2.6.

TCP/IP Model – Application Layer

-The most widely-known known TCP/IP application layer protocols are those that provide for the
exchange of user information.
-These protocols specify the format and control information necessary for many of the common
Internet communication functions.

• HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

• FTP: File Transfer Protocol
• DNS: Domain Name System Protocol
• POP: Post Office Protocol
• SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• Telnet: Terminal emulation Protocol

2.7. Application Layer Software

-Within the application layer, there are two forms of software programs or processes that provide
access to the network:
-Network-Aware Applications:
Some end-user applications are network-aware, meaning that they implement the
application layer
protocols and are able to communicate directly with the lower layers of the protocol stack.
(Examples are email client and web browser) .
-Application Layer Services:
Other programs may need assistance of application layer services to use network resources.
(Examples are file transfer and network print spooling).

Each application or network service uses protocols which define the standards and data formats to
be used.
Without protocols, the data network would not have a common way to format and direct data.

2.8. Applications, Services and Protocols

-While applications provide people with a way to create messages
-Application layer services establish an interface to the network
-Protocols provide the rules and formats that govern how data is treated.

2.9. Application Layer Protocols

-In order for the communications to be successful, the application layer protocols implemented on
the source and destination host must match.
-Protocols establish consistent rules for exchanging data between applications and services loaded
on the participating devices.
-Many different types of applications communicate across data networks. Therefore, application
layer services must implement multiple protocols to provide the desired range of communication
experiences.
-Applications and services may also use multiple protocols in the course of a single conversation.

Protocol Functions
Protocols:
-Establish consistent rules for exchanging data between applications and services
loaded on the
participating devices.
-Specify how data inside the messages is structured and the types of messages that are
sent between
source and destination. These messages can be requests for services,
acknowledgments, data
messages, status messages, or error messages.
-Protocols also define message dialogues, ensuring that a message being sent is met by
the expected
response and the correct services are invoked when data transfer occurs.

3.1. Client-Server Model

-In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is called a client and the device
responding to the request is called a server.
-Client and server processes are considered to be in the application layer.
-Data transfer from a client to a server is referred to as an upload.
-Data from a server to a client as a download.

3.2. Servers
-Any device that responds to requests from client applications is functioning as a server.
-In a client/server network, the server runs a service or process, sometimes called a server daemon.
-Like most services, daemons typically run in the background and are not under an end user’s direct
control.
-When a daemon receives a request from a client, it exchanges appropriate messages with the
client, as required by its protocol, and proceeds to send the requested data to the client in the
proper format.
Examples: -httpd
-telnetd
-ftpd

3.3. Peer-to-Peer Model

-Peer-to-peer networking involves two distinct forms.
-Peer-to-peer network design
 - In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are connected via a network and
can share
resources (such as printers and files) without having a dedicated server.
-Every connected end device (known as a peer) can function as either a server or a
client.
-Peer-to-peer networks decentralize the resources on a network without using a
centralized server.

-Peer-to-peer applications (P2P)

-A peer-to-peer application (P2P), unlike a peer-to-peer network, allows a device to act as

both a client
and a server within the same communication.
-Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where resource sharing is decentralized but
the indexes
that point to resource locations are stored in a centralized directory.
-P2P applications can be used on P2P networks, client/server networks and across the
internet.

4.1. Some Specific Used Protocols

-The transport layer uses an addressing scheme called a port number.
-Port numbers identify applications and application layer services that are the source and
destination of data.
– DNS: Domain Name System – TCP/UDP Port 53
– HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol – TCP Port 80
– SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol – TCP Port 25
– POP: Post Office Protocol – UDP Port 110
– Telnet – TCP Port 23 – DHCP: -Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol – UDP Port 67 and 68

– FTP: File Transfer Protocol – TCP Ports 20 and 21

 Domain Name System (DNS)
-Domain names created to convert the numeric address into a simple, recognizable name (address
resolution).
-The DNS protocol defines an automated service that matches resource names with the required
numeric network address.
-It includes the format for queries, responses, and data formats.
-DNS is a client/server service but a bit different from others.
-The DNS client runs as a service itself.

-The DNS client, sometimes called DNS resolver, supports name resolution for our other network
applications and other services that need it. (TRY: nslookup)

-A DNS server provides the name resolution using the name daemon, which is called named (name-
dee).
-When a client makes a query, the server’s “named” process first looks at its own records to see if it
can resolve the name. If it is unable to resolve the name using its stored records, it contacts other
servers in order to resolve the name. Once a match is found and returned to the original requesting
server, the server temporarily stores the numbered address that matches the name in the cache.
Use c:\> ipconfig /displaydns command to display all of the cached DNS entries on a Windows
system.

-The DNS uses a hierarchical system to create a name database to provide name resolution.
The hierarchy looks like an inverted tree with the root at the top and branches below.
-At the top of the hierarchy, the root servers maintain records about how to reach the top-level
domain servers, which in turn have records that point to the secondary level domain servers and so
on.

4.7.WWW Service and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

-HTTP specifies a request/response protocol.

-When a client, typically a web browser, sends a request to a server, the HTTP protocol defines the
message types the client uses to request the web page and also the message types the server uses
to respond.
-The three common message types are:
- GET: a client’s request for data. A web browser sends the GET message to request pages from
a web server.
-POST and PUT: are used to send messages that upload data to the web server
-Response: HTTP/1.1 200 OK ;Or any other error message.

4.9. Email Services and SMTP/POP Protocols

-Post Office Protocol (POP) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) are involved in email
services.
-Users use an application called a Mail User Agent (MUA), or email client, to allow messages to be
sent and to place messages into the client’s mailbox.
-In order to receive email messages from an e-mail server, the MAU can use POP (inbound mail
delivery protocol). - Sending email from either a client or a server uses message formats and
command strings defined by the SMTP protocol (outbound mail delivery protocol).
-The email server operates two separate
processes:

Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)

-Mail Delivery Agent (MDA)

4.12. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP was developed to allow for file transfers between a client and a server.
-An FTP client is an application that runs on a computer that is used to push and pull files from a
server running the FTP daemon (FTPd).
-The client establishes the first connection to the server on TCP port 21. This connection is used for
control of traffic, consisting of client commands and server replies.
-The client establishes the second connection to the server over TCP port 20.
-This connection is for the actual file transfer and is created every time there is a file transferred.
-The file transfer can happen in either direction. The client can download (pull) a file from the
server or upload (push) a file to the server.

4.13. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

-The DHCP protocol enables devices on a network to obtain IP addresses and other information
from a DHCP server.
-This service automates the assignment of:
 • IP addresses,
• subnet masks,
• gateways
• and other IP networking parameters.

-The DHCP server maintains a pool of IP addresses and leases an address to any DHCP-enabled
client when the client is powered on.
-The client sends a DHCP DISCOVER packet to identify any available DHCP servers on the network.
- A DHCP server replies with a DHCP OFFER.
-The client may receive multiple DHCP OFFER packets if there is more than 1 DHCP server on the local
network, so it must choose between them. It then broadcasts a DHCP REQUEST packet that
identifies the explicit server and the lease offer that the client is accepting.
-Assuming that the IP address requested by the client, or offered by the server, is still valid, the
server would return a DHCP ACK message that acknowledges to the client the lease is finalized.

-If the offer is no longer valid –perhaps due to a time-out or another client allocating the lease –then
the selected server will respond with a DHCP NAK (Negative Acknowledge) message.
-If the client receives a DHCP NAK message, then he starts all over with a DHCP DISCOVER message.

4.16. File Sharing Service and Server Message Block (SMB)

The SMB is a client/server file sharing protocol.

- Unlike the file sharing supported by FTP, clients establish a long term connection to servers. Once
the connection is established, the user of the client can access the resources on the server as if the
resource is local to the client host.
- SMB file-sharing and print services have become the mainstay of Microsoft networking.

SMB messages can perform the following tasks:

■ Start, authenticate, and terminate sessions
■ Control file and printer access
■ Allow an application to send or receive messages to or from another device

-The LINUX and UNIX OS also provide a method for sharing resources with Microsoft networks using
a version of SMB called SAMBA.

4.17. P2P Services and Gnutella Protocol

-With P2P applications based on the Gnutella protocol, people can make files on their hard disks
available to others for downloading
-Many client applications are available for accessing the Gnutella network, including: BearShare,
Gnucleus, LimeWire, Morpheus, WinMX and XoloX.
-When a user is connected to a Gnutella service, the client applications will search for other
Gnutella nodes to connect to.
-These nodes handle queries for resource locations and replies to those requests.
-They also govern control messages, which help the service discover other nodes.
-The actual file transfers usually rely on HTTP services.

4.18. Telnet 30
-Telnet provides a standard method of emulating text-based terminal devices over the data
network.
- A connecting using Telnet is called a Virtual Terminal (VTY) session or connection.
-Rather then using a physical device to connect to the server, Telnet uses software to create a virtual
device that provides the same features of a terminal session with access to the server command
line interface (CLI).
-To support Telnet client connections, the server runs a service called the Telnet daemon. A virtual
terminal connection is established from an end device using a Telnet client application.
-If security is a concern, the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol offers an for server access

The following are some sample Telnet protocol commands:

■ Are You There (AYT): Enables the user to request that a response, usually a prompt icon,
appear on the
terminal screen to indicate that the VTY session is active.
■ Erase Line (EL): Deletes all text from the current line.
■ Interrupt Process (IP): Suspends, interrupts, aborts, or terminates the process to which the
virtual terminal is
connected. For example, if a user started a program on the Telnet server through the VTY, he or
she could send
an IP command to stop the program.

Chapter 4: Transport Layer

-Data networks and the Internet support the human network by supplying seamless, reliable
communication between people .
-On a single device, people can use multiple services such as e-mail, the web, and instant messaging
to send messages or retrieve information.
-The Transport layer is responsible for the overall end-to-end transfer of application data.
-The Transport layer also encompasses these functions:
-Enables multiple applications to communicate over the network at the same time on a
single device.
-Ensures that, if required, all the data is received reliably and in order by the correct
application.
-Employs error handling mechanisms

2.1. Purpose of the Transport layer

The processes described in the OSI transport layer accept data from the application layer and
prepare it for addressing at the network layer.

The Transport layer provides the segmentation of data and the control necessary to reassemble
these pieces into the various communication streams.
-Its primary responsibilities to accomplish this are:
-Tracking the individual communications between applications on the source and
destination hosts - to
maintain the multiple communication streams between these applications.
- Segmenting data and managing each piece – conversation multiplexing is possible
The transport layer has to break the data into smaller pieces, better suited for
transmission.
-Provides the means to both send and receive data when running multiple applications.

-Reassembling the segments into streams of application data.

The protocols at the transport layer describe how the transport layer header information
is used to
reassemble the data pieces into in-order data streams to be passed to the application
layer.
-Identifying the different applications - using port numbers
To pass data streams to the proper applications.
To accomplish this, the transport layer assigns an identifier to an application.(port
number)
-This port number is used in the transport layer header to indicate to which application
that piece of data
is associated.
- Each particular set of pieces flowing between a source application and a destination
application is
known as a conversation.
-The transport layer is the link between the application layer and the lower layers that are
responsible for
network transmission. This layer accepts data from different conversations and passes it
down to the
lower layers as manageable pieces that can be eventually multiplexed over the media.
-Their responsibility is to deliver data to the appropriate device. The transport layer then
sorts these pieces
before delivering them to the appropriate application.
- Performing flow control between end users
-Flow control can prevent the loss of segments on the network and avoid the need for
retransmission.
-Network hosts have limited resources, such as memory or bandwidth. When the
transport layer is aware
that these resources are overtaxed, some protocols can request that the sending
application reduce the
rate of data flow.
-Enabling error recovery
 -It is possible for a piece of data to become corrupted, or lost, as it is transmitted over the
network.
-The transport layer an ensure that all pieces reach their destination by having the source
device
retransmit data that is lost.
- Initiating a session
-The transport layer can provide connection orientation by creating a session between the
applications.
These connections prepare the applications to communicate with each other before any
data is
transmitted.The transport layer enables applications on devices to communicate,