.1 Role of Social Worker in Community Organization and Social
Action
Following are the specific roles supposed to be performed by the social worker.
NOTES 1. Role of effective confabulator: The role of the social worker as
community organizer is very crucial. The information related to various issues
of community people is supposed to be conveyed by the social worker.
The sharing of information, experiences and thoughts help the community
to be resourceful and empowered to face the various challenges. The social
worker should be an effective confabulator to develop healthy relationship
among the people through group discussion and meetings. The social worker
being in the role of community organizer needs to give effective
communicative training to the people to make independent and confident.
2. Role of coordinator: The social worker helps in bringing change in the
society. For that there is need to make coordination between the community
people for working to achieve desired goals. Social worker is supposed to
emphasize on process rather than the results of process i.e. product. Being
the coordinator, social worker helps in making people independent and
motivates them to discuss about the work to be done in the community.
This way people are made active participants of the process.
3. Role of guide: The role of social worker is to guide the people in the
community about the process of social work. Being a guide never means
that the social worker needs to carry the burden but to make them able to
face the situation and react accordingly. The social work provides the
information and supports with the resources and helps in searching the best
possible way outs.
4. Role of counsellor: Social worker being the community organizer also
works as counsellor for the people of community when they are in trouble.
In the difficult time, people need a support so that they can share their
feelings. In such situation if some kind of help is available from the worker’s
end, it is of great help for them. For providing effective counselling support
to the people, it is essential that worker should listen the person carefully
and then suggests or guide as per the requirement of the situation.
5. Role of effective innovator: Social worker plays role of innovator in
community organization. The task of the organizer is to introduce new ways
and means of dealing with needs and problems. The role is not limited to
the solution of problems but to facilitate capacity building programmes for
the community people. The worker needs to encourage the community
people to come forward with the innovative ideas and discuss the use of
those ideas in making their life simple and peaceful.

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 Radical Social Work

Check Your Progress

7. What is community organization?
8. How can a social worker be seen as a guide? NOTES

13.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The theory of liberal feminism is based on the belief that women have not
been given equal rights, particularly because they have been defined as a
group rather than as individuals. There are several advocates of
liberal feminism including John Stuart Mill, Harriet Taylor, Josephine St.
Pierre Ruffin, Mary Church Terrel and Fannie Barrier Williams.
2. The most important stages for Marx’s argument of history were feudalism,
capitalism and socialism.
3. Radical social work criticized the capitalist system and traditional social
work and launched a call for changes that enabled social work to change
capitalist society and favour the working class.
4. Paulo Freire was not in favour of traditional models of education which he
considered was making the learner totally dependent and simply the
consumer of knowledge from the teacher’s end.
5. Paulo Freire advocated majorly three levels of political awareness. One is
magical consciousness, second is naïve consciousness and third is critical
consciousness.
6. After independence, Vinoba Bhave initiated the movement of sarvodya
society in 1951 with the objective of welfare of all.
7. Community organisation is one of the famous methods of social work in
community setup. It is mainly related with the problem solving approach to
deal with various issues in the society.
8. The role of social worker is to guide the people in the community about the
process of social work. Being a guide never means that the social worker
needs to carry the burden but to make them able to face the situation and
react accordingly.

13.9 SUMMARY

 From the 1970s, radical social work or the ‘old’ radical social work approach
focused mainly on Marxist social theories. It criticized the capitalist system
and traditional social work and launched a call for changes that enabled
social work to change capitalist society and favour the working class.
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Radical Social Work  The benefits of social work are twofold: (i) a destitute or an underprivileged
individual is provided with some basic needs, and (ii) the religious or other
obligations of the person performing the social work are met.
 The several social theories that talk about social conflict have roots in the
NOTES
ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883), the German theorist and political activist.
The Marxist approach stressed on a materialist interpretation of history, a
dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social
arrangements, and a political programme of revolution or, at least, reform.
 Marx divided history into several stages, conforming to broad patterns in
the economic structure of society. The most important stages for Marx’s
argument were feudalism, capitalism and socialism. The greater part of his
writing is about applying the materialist model of society to capitalism.
 According to Marx, economic exploitation leads to political oppression. It
is a vicious system, wherein owners use their economic power to gain control
of the state and turn it into a tool of bourgeois economic interests. For
example, they can use the police force to enforce unfair property rights and
make unfair contracts between capitalists and workers.
 Marx believed that any exploitative economic arrangement was bound to
fail as it created conditions for its own destruction. For instance, feudalism
gave rise to a class of town-dwelling merchants, whose aim of making profits
eventually led to the bourgeois revolution and the modern capitalist era.
Similarly, the class relations of capitalism will lead to the next stage of
socialism.
 Feminism as a theory and method has wide implications for social work.
The influence of feminist theory on social work has come to be known as
feminist social work (social work feminists). A feminist perspective can be
seen in many areas of social work such as counselling, group therapy, therapy
organizations, social policy analysis, and research in social work.
 Paulo Freire is known for his contribution to the community through his
radical approach of social work. His famous book, Pedagogy of Oppressed
(1968) is a source of motivation and inspiration for social workers.
Throughout his life Paulo Freire worked for the poor and illiterate people to
increase the political awareness.
 Paulo Freire advocated majorly three levels of political awareness. One is
magical consciousness, second is naïve consciousness and third is critical
consciousness. He mentioned that through education we can make students
to move from magical consciousness to critical consciousness through
dialogue and liberation.
 In 1945, Saul Alinsky, one of the founders of modern neighbourhood
organizing, reflected deeper into the different approaches of community
organizing. According to Alinsky, social change and community organization
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 can be primarily both reformist and revolutionary, or either of the two, Radical Social Work

depending on how fundamental the social changes are, which are sought.
 The several social theories that talk about social conflict have roots in the
ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883), the German theorist and political activist.
NOTES
The Marxist approach stressed on a materialist interpretation of history, a
dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social
arrangements, and a political programme of revolution or, at least, reform.
 Gandhi believed in service to others and the pursuit of social justice. These
two ideas match theory and practice of social work. He tried to integrate
social service with social action, wherein he combined both micro and macro
interventions.
 The Gandhian ethics advocated that social workers maintain a close,
personal, non-exploitative, and non-manipulative relationship with clients.
It is a disciplined, truthful and non-violent relationship that has to be monitored
carefully through supervision and self-evaluation practices. There can be no
compromise on truthfulness.
 Jayaprakash Narayan was a radical social reformer who worked for the
solution of basic problems in India specifically poverty and inequality among
members of society. He was the great thinker who always emphasized on
the welfare of all members of the society without any discrimination.
 Jayaprakash was also in favour of participatory democracy which actually
meant “swaraj for the people”. He was interested in making full participation
of people in the political system of the country with equal distribution of
power from bottom to top level.
 Vinoba Bhave was closely associated with the Gandhian philosophy and
was also known as the spiritual heir of Mahatma Gandhi after his death. He
believed in the power of truth and non- violence. After independence, Vinoba
initiated the movement of sarvodya society in 1951 with the objective of
welfare of all.
 Community organisation is one of the famous methods of social work in
community setup. It is mainly related with the problem solving approach to
deal with various issues in the society. It is a collective effort to empower
the community people for their welfare.

13.10 KEY WORDS

 Relations of production: The term relations of production refers to

the relationship between those who own the means of production (the
capitalists or bourgeoisie) and those who do not (the workers or the
proletariat).

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Radical Social Work  Liberal feminism: The theory of liberal feminism is based on the belief that
women have not been given equal rights, particularly because they have
been defined as a group rather than as individuals.

NOTES
13.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on socialist feminism.
2. Differentiate between external and internal resources.
3. Write a short note on Gandhian ethics.
4. State the idea of total revolution by Jayaprakash Narayan.
5. How can community organization be seen as a para-political process?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the meaning and techniques of radical social work.
2. ‘Paulo Freire was not in favour of traditional models of education.’Analyse
the statement.
3. ‘Saul Alinsky propounded two distinct approaches/traditions to organizing.’
What are these two approaches?
4. Comment on the division of history by Karl Marx.
5. Describe the role of social worker in community organization and social
action.

13.12 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.
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 Application of Community

UNIT 14 APPLICATION OF Organization in Different

Fields

COMMUNITY
NOTES
ORGANIZATION IN
DIFFERENT FIELDS
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Application of Community Organization in Different Fields: Correctional,
Rural and Urban and Industrial
14.2.1 Councils of Social Welfare
14.3 Strategies of Community Organization: Advocacy, Campaigning, Lobbying
and Networking
14.4 Application of Community Organization in Health
14.5 Application of Community Organization in Education
14.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.7 Summary
14.8 Key Words
14.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.10 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you learnt about radical social work. In this unit, we will
discuss the application of community organizations in different fields.
As you have learnt, community organization is one of the primary methods
of social work. It deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community
problems. As a method of social work community organization can solve the
problems of many people in the community through their collective involvement.
In this unit, we will study how community organization is applied in the fields of
health, education, industry, and so on. The unit will discuss strategies of community
organization such as advocacy, campaigning, lobbying and networking.

14.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss community organization in a correctional setting
 Analyse community organization practice in various settings in health,
education and industry
 Describe the strategies of community organization Self-Instructional
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Application of Community
Organization in Different 14.2 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY
Fields
ORGANIZATION IN DIFFERENT FIELDS:
CORRECTIONAL, RURAL AND URBAN AND
NOTES INDUSTRIAL

A community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the basis of its
geographical location. The other classification of the community can be based on
caste, religion, occupation etc. These communities are under different settings
where community organization can be put into practice.
Community organization is applied when the community takes initiative in
solving problems and meetings the needs of the community. In such a situation the
community plays different roles in dealing with the various needs and problems.
Usually, within the community, either the interested people or the people who are
affected by an issue take up the lead in addressing the problem. In other words,
they form the community and undertake different roles in solving the problems and
needs get fulfilled.
The community organizer depending, on the setting, situation and the problems
applies appropriate roles. The roles are likely to vary according to the settings,
problems and needs. Community organization can be used by the community
organizer in different areas or settings like, rural, urban, tribal, institutional, non-
institutional settings. Whatever may be the settings depending up on the model of
community organization like locality development, social planning and social action,
the community organizer has to apply different roles respectively. Therefore a
community organizer has to be familiar with all the roles of community organization
institutional, non-institutional settings.
Settings of Community Organization
There are different areas where community organization has scope. The community
organizer can practice community organization in such settings. The settings can
be identified based on certain characteristics like location and the nature of
administration. The target group with whom the community organizer is going to
work with has to be identified and understood. The needs and problems of the
community in different settings need not be the same, and moreover, the
characteristics of the people in different settings are likely to vary. Hence,
accordingly, the methods and techniques of community organization and the roles
of community organizer have to be used.
The organizer can use different methods to identify, assess the need, analyse
and understand the situation. There are two levels of understanding, the first level
understanding of the community by the organizer and the second level is making
the community to understand their own situation. Different methods and techniques
can be used to understand and make the community to understand. Participatory
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Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Appreciative Inquiry can be more useful in this regard. Application of Community
Organization in Different
Since these are not the scope of this unit, they are not discussed here. Fields
Whatever may be the settings, there is a community or a group of people
with needs and problems. In other words, there is discontentment which has to be
NOTES
focused and channelized in such a way that the people come together, think together,
plan together, implement and evaluate their actions. In all the stages, the community
is fully involved and their capacity is increased in terms of access and control over
resources and decision making. Therefore, in a community organization, the
community organizer has to play different roles in order to make people independent.
In different settings, depending on the needs and problems and the situation
of the community, the roles and strategies have to be changed. Moreover, all the
roles need not be applied in all the settings. In order to adopt different roles the
community organizer has to be very clear about the process or the steps involved
in the practice of community organization methods and skills and accordingly the
roles can be selected and applied.
In the institutional and non-institutional settings, people are organized and
not organized respectively. In an institution, due to the organizational structure,
there is a possibility to bring people together for any common purpose, whereas in
the case of non-institutional setting, there is not a structured pattern and hence it
may be difficult to bring them together.
The three models of community organization expect different sets of roles.
In the locality development model, people come together to discuss and decide
about the improvement of an area, or locality, emphasizing the broader participation
at the local level in goal determination and action.
In the social planning model, people come together and gather pertinent
facts about the problems, then decide on a rational and feasible course of action.
It is a technical process of solving social problems. Such a model entails using
external help to arrange and deliver goods and services to people whom need
them. Interested group members participate in the model with broader participation
being less.
In the social action model, basic changes in major situations are brought
about by organizing the segment of the population so that they make demands on
the larger community for increased resources or treatment more in accordance
with social justice and democracy and redistribution of power, resources and
decision-making.
Correctional Field
The community organizer has to see, observe and understand all the settings and
the models before responding or making the people to non-institutional treatments
are community-based correctional programmes that help in the reintegration of
offenders.

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Application of Community Community-based correction is an effective method of accomplishing the
Organization in Different
Fields changes in the behaviour of the offender by helping him to become a law-abiding
citizen.
1. Probation: The term probation is used denote the status of a person
NOTES
placed on probation, to refer to the subsystem of the criminal justice
system. Probation is an alternative to the prison/ special home. It is a
sentence that does not involve confinement but may involve conditions
imposed by the Court Juvenile Justice Board, usually under the
supervision of a probation officer.
2. Parole: Parole is a treatment programme in which the offender, after
serving part of a term in correctional institution, is conditionally released
under the supervision and treatment of a parole officer. Parole is not
of every individual in prison. It is respond to the situation.
3. Community service: In community service, the offenders must give
personal time to perform tasks that are valued in the community. This
programme is especially meant for juvenile and adolescents who are
placed in community service organization.
4. Work release: In work release programme, inmates are released
from incarceration to work. They enable the offenders to engage in
positive contacts with the community, assuming of course, that work
placement is satisfactory. They permit offenders to provide some
support for themselves and their families.
Community organization in correctional setting
Community organization has an important role in rehabilitation and reintegration of
released offenders into mainstream of the society. At the same time, community
organization is used widely for the prevention of crime and delinquency. The
convicts after completing the sentence usually face problems in the adjustment
with family, relatives, peer group, neighbourhood and even for acquiring
employment. Social workers consider family to be an important unit that can provide
support to released offenders to take care of his various needs and aspirations.
For these, a social worker has to mobilize the resources for meeting the needs of
individuals and establishing support groups on whom one can rely u take care of
his various needs and aspirations.
Role of Social Worker in Industrial Setting
According to Saini (1975), industrial social work has come to be defined as a
systematic way of helping individuals and groups towards a better adaptation to
work situation.
Concept of Industrial Social Work
Personnel social work is a systematic way of helping individual and groups towards
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258 Material
whenever an individual employee or a group and the work situation cannot adapt Application of Community
Organization in Different
to each other. Fields
Later on, the term occupational social work was developed, and being
increasingly used in the West for the reason that the scope of social work can be
NOTES
extended to include all kinds and variety of occupations. Occupational social work
can be broadly defined as a specialized field of social work practice, which
addresses the human and social needs of the work community through a variety of
interventions, which aim to foster optimal adaptation between individual and their
environments. In this context, occupational social worker may address a wide
range of individual and family needs, relationships within organizations and the
broader issues of the relationship of the world of work to the community at large.
(NASW 1987).
From the definition, it is clear that no matter by what name we call it, social
work, when applied to business and industry, is a utilization of social work
knowledge, skills and values to bring about goodness of fit between man and his
work environment. According to M.M. Desai, the professionally trained social
worker can develop his/ her programmes at the following levels:
Preventive and Developmental
 Informal educational programmes aimed at enlightening the workers on issues
pertaining to work life like industrial safety, functional literacy, saving habits,
social security, etc.
 Promoting the use of health and medical programmes for workers and their
families (health check-ups, inoculation campaigns, family planning,
informative sessions on nutrition, low cost diets, childcare, etc.
 Personal and environmental hygiene, etc.
 Developing recreational programmes like library services, prime sports
gatherings, various skill competitions, exhibitions, film shows, etc. celebration
of cultural festivals, supplementary income programmes, hobby classes,
vocational guidance programmes, etc.
Curative
Curative programmes are aimed at handling problem situations faced by the
individual worker by helping him to make maximum use of his own potentials and
the resources offered by the industry and the community. Counselling to the individual
employees and their families can be given for problems, such as alcoholism,
indebtedness, and absenteeism, etc.
The counselling services can be coupled with concrete assistance by the
way of:
1. Securing medical help within or outside industry.
2. Planning the family budgets.
3. Helping employee family members in obtaining funds. Self-Instructional
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Application of Community Here the social worker can help business to understand the total community
Organization in Different
Fields in which they live and utilize its resources to benefit the community on one hand
and the organization on the other. The problems, such as lack of educational facilities,
proper recreation, medical facilities within the workers community, can be attended
NOTES to by the social worker. Community consciousness and development are being
given importance by the management where the skills of the professional social
worker can be effectively used.
The social worker is not only very useful to help employees and their families
to overcome their problems but he/she could also improve the community life of
the employees and also assist in village adoption and other such programmes.
Some problems of an environmental nature like lack of educational facilities, proper
recreation, medical facilities etc. could be taken up by her/him with the appropriate
authorities. So he or she could develop the programmes at both the preventive as
well as the curative levels. The areas of scope for work include promoting the use
of health and medical programmes such as health check-ups, inoculation campaigns,
and health awareness for workers etc. Resources from within the industry could
be tapped for recreational services like libraries, social get together, sports etc.
Inviting the participation of voluntary organizations like ladies clubs, vocational
guidance centres, etc., could also be considered. By and large progressive
managements have realised that on their own initiative they should take more interest
in the welfare of their employees including the family and the community.
An organization may begin its social work activities by carrying out a survey
of needs and problems of employees and their families from which common
problems could be identified and action strategies considered. At the second stage,
the organization may try to identify the communities where the employees are
residing and then organize a survey to identify the community problems. Once this
is done on action plan could be chalked out to take care of these problems. The
social worker can definitely be an asset to any medium or large organization.
14.2.1 Councils of Social Welfare
Councils of Social Welfare are private organizations that promote community
welfare, giving high priority to public interests.
What does ‘community welfare’ mean in this context?
Not only welfare and health services but also connections with neighbours and
friends are essential for elderly persons, disabled persons, and other people in
need of support to continue to live in the communities where they have lived so
long. It is hard for them to continue to live in the communities without community
people’s intention to support them as members of their communities and their
actual support. It can be said that community welfare is a system whereby specialists
and community people can jointly support people in need of support.

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Community Chest Application of Community
Organization in Different
Fields
In a broad sense we can say wherever people have lived together; some form of
organizations has emerged. These informal associations of people have always
tried to do help people in need and protect the rights of the society. The first NOTES
efforts at community organization for social welfare were initiated in England to
overcome the acute problem of poverty, which led to beggary.
A community chest reefers to a cooperative organization of citizens and
social welfare agencies in a city. It is also known as a united fund. A community
chest has two objectives: to raise funds through an annual campaign for its member
agencies and to budget the funds raised. The fund is administered by the community
chest or united fund itself, or as a joint endeavour with a community welfare council.
The idea of cooperative collecting for charitable purposes originated in
England, in the city of Liverpool in 1873 and in the city of Denver in the United
States, in Denver (1887). In 1900, the Cleveland chamber of commerce went a
step further and assumed responsibility for endorsing the agencies seeking funds;
13 years later Cleveland brought almost all its welfare organizations together in the
Cleveland Welfare Council. The name community chest was coined in Rochester,
N.Y., in 1913.

14.3 STRATEGIES OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION: ADVOCACY, CAMPAIGNING,
LOBBYING AND NETWORKING

Let us now discuss the strategies of community organization, beginning with

campaigning and networking.
Campaigning
Community organizing is a process where people who live in proximity to each
other come together into an organization that acts in their shared self-interest.
Community organizers work with and develop new local leaders, facilitating
coalitions and assisting in the development of campaigns. Campaigning is about
creating a change. One may call it influencing, voice, advocacy or campaigning,
but all these activities are about creating change.
Campaigning can be the best and most effective way of achieving goals.
There are many reasons why voluntary and community organizations campaign as
a way of achieving their mission:
 Campaigning can address the root causes of social problems and not
just their effects. Some organizations may take a two-pronged approach
- they might provide services to support people experiencing a particular
problem, while also campaigning to tackle the root cause of the problem.
An example might be a government policy or decision.
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Application of Community  Campaigning can shine a spotlight on emerging issues that have not yet
Organization in Different
Fields been picked up by policy makers.
 Campaigning can help give a voice to those without voice.
NOTES  Campaigning can lead to social change and the provision by the state of
resources, services and entitlements that are many times greater than
the resources that were used to run the campaign.
 Campaigning is sometimes the only action possible, especially when the
scale of the problem is large or cannot be dealt with without state
intervention.
Networking
We have already discussed networking in an earlier unit. To briefly recapitulate,
networking is the action or process of interacting with others to exchange
information and develop professional or social contacts. In the field of social work,
networking is one of the social work strategies which is put into practice to bring
various together diverse social structures for achieving an end which is common
or a goal which is shared. Networking involves establishing coordinated and
collaborative relationships in order to access the resources of other persons and
social systems.
Lobbying
Lobbying has also been discussed earlier. To recapitulate, lobbying is a technique
of influencing the legislation and creating legislative opinion favourable to the group
or interest on behalf of which the lobby operates.
Advocacy
Advocacy involves pleading and fighting for the service of the clients, whom the
service system otherwise rejects. It requires seeking different interpretations or
exceptions to rules and regulations, to clients’ rights to services and undertaking
aware above the blockages to clients in receiving or using an agency’s services. In
advocacy, the social worker speaks on behalf of client. Before engaging in
advocacy, a worker must first be sure that the client(s) desire(s) the worker to
intervene in this manner. The client should clearly understand the risks involved
and be motivated to use the service(s) if it is obtained. Secondly, the worker must
carefully assess the risks involved for the client if advocacy is used.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the term parole?
2. What does networking entail?

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 Application of Community
14.4 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY Organization in Different
Fields
ORGANIZATION IN HEALTH

Community health is defined more broadly and encompasses the entire gamut of NOTES
community-organized efforts for maintaining, protecting and improving the health
of the people. It involves motivation of the individual and groups to change the
pattern of behaviour. In addition, it also seeks to plan medical care to achieve
optimal health of the members of community as a whole. Previously, the subject of
community health was covered in Hygiene, Public Health or Preventive and Social
Medicine.
In community health, instead of studying individuals as patients, it is essential
to understand that:
 The patient represents the community.
 Diagnosis of disease in the community, (referred to as community
diagnosis) is essential.
 Planning treatment for the community is the objective.
For example, a single case of a cholera patient detected in a village is a
danger signal. It shows that the disease is present in the community, there may be
many cases of it and unless checked its spread will grip the whole village. So the
appropriate measures for treatment and control of the disease are planned in
advance. Since it is a water-borne disease, water sources— river, wells or
underground water—are examined for infection and accordingly treated. In
addition, necessary treatment for the affected people and precautions such as
vaccination for vulnerable group is also done. Community diagnosis may require
relevant data such as given below (these are collected and interpreted):
 Age and sex distribution in the population under study and its distribution
in social groups—in the community.
 Crude birth rate, infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, child death
rate, prenatal mortality rate and neonatal post-neonatal death rate, etc.
 Incidence and prevalence of certain diseases in the area.
Besides investigating health problems, it is also essential to find out the various
social and economic factors in the area influencing the above data. This helps in
identifying the basic health needs and health problems faced by the community.
After studying all the problems, the priorities are established and community
action is planned. This involves a health service system which plans for improvement
of water supplies, immunization, health education, control of specific diseases,
and it in turn requires health legislations. Such health services are planned at individual
level, family level and at the level of community. It is also essential that health care
must be planned in such a way that it could be easily utilized by all and encourage
people to participate.
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Application of Community Another positive feature of community action is that it brings coordination
Organization in Different
Fields between voluntary organizations and government agencies engaged in overcoming
similar problems.
India has a long history of Community Health Insurance (CHI). The past
NOTES
decade has seen a remarkable increase in number of people coming under the
umbrella of CHIS. The main characteristics of India CHIS are that they are initiated
by voluntary organization mainly to increase access to health care for the poorer
sections of society, especially Adivasis, self-employed women, farers and Dalits.
Unlike the Mediclaim policies, the CHI cover is tailor-made to suit the local reality.
Thus, upper limits are moderate and exclusions are minimal.
Community organization in terms of health is closely associated with
community health which a field of public health. Public health can be defined as ‘a
discipline that deals with the study and betterment of the health characteristics of
biological communities’. Community health generally focuses on geographic areas
rather than people with shared characteristics. Health is a major concern plaguing
India, especially the rural population which constitutes a major chunk, approximately
65 per cent. India is the second most populous country of the world, only next to
China. The ever-changing socio-political demographic and morbidity patterns
across India are increasingly attracting global attention in recent years. Despite
several growth-oriented policies and health care reforms adopted by the successive
Governments of India, the widening disparities viz., economic, regional, social
and gender are constantly posing challenges for the evolving health sector which is
in its nascent stage of evolution.
About 75 per cent of health infrastructure, medical or health care manpower
and other allied resources are concentrated in urban areas; where only 27 per
cent of the total population of India resides. Contagious, infectious and water
borne diseases such as amoebiasis, diarrhoea, infectious hepatitis, measles, malaria,
pneumonia, reproductive tract infections, respiratory infections, typhoid,
tuberculosis, worm infestations and whooping cough dominate the morbidity pattern,
especially in rural areas. However, non-communicable diseases such as blindness,
cancer, diabetes, hypertension, HIV/AIDS, mental illness, accidents and injuries
are also on the rise. The health status of Indians, is still a matter of grave concern,
especially that of the rural population. This is reflected in the life expectancy rate
(63 years), infant mortality rate (129/1000 live births), maternal mortality rate
(438/100,000 live births). However, some progress has been made with the passage
of time in this direction.
In spite of impressive progress and rapid strides made in the all-round
development process of Indian economy, the demographic and health scenario is
a matter of grave concern requiring urgent action with the implementation and
achievement of the desired objectives. The ever-exploding population growth in
India accompanied with little success of family-planning initiatives has an adverse
effect on the health of people, the quality of their lives and Indian economy at
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large. The mortality rates for women and children continue to remain high. Almost
264 Material
one-third of the total deaths among the children occur below 5 years of age. Application of Community
Organization in Different
Efforts for raising the nutritional levels among the Indian masses have yet to bear Fields
fruit and see the daylight. The extent and severity of malnutrition along with worm-
infestation continues to be exceptionally high especially among the rural populace
of India. Many villages still lack in proper sanitation facilities including faeces NOTES
disposal. Only 0.5 per cent enjoys basic sanitation facilities. There is lack of sanitary
education and hygienic standards among the Indians. Many individuals do not
wash hands properly with soap and water after defecation, thereby resulting in
poor or ill health. Communicable and non-communicable diseases have yet to be
brought under effective control, and systematically eradicated in a phased manner.
There is a high incidence of blindness, leprosy and tuberculosis among Indians.
Only 31per cent of the rural population has access to potable water supply.
Ignorance about basic facts is largely prevalent among the rural masses.
The existing situation has evolved by the wholesale adoption of health
manpower development policies and the establishment of curative centres by blindly
following the Western models. These Western models are inappropriate and
irrelevant to the real needs of the Indian masses and its socio-economic conditions.
The hospital-based disease treatment and curative approach has provided benefits
only to the upper sections of the society, especially those individuals residing in the
urban areas and continues to elude the rural masses. The proliferation of this
approach that has been adopted by the successive Indian Governments has been
at the expense of providing comprehensive primary health care services to the
entire population, whether residing in the urban or the rural areas.
Furthermore, the continued emphasis and stress on the curative approach
has led the preventive, promotive, public health, rehabilitative and wellness aspects
of health care to be neglected. The current approach, instead of improving
awareness and building up self-reliance among the Indian masses, has instead
tried to enhance dependency among the masses and weaken the community’s
capacity to cope with various health care related issues. The prevailing outdated
policies with regard to the education and training of medical and health personnel,
at various levels, has resulted in the development of a cultural gap between the
public and the personnel providing care. By and large, the various health programmes
have failed to involve individuals and families in establishing a self-reliant community.
Over the years, the planning process has become largely oblivious of the fact that
the ultimate goal of achieving a satisfactory health status for all Indians cannot be
secured without involving the community regarding identification of their health
requirements and priorities pertaining to healthcare aspects accompanied with
effective and successful implementation and management of the various health and
allied programmes.
To effectively tackle the currently prevailing situation, the problems plaguing
rural health are to be addressed both at macro (national and state) and micro
(district and regional) levels, a well-balanced holistic method needs to be adopted
to address the outstanding and unresolved issues in a time-bound manner with
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Application of Community genuine efforts to bring the poorest of the population to the centre of the fiscal
Organization in Different
Fields policies formulated by the Government of India. A paradigm shift from the current
‘Bio-medical model’ to a ‘socio-cultural model’, that should bridge the gaps and
improve quality of rural life, is the current need of the hour and an answer to the
NOTES prevailing scenario in India. A revised and suitably amended National Health Policy
addressing the prevailing inequalities in the current scenario and working collectively
towards promoting a long-term perspective plan, with main focus on rural health
is crucial and imperative.
Progress Achieved
Since the attainment of Independence, considerable progress has been achieved
in the promotion of the health status among the Indians. Smallpox has been
eradicated from India. Instances of plague are under control. Mortality rates, on
account of cholera and water-borne related diseases, have significantly decreased.
Occurrence of malaria has been effectively brought under control. The mortality
rate per thousand of population has been reduced from 27.4 to 14.8 per cent and
life expectancy at birth has increased to 63 years of age. An extensive network
comprising PHC (Primary Health Centres), dispensaries, polyclinics, nursing homes,
hospitals, old-age homes, rehabilitation centres, de-addiction centres and institutions
providing specialized curative care has developed. There is no dearth of qualified
medical and health personnel at various levels. Significant indigenous capacity
accompanied with cutting edge-technologies for the production of drugs and
pharmaceuticals, vaccines, sera, hospital equipment, etc., have been established.
Some of the leading organizations in the field of health are as follows:
(i) The Uday Foundation provides support services to the Indian families
of children afflicted with congenital defects, critical disorders,
syndromes, and diseases that affect their health condition, education
and growth. Advocacy on Indian public health policy, awareness and
implementation of various health related projects for common citizen
is the organization’s objective. Also to create awareness of congenital
defects to the media, to governments, to all professionals who need
to know about the disabilities of those they deal with on a daily basis,
and ultimately, the general public, is its work.
(ii) Smile Foundation: Following Peter Senge’s philosophy that social
equality and environment are business problems in today’s world, Smile
Foundation was formed by a group of friends, established corporate
professionals themselves, who wanted to make serious social
contributions. And with their in-depth corporate insight, these friends
decided to make Smile function like a catalyst stirring change at the
grass roots, while also enabling the civil society to engage proactively
in the change process following the idea of Civic Driven Change and
adopting the highest standard of governance. Since 2002, Smile has
been working on the subjects of education for children, livelihood for
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266 Material
 the youth, health care in rural villages and urban slums, women Application of Community
Organization in Different
empowerment and sensitization of the privileged masses. As it Fields
completes 10 years of catalysing development, Smile has successfully
reached out to over 2 million beneficiaries across 22 states in India. A
synergy of achieving highest SROI (social return on investment) by NOTES
deploying best possible methodologies and technology, practising and
promoting Good Governance, linking business necessities with critical
development indices and promoting Civic Driven Change is the
approach that Smile Foundation works with.
(iii) SHARP: School Health Annual Report Programme is a non-
government organization (NGO) with scientifically planned health
programme for school children, professionally managed under the
guidance of eminent medical experts, sociologists, educationist,
psychologists, nutritional specialists and others who have vision of
promoting health care of children throughout the Third World countries.
School Health Annual Report Programme (SHARP), was started in
July 1998 with participation from number of schools of Delhi. The
programme is currently operational all over the country with its various
projects running in the schools of Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore, Chennai,
Hyderabad, Kolkata, Lucknow and various towns of Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttranchal. The programme is unique in being
the first programme to computerize and place health records of lakhs
of children on the internet. The innovative approach of the programmes
has made it the most popular school health programme in the country
with lakhs of children taking benefit out of it through its various projects.
(iv) ACMI: Action for Mental Illness is a UN-recognized ADVOCACY
initiative for Persons with Mental Illness (PwMI) founded in 2003 in
Bangalore, and ROSHNI in Delhi. ACMI is dedicated to the issues
of Mental Illness (MI) in India. This means that ACMI works for the
diverse aspects of the illness, treatment, medication, rehabilitation,
awareness building, etc., in a Pan-India framework through
ADVOCACY and followed by ACTION. So ACMI undertakes only
those activities and programmes that directly campaign for the rights
and needs of the 60 million PwMI and their families.
(v) Oxfam India: Oxfam India, a fully independent Indian organization
(with Indian staff and an Indian Board) is a member of a global
confederation of 17 Oxfams. The Oxfams are rights-based
organizations that fight poverty and injustice by linking grass-roots
programming (through partner NGOs) to local, national and global
advocacy and policymaking. All of Oxfam’s work is framed by its
commitment to five broad rights-based aims: (a) the right to a
sustainable livelihood, (b) the right to basic social services, (c) the
right to life and security, (d) the right to be heard, and (e) the right to
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Application of Community equality: gender and diversity. Oxfam India’s vision is to create a more
Organization in Different
Fields equal, just, and sustainable world. The overarching vision of Oxfam
India is “right to life with dignity for all”. Oxfam India fulfils its vision
by empowering the poor and marginalized to demand their rights, by
NOTES engaging the non-poor to become active and supportive citizens,
advocating for an effective and accountable state and making markets
work for poor and marginalized people. Oxfam India works in
partnership with 200 grass root NGOs to address root causes of
absolute poverty and inequality in the four areas of (a) economic Justice,
(b) essential services, (c) gender justice and (d), humanitarian response
and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). Oxfam India’s programme is
focused on seven states—assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand—and four social groups—
Dalits, tribals, Muslims, and women.

14.5 APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION IN EDUCATION

One way to examine the application of community organization in education is to

look at community level programs in operation in India. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(SSA) is envisaged as a three-tier programme; monitoring at the local community
level, at the state level, and the national level. Community based monitoring is one
of the strengths of the programme. And if not done properly, leads to a major
weakness in the entire implementation. The community, through its representative
institutions like Village Education Committees, has been entrusted with the primary
level of ensuring that the schools are functioning effectively. Most of the qualitative
impressions on the school functioning can be effectively monitored only at local
level and are difficult to capture either at the State level or the National level. For
monitoring the qualitative aspect from the national level, reliance may have to be
placed more on assessing the effectiveness of community-based monitoring at the
local level and ensuring that this system is functioning properly. In addition, at the
State and National level, monitoring would focus more on the quantitative aspect
of both the status of the implementation of the project and the progress made
towards the achievement of the SSA goals.
The best example of community organization in education is observed in
case of pace-setting schools.
Navodaya vidyalayas (Pace-setting schools): It was realized that good quality
education was to be made available to children with special talent or aptitude, to
proceed at a faster pace whether they could afford to pay for it or not. Special
residential schools were set up for this purpose. The objective was to encourage
the raising of levels of excellence on an equality basis (with reservation for the
rural areas, SCs and STs). These schools would also promote national integration
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268 Material
by the provision of opportunities to talented children from all over the country, Application of Community
Organization in Different
when they came together to live and learn, and be part of a nationwide effort to Fields
improve the standard of learning in schools.
National Policy on Education, 1986, envisaged the setting up of model
NOTES
schools, one in each district. Accordingly, a scheme was formulated under which
it was decided to set up co-educational residential schools (Jawahar Navodaya
Vidyalayas).
Navodaya Vidyalayas are fully residential co-educational institutions
providing education up to senior secondary stage. The Vidyalayas envisaged a
new style of growth with identification and development of talented, bright and
gifted children predominantly from rural areas. Efforts are made to ensure that at
least 33 per cent of the students enrolled are girls.
Migration is a unique feature of Navodaya Vidyalayas scheme, whereby
30 per cent of students of Class IX from a Vidyalaya located in Hindi speaking
area spend one academic year in a Vidyalaya located in Non-Hindi speaking
area and vice-versa to promote national integration through understanding of the
diversity and plurality of country’s people, their language and culture.
Main features of navodaya vidyalayas
 They cater to the talented students.
 They are residential.
 They provide free education.
 They cater primarily to rural areas.
 Reserved seats for SCs and STs as per actual population in the district.
 They foster national integration.
 A special emphasis is laid on diagnostic and remedial teaching.
 They are expected to provide full scope for innovation and experimentation.
 These schools implement Three Language Formula.
 Selection will be based on scholastic aptitude test aimed at eliminating
subjectivity.
Community organizing in education aims at bringing change in the longstanding
power relationships that produce failing schools in under-served communities in
order to create excellent and accountable school systems for students of all
communities.
Community organizing for equitable school reform works as it:
 Brings together public school parents, youth, and community residents
and/or institutions to engage in collective dialogue and action for change.
 Form grass-roots leadership by training under-served parents, youth,
and community members in organizing and civic engagement skills.
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Application of Community  Build political power by mobilizing general masses around a unified vision
Organization in Different
Fields and objective.
 Realize that education problems and their solutions are systemic, and
hence focus on accountability, equity, and quality for students; other
NOTES
than exclusively focusing on benefits for individual students.
 Understand that the education system is a central part of community
well-being and that improving schools also includes building the
economic, cultural, and political well-being of the community in general.
 Use the tactics of organizing people concerned with an issue, even other
support groups to pressurize the decision-makers or public systems for
welfare.

Check Your Progress

3. Define public health.
4. What is the Sarva Shiksa Abhiyan?

14.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Parole is a treatment programme in which the offender, after serving part of

a term in correctional institution, is conditionally released under the
supervision and treatment of a parole officer.
2. Networking involves establishing coordinated and collaborative relationships
in order to access the resources of other persons and social systems.
3. Public health can be defined as ‘a discipline that deals with the study and
betterment of the health characteristics of biological communities’.
4. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is envisaged as a three-tier programme;
monitoring at the local community level, at the state level, and the national
level.

14.7 SUMMARY

 A community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the basis of its
geographical location. The other classification of the community can be
based on caste, religion, occupation etc.
 The three models of community organization expect different sets of roles.
In the locality development model, people come together to discuss and
decide about the improvement of an area, or locality, emphasizing the broader
participation at the local level in goal determination and action.
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270 Material
  In the social planning model, people come together and gather pertinent Application of Community
Organization in Different
facts about the problems, then decide on a rational and feasible course of Fields
action. It is a technical process of solving social problems.
 The community organizer has to see, observe and understand all the settings
NOTES
and the models before responding or making the people to non-institutional
treatments are community-based correctional programmes that help in the
reintegration of offenders.
 Community organization has an important role in rehabilitation and
reintegration of released offenders into mainstream of the society.
 Curative programmes are aimed at handling problem situations faced by
the individual worker by helping him to make maximum use of his own
potentials and the resources offered by the industry and the community.
 Councils of Social Welfare are private organizations that promote community
welfare, giving high priority to public interests.
 Community organizers work with and develop new local leaders, facilitating
coalitions and assisting in the development of campaigns. Campaigning is
about creating a change.
 Advocacy involves pleading and fighting for the service of the clients, whom
the service system otherwise rejects.
 Community health is defined more broadly and encompasses the entire gamut
of community-organized efforts for maintaining, protecting and improving
the health of the people. It involves motivation of the individual and groups
to change the pattern of behaviour.
 One way to examine the application of community organization in education
is to look at community level programs in operation in India.
 The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is envisaged as a three-tier programme;
monitoring at the local community level, at the state level, and the national
level.
 The best example of community organization in education is observed in
case of pace-setting schools.
 Community organizing in education aims at bringing change in the longstanding
power relationships that produce failing schools in under-served communities
in order to create excellent and accountable school systems for students of
all communities.

14.8 KEY WORDS

 Probation: It means the release of an offender from detention, subject to a

period of good behaviour under supervision.

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Material 271
Application of Community  Advocacy: It is an activity by an individual or group that aims to influence
Organization in Different
Fields decisions within political, economic, and social systems and institutions.
 Community health: It encompasses the entire gamut of community
organized efforts for maintaining, protecting and improving the health of the
NOTES
people.

14.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What is industrial social work?
2. What is the meaning of community chest?
3. Write a short-note on the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss how community organization is applied in a correctional and industrial
setting
2. Describe the various strategies of community organization.
3. Explain how community organization has been applied in the health sector
in India.

14.10 FURTHER READINGS

Ecklein, J. 1984. Community Organizers. New York: Wiley Publications.

Lindeman, E. 1921. The Community: An Introduction to the Study of
Community Leadership and Organization. New York: Association Press.
Ross, M.G. 1967. Community Organization: Theory, Principle and Practice.
New York: Harper and Row.
Rothman, J. 1968. ‘Three Models of Community Organization Practice’ in
Social Work Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rothman, J., Erlich, J. L. and Tropman, J. E. with Cox, F.M. (eds.). 1995.
Strategies of Community Intervention, Fifth Edition. Itasca, Illinois:
Peacock Publishers.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.
Siddiqui, H.Y. 1997. Working with Communities: An Introduction to
Community Work. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

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300 036 – IDUKIARA
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NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
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II - Semester