sustainability

Article
The Relationship between Concrete Strength and Classes of
Resistance against Corrosion Induced by Carbonation: A
Proposal for the Design of Extremely Durable Structures in
Accordance with Eurocode 2
Luisa María Gil-Martín, Luisa Hdz-Gil, Emilio Molero and Enrique Hernández-Montes *

School of Civil Engineers, University of Granada, 18012 Granada, Spain; [email protected] (L.M.G.-M.);
[email protected] (L.H.-G.); [email protected] (E.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The new Eurocode 2 provides valuable information on the required concrete cover to
protect reinforcement against corrosion induced by carbonation, for two design service life values of
50 and 100 years. However, to design structures with an even longer service life and assess existing
ones, additional tools are necessary. The ‘square root of time’ relationship is a well-established
method for estimating the penetration of the carbonation front, making it useful for long-term design
and assessment purposes. In this article, we propose a new function that adjusts the evolution of the
carbonation front to the Eurocode 2 values. This function is a powerful tool for designing extremely
durable structures and assessing existing ones. To demonstrate its effectiveness, we provide two
examples of its application.

Keywords: carbonation front; minimum cover; reinforced concrete structures

Citation: Gil-Martín, L.M.; Hdz-Gil,

L.; Molero, E.; Hernández-Montes, E.
The Relationship between Concrete
1. Introduction
Strength and Classes of Resistance
against Corrosion Induced by There are several factors that cause damage to reinforced concrete (RC in what follows)
Carbonation: A Proposal for the structures, and the damage induced by the corrosion of reinforcement has a serious effect
Design of Extremely Durable on durability [1–4] and on the loading capacity [5,6]. Corrosion is mainly caused by the
Structures in Accordance with action of chloride ions [7,8] and the penetration of carbon dioxide [9,10]. So, when the
Eurocode 2. Sustainability 2023, 15, service life of RC structures is being considered [11], requirements such as cover thickness,
7976. https://doi.org/10.3390/ concrete strength, type of cement, water–cement ratio, and environmental exposure must
su15107976 be taken into consideration [8]. Once corrosion starts, repairs are costly and difficult [12,13].
Academic Editors: Mahdi Kioumarsi The increase in urban pollution [14] is just one of the factors that affects the durability
and Vagelis Plevris of RC structures. The increase in carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions into the atmosphere
affects carbonation depth, making concrete carbonation a serious problem [15]. The service
Received: 12 April 2023 life of a structure is the period of time between the construction of the structure and the
Revised: 10 May 2023
moment in which its performance fails to meet the requirements of the users [16]. According
Accepted: 10 May 2023
to [7], service life is defined as the sum of the corrosion initiation time (or the time the
Published: 13 May 2023
pollutant takes to affect the thickness of the whole concrete cover), and the time needed
for the propagation of the corrosion (which is the time between the initiation period and
the moment when the level of corrosion degradation is unacceptable). However, regarding
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
carbonation, damage usually occurs at the instant when the carbonation front comes into
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. contact with the reinforcement [17,18]. So, when assessing service life, the period of time
This article is an open access article corresponding to the propagation of corrosion is not considered. This is supported by the
distributed under the terms and fact that when the carbonation front reaches the reinforcing bar, the damage to the structure
conditions of the Creative Commons is of a significant level.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// On site, carbonation depths are measured using the phenolphthalein method or other
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ more sophisticated techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis. In the literature, there
4.0/). are several models that can be used to estimate carbonation depth, and these models can

Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15107976 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 2 of 14

be used to make service life predictions [15,19–21], which is a major advance in how RC
structures exposed to CO2 over time can be evaluated.
Some of the models used for determining carbonation depth [18,19,22] consider the
influence of the different parameters involved in the carbonation process. These models
can be difficult to apply in practice as obtaining all the input parameters [8] can be both
time consuming and expensive.
Contrary to the analysis of chloride ingress in concrete structures [23], where simplified
models can be inappropriate [24], there are models based on simplified equations [7] widely
used to determine the carbonation depth [9].
Carbonation is mainly affected by environmental conditions (CO2 content, relative
humidity, and temperature), exposure conditions (protection from the rain), concrete
material (water/binder ratio (w/b), cement type, and content), the amount of CO2 in the
environment, and pore size distribution [18,19,25–27].
The process of CO2 diffusion is usually modeled using Fick’s first law. So, the carbona-
tion coefficient or carbonation rate constant, K, (mm/year0,5 ) is calculated using the ‘square
root of time’ relationship, i.e., as the ratio between the attack penetration depth (mm) and
the square root of the exposure time to CO2 (year) [7,28]. The square root model has been
verified both in the laboratory and in the field [29].
Some authors [30] have indicated that it is impossible to consider all the parameters
involved in the carbonation process as there are so many of them [28]. However, factors
affecting carbonation can be intercorrelated. Statistical studies have proved that the wa-
ter/binder ratio and the quantity of clinker in the binder have a direct relationship with
the compressive strength of concrete [15]. In fact, a higher water-cement ratio makes the
diffusion of CO2 into concrete easier, while, for a fixed water–cement ratio, the use of a
higher cement content in the concrete mix improves concrete durability [31]. Moreover,
compressive strength influences the porous structure of concrete, and so it is a key factor
in the diffusion of carbon dioxide through the material, which also makes it a key factor
in carbonation. Generally, a high compressive strength is associated with more compact
concrete mixes and with concretes with a higher clinker content. Additionally, due to
the chemical reactions during carbonation, the higher the clinker content, the slower the
carbonation coefficient is [15].
However, according to [21], the factors which have the most significant effect on the
carbonation coefficient K are: the exposure conditions, cement type, and the compressive
strength of the concrete, and there is a strong correlation between compressive concrete
strength and carbonation resistance [28,32].
Current standards (e.g., [33]) have established minimum cover requirements cmin,dur
to protect reinforcement from corrosion. These cover values depend on the different classes
of exposure and are defined for 50 and 100 years of design service life [32,34,35].
In the CEB Bulletin 34 [36], and in the Spanish and Portuguese standards [28,32,35], the
minimum cover is obtained from the ‘square root of time’, with the time exposure to CO2
(year) or the time when corrosion starts. In the Spanish Structural Code [35] the apparent
carbonation coefficient, Kapp,carb , is obtained as a function of the mean compressive strength
of concrete and other factors, such as the amount of entrained air and the type of binder.
In prEN 1992 [34], the value of cmin,dur is tabulated by classifying a structure in two
ways: exposure class (EC) and exposure resistance class (ERC). The minimum levels of
concrete cover for durability needed that can withstand carbonation are presented in a
tabular format for 50 and 100 years of design service life.
In this paper, a least square technique is used to adjust a square root model to the data
proposed by prEN 1992 [34] for the minimum levels of concrete cover needed to withstand
carbonation. The main assumption of the presented proposal is that the minimum cover
value is presented as a function of compressive concrete strength for each of the exposure
conditions considered. The adjustment is based on the formulation proposed in [35].
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 3 of 14

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
Steel is stable within concrete thanks to the fact that, when hydrated, cement gener-
2. Steel is stable
Materials within concrete thanks to the fact that, when hydrated, cement gener-
and Methods
ates an alkaline environment, pH > 12, in which the metal generates a protective film
ates anSteel
alkaline environment,
is stable within pH > 12, intowhich
concrete factthe metal generates a cement
protective film
against corrosion which is called thanks
the passive thefilm. that,
This when
film ishydrated,
very thin, generates
very stable—as
against
an corrosion
alkaline which is called the passive film. This film is very thin, very stable—as
long as the environment, pH > 12, in which
alkalinity is maintained—and theimpermeable
very metal generates a protective
to metal film against
ions. Thanks to the
long as the which
corrosion alkalinity is maintained—and film.very impermeable to metal ions. Thanks longtoasthe
passive film, theissteel
called the passiveprotected
is effectively Thisagainst
film is very thin,
corrosion very stable—as
[37–39]. the
passive film,
alkalinity is the steel is effectively
maintained—and veryprotected
impermeable against corrosion
to metal ions. [37–39].
Thanks to the
The passive film can be damaged or even disappear either because the passive
alkalinity film,
of
the The
steelpassive
is film can
effectively be damaged
protected against orcorrosion
even disappear
[37–39]. either because the alkalinity of
the concrete is not maintained(pH < 9), mainly induced by the carbonation of the cover,
the concrete is not film
The passive maintained(pH
can be < 9), mainly
or eveninduced byeither
the carbonation ofalkalinity
the cover,of
or because of the presence ofdamaged
a high concentration disappear
of chlorides inbecause
the coverthe [37]. The time
orthe
because of the
concrete is presence
not of a high concentration
maintained(pH < 9), mainly of chlorides
induced by in the
the cover [37].
carbonation of The time
the the
cover,
between concreting and the disappearance or damage of the passive film is called in-
between
or becauseconcreting
of see and
the Figure the
presence disappearance or damage of the passive film is called the in-
itiation time, 1. of a high concentration of chlorides in the cover [37]. The time
itiation
between time, see Figure
concreting and1. the disappearance or damage of the passive film is called the
initiation time, see Figure 1.

Figure 1.1. Conceptual

Conceptual scheme
scheme of a reinforcement
reinforcement corrosion
corrosion process
process as
as a function
function of
of time,
time, adapted
adapted
Figure
Figure 1. Conceptual
from [7]. scheme ofofa areinforcement corrosion process as a afunction of time, adapted
from[7].
from [7].

2.1. Carbonation Front,

2.1. Front, aa Deterministic
Deterministic Point
Point of
of View
View
2.1. Carbonation Front, a Deterministic Point of View
Carbonationisisthe
Carbonation theprocess
processthrough
throughwhich
whichthe theconcrete
concretecover
coverloses
losesitsitsalkalinity,
alkalinity, gen-
gener-
atingCarbonation
a front is the process
(carbonation front)through
that which the
penetrates concrete
the RCRC coverinwards.
element loses its alkalinity, gen-
erating a front (carbonation front) that penetrates the element inwards.
eratingThe
a front (carbonation front)calcium
that penetrates the (portlandite,
RC element inwards. ) formed in the
The moderate
moderate solubility
solubility of
of calcium hydroxide
hydroxide (portlandite, Ca(OH) Ca(OH)22 in the
The
hydration moderate solubility
of cement of calcium
cementgenerates
generatesan hydroxide
analkaline (portlandite,
alkalineenvironment
environment Ca(OH) 2) formed in -the−
hydration process of asas a result
a result of the
of the OHOH ions
hydration
ions that process
it of cement
generates in the generates
presence an
of alkaline
water environment
[40]. Due to the as a result
porous of theofOH
nature
- ions
concrete,
that it generates in the presence of water [40]. Due to the porous nature of concrete, at-
that it generates
atmospheric CO in the presence of water [40]. Due to the of
porous nature of concrete, at-
mospheric CO 2 slowly
2 slowly penetrates
penetrates through
through the pores
the pores the concrete
of the concrete and comes and comes
into into
contact
mospheric
contact COcalcium
with 2 slowly penetrates through the pores of the concrete and comes into contact
hydroxide, with it
which
with calcium hydroxide, with which reactsitand
reacts andcalcium
forms forms calcium
carbonatecarbonate
(CaCO(CaCO
3), which3 ),
with
whichcalcium hydroxide, with which itpH.reacts and formscauses
calcium thecarbonate (CaCO 3), which
causescauses
a dropa indroptheinconcrete
the concrete
pH. This This reaction
reaction causes the high high
andandlowlow pHpH zones
zones to
to be
causes
be a drop
divided in thecarbonation
concrete pH. This reaction causes the high and low pH zones to be
divided bybythethe
carbonation front front (see
(see Figure
Figure 2).2).
divided by the carbonation front (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Depth
Depth of
of the
the carbonation
carbonation front
front as
as aa function
function of
of time.
time.
Figure 2. Depth of the carbonation front as a function of time.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 4 of 14

The depth of the carbonation front (i.e., the zone affected by low pH) can be approxi-
mated by [7]: √
x = VCO2 t (1)
where x is the depth of the carbonation front, t is the time, and VCO2 is the carbonation rate
of the concrete, also called K. Coefficient K depends on environmental conditions (CO2
concentration, humidity, etc.) and concrete characteristics (w/c ratio, type of cement, etc.)
and it varies significantly from one structure to another [28]. In [28], the mean compressive
strength is used to estimate K using a regression analysis.
As alkalinity decreases, the carbonation front advances. When the carbonation front
reaches the reinforcement, it makes the passive film disappear, and so the reinforcing steel
is left unprotected against corrosion. In the carbonation process, the passive film completely
disappears, and the probability of corrosion reactions occurring is the same at every point
on the metal surface, which leads to uniform or generalized corrosion.
As in almost every chemical reaction, moisture must be present for carbonation to
occur. However, when the pores are saturated with water, it is difficult for CO2 to penetrate
the concrete as it is a gas. Therefore, the maximum carbonation rate is found at levels of
intermediate humidity, and the most unfavorable scenarios are the wet–dry cycles. It is
interesting to note that carbonation hardly occurs in either very dry concrete (because of
the absence of water) or in completely saturated concrete (as CO2 cannot move through the
pores that are full of water).
Several mathematical models have been created to describe the evolution of the
carbonation front, such as [19]. The following expression (2), extracted from Annex 12 of
the Spanish Structural Code [35], provides mean values of the evolution of the depth of the
carbonation front over time:
√
x(t) = kap,carb t
(2)
kap,carb = cenv cair a (fck + 8)b

where kap,carb is the apparent carbonation coefficient in mm/year0.5 so x(t) is obtained in

mm, cenv is a coefficient that depends on environmental conditions (see Table 1). cair is 1.0
if air-entrained concrete with less than 4.5% of entrained air (of the volume of the concrete)
is used. If the amount of entrained air is greater than or equal to 4.5%, then cair = 0.7. In
Equation (2), a and b are dimensionless parameters that depend on the type of binder (see
Table 2).

Table 1. Type of environment.

Environment cenv
Sheltered from the rain 1.0
Exposed to rain 0.5
Buried elements, above the water table 0.3
Buried elements, below the water table 0.2

Table 2. Type of binder.

Binder a b
Portland cement 1800 −1.7
Portland cement +28% fly ash 360 −1.2
Portland cement + 9% silica fume 400 −1.2

Figure 3 shows the evolution of the carbonation front for Portland cement and for
three types of environmental conditions defined by cenv (see Table 1) according to [35],
Equation (2). In Figure 3, cair = 1 is considered.
 Figure 3 shows that the compressive strength of concrete has a considerable influence
on the depth of the carbonation front. From a comparison of the three surfaces in Figure
3, it is evident that when there is a higher risk of corrosion (i.e., for the higher value of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 cenv), the influence of concrete compressive strength is greater. 5 of 14

Figure 3. Evolution of the carbonation front for Portland cement according to [35].
Figure 3. Evolution of the carbonation front for Portland cement according to [35].
Figure 3 shows that the compressive strength of concrete has a considerable influence
on theFigure
In depth4,ofEquation (2) for cfront.
the carbonation env = 1.0 (structure sheltered from the rain), cair = 1, Port-
From a comparison of the three surfaces in Figure 3,
land cement, and f ck = 50 MPa is plotted, together with the carbonation depth obtained
it is evident that when there is a higher risk of corrosion (i.e., for the higher value of cenv ),
from
the the Portuguese
influence standard
of concrete [28] for equivalent
compressive strength isconditions.
greater. Figure 4 corresponds to: c=
400 ppm of the environmental carbon dioxide concentration
In Figure 4, Equation (2) for cenv = 1.0 (structure sheltered (adopted as athe
from value of refer-
rain), cair = 1,
ence in prEN 1992 [34]), fck = 50 MPa, fcm = (fck + 8) MPa, k0 = 3 (standard test conditions), k2
Portland cement, and fck = 50 MPa is plotted, together with the carbonation depth obtained
= 1from
(standard curing), and
the Portuguese exposure
standard class
[28] forXC3 (moderate
equivalent humidity,Figure
conditions. which 4corresponds
correspondstoto:
thec =
external
400 ppm concrete
of the sheltered
environmentalfrom rain in prEN
carbon dioxide1992concentration
[34]). According to Eurocode
(adopted 2, fck of
as a value
is reference
the characteristic concrete cylinder compressive strength and f is the
in prEN 1992 [34]), fck = 50 MPa, fcm = (fck + 8) MPa, k0 = 3 (standard test
cm mean concrete
cylinder compressive
conditions), strength. curing), and exposure class XC3 (moderate humidity, which
k2 = 1 (standard
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW In Annex C of the
corresponds to the external CEB Bulletin
concrete34sheltered
[36], the carbonation
from rain indepth
prEN in uncracked
1992 concrete
6 of 14 to
[34]). According
is Eurocode
presented 2, asfck
a function of the design
is the characteristic servicecylinder
concrete life (time), and three climatic
compressive strength parameters:
and fcm is the
themean
real value of the
concrete relative
cylinder humidity ofstrength.
compressive the carbonated layer (HRreal), the average number
of rainy days per year with a volume of precipitation water that is over 25 mm (hNd), and
the probability of driving rain obtained from the average distribution of the wind direc-
tion during rain events (psR). The two last parameters should be obtained from weather
station data. In Figure 4 (shaded area), the range of values of the carbonation depth ac-
cording to [36] when HRreal varies between 0 and 100% has also been represented for hNd
= 182 days (half a year) and psR = 0 (horizontal structural element).

Figure 4. Comparison of the evolution of the carbonation front for Portland cement according to the
Figure 4. Comparison of the evolution of the carbonation front for Portland cement according to the
Spanish Spanish Structural
Structural CodeCode [35] the
[35] and andPortuguese
the Portuguese standard
standard LNEC LNEC
E-465E-465 [28]XC3
[28] for for XC3 exposure
exposure class,class,
cair = c1.0,
air = 1.0,fckand
and = 50fck
MPa.= 50The
MPa. Theofrange
range valuesofofvalues of the carbonation
the carbonation depth according
depth according to Annexto C Annex
of CEB C of
BulletinCEB34Bulletin
[36] for 34hNd[36] for
= 182 hNdp=sR182
days, days,
= 0 for HRp = 0 for between
sRranging
real HRreal ranging between
0 and 100% 0 andas100%
is shown is shown
a shaded area. as a
shaded area.
As can be seen in Figure 4, using both the Spanish and Portuguese standards leads
to similarInvalues
AnnexofCthe
of evolution
the CEB Bulletin 34 [36], the carbonation
of the carbonation depthfor
depth over time inthe
uncracked concrete is
most common
exposure class [28], and the values given by the Portuguese standard are slightly higher the
presented as a function of the design service life (time), and three climatic parameters:
than those estimated by the Spanish Structural Code [35] for each period of time. Moreo-
ver, the carbonation depths obtained from both standards lie within the range defined by
the CEB Bulletin 34 [36].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 6 of 14

real value of the relative humidity of the carbonated layer (HRreal ), the average number
of rainy days per year with a volume of precipitation water that is over 25 mm (hNd ),
and the probability of driving rain obtained from the average distribution of the wind
direction during rain events (psR ). The two last parameters should be obtained from
weather station data. In Figure 4 (shaded area), the range of values of the carbonation
depth according to [36] when HRreal varies between 0 and 100% has also been represented
for hNd = 182 days (half a year) and psR = 0 (horizontal structural element).
As can be seen in Figure 4, using both the Spanish and Portuguese standards leads to
similar values of the evolution of the carbonation depth over time for the most common
exposure class [28], and the values given by the Portuguese standard are slightly higher
than those estimated by the Spanish Structural Code [35] for each period of time. Moreover,
the carbonation depths obtained from both standards lie within the range defined by the
CEB Bulletin 34 [36].

2.2. Minimum Cover Required for Protection against Carbonation in prEN 1992
In prEN 1992 [34], the minimum concrete cover (cmin,dur ) for protection of the rein-
forcement against corrosion induced by carbonation depends on the design service life,
the exposure class, and the exposure resistance class (ERC). Each ERC is identified as XRC
followed by a number that corresponds to the carbonation rate (see Equation (1)) related to
the 90% fractile of the depth of the carbonation front (in mm) after 50 years and under the
following reference conditions: 400 ppm CO2 in a constant 65%-RH environment and at
20 ◦ C.
Two design service life values are considered in prEN 1992 [34], 50 and 100 years, and
the values of cmin,dur are presented in a tabular format. The values given by prEN 1992 are
shown in Figure 5, where XC is the exposure class for carbonation and XRC is the resistance
class against corrosion caused by carbonation. To facilitate the identification of the different
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
exposure classes and service design lives, discrete values given by prEN 1992 [34]7have of 14

been connected with lines in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Minimum
Figure Minimumconcrete
concretecover for for
cover protection against
protection oxidation
against induced
oxidation by carbonation
induced (XC1 =
by carbonation
dry, XC2
(XC1 = wet,
= dry, XC2or permanent
= wet, high humidity,
or permanent XC3 = moderate
high humidity, humidity,
XC3 = moderate XC4 = cyclic
humidity, XC4wet and dry).
= cyclic wet
and dry).
3. Results
As can be seen in Figure 5, the minimum concrete cover for durability proposed by
the European standard prEN 1992 [34] depends on the resistance class against corrosion
induced by carbonation (XRC). However, the regulation does not explicitly define the rec-
ommended values for XRC.
Moreover, in order to carry out long-term structural designs (e.g., design for a service
life of five centuries) or to evaluate the remaining design service life of existing structures,
it would be useful to have an expression for the depth of the carbonation front as a func-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 7 of 14

3. Results
As can be seen in Figure 5, the minimum concrete cover for durability proposed by
the European standard prEN 1992 [34] depends on the resistance class against corrosion
induced by carbonation (XRC). However, the regulation does not explicitly define the
recommended values for XRC.
Moreover, in order to carry out long-term structural designs (e.g., design for a service
life of five centuries) or to evaluate the remaining design service life of existing structures,
it would be useful to have an expression for the depth of the carbonation front as a function
of time, as in [28,32,35].

3.1. Continuous Formulation of the Carbonation front Based on Eurocode 2

This paper proposes, as a first approximation, a function similar to the one included in
the Spanish Structural Code [35] and given in Equation (2) (Equation (3)). The expression
proposed (Equation (3)) must give values that are as close as possible to those given by
prEN 1992 [34] (Figure 5).
∗ √
x(t) = kap,carb t
∗ ∗ c b (3)
kap,carb = cenv air a (fck + 1.8)

As can be seen in Equation (2), the term in brackets is the approximate mean compres-
sive concrete strength for cases when not enough statistical data are available:

fcm = fck +8 [MPa] (4)

with fck in [35] as the characteristic concrete strength, which corresponds to a confidence
level of 95%. Equation (4) is also proposed by the European standard [33,41,42]. So, the
first change to make in the new expression Equation (3) to fit prEN 1992 [34], is to obtain
the compressive concrete strength corresponding to the 90% fractile. Assuming that the
compressive strength of concrete follows a standard normal distribution, this value can be
obtained by using basic statistical concepts from the following system of equations:

CDF[NormalDistribution[(fck + 8), σ], fck ]= 0.05 σ = 4.9
Þ (5)
CDF[NormalDistribution[(fck +8), σ], fck +δ]= 0.01 δ = 1.8

with CDF as the cumulative distribution function and σ as a standard deviation of the
standard normal distribution followed by the concrete compressive strength. Solving the
system of equations Equation (5), the 90% fractile of the compressive concrete strength is
fck + 1.8, which is the value in brackets in Equation (3).
Using least square regression, the parameters cenv∗ and f in Equation (3) have been
ck
adjusted so that they match the values given by prEN 1992 [34], Figure 5. In this work,
it has been assumed that each resistance class against corrosion induced by carbonation
(XRC) corresponds to a value of the characteristic concrete cylinder compressive strength
(fck ) for each type of binder and entrained air content. By using this approach, the corrected
environmental coefficient (c* env , see Table 1) in Equation (3) has been obtained from a least
square regression for the case corresponding to the most common type of cement and with
no entrained air (i.e.,: Portland cement and air-entrained concrete with less than 4.5% of
entrained air, in volume of the concrete). So, according to [35] the following values for the
parameters in Equation (3) are considered as: cair = 1.0, a = 1800, and b = −1.7; see Table 3.

∗ ) to fit the minimum cover for carbonation in prEN

Table 3. Environmental coefficients adjusted (cenv
1992 [34].

Adjusted Exposure Classes

XC1 XC2 XC3 XC4
for Carbonation
∗
cenv 0.45 0.60 0.90 0.95
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 8 of 14

The adjusted values of c* env for each exposure class in prEN 1992 [34] (XC) are sum-
marized in Table 3.
Once the coefficients in Table 2 are known, each XRC class defined in prEN 1992 [34]
can be associated with a value of characteristic concrete strength (fck ). The corresponding
values of characteristic concrete strength (fck ), which are the unknown of the adjustment, are
adjusted for each type of binder (i.e.,: Portland, Portland +28% fly ash, and Portland + 9%
silica fume, see Table 2), and for the two cases related to the entrained air content (under
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of or
14
over 4.5% of entrained air of the volume of the concrete) in [35]. A least square regression
has been used for the adjustment.
The adjustment has been carried out by simultaneously considering both of the design
Figure 6 shows the results of the adjustment carried out for Portland cement with an
service life values in prEN 1992, 50 and 100 years, and the results are summarized in
entrained air volume of under 4.5% of the volume of the concrete. For the sake of compar-
Table 4.
ison, the values of the minimum cover for carbonation (cmin,dur) for the four exposure clas-
TableXC1
ses, to XC4, given
4. Relationship by prEN
between 1992 [34]class
the resistance (seeagainst
Figurecorrosion
5) are also represented,
induced and they
by carbonation are
(XRC)
linked
and the by dashed straight
characteristic concretelines in Figure
cylinder 6, where
compressive the term
strength (fck “approx”
[MPa]) for identifies thebinder
each type of adjusted
and
curves. of
volume Figure 6a,b represents
entrained air content. the design service lives of 50 and 100 years, respectively.
Figure 6 shows that the adjustment proposed is a good fit for the values proposed by
Type of Binder
prEN 1992 [34], Portland
especially for the two Portland
higher+ XC
28%classes.
Fly Ash Portland + 9% Silica Fume
Entrained Air As can be
>4.5% seen in Figure
<4.5% 6, the concrete
>4.5% characteristic
<4.5% compressive
>4.5% strength and the
<4.5%
XRC 0.5
minimum cover 63
for carbonation
80
proposed
94
by prEN 128
1992 [34] correlate
103
well, which
139
con-
XRC 1 firms that, as
49 proposed in
60this work, the
66 value of fck
90could be suitable
73 for obtaining98 first
a
XRC 2 approximation 36 of the XRC 45 class, as proposed
44 in Table
59 4. 48 65
ERC in prEN XRC 3 Other 32 conditions have 40 to be added 36 to the results
49 in Figure 6 39 if the limitations54 of the
1992 [34] XRC 4 indicative strength
28 classes35 stated in EN 30 206 [41] for 41 each exposure 33 class are considered;
45
XRC 5 see Table 5.25 31 26 35 28 38
XRC 6 22 27 21 29 23 32
XRC 7 21 26 20 27 21 29
Table 5. Indicative strength class for corrosion induced by carbonation for each exposure class ac-
cording to EN 206 [41].
Figure 6 shows the results of the adjustment carried out for Portland cement with an
Exposure Class XC1 XC2 XC3/XC4
entrained air volume of under 4.5% of the volume of the concrete. For the sake of compari-
Strength class ≥C20/25 ≥C25/30 ≥C30/37
son, the values of the minimum cover for carbonation (cmin,dur ) for the four exposure classes,
XC1 to XC4, given by prEN 1992 [34] (see Figure 5) are also represented, and they are linked
Moreover,
by dashed thelines
straight ‘square root of6,time’
in Figure whereexpression proposed,
the term “approx” Equation
identifies the(3), enablescurves.
adjusted other
design 6a,b
Figure service lives (not
represents theonly 50 and
design 100 lives
service years)ofto50be studied,
and which
100 years, is very useful, as the
respectively.
case studies below show.

Figure 6. Cont.
 Sustainability2023,
Sustainability 15,x7976
2023,15, FOR PEER REVIEW 10 9ofof14
14

Relationshipbetween
Figure6.6.Relationship
Figure betweenthetheXRC
XRCclass
classand
andthe
thecharacteristic
characteristicconcrete
concretestrength
strengthfor
forPortland
Portland
cement
cementwithwithaavolume
volumeofofentrained
entrainedair
airofofunder
under4.5%
4.5%ofofthe
thevolume
volumeof ofthe
theconcrete.
concrete.Design
Designservice
service
lives
livesofof(a)
(a)50
50and
and(b)
(b)100
100years.
years.

3.2. Case Studies

Figure 6 shows that the adjustment proposed is a good fit for the values proposed by
prEN 1992 [34], especially forthe
In order to demonstrate theusefulness
two higherofXC
theclasses.
proposal, it will be applied to two case
As
studies. can be seen in Figure 6, the concrete characteristic compressive strength and the
minimum cover for carbonation proposed by prEN 1992 [34] correlate well, which confirms
that, The
3.2.1. as proposed in this
Green Tunnel on work, the value of fck could
the London–Birmingham HighbeSpeed
suitable for obtaining
Railway Line a first
approximation of the XRC class, as proposed in Table 4.
The prerequisites for concrete strength and nominal cover given by the authority for
Other conditions have to be added to the results in Figure 6 if the limitations of the
the pre-cast tunnel known as the Green Tunnel for the high-speed railway line between
indicative strength classes stated in EN 206 [41] for each exposure class are considered; see
London and Birmingham are summarized in Table 6.
Table 5.
Table
Table6.5.Prerequisites for the design
Indicative strength of the
class for Green Tunnel.
corrosion induced by carbonation for each exposure class
according to EN 206 [41]. Nominal Cover *
Element Precast/Cast In Situ
Exposure Class XC1 XC2Inner Face XC3/XC4
Outer Face
Arch, Arch wall, Side Wall, Footing Precast (C50/60) 45 mm 55 mm
Strength class ≥C20/25 ≥C25/30 ≥C30/37
Central Wall Precast (C50/60) 45 mm 45 mm
Invert/Base Slab Cast-in situ (C50/60) 60 mm 70 mm
Moreover, the ‘square root of time’ expression proposed, Equation (3), enables other
* Clear cover to main reinforcement = nominal cover + stirrup diameter.
design service lives (not only 50 and 100 years) to be studied, which is very useful, as the
caseAs
studies
Figurebelow show.
6 shows, there is almost no difference between the minimum cover against
carbonation given by prEN 1992 [34] for classes XC3 and XC4. In this example, both ex-
3.2. Case Studies
posure classes are considered by using Equation (3) with cair = 1.0 and c*env = 0.90 for XC3
In order to demonstrate the usefulness of the proposal, it will be applied to two
class and c*env = 0.95 for XC4 (see Table 3).
case studies.
Figure 7 represents the required minimum cover (i.e., the depth of the carbonation
front)
3.2.1. as
Thea function of theon
Green Tunnel design service life (time) forHigh
the London–Birmingham fck = 50 MPaRailway
Speed and for Line
these two ex-
posure classes. Figure 7 shows that, as a first approximation, the life expectancy of the
The prerequisites for concrete strength and nominal cover given by the authority for
Green Tunnel is about 500 years. This result is based on the continuous approximation
the pre-cast tunnel known as the Green Tunnel for the high-speed railway line between
proposed in this work (Equation (3)), which is based on prEN1992 [34].
London and Birmingham are summarized in Table 6.
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 10 of 14

Table 6. Prerequisites for the design of the Green Tunnel.

Nominal Cover *
Element Precast/Cast In Situ
Inner Face Outer Face
Arch, Arch wall, Side Wall, Footing Precast (C50/60) 45 mm 55 mm
Central Wall Precast (C50/60) 45 mm 45 mm
Invert/Base Slab Cast-in situ (C50/60) 60 mm 70 mm
* Clear cover to main reinforcement = nominal cover + stirrup diameter.

As Figure 6 shows, there is almost no difference between the minimum cover against
carbonation given by prEN 1992 [34] for classes XC3 and XC4. In this example, both
exposure classes are considered by using Equation (3) with cair = 1.0 and c* env = 0.90 for
XC3 class and c* env = 0.95 for XC4 (see Table 3).
Figure 7 represents the required minimum cover (i.e., the depth of the carbonation
front) as a function of the design service life (time) for fck = 50 MPa and for these two
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
exposure classes. Figure 7 shows that, as a first approximation, the life expectancy of the
Green Tunnel is about 500 years. This result is based on the continuous approximation
proposed in this work (Equation (3)), which is based on prEN1992 [34].

Figure
Figure Expected
7. 7. service
Expected life of the
service Green
life Tunnel.
of the Green Tunnel.
3.2.2. Camino de Ronda Street Buildings (Granada, Spain)
3.2.2. Camino
Camino de Ronda
de Ronda Streetstreet
is the longest Buildings (Granada,
in Granada, and it isSpain)
also one of the most
densely populated areas of the city. Along this street, reinforced concrete buildings of
Camino de Ronda is the longest street in Granada, and it is also on
various ages can be found. As a preliminary approach, based on the regulations in force
densely
during the populated
construction ofareas of the we
the buildings, city. Along
have this as
considered, street, reinforced
a working concret
hypothesis,
various
that ages can strength
the characteristic be found. As a preliminary
of concrete approach,
is 25 MPa in concrete based up
manufactured onuntil
the regul
1970, and 30 MPa from 1970 onwards. The concrete cover in the exposed areas have been
during the construction of the buildings, we have considered, as a workin
assumed to be 30 mm. The concrete cover in the internal areas have been assumed to be
that
15 mmthe characteristic
for buildings strength
from before 1970 andof
25 concrete
mm for laterisones.
25 According
MPa in concrete
to Equation manufact
(3),
1970, and 30 MPa from 1970 onwards. The concrete cover in the exposed ar
the initiation time is 25 years for pre-1970 buildings and 44 years for post-1970 buildings,
see Figure 8. These premises are the worst-case scenario, given that a concrete structure is
assumed to be 30 mm. The concrete cover in the internal areas have been a
always protected from environmental factors, by plaster coatings, paint, bricks, etc.
15 mm for buildings from before 1970 and 25 mm for later ones. Accordin
(3), the initiation time is 25 years for pre-1970 buildings and 44 years for po
ings, see Figure 8. These premises are the worst-case scenario, given that a c
ture is always protected from environmental factors, by plaster coatings, pa
After the initiation time, the remaining service life depends on the res
inspections. Note that the appearance of cracks parallel to the reinforceme
exhaustive structural analysis to determine the bearing capacity of the struc
 ings, see Figure 8. These premises are the worst-case scenario, given that a concrete str
ture is always protected from environmental factors, by plaster coatings, paint, bricks, e
After the initiation time, the remaining service life depends on the result of perio
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976
inspections. Note that the appearance of cracks parallel to the reinforcement requires
11 of 14
exhaustive structural analysis to determine the bearing capacity of the structure.

Figure 8. Evolution
Figure of of
8. Evolution thethecarbonation front
carbonation front in in case
case study
study 2, Equation
2, Equation (3). (3).
After the initiation time, the remaining service life depends on the result of periodic
The resultsNote
inspections. obtained
that thehave been summarized
appearance intoFigure
of cracks parallel 9, which indicate
the reinforcement when pe
requires an
odic exhaustive
inspections for theanalysis
structural buildings of Camino
to determine de Ronda
the bearing are
capacity necessary
of the structure.based on the e
ainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
mated endTheofresults
the initiation been summarized in Figure 9, which indicate when periodic 12 of
times.
obtained have
inspections for the buildings of Camino de Ronda are necessary based on the estimated
end of the initiation times.

FigureFigure 9. Period
9. Period of time
of time forforperiodic
periodic inspections.
inspections.

4. Limitations of the Study

The aim of the present study is to establish the relationship between XRC classes a
concrete strength for regular concrete, and not to replace the XRC classes introduced
the new version of Eurocode 2. It should be noted that the presented formulation may n
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7976 12 of 14

4. Limitations of the Study

The aim of the present study is to establish the relationship between XRC classes and
concrete strength for regular concrete, and not to replace the XRC classes introduced by the
new version of Eurocode 2. It should be noted that the presented formulation may not be
applicable if impermeability of the concrete or carbonation resistance is achieved through
means other than increasing the concrete strength.

5. Conclusions
The most significant finding of this paper is that the evolution of the carbonation front
and the expected service life of a structure can be approximated using the new Eurocode 2,
without relying on the resistance class against carbonation-induced corrosion. Instead, only
the strength resistance of the concrete and the exposure class are used.
Additionally, the following conclusions are addressed:
• The presented study proposes a new continuous formulation for the carbonation front.
• The formulation is based on the ‘square root of time’ expression given by the relevant
literature and is in accordance with the minimum cover proposed by prEN 1992.
• The minimum cover required to protect against carbonation can be determined from
the proposed expression, which is formulated as a function of the compressive strength
of concrete.
• The proposed expression allows for the indicative strength classes against corrosion
induced by carbonation proposed by prEN 1992 to be considered.
• The new expression is shown to be a useful tool for the design of extremely durable
structures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.H.-M. methodology, E.H.-M. and L.M.G.-M.; formal

analysis, L.H.-G. and L.M.G.-M.; investigation, L.H.-G.; data curation, E.M.; writing—original draft,
L.H.-G.; writing—review and editing, L.H.-G. and L.M.G.-M.; visualization, E.M.; supervision, E.H.-
M. project administration, E.H.-M. funding acquisition, E.H.-M. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is part of the HYPERION project (https://www.hyperion-project.eu/, accessed
on 1 April 2003). HYPERION has received funding from the European Union’s Framework Pro-
gramme for Research and Innovation (Horizon 2020) under grant agreement no. 821054. This work
also was supported by the Spanish Government (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades)
as part of the Research Projects RTI2018-101841-B-C21 and RTI2018-101841-B-C22 (MINECO/FEDER).
The content of this publication is the sole responsibility of UGR and does not necessarily reflect the
opinion of the European Union.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are available upon reasonable request to the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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