Physical Layer
Part 1
Lecture -4
TCP/IP or Internet Model
Position of the Physical Layer
Position of the Physical Layer
Services at Physical Layer
Things to be Covered
Signals – Chapter 4
Digital Transmission –Chapter 5
Analogy Transmission –Chapter 6
Multiplexing – Chapter 7
Transmission Media – Chapter 8
Circuit Switching and Telephone Network – Chapter 9
Signals
• Analog and Digital Data
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Note:
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals
Signals can be Analog or Digital
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values
in a range
Digital signals can have only a limited number of
values
Analog Signals: Things to be covered
• Sine Wave
• Phase
• Examples of Sine Waves
• Time and Frequency Domains
• Composite Signals
• Bandwidth
Sine wave
Attributes of a sine wave:
Amplitude
Frequency (Period)
Phase
1. Amplitude
Amplitude: Amplitude is define as a value of signal at any
point on the wave on a time domain plot graph.
Periodic Signal and Aperiodic Signal
• In essence, signal analysis is the mathematical analysis of
amplitude, frequency, and phase of a signal
• Electrical signals are voltage –time or current –time variations
• Mathematically, a single-frequency voltage waveform is:
Where:
• v(t)time varying voltage sine wave
• V peak amplitude (volts)
• f frequency
• t time
• phase (degree or radians)
This waveform is called a periodic wave because it repeat at
uniform rate (i.e., each successive cycle of the signal takes
exactly the same length of time and has exactly the same
amplitude variations of every other cycle)
Periodic wave form can be analyzed in either the time domain or
frequency domain
If the signal isn’t periodic, it’s aperiodic
Example of Aperiodic Signals
2. Frequency and Period
Frequency is defined as the number of cycles per
second
Period is defined as the time it takes to complete one
cycle
Period and Frequency
Relationship between Frequency and Period
Note:
Frequency and period are inverses of
each other.
Units of Periods and Frequencies
Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent
Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz
Microseconds (ms) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz
Nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz
Picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz
Note:
Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time. Change in a short span of time
means high frequency. Change over a long
span of time means low frequency.
More on Low Frequency and High Frequency
Note:
If a signal does not change at all, its
frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
Sine wave examples
Sine wave examples (continued)
Sine wave examples (continued)
Time and Frequency Domain
Time domain: it’s amplitude –versus –time
representation of the signal and is
commonly called signal waveform
Frequency domain: It ‘s amplitude versus
frequency plot , and is commonly called
frequency spectrum
Time and frequency domains
Time and frequency domains (continued)
Time and frequency domains (continued)
Note:
An analog signal is best represented in the
frequency domain.
Composite Signal
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to change one or more of its
characteristics to make it useful.
When we change one or more characteristics of a
single-frequency signal, it becomes a composite
signal made of many frequencies.
Note:
According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal can be represented as a
combination of simple sine waves with
different frequencies, phases, and
amplitudes.
Composite Periodic Signal
Components in a composite periodic signal
If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives
a series of signals with discrete frequencies
Decomposition of composite periodic signal
34
Decomposition of composite periodic signal
Non-Periodic Composite signal
It can be a signal created by microphone or a telephone set when a
word or two is pronounced.
The composite signal can not be periodic, because that implies that
we are repeating the same word or words with exactly the same tone
If the composite signal is non-periodic, the decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies
In time-domain representation of composite non-periodic signal
(from previous slide), there are an infinite number of sine
frequencies.
Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite,
the range is limited.
A normal human being can create a continuous range of
frequencies between 0 – 4kHz
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference
between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in
that signal
Bandwidth is expressed in Hz
For Example, if a composite periodic signal contains frequencies
between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is
BW = 5000 – 1000 = 4000Hz
See the figure in the next slide
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a periodic and non-periodic composite signals
Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 (see Figure in next slide)
For Example 3
Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude.
Solution
B = fh - fl
20 = 60 - fl
fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
For Example 4
The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. This can be shown
by series of spikes
Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and
2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000
Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?
Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have
the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not
overlap. The medium can only pass the frequencies
between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is totally lost.
Next Digital Signals
