CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the scholarly view on the subject matter are reviewed.

This chapter deals with the following sub-headings:

i. Conceptual Framework;

ii. Theoretical Framework.

iii. Literature on the Subject Matter;

2.1 Conceptual Framework

According to Awuku et. al (2011) agriculture is the science, art (skills)and

business of cultivating the soil, producing crops and raising farm animals. The

“science” aspect according to them is made up of all the knowledge concerning

agricultural production that enables us to understand and solve the problems in

agricultural production. The “art” is the doing aspect and consists of the skills

acquired and used by those engaged I some form of agricultural activity.

In another view Akinmade (2002) defined agriculture as the cultivation of

land to produce plants and animals of direct value to man. They added that

agricultural science part concerns molecules and processes of cell organism while

farming concerns populations (crops, herds enterprise eg. Milk production) of

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farms and agricultural economics concerning farming systems, marketing, national

policies, worlds trade etc.

In a similar view as Awuku et al, (2011), Akinmade (2002), referred to

agriculture as the cultivation of the soil, the production of crops and the raising of

livestock, poultry and fish useful to humans. It includes the relevant aspects of

production, processing, marketing and other aspects of the modern business of

agriculture.

Akinmade (2002) explains that agriculture is derived from the Latin words

“Ager” meaning field and “cultural” meaning cultivation. He then defines

agriculture as the production of plants and animals useful to man. According to

him, agriculture covers not only the cultivation of the soil and the feeding and

management of crops and livestock but also the preparation of plants and animal

products for marketing. Addo-Quaye et al (2005) did not see the need for farming.

Looking at the definitions above and others the write sees agriculture simply

as the husbandry of crops and animals for food, processing of the produce and

marketing.

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2.1.1 Concept of Agricultural Education

Agricultural education is a type of vocational training involving the equipping of

the learners with the knowledge and skills involved in productive agriculture. It

involves the training of both the head and the hands of the learners. A exchange in

learner is equipped with both the educational and agricultural knowledge (i.e the

development of the three domains; cognitive, affective and psychomotor).

Agricultural education entails the use of scientific knowledge in the teaching and

learning of food production through the acquisition of knowledge of crop

production, livestock management, soil and water conservation and other

associated benefits for industrial and human development. It is a type of vocation

that emphasizes preparation and participation in an occupation for social value

(Odogwu, 2005). Contrary to general education, it is skill-oriented. Apart from

being trained as a teacher agricultural education also prepares individual for self-

reliance and job creation.

According to Tibi (2001), Agricultural Education is an education employed

in training learner in the basic art of farming combined with the science of teaching

agriculture. Olaitan (2009), opined that agricultural education is a vital

developmental process which is directly related to the effectiveness of trained man

power.

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2.1.3 Challenges of Teaching and Learning of Agricultural Science

Giva (2006) state that, the quality of teaching agriculture in technical

schools is a concern in Mozambique. Poor teacher training, insufficient materials
and lack of pedagogical support has meant that most teachers rely on teacher
centered didactic methods, emphasizing repetition and memorization over learner
centered approaches that encourage creative thinking and skills – based learning.
Teachers are poorly equipped to deal with some of the challenges that the system
poses such as the reality of large class size, unavailability of instruction materials
and gender disparities (Giva, 2006). This study wants to find out whether the same
applies in Kenyan Secondary Schools.
In Kenya, Ngesa (2006) indicated that teachers of agriculture use lecture,
class discussion and group discussion methods. Demonstrations, practical,
experiments, projects and problem – solving are hardly used. Teaching and
learning materials have a direct bearing on quality as they determine how
effectively the curriculum is implemented.
The Government of Kenya (GOK) Report (2009) observes that quality
education cannot be achieved and sustained if the resources and facilities are not
available in sufficient quantities. It recommends that all school be provided with
adequate physical facilities, teaching – learning resources and equipment to
enhance quality learning.
The availability of teaching and learning support materials is among the
most important determinants of effectiveness of post – primary agricultural
education and training (Vandenbosch 2006). Even if teachers are competent and
well trained, they will often find it difficult to teach effectively because of lack of
adequate teaching and learning resources that are relevant to the local agricultural
situation.

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 Observation has also shown that as laudable as the objectives of agricultural

education are, it may be impossible to achieve them due to poor delivery process of

the programme and inappropriate method of evaluating the performance of

students in agriculture science at the senior high school (Ikeoji, 2007a, 2008).

Martin and Odubiya (2011) reported that the primary role of agriculture

science teachers has always been to help students to learn knowledge and skills in

agriculture. Several researches have shown that many teachers of agriculture at the

secondary school leave the profession early in their life (Myer, Dyer and

Washburn, 2005; Heat- Camp and Camp, 2000,2004). Myer et al 2005; Camp,

Broyles and Skelton, 2002; and Mundt and Connors, 2009, have conducted studies

on the problems of beginning teachers of agriculture. These problems of beginning

teachers include classroom management and student discipline, balancing work

and personal life, managing stress, lack of preparation time at beginning of school

year, time management, and motivating students. Others were dealing with

individual differences, assessing students work, relationships with parents,

organization of class work, inadequate teaching materials and supplies, and dealing

with problems of individual students (Myer, et al 2005; Mundt and Connors, 2009;

Nicholas and Mundt, 2006; Mundt, 2011; Heath-Camp and Camp, 2010; Barrick

and Doerfert, 2009) Several lapses associated with the organisation of agriculture

science in secondary schools in Nigeria have also been identified. The curriculum

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objectives have been found to be too broad; there is the inability of the policy to

state general aim of vocational education (Olaitan, 2012; Egbule, 2008; Obi, 2005).

Other lapses include inability to identify areas where practical skills are to be

developed (Obi, 2005), unspecified evaluation system (Egbule, 2008, Ikeoji,

2008); cases of duplicated topics and poor programme delivery system (Egbule,

2008); lack of instructional aids and materials for agriculture science delivery; lack

of means and ability to provide recommended guest lecture visits and excursions

(Obi, 2005, Olaitan, 2007). Egbule (2008) noted that the teaching and learning

activities of agriculture science at the secondary schools are grossly insufficient to

elicit the desired level of initiative and creativity in students. It noted that the

recommended instructional strategies is full of “showing”, ‘telling’ and ‘observing’

with a few cases of ‘doing’ and ‘practice’ thus contradicting the recommended

‘learning by doing’ and ‘guided discovery’ instructional strategies (National Policy

on Education, 2004). Cases exist of poor performance of candidates who enrolled

in agricultural science examinations (Mamman, 2000).

2.1.4 Prospects of Teaching and Learning Agricultural Science

Agricultural remains the major employers of labour either directly or

indirectly. It is the main stay of Nigeria and world economy. Agriculture provides

food and drinks, raw materials for industries, income for farmers, revenue for

government and source of foreign exchange. In addition source of fuel and power,

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recreation, tourism and aesthetic value among other things. In view of these

numerous benefits, it is important to give the teaching and learning of agricultural

science position it deserves for the millennium goals to be achieved.

Agricultural science opens wide opportunities for many people to be

employed. Because it trains individual the knowledge and skill required to be self

employed for independent. It is skill-oriented.

Therefore, avenues are created for people to be engaged in the following

areas among others.

i. Teacher. Though acquisition of knowledge and skills in agricultural

education, one may end up becoming a trainer of agriculture in schools and

institution of higher learning.

ii. Opportunity in crop production

iii. Opportunity is also opened in horticulture.

iv. Opportunity in poultry keeping.

v. Opportunity in ruminant and non ruminant- livestock production.

vi. Fish farming

i. Bee keeping

ii. Grass cutter farming.

iii. Feed industry- formulation and manufacture

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 i. Venturing into agro-allied products- chemicals (pesticide leads,

herbicides, fungicides, fertilizers among others.

If the learners is well groomed or well taught and properly baked, he can go

into any of the areas mentioned above and through that assist in the attainment of

the millennium development goals by the year 2015. The objective of vocational

and technical education in Nigeria today (FRN,2004)are such that if and quietly

implemented, will bring about the revocation and technical development in Nigeria

thereby having a significant and positive impact on the national. Economy these

objective include, among others ,the training of manpower particularly or

professional grades, the provision of technical knowledge and vocational skills,

and providing training and skill that lead to production of Craftsman, technicians

and others skill personnel. (FRN 2004).

The fact remains, however, that none of these will be accomplished of

student in schools are improperly trained (i.e of poor teaching and learning takes

place). Effective training of student cannot be accomplished in the absence of

certain ingredients that create conductive environment for teaching and learning.

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2.1.5 Teaching Methods, Strategies and Techniques

Teaching methods can best be defined as the types of principles and methods

used for instruction. There are many types of teaching methods, depending on what

information or skill the teacher is trying to convey. Class participation,

demonstration, recitation, and memorization are some of the teaching methods

being used. When a teacher is deciding on their method, they need to be flexible

and willing to adjust their style according to their students. Student success in the

classroom is largely based on effective teaching methods. For effective teaching to

take place, a good method must be adopted by a teacher. A teacher has many

options when choosing a style by which to teach. The teacher may write lesson

plans of their own, borrow plans from other teachers, or search online or within

books for lesson plans. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher

needs to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and learning

goals. Teachers are aware that students learn in different ways, but almost all

children will respond well to praise. Students have different ways of absorbing

information and of demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques

which cater to multiple learning styles to help students retain information and

strengthen understanding. A variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure

that all students have equal opportunities to learn.

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 According to Farrant (2010), teaching is the process of facilitating learning.

It involves the transfer of ideas, knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs and feelings to

someone, with the aim of bringing about particular changes in a person.

The teacher is the person who transfers such skills, ideas, attitudes and

beliefs to the learner with the aim of the bringing about consistent change of

behavior. In this regard the researcher appreciates Farrant’s observation that

teaching and learning are opposite sides of the same coin, for a lesson is not taught

until it has been learned. The teacher has to select an appropriate method that will

assist him or her to achieve the instructional objectives. Thus Morse and Wingo

(2009) have indicated that the teacher should not adopt any teaching strategies

because it is convenient to him or her.

The teacher must consider the entry behavior of students to know the

difference in physical, emotional, moral and intellectual abilities that exist among

the students. This will enable the teacher to select and present learning task in a

way that meets the unique needs of all educands. In this regard research findings

from educational psychology can therefore be judiciously used by the teacher to

know how to teach, when to teach and how much to teach their learners.

Blair et al (2015) have stressed in their book Educational Psychology that

teaching methods must embody the techniques for managing the learning

environment, so as to effectively handle obstructions, distractions and disruptions,

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which occur naturally in every learning environment. When the teacher effectively

controls these occurrences an enabling learning environment for teaching and

learning would be achieved.

Farrant (2010) indicated that teachers with little skills tend to use

authoritative and inefficient methods that make pupils see school as a repressive

place with little joy. Such methods hinder effective study of Government. The

student should be guided by the teacher in discovering relevant information.

Writing on the methods and techniques of teaching Nacino-Brown et. al,

(2002) advocated for the inquiry method as against expository teaching. Clarke

(2005) identified the following benefits of the inquiry method as follows:

1. Students establish deep understanding and firm concepts.

2. It also helps students to clarify processes and relationships and to develop

task, value and attitude.

3. Students develop their intellectual skills which include the ability to think

rationally and critically.

4. Lastly it motivates students to learn since students remember better the

things they find themselves.

When the government teacher implores the inquiry method of teaching

students, it prepares them to be critical and objective thinkers not only in their

subject but in other subjects.

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 Questioning as a technique can be skillfully used by the teacher to determine

the depth of understanding of students, though it is not an end in itself, but rather a

means to an end.

For this purpose there are four interrogatives to be used by the teacher which

are: who, what, when and how. The teacher ought to apply the principles of

questioning which include

i) Preparation of questions to suit the desired goal.

Questions should be asked in a civil and patient manner, it should be fairly

distributed among students.

When the Government teacher is guided by these principles during the

questioning of students, intimidation is less and students’ interest and confidence is

whipped up.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework guiding this study is Kolb’s Theory of

Experiential Learning (2014). Kolb incorporated concepts from several

philosophers who studied teaching and learning in education, including John

Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, into his theory. He believed that experiential

learning was a “holistic integrative perspective on learning that combines

experience, perception, cognition, and behavior” and could be applied to any

educational setting.

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 From the collaboration of the three theorist perspectives, Kolb developed

four components of the experiential learning cycle: concrete experience, reflective

observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation

he concrete experience is described as a “here-and-now experience used to validate

and test abstract concepts and provide a focal point for learning and a reference

point for testing the implications and validity of ideas created during the learning

process” (Kolb, 2014).

Concrete experiences allow for personal application, understanding, and meaning

of abstract principles. In this model, the classroom is not a teacher-centered

environment; instead, it is primarily student-driven. The teacher is seen as an agent

assisting students in educational experiences and making connections between

prior knowledge and new learning. The reflective observation component

encourages students to critically examine a concrete experience (Zilbert & Leske,

2009). This reflection period forces students to take responsibility for their own

learning and engages the learner mentally and emotionally in the recent experience

(Proudman, 2012). The use of abstract conceptualization allows students to make

generalizations about principles related to the experience and strive for

improvement. The final stage, active experimentation, requires the transfer and

application of principles to a new situation. Students must be allowed the

opportunity to apply the new knowledge and test for validity and usefulness.

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 In order for this model to be successfully implemented, teachers must

adequately prepare students to use the required skills of observation, reflection,

conceptualization, evaluation, and experimentation that enable them to learn most

effectively from their experiences. In addition, teachers must understand that all

experiences are not educational, only quality experiences. Therefore, it is the

responsibility of the teacher to create meaningful, engaging, lasting, effective

experiences for all students.

2.3 Empirical Literature

Barlo (2001) carried out a research study titled: “The availability and

utilization of instructional materials in the teaching of agricultural science in

selected secondary schools in Lagos State”. The target population was two hundred

and fifty (250) secondary schools out of which, twenty-five (25) secondary schools

were selected as the samples using systematic sampling. The instrument used in

collecting the data was questionnaire. Five (5) null hypotheses were stated which

were tested using the Average Weighted Response (AWR) test statistics at 1.00

level of significance. All the five (5) null hypotheses were accepted. The results

showed that the teaching of agricultural science in selected secondary schools

depended on the availability and utilization of instructional materials which had

negative relationship in the teaching of agricultural science in selected secondary

schools in Lagos State. However, Borg and Gall (2008) observed that the

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objectives have not been realized, there are still high levels of unemployment due

to rural-urban migration, school leavers aspiring to get white collar-jobs, high

levels of poverty and food insecurity in most African countries. Studies (Borg and

Gall, 2008) show that few students are willing to take up agriculture careers

because of the formed attitude towards the subject. Most African countries have

low production in agriculture even though skills and knowledge for better

agricultural production are learnt in both primary and post-primary education

levels.

Ozorehe (2008) also carried out a research study titled: “Utilization of

teaching aids in the teaching of vocational agricultural science in secondary

schools in Osun State”. The target population was two hundred and thirty one

(231) secondary schools out of which fifteen (15) secondary schools were selected

as the sample by simple randomization. Five (5) null hypotheses were stated which

were tested using correlation coefficient test statistics at 0.68 level of significance,

and all the five (5) null hypotheses were rejected. The result showed that about

60% of the respondents made use of the teaching aids effectively which had

positive relationship in the teaching of vocational agricultural science in secondary

schools in Osun State.

Marches and Martin (2002) noted that there are internal factors being

encountered within the school as the agriculture curriculum is being implemented

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in connection to teachers, students, and the teaching learning process. Teachers

characteristics are considered a key element for pupils‟ personal and academic

development, the value given from teacher to pupil and vice-versa are usually

reciprocal, highlighting additionally the personal relationship. Malila (2003) found

that student performance is affected by different factors such as learning abilities

because new paradigm about learning assumes that all students can and should

learn at higher levels but it should not be considered as constraint because there are

other factors like race, gender, sex that can affect student’s performance. Process

of teaching and learning involves teaching, learning strategies and teaching

learning resources. Teaching process is therefore an important school factor

affecting teaching and learning of Agriculture in Secondary schools (Fauziah,

2008).

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