INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Theory of Production Processes - I

MIN-216

Unit 2
Advanced Manufacturing Processes
By
Prof. Navneet Arora
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee - 247667
Advanced Machining Processes

Non-conventional Machining Methods:

• More correctly known as advanced machining methods
• Called non-conventional means conventional tools are not
employed for metal cutting
• Does not involve plastic deformation and the formation of
chips

Basic Reasons to Opt for Advanced Machining Methods:

• New materials with a low machinability
• Dimensions and accuracy requirements
• A higher production rate and economy

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Advanced Machining Processes

A. New Materials with a low machinability

• In industries like Aeronautics, nuclear reactor, automobile,
space research, missile, turbine etc. demand is for materials
having High Strength, Temperature Resistant Materials i.e.
having High Strength to Weight Ratio.
• So the Materials like Titanium, Stainless Steels, Nimonics,
Super alloys, Fibre-reinforced Composites, Tungsten
Carbide, Stellites (Cobalt based alloys), Ceramic etc. used,
which have high strength, hardness, toughness etc. but need
improved Tool materials than used in conventional
machining.
• There is a difficulty in finding such hard and strong tool
materials, that is why we need advanced manufacturing
methods to machine these new materials.
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Advanced Machining Processes

B. Dimensional Accuracy and Requirements:

• Accuracy achieved is better in advanced machining
processes, because material is removed in the form of atoms
or molecules individually or in groups i.e. ultra-precision
machining
• Production of complex shapes in above mentioned materials
is still more difficult
• Other requirements:
- Better Surface Finish
- Low value of Tolerances
- Non-circular Holes
C. A higher production rate & economy

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Advanced Machining Processes

Drawbacks in Conventional Machining Methods:

• These methods involve removal of metal by compression shear
chip formation but has Inherent drawbacks :
1. Chips: - Unwanted by-product
– The process is difficult as the removal, disposal & recycling of
chips is a very cumbersome procedure
2. Large Cutting Forces:
Heat generation in large amount at tool workpiece interface
causes undesirable deformation and residual stresses in workpiece.
Moreover, proper holding of w/p to avoid distortion is must due to
involvement of very large cutting forces.
3. Complex shapes & delicate components like Electronic Chips
are not possible to be produced by these methods eg. drilling a
non-circular or micro hole, producing holes & slots (both through
and blind) in glasses and semiconductors.
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Advanced Machining Processes

Classification of Advanced Machining Processes:

Table (next slide) shows classification of the possible
processes on the basis of
- Different types of energies,
- Mechanics of material removal,
- Energy source etc.

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7
Advanced Machining Processes

SCOPE:
1. Mechanical energy type:
- Conventional machining
- USM (Ultrasonic Machining)
- AJM (Abrasive Jet Machining)
Performance of these processes depends upon
– Hardness
– Strength
– Physical and mechanical properties of work
material

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Advanced Machining Processes

2. Thermoelectric Type:
Energy supplied in the form of
• Heat (PAM) Rough process
• Light (LBM)
• Electron bombardment (EBM) Precise
• Electric spark(EDM) (electrically conductive material is a
limitation. Surface finish is not so good and MRR is low.)
• Chemical (ChM) etching process – Very low MRR, Suitable
etchant is problem
• Electro-chemical (ECM) - Wide field of application, High
MRR, independent of physical and mechanical properties of
workpiece, but w/p should be electrically conductive

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 Advanced Machining Processes

3. Hybrid Processes:
• To enhance the capabilities of the machining processes, two
or more than two machining processes are combined to take
advantage of the worthiness of the constituent processes.
• Conventional grinding:
– Good surface finish, Low values of tolerance
– But is associated with Burrs, HAZ and Residual Stresses
• Solution is Electrochemical grinding
Electro chemical spark machining,
Electro chemical arc machining,
Electro discharge abrasive grinding

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Advanced Machining Processes

Limitations (Advanced Machining Processes)

• Performance may depend upon

Thermal/Electrical/Chemical properties of workpiece
• In general MRR is low
• Initial Investment is High

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Advanced Machining Processes

CASES: How will you decide to recommend a specific

advanced machining process for-
A. Cutting a glass plate into two pieces
(By elimination process one should arrive at the particular process to be used)
1. Glass is electrically non-conductive, hence certain
processes ECM, EDM, PAM, EBM are ruled out because
they can’t be employed for electrically non-conductive w/p.
2. LBM can be ignored being an expensive process
3. Chemical Machining need not to be considered because it
is for very special applications
4. WJM is usually for comparatively softer materials
5. AJM, USM can be applied depending upon the size of
workpiece and kind of accuracy required
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Advanced Machining Processes

B. Making a hole in a mild steel workpiece

1. Drop chemical machining
2. AJM, USM more suitable for comparatively harder materials
i.e. Drop
3. Being electrically conductive ECM, EDM, LBM, EBM, PAM
can be employed
• At this point, one should know the requirements of the hole
in terms of dimension, tolerances and surface integrity
• If it is not a micro-hole one can easily adopt ECM or EDM
• If high surface integrity is required, ECM should be used and
so on

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 AJM
(Abrasive Jet Machining)

14
Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

1. Material removal takes place due to impingement of the fine

abrasive particles
2. Particles move with a high speed air or inert gas

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Mechanics of Material Removal

17
Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Jet Diameter = 0.2-0.3 mm

Size of abrasive particle = 0.025 mm (10-50 micro meter)
Abrasives used:
- Al2O3 (Aluminium oxide),
- SiC (Silicon carbide),
- Glass beads,
- Crushed glass,
- Sodium bicarbonate etc.
Selection depends upon:
– Type of work material
– MRR
– Machining accuracy desired

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Abrasive Selection
• Al2O3 - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring
• SiC - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring but for harder
material
• Sodium Bicarbonate - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring
but for softer material
• Glass beads – Good for finishing
• Crushed glass - Good for sharper edges
Reuse of Abrasive
It gives low cost but
• Cutting capacity decreases after the first application
• Contamination may clog the small orifices in the nozzle

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• Ref. Fig. Scheme of material removal in AJM (slide no. 17)

• When an abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a
high velocity, the impact causes a tiny brittle fracture and the
following air (or gas) carries away the dislodged small work
piece particle (wear particle)
• It is obvious that the process is more suitable when the work
material is brittle and fragile.

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Parametric Analysis: Important parameters that affect the

material removal rate during AJM are :
• Stand-Off Distance (SOD) or Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD)
• Type and size of abrasive particles
• Flow Rate of Abrasive
• Gas Pressure
• Work Material
• Feed Rate

Process Parameters can be evaluated by judging:

– MRR
– Geometry of Cut
– Roughness of surface produced
– Rate of nozzle wear

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Stand Off Distance (SOD):

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Fig. Photograph of actual

machined cavity profile at
different SODs(a) 2 mm
(b) 6 mm (c) 10 mm (d) 14
mm (e) 16 mm (f) 20 mm
DP= 30 μm, α = 0.148,
nozzle pressure
=147.15kN/m2 (gauge),
and cutting time = 60s

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• A decrease in SOD improves accuracy decreases kerf width,

reduces taper in machined groove.
• Light operation like cleaning, frosting etc. are conducted with
a large SOD.
Abrasive Flow Rate:

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• Fig. shows that MRR (mg/min) increases upto a certain

value of abrasive flow rate beyond which it starts decreasing
Why? As abrasive flow rate increase

No. of abrasive particles cutting the W/P i.e. MRR

However, with a further increase in abrasive flow rate (other
parameters remaining unchanged), the abrasive flow velocity
goes down. This decrease in abrasive flow velocity causes a
reduction in MRR.

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Nozzle Pressure:

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Advanced Machining Processes……Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• K.E. of the abrasive particles is responsible for removal of

material by erosion process
• Abrasive must impinge on the w/p surface with a certain
minimum velocity so that the erosion can take place eg.
minimum velocity for machining glass by SiC particles is
found to be around 150 m/s

Mixing Ratio: M = Mixing ratio = Va/Vg

M = (Vol. flow rate of abrasive particles)/ (Vol. flow rate of

carrier gas)
An in M results in MRR

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Advanced Machining Processes……Mechanics of AJM

• But large value of M may decrease jet velocity & sometimes

may block the nozzle i.e. an optimum is to be sought.

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Advanced Machining Processes……Mechanics of AJM

Process Capabilities:
• Although AJM gives low MRR, but it can easily :
– Produce intricate details in hard and brittle materials
– Production of narrow slots 0.12 to 0.25 mm
– Low tolerance -0.12 to +0.12 mm
– Good surface finish 0.25 – 1.25 micron
– Sharp radius 0.2 mm on machined edge
are some of characteristics of AJM.
• Steels upto 1.5 mm thick and Glass upto 6.3 mm thick have
been possible to cut
• Thinner sectioned brittle materials are cut
• Surface damage is insignificant as heat generation is very
low

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Advanced Machining Processes……Applications of AJM

Applications:
• Manufacturing of electronics devices
• Deburring of plastics
• Making Nylon and Teflon parts
• Marking an electronic products
• Permanent marking of rubber stencils
• Cutting Titanium foil
• Drilling Glass wafers

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Advanced Machining Processes……Problems on AJM

Problem: In Tutorial Class

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 USM
(Ultrasonic Machining)

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• It is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process

• It is employed to machine hard and/or brittle materials both
electrically conductive and non-conductive
• It uses a –
– Shaped tool
– High frequency mechanical motion
– Abrasive slurry

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• In USM, a cutting tool oscillates at high frequency (about 20

KHz or KC/s) in an abrasive slurry
• The tool has the same shape as the cavity to be machined
• There is a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small
gap between the tool and the work surface (the gap is
0.02 – 0.01 mm)
• The tool is uniformly fed with a uniform force.
• The impact of hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and
brittle work surface, resulting in the removal of the work
material in the form of small wear particles which are carried
away by the abrasive slurry

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Working Principle:
Consider a particle p is
thrown on the wax wall with
a certain force F1, it will
penetrate into the wall to
length l1
If same particle is thrown
with force F2 and F3
(F3>F2>F1), then it will
penetrate deeper in the wall
l3>l2>l1
In USM, the throwing force is
contributed by tool oscillating
at ultrasonic frequency
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Process Parameters:
– Frequency
– Amplitude
– Static Loading (Feed Force)
– Hardness Ratio of the Tool and the Workpiece
– Grain Size
– Concentration of abrasive in the slurry
Variation of MRR with Feed Force:
As the value of Feed Force F MRR
But in actual practice, the MRR decreases after some value of
F because the abrasive grains get crushed under heavy load.

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

3 1 3
𝑑 𝐹4 𝐶4𝐴4
Q∝ 3 .ν where Q is volume of work material
3/4
𝐻𝑤 (1+λ)4
removal rate
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

ν – Frequency

d – Spherical abrasive grain diameter

Hw – Brinell Hardness of Work

F – Mean static feed force

A – Amplitude of oscillation of the tool

λ = ht/hw
where ht & hw – Indentation caused in tool and work resp.

C – Concentration of abrasive grain in slurry

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

MRR increases linearly with the frequency but actual

characteristics is not exactly linear
Amplitude MRR for different frequencies

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Static Loading (Feed Rate) MRR as explained earlier,

MRR decreases beyond a certain value of force as the grains
start getting crushed
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

As the ratio of workpiece hardness to tool hardness increases

the MRR decreases.
Table: Indicates the brittleness of work material plays a
dominant role apart from hardness
(For given ν-16.3 kHz, A-12.5 μm and Grain Size-100 mesh)
Work Material Relative Removal Rate
Glass 100
Brass 6.6
Tungsten 4.8
Titanium 4
Steel 3.9
Chrome Steel 1.4
• A more brittle material is machined more rapidly
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ref Fig. a, The MRR with mean grain dia ‘d’

However, when ‘d’ becomes too large and approaches the
magnitude of the amplitude A, the crushing tendency increases
& MRR decreases.
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• Ref. Fig. b, It shows the variation for B4C and SiC with
Abrasive Concentration C (%).
• Here, concentration directly controls the no. of grains
producing impact per cycle and also the magnitude of each
impact, the MRR is expected to depend on C
• In expression for Q also - MRR ∝ C1/4 it is not ∝C
• The increasing trend of MRR is very low after C has crossed
30% and further increase in concentration does not help.

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

MRR as Viscosity

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• Fig. a, gives
Variation of MRR with viscosity (of Fluid used for slurry)
• MRR as viscosity

• MRR is very important for judging USM performance

• For proper evaluation quality of finish obtained has also to be
considered.
• The fig. b, shows dependence of surface finish on grain size,
one can observe here that the surface finish is much more
sensitive to the grain size in case of glass. Because for a
high hardness (Tungsten carbide) the size of fragments
dislodged through a brittle fracture does not depend much on
the size of the impacting particles.
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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic Machining Unit

The important components of the unit are :

1. Acoustic Head
2. Feeding Unit
3. Tool
4. Abrasive Slurry and Pump Unit
5. Body with work table

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

1. ACOUSTIC HEAD
• The most important part
• Function - To produce a vibration in the tool
• It consists of a generator for supplying a high frequency
electric current, a transducer to convert this into a
mechanical motion in the form of a high frequency vibration,
a holder to hold the head and a concentrator to mechanically
amplify the vibration while transmitting it to the tool
 Purpose of concentrator
• To increase the amplitude to the level needed for cutting
• Various types of concentrator used are eg. exponential,
conical, stepped.

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

2. FEEDING UNIT

Objective - To apply the working force during the machining

operation
Types
Various types of feed mechanisms are :
1. Counter weight type
2. Spring type
3. Pneumatic and hydraulic type
4. Motor type

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

3. TOOL
• Should be short and rigid, strong and ductile as well
• Material - Stainless Steel and Low Carbon Steel used for
making tool
• Aluminium and Brass tools wear 10 & 5 times faster than
Steel tools

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Advanced Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

4. ABRASIVE SLURRY
Most common abrasives are:
• B₄C (Boron Carbide) - best & most efficient but expensive
• SiC (Silicon Carbide) - on Glass, Germanium & few
Ceramics, but cutting time more 20-40% than with B₄C
• Al₂O₃ - Corundum
• Diamond - Cutting Diamond & Rubies
• Boron Sili-carbide

# Fluid in Slurry – Water

other fluids - Benzene, Glycerol, Oils etc.

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 ECM
(Electrochemical Machining)

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ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING

• Process is new, but basic principle is known since a long time i.e.
reverse of electroplating. It is based on the principle of electrolysis.
• In electroplating, the objective is to deposit metal on the work
piece. Here, in ECM objective is to remove the metal.
• The w/p is connected to +ve (Anode) and Tool to –ve ( Cathode)

56
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

• The above fig. shows a workpiece and a suitably-shaped

tool, the gap between the tool and workpiece being full of
suitable electrolyte. When the current is passed the
dissolution of the anode occurs.
• However, the dissolution rate is more where the gap is less
and vice versa, as the current density is inversely
proportional to the gap.
57
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• Now, if the tool is given a downward motion, the work
surface tend to take the same shape as that of the tool, and
at a steady state, the gap is uniform. Thus, the shape of the
tool is reproduced in the job.
• The electrolyte is pumped at a high pressure through the tool
and the small gap between the tool and the workpiece. The
gap is say 0.05 - 0.30 mm. (Fig. below)

58
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
An Electrolyte performs three basic functions:
1.Completing the electrical circuit and allowing the large current
to pass
2. Sustaining the required electrochemical reactions
3. Carrying away the heat generated and the waste product.
• 1st Function requires – it should have a large electrical
conductivity
• 2nd Function requires – it should be such that at anode the
work piece is continuously dissolved and deposition of metal
ions on the cathode should not occur.
• Moreover, it must be chemically stable, inexpensive, safe, as
non-corrosive as possible

59
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
TYPES

Alloy (workpiece) Electrolyte

• Iron based Chloride solutions in water (mostly
20% NaCl)
• Nickel based HCl or mixture of brine & H₂SO₄
• Titanium based 10% each hydrofluoric acid + HCl
+ HNO₃
• Co-Cr-W based NaCl
• WC based Strong alkaline solutions

60
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Effect of ECM on Workpiece
• In contrast with the conventional machining process, the
material removal during ECM is smooth and gentle. As a
result, the maximum residual compressive stress is very low
in the workpiece surface.
• Moreover, the depth of work hardened surface layer is
negligible. When the depth of the work hardened surface
layer is about 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm for turning and milling
respectively, that in ECM is about 0.001 mm.
• Similarly, the order of magnitude of residual stresses in a
surface machined by a conventional process is about 50
kg/mm2, whereas that with ECM it is almost zero.

61
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Effect of ECM on Workpiece (contd.)
# The parts produced with ECM are having lower fatigue
strength (10-25 %). This is because the micro-crack tips are
exposed at the surface produced by ECM and also because
the process leaves the stress free surface.
• For increasing the fatigue strength, some mechanical
process example mechanical polishing, glass bead blasting,
vapour blasting can be used.

OTHER RELATED PROCESSES

• Electro-chemical Grinding
• Electro-stream Drilling
• Electro-chemical Reburring

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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
APPLICATIONS
• Mainly in Aerospace Industry, Nuclear Technology, Space
Vehicles, Automobiles, Turbines etc.
• Machining large sized components made of hard and difficult
to machine materials
• Drilling long holes
• Generation of three-dimensional surfaces
• Profiling of odd shapes
• Multiple-hole drilling

63
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
ADVANTAGES
• Can machine highly complicated and curved surfaces in a
single-pass
• Tool life is very high (At least theoretically)
• Machinability of workpiece is independent of its physical and
mechanical properties
• Production of stress-free and burr-free surface having good
surface finish.

64
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
LIMITATIONS
• Its use is restricted to electrically conductive work materials
• Accuracy of machined component depends upon the factors
like
- Tool Design,
- Degree of the process control imposed,
- Complexity in the shapes produced
• Machining of materials consisting of hard spot, inclusions,
sand and scale present some practical difficulties
• Cannot produce edges and sharp corners (say limit is 0.2
mm radius)
• Large floor space requirement and
• High capital cost
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 EDM
(Electro Discharge Machining)

66
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)

# Energy Type - Thermal

# Source - Electric Spark - EDM
- High Speed Electron - EBM
- Powerful Radiation - LBM
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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• When discharge takes place between two points of the
anode and the cathode, the intense heat is generated
• Heat energy of a spark is used to remove material from the
workpiece
• Workpiece and tool should be made of electrically
conductive material
• A spark is produced between the two electrodes (W/P and
Tool) and its location is determined by the narrowest gap
between the two. Workpiece is normally made anode (Because
the electrode connected to positive terminal erodes at a faster rate).
• Duration of each spark is short, Entire cycle time is usually few
microseconds.

68
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Working Principle (contd.)
• Frequency of sparking may be as high as thousands of
sparks per second.
• Area over which spark is effective is also very small. Spark
occurs at the spot where tool and workpiece surfaces are the
closest. Therefore, spark travels all over the surface.
• However, the temperature of the area under the spark is very
high (8,000-12,000°C).
• As a result, the spark energy is capable of partly melting and
partly vaporizing materials from localised area on both the
electrodes i.e. workpiece and tool.
• Material is removed in the form of craters which spread over
the entire surface of the workpiece.
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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Working Principle (contd.)
• Finally, the cavity produced in the workpiece is
approximately the replica of the tool.
• To have machined cavity as replica of the tool, the tool wear
should be zero.

70
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Tool Electrode
• During EDM, the tool also get eroded due to the sparking
action. Therefore, it should have good wear characteristics
eg. graphite. However, for small sized batches tool of
cheaper material can be used i.e. Cu, Brass etc.

Requirements of Dielectric Fluid:

• Should have sufficient and stable dielectric strength (to serve as
insulation between electrode and the tool).
• Should take minimum possible time to breakdown i.e. ignition
delay time once the breakdown voltage is reached.
• Should deionize rapidly after the spark discharge has taken
place.

71
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Requirement of Dielectric Fluid (contd.)
• Should have low viscosity (High degree of fluidity)
• Should be Chemically neutral (so as not to attack the
electrode and workpiece)
• Its flash point should be sufficiently high (to avoid any fire
hazard)
• Should serve as an effective cooling medium
• Should not emit any toxic vapour or have unpleasant odour
• Easily available in market at a reasonable price.

72
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Requirement of Dielectric Fluid (contd.)
• These qualities are generally found in the hydrocarbon oils
such as kerosene. Other dielectrics are - paraffin oils, Silicon
oils, deionized water (high MRR but corrosion), polar liquids
eg. ethylene glycol.

• High dielectric strength means it should remain electrically

non-conductive until the required breakdown voltage
between the electrode is attained.

• Filtration before recirculation is highly essential. Say use cotton

yarn cartridges, otherwise the insulation quality is affected.

• Dielectric Flushing - to remove by-products from gap is must.

73
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Process Variables and MRR (see next slide)
• Fig - Material removal rate characteristics in EDM
• Fig - Dependence of surface finish of capacitance
Q = K*(Vd)²/(2*R*ln[Vₒ/(Vₒ-Vd)]
– R - Resistance
– Q - MRR
– K - Constant of proportionality denoting fraction of power effectively
used in material removal
– Vo - DC source voltage
– Vd - Voltage across Tool-Work gap
• Q increases as R decreases
• Hence, resistance cannot be decreased below a critical
value as otherwise arcing instead of sparking will take place.
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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
RC Relaxation Circuit
Here capacitance C is changed
through a variable resistance R
by the DC source of voltage V0

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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Applications
• EDM can be employed to machine any material (hard, tough,
brittle, exotic etc.) provided it has some minimum conductivity
• Hardened Steel dies
• Aerospace/ automobile tools
• Through cavities and miniature holes
• Used for making dies for moulding, casting, forging, stamping,
coining, forming etc. and dies for extruding, wire drawing which
requires through holes
• Employed for tiny holes, orifices (say 50 micron), fragile features
(micro-sized slots)
• EDM can be employed after heat treatment and one can choose
better die material without worrying about its machining problem

76
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Applications (contd.)
• It can be used to produce shapes which are extremely
difficult to make otherwise, viz. squares, ‘D’ holes, splines,
narrow slot and grooves, blended features.
• As no mechanical forces act as in conventional machining,
hence the EDM can be employed to machine thin and fragile
component without any danger of damage due to such
forces.

77
 EBM
(Electron Beam Machining)

78
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• In EBM process, the surface of thermo-electronic cathode is
heated to such a high temperature that the electron acquire
sufficient speed to escape out to the space around the
cathode.
• The stream of these large number of electrons moves as a
small diameter beam of electrons towards the anode.
• The high velocity beam of electrons strikes the workpiece.
The kinetic energy of electrons converts into heat, which is
responsible for melting and vaporization of workpiece
material.
• EBM can machine electrically conducting as well as non-
conducting materials.

79
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Before machining starts vacuum is created in the machining
chamber.
• Diameter of electron beam focused onto the work should be
slightly smaller than the desired hole diameter.

80
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

81
Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
EBM System : Three important elements of EBM system are
• Electron Beam Gun
• Power Supply
• Vacuum System and Machining Chamber
1. Electron Beam Gun
• Used to produce electron beam of desired shape and to
focus at the predetermined location
• A superheated cathode (Tungsten Filament type) generates
the electrons cloud
• Due to force of repulsion from the cathode, electrons move
at a very high acceleration towards anode which attracts
them.

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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
EBM System (contd.)
• Velocity with which electron pass through the anode is
approximately 66% that of light.
• On the path of electrons, there is a kind of switch which
generates the pulses.
• A magnetic lens is used to shape the electron beam into a
converging beam.
• The deflection coils are used to control the beam movement
in any required manner.
2. Power Supply
• The power supply generates a voltage as high as 150kV to
accelerate the electrons.
• Thus, electron velocity achieved is 228,478 km/sec.
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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
EBM system (contd. )
• EBM gun is usually operated at 12kW.
• Power density at the work surface is too high that is why it is
capable to melt and vaporize the workpiece material.
3. Vacuum System and Machining Chamber
• The electron beam generation, its travel in the space and
resulting machining takes place in a vacuum chamber.
• The vacuum does not allow rapid oxidation of incandescent
filament and there is no loss of energy of electrons as a
result of collision with air molecules.
• The vacuum in the chamber is of the order of 10‾⁴ to 10‾⁵
torr.

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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
EBM Process Parameters
1. Beam current 100µA - 1A,
2. Pulse duration 50µs – 10ms
3. Lens current and
4. Signals for the deflection of beam
• These parameters can be controlled during EBM with the help of a
computer.
# Beam current governs energy/pulse being supplied to w/p.
• Higher the energy/pulse more rapidly the hole can be drilled.
# Pulse duration is varied depending upon the depth and diameter of the
hole to be drilled.
• Drilling using longer pulse duration results in a wider & deeper drilled
hole.
• Lens current - its magnitude determine the working distance (distance
between the electron beam gun and focal point)
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 Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
LIMITATIONS
• Skilled operator needed
• Very high temperature gradient would result in residual
thermal stresses
• High cost of equipment
• EBM is to be carried out in vacuum chamber (to eliminate
collision of the electron with gas molecules)
• High energy required

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Advanced Machining Processes…
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Applications
• Material application - All materials
• Popular in industries like aerospace, food processing,
chemical etc.
• Perforation of sheets (hundreds to thousands of holes to be drilled easily)
• Drilling small diameter holes (less than 1mm say upto 0.05 mm),
eg. used for turbine engine combustor domes and Cobalt
alloy fiber spinning head
• Depth to diameter ratio more than 100:1
• Making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors
• Holes in wire drawing dies, Cooling holes in turbine blades,
Holes in filters and screen used in food processing industries
• Drilling with EBM is 100 times faster than EDM
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 LBM
(LASER Beam Machining)

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Advanced Machining Processes…
LASER Beam Machining (LBM)
• LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
• Laser is a highly coherent beam of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelength varying from 0.1-70.0 µm
• For machining operation effectively usable wavelength range
is 0.4-0.6 µm
# In school days - game - sun rays focused by a lens to
burn a piece of paper
- Energy density achieved = 1W/mm²
# In same way - laser beam be focused on diamond – energy
density achieved may be = 1000W/mm² and it can melt &
even vaporize the diamond.

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Advanced Machining Processes…
LASER Beam Machining (LBM)
Types of LASERS
1. Solid State Laser - Ruby and Nd (Neodymium) : glass - for
light work
2. Gas Laser - CO₂, He, N₂ act as lasing medium - more
power
# Laser uses the light energy
– which is monochromatic ( theoretically light has a single wavelength)
– collimated ( light rays in the beam are almost perfectly parallel)
from a laser to remove material by evaporation and ablation
# The light beam is pulsed so that the released energy results
in an impulse against the work surface that produces a
combination of evaporation and melting.

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Advanced Machining Processes…
LASER Beam Machining (LBM)
• LBM is used to perform various types of drilling, slitting,
slotting, scribing, and marking operations
• Diameter of holes possible down to 0.025 mm
• Range of material that can be machined - unlimited
• Ideal properties of the material to be machined should
include following:
1. High Light Energy Absorption
2. Poor Reflectivity
3. Good Thermal Conductivity
4. Low Specific Heat
5. Low Fusion Heat
6. Low Vaporization Heat

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Advanced Machining Processes…
LASER Beam Machining (LBM)
• Of course no material has this ideal combination of
properties. The actual list includes material with high
hardness and strength :
1. Soft Metals
2. Ceramic
3. Glass and glass epoxy
4. Plastics
5. Rubber
6. Cloth
7. Wood

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 PAM
(Plasma Arc Machining)

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Advanced Machining Processes
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

• A gas molecule at room temperature is consist of two or more

atoms
• When such a gas is heated to a high temperature of the order of
2000ºC or so, the molecules separate out as atoms
• If the temperature is raised to 3000ºC, the electron from some of
the atoms dissociate and the gun becomes ionized consisting of
Ions and electrons. This is state of gas is known as plasma.
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Advanced Machining Processes
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
• A gas in plasma state (also known as fourth state of matter)
becomes electrically conductive as well as responsive to
magnetism
• The source of heat generation in plasma is the
recombination of electrons and ions into atoms or
recombination of atoms into molecules
• Temperature of Plasma can be of order of 33,000ºC
• When such a high temperatures source reacts with work
material, the work material melts out and may even vaporize
• Plasma arc machining can be used on all materials which
conduct electricity including those which are resistant to
oxyfuel gas cutting (example aluminium)

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Advanced Machining Processes
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
Plasma Arc Systems : There are two modes
1. Non-transferred arc
2. Transferred arc

1. Non-Transferred Arc Mode

• Power is transferred between electrode and nozzle
• Thermal efficiency is low 65-75%
• Workpiece may be electrically conductive or non conductive

2. Transferred Arc Mode

• Arc is maintained between electrode and electrically
conductive workpiece
• Electrical thermal efficiency is 85-90%
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Advanced Machining Processes
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
• Oxy-fuel system can cut the plates up to a definite thickness,
beyond which plasma arc cutting system can do the job.
• In case of thick plates, plasma arc cutting is much more
economical than oxy-fuel system.

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