Organs of the Digestive System

Organs of Alimentary Canal

 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestines
 Anus
  Tonsils
 Palatine tonsil
 Lingual tonsil

Process of mouth
 Mastication(chewing) of food
 Mixing masticated food with saliva
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste

Pharynx Anatomy

 Nasopharynx- not part of the digestive system

 Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
 Laryngopharynx – below the oropharynx and connective to esophagus
Pharynx Function
 Serves as a passageway for air and food
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layer
 Longitudinal inner layer
 Circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)

Esophagus
 Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
 Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)

Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

 Mucosa
 Inner most layer
 Moist membrane
 Surface epithelium
 Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
 Small smooth muscle layer
 Submucosa
 Just beneath the mucosa
 Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatics
 Muscularis externa- smooth muscle
 Inner circular layer
 Outer longitudinal layer
 Serosa
 Outermost layer- visceral peritoneum
 Layer of serous fluid- producing cells
Stomach anatomy

 Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity

 Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
 Regions of the stomach
 Cardiac region- near the heart
 Fundos
 Body
 Phylorus- funnel-shaped terminal end
 Food empties into the small intestines at the pyloric sphincler
 Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
 External regions
 Lesser curvature
 Greater curvature
 Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
 Lesser omentum- attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
 Greater omentum- attaches the greater curvature to the posterior body wall
 Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs

Stomach anatomy

Stomach functions
 Acts as storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
 Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
 Simple columnar epithelium
 Mucous neck cells- produce a sticky alkaline mucus
 Gastric glands- secrete gastric juice
 Chief cells- produce protein-digesting enzymes(pepsnogens)
 Parietal cells- produce hydrochloric acid
 Endocrine cells- produce gastrin

Structure of the stomach mucosa

 Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
 Glands and specialized cells are in the gastric gland
region

Small intestines
 The body’s major digestive organ
 Site of nutrient absorption onto the blood
 Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery

Subdivisions of the small intestines

 Duodenum
 Attached to the stomach
 Curves around the head of the pancreas
 Jejunum
 Attaches anteriority to the duodenum
 Ilium
 Extends from jejunum to the large
intestines
Chemical digestion in the small intestines
 Source of enzymes that are not mixed with
chyme
 Intestinal cells
 Pancreas
 Bile enters from the gall bladder
 Villi of the small intestine
 Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
 Give the small intestines more surface are

Microvilli of the small intestine

 Small projections of the plasma membrane
 Found in absorption cell

Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients

 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries
 Lacteals ( specialized lymphatic capillaries)
Folds of the Small Intestine
 Called circular folds or plicae circulares
 Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
 Do not disappear when filled with food
 The submucosa has Peyer’s patches (collection of
lymphatic tissue)

Large Intestines
 Large in diameter, but shorter than the small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen
 Larger diameter, but shorter than the small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen
Functions of the Large Intestines
 Absorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces
 Does not participate in digestion of food
 Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a lubricant

Structures of the Large Intestines

 Cecum-saclike first part of the large intestines
 Appendix
 Accumulate of the lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed
 Hangs from the cecum
 Colon
 Ascending
 Transverse
 Descending
 S-shaped sigmoidal
 Rectum
 Anus- external body opening

Modifications of the Muscularis Externa in the Large Intestines

 Smooth muscle is reduced to three bands (teniae coli)
 Muscle bands have some degree of tone
 Walls are formed into pocketlike sacs called haustra

Accessory Digestive Organs

 Salivary glands
 Teeth
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gall bladder

Salivary Glands
Saliva- producing glands
 Parotid glands- located anterior to ears
 Submandibular glands
 Sublingual glands
 Mixture of mucus and serious fluids
 Help to form a food bolus
  Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
 Dissolves chemical so they can be tasted

Teeth
 The role is to masticate(chew) food
 Humans have two sets of teeth
 Deciduous (baby or milk)
 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
 Permanent teeth
 Replace deciduous teeth beginning between the ages of 6 to 12
 A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth

Classification of teeth
 Incisors
 Canines
 Premolars
 Molars

Regions of a teeth
 Crown- exposed part
 Outer enamel
 Dentin
 Pulp cavity
 Neck
 Region in contact with the gum
 Connects crown to root
 Root
 Periodontal membrane attached to the bone
 Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves

Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
 Endocrine products of pancreas
 Insulin
 Glucagons
 Liver
 Largest glands in the body
 Located on the right side of the body under diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
 Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic duct

Bile
 Produced by cells in the liver
 Composition
 Biles salts
 Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
 Electrolytes
Gall bladder
 Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
 Stores bile from the liver by way of the cystic duct
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the presence of fatty food
 Gallstones can cause blockages
Process of the Digestive System
 Ingestion- getting food into the mouth
 Propulsion- moving food from one region of the digestive system to another
 Peristalsis- alternating waves of contraction
 Segmentation- moving materials back and forth to aid in mixing
 Mechanism digestion
 Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestines
 Chemical digestion
 Enzymes breakdown food molecules into their building blocks
 Each major food group uses different enzymes
 Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
 Protein are broken to amino acids
 Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols

 Absorption
  End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
 Food must enter mucosal calls and then into blood or lymph capillaries
 Defecation
 Elimination of indigestible substances as faces

Process of the Digestive System

Control of digestive activity

 mostly controlled by reflexes via the perasymphathetic division
 chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
 Stimuli include:
 stretch of the organ
 pH of the contents
 pressure of breakdown products
 Reflexes include:
 Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
 Smooth muscle activity
 Mechanical breakdown
 Food is physically broken down by chewing
 Chemical digestion
 Food is mixed with saliva
 Breaking of starch into by salivary amylase

Activities of the pharynx and esophagus

 These organs have no digestive function
 Serve as passageways to the stomach
Deglutition (Swallowing)
 Buccal phase
 Voluntary
 Occurs in the mouth
 Food is formed into a bolus
 The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue
 Pharyngeal- esophageal phase
 Involuntary transport of the bolus
 All passageways except to the stomach are
 blocked
 Tongue blocks off the mouth
 Soft palate (uvula) blocks the
 nasopharynx
 Epiglottis blocks the larynx
 Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the
 stomach
 The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened
 when food presses against it

Food Breakdown in the Stomach

 Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors
 Presence of food or falling pH causes the release of gastrin
 Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce protein-digesting enzymes
 Hydrocholoric acid makes the stomach contains very acidic

Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment in the Stomach

 Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
 Provides a hostile environment for microorganism

Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach

 Protein digestion enzyme
 Pepsin – an active protein digesting enzyme
 Rennin – works on digesting milk protein
 The only absorption that occurs in the stomach is of alcohol and aspirin

Propulsion in the Stomach

 Food must first be well mixed
 Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower stomach
 The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine(30ml at a time)
 The stomach empties in four to six hour
Digestion in the Small Intestine
 Enzymes from the brush border
 Break double sugars into simple sugars
 Complete some protein digestion
 Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive function
 Help complete digestion of starch (pancreatic amylase)
 Carry out about half of all protein digestion (trypsin, etc.)

Digestion in the Small Intestine

 Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive function (continue)
 Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
 Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
 Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme

Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic juice

 Vagus nerve
 Local hormones
 Secretin
 Cholecystokinin

Absorption in the Small Intestine

 Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestines
 End products of digestion
 Most substances are absorbed by active transport through cell membranes
 Lipids are absorbed by diffusion substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal
vein or lymph
 Propulsion in the Small Intestine
 Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
 Segmental movements
 Mix chyme with digestive juices
 Aid in propelling food

Food Breakdown and Absorption in the large Intestine

 No digestive enzymes are produced
 Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
 Produce some vitamin K and B
 Release gases
 Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Propulsion in the Large Intestine

 Sluggish peristalsis
 Mass movements
 Slow, powerful movements
 Occur three to four times per day
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
 Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary(external) anal sphincter

Nutrition
 Nutrient – substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
 Categories of nutrients
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Vitamins
 Mineral
 Water

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

 Carbohydrates
 Most are derived from plants
 Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of glycogens from meat
 Lipids
 Saturated fats from animal products
 Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils
  Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

 Proteins
 Complete proteins – contain all essential amino acids
 Most are from animal products
 legumes and beans also have protein but are incomplete
 Vitamins
 Most vitamins are used as cofactors and act with enzymes
 Found in all major food groups

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrient

 Minerals
 Play many roles in the body
 Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meat
 Metabolism
 Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
 Catabolism – substances are broken down to simpler substances
 Anabolism – larger molecules are built from smaller ones
 Energy is released during catabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism
 The body’s preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
 Glucose (blood sugar) is the major breakdown product and fuel to make (ATP)
Cellular Respiration
Oxygen-using events take place within the cell to create ATP from ADP
 Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Hydrogen atoms are combined with oxygen to form water
 Energy produced by these reactions adds a phosphorus to ADP to produce ATP
 ATP can be broken down to release energy for cellular use
Metabolic Pathways Involved in Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis – energizes a glucose molecule so that it can be split into two pyruvic acid
molecules and yield ATP.