TOPIC- 07 Kinship system in India
Types of kinship systems& Lineage and descent in India
• All blood relationships are known by term, consanguinity. All relationships through
marriage are given term affinity. Father/mother-in-law and daughter-/son-in-law are affinal.
• Approaches to the study of kinship can be broadly classified under two headings (i) the
Indological approach and (ii) the Anthropological approach.
Indological approach
o have used textual sources to explain kinship pattern
o has provided -framework to understand - elements of continuity & change in kinship
o KM Kapadia, IrawatiKarwe, PM Prabhu, GS Ghurye
Anthropological Approach
o Anthropologists have looked at kinship from the point of view of descent & alliance:
DescentApproach
• Patrilineal- descent line from father to son
• Matrilineal- descent traced from mother to daughter
• double (bilineal): from both mother/father - DIFFERENT attributes
(eg: mother- movable property & father-immovable property)
• cognatic: attributes are transmitted equally from mother/father
• parallel: women-daughters and men-sons
• cross/alternative: mother-son and fathe-daughter
Alliance Approach: includes consideration of patterns and rules of marriage
Lineage and Descent in India
o Lineage- a body of people who are arranged together on the basis of common blood
linkage. Patriarchal society-daughter not part of fathers lineage group.
o Classical antropologists- patrilineal-determining descent through the male
line.matrilineal-determining descent through the female line.
o Indologist- Ghurye- role of descent in defining marriage, family, kinship and India. In
northen India- some onecant marry within extended kinship group- marriage is
driven by rules of kinship and descent.Ghurye indicated- Gotra and Charna are
exogamous groups-brings dispersed people together.
o Gail Omvedt Caste is an expanded descent system.
o Andre Beteille- kinship in India so strong that- Voting is driven by kinship rather than
on merir- Primary source of political recruitment :kinship group- Thus Democratic
political system in India is engaged in social and cultural reproduction.
o Krishna Kumar- Kinship in India is so intensive that- behind every corrupt man- there
is an
o Role of descent and kinship not only decides private spheres of life like marriage,
family etc rather very well defines occupation, political activities etc
Kinship system in north India
• Irawati Karve identified 4 cultural zones Northern, Central, Southern and the Eastern zones.
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• Discussed on basis of i) kinship groups, ii) kinship terminology iii) marriage rules, and iv)
ceremonial exchange of gifts among kin.
o Kinship Groups
Patrilineage
• Cooperation
• Conflict
• Inheritance of status and property: Thus, the lineage fellows
cooperate for economic and jural reasons.
Clan: A lineage is an exogamous unit, i.e., a boy and a girl of the same
lineage cannot marry. A larger exogamous category is called the clan.
Among the Hindus, this category is known as gotra. But the common
ancestor of a clan is generally a mythical figure.
Caste and Subcaste: As castes are endogamous
Fictive Kin: Mahapatra: For example, in North India where village exogamy is
a normal practice, it is rare to find a brother to a daughter-in-law living in
the same locality. She can get a brother only through a fictive relationship.
o Kinship Terminology
Descriptive Nature of North Indian Kinship Terms-bhatija/bhatiji
Social behaviour- Surajpuri Brahmins (studied by Louis Dumont)- MAAN-
bride take, also high status
Terms Signifying Social Behaviour: Devarbhabhi-joking (avoidance)
o Marriage Rules
Clan Exogamy
4 clan rule- father’s/ mother’s/ nani’s/ dadi’s clan not allowed
Marriages within the Subcaste- caste among Surajpuri Brahmins divided
into 3 subcastes based on status girl always taken from lower subcaste
Rule of no repetition- father’sister =/ one’s own sister
o Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin:
for understanding-patterned behaviour among various categories of kin.
L. Dumont - mother’s brother (uterine kin) and wife’s brother (affinal kin)
have similar ceremonial functions.
Kinship system in south india
• Kinship Groups
o Patrilineage
o Dumont- Vill. PramalaiKallar, Madurai, TN- describes kin groups in terms of
patrilineal, patrilocal, exogamous groups- kuttam.
o coparceners are called pangali and opposed set- mama-machchinan
• Kinship Terms:
o Parallel & cross cousins: Parallel cousins are those who are children of
siblings of same sex. Cross-cousins - children of siblings of opposite sex.
o Terms even reflect age- younger or elder
• Marriage Rules: 3 types of preferential marriages:
o first preference - marriage between a man and his elder sister’s daughter
o second pref: marriage of a man with his father’s sister’s daughter
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o The third pref is between a man and his mother’s brother’s daughter
• Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin: element of reciprocity present
A comparison of north and south indian kinship systems
Differences:
• North- negative rules of marriage; South- positive rules of marriage
• North- territorial exogamy (far off place) South- almost no territorial exogamy
• North- coactivity b/w lineage members South-bothways
• North-HypergamySouth- not possible-hence, isogamy
• North- wife stranger- low status; South- not stranger- higher status
Similarities
• caste and kinship inextricably linked
• both regions emphasise the role of affinity in social relationships and networks.
Kinship organisation in matrilineal communities in NE and SW india
• Matrilineal Descent System- North East
o Garo:
matrilineage is represented by the households of daughters
Unmarried daughters /sons live with mother, while married daughters,
except the one living in original household, set up households near mother’s
house.
The married sons leave their mother’s house to join their wives
But decision-making regarding land and other property –men
o Khasi
man after his marriage lives with his wife’s parents.
follow the rule of ultimogeniture-system of inheritance by which youngest
daughter in matrilineal societies succeeds property.
The other daughters live neolocally
The male child is generally lost to the family he marries into. As a husband,
the man is looked upon as a begetter
• Matrilineal Groups in South-west India
o Nayar of Kerala
follow the practice of visiting husbands
Term taravad - for the clan, & lineage. -also referred to property group
Nambudiri Brahmin, who forms sambandham with a Nayar woman, is called
her ‘ritual husband’. The children from these unions always belonged to the
lineage of Nayar women only.
o Matrilineal Muslims of Lakshadweep
They follow duolocal residence. Duolocal residence implies that the husband
and the wife reside separately. - husband visits his wife’s home at night
Central India Kinship system- Gujurat, Maharashtra, MP- mixture of elements from NI and SI.Rajputs-
marriage- on status of girlss family- no caste bar- girl of their choice.- Marthas-32 divisions- primary,
secondary,tertiary divisions- marriage accordingly.- Kumbi of Gujurat- cant marry within one
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generations from fathers side and within 3 generations in mothers side. -Rajasthan- On
AkshyaTritiya- massive marriage takes place- all age groups-relaxed norms.
Veena Das- In north Indian kinship father son relationship precedes over husband wife relationship-
on analysis of Punjabi kinship system she said- the natural sexual relationshp between husband and
wife is subdued to socially established father son relationship glorifying patriarchy.
Family and marriage in India and Household dimensions of the family
• Comment on the changes in the household dimensions of family under modern economic
reforms.
• “Nuclear families grow into joint families and then break into nuclear families. The change
from nuclear to joint and from joint to nuclear families is fairly frequent in India.” Explain the
changes in the structure and functions of joint family in this context.
• Factors - responsible for instability -Indian family? Will family survive present crisis - modern
society?
• Discuss the influence of socio-cultural factors on age of marriage in India
• Write short note: Generation Gap Write short note: Industrialisation and family change in
India, with example impact - legal & socio-eco changes on marriage & family. Are these instis
weakening?
• What has been the impact of globalization on the cultural aspect(s) of the family?
• Distinction between the concepts of family and household
• Outline the social factors related to generation gap. How has this led to the problem of
youth unrest?
Marriage
• Marriage is universal social institution of society. As a social institution, - provides
recognised form for entering - a relatively enduring heterosexual relationship for bearing &
rearing of children. It is thus primarily a way of regulating human reproduction
• Leach: considered marriage as bundles of rights:
o legitimate offspring
o Socially approved access to the spouse’s sexuality, labour and property
o Establishment of affinal relationships between persons and between groups.
• But KathleenGough: Nayarrs of Kerala- Namboodari-Nayar relation cannot explain above
def’n. Thus, own def’n: Marriage is a relationship established between a woman and one
or more other persons, which provides that a child born to the woman is not prohibited by
rules of the relationship is accorded full birth-status rights common to normal members of
his society or social stratum.
• but after 377, Evans Pritchard- Nuer woman woman marriage: Leach: All universal
definitions of marriage are in vain. Gough- marriage a polythetic- with open checklist
• Many, esp western societies: the chief aim of marriage is not only procreation but
companionship, emotional, and psychological support are equally emphasised
• Forms of marriage
o Monogamy
o Polygamy= polygyny-Islam (some societies- sororal polygyny)+ polyandry-Todas of
Nilgiris (some societies fraternal polyandry)
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• Rules of marriage- done earlier. Add Anuloma&pratiloma
• Mate selection- In India, caste, religion, family background – been traditionally of great imp
o Love,
o arranged- horoscope; rules etc
o Dwarki- patterns of mate selection in India
Marriage by parents’/elders’ choice without consulting either the boy or girl
Marriage by self-choice without consulting parents/ elders
Marriage by self-choice but with parents’ consent
Marriage by parents’ choice but with the consent of boy & girl
Marriage by parents’ choice but with consent of only one of two partners
involved.
o Among tribals
selection by purchase/service: Bride priceGonds- groom to work at
bride’s home for years to pay bride’s price
youth dormitories:wide scope to choose mates- marriage by consent
Selection by capture: Naga, ho, Bhil, Gond. Ususally parents approval and
ceremonial. but nagas- female infanticide- fear of raids
Selection by trial: prove worth and prowess first- generally thru dance game
• Preferential marriages: Diff for diff societies:
o Like south- first pref marriage between a man and his elder sister’s daughter
o Arabs &muslims- marriage b/w parallel cousins allowed:2 possible reasons
Family wealth is not dispersed
relationships donot fade away but become stronger
India- what & why of marriage:
• Among the Hindus, for instance, marriage is regarded as a socio-religious duty
• ‘Dharmashastra’, point out three main aims of marriage. These are dharma (duty), praja
(progeny) and rati (sensual pleasure) + periodic rituals- like shraadh
• Islam- views marriage as Sunnah or an obligation
Changes in marriages:
• Historically speaking, a spate of experiments to change the form and practice of
marriage itself by social reformers like JotiraoPhule, who along with his wife,
Savitribai, established a school for untouchable girls in 1848 and a home for upper
caste widows in 1854. Shinde (1882) commented on sexual economics of marriage
and prostitution and considered them as two sides of the same coin.
• Forms: Monogamy- Even in a Muslim country like Pakistan, legislation - introduced -
necessary for kazi - plural marriages only if 1st wife gave - written consent.
o conditions in modern society - made marriage unstable and marriage bond
is revokable, individuals are willing to risk another marriage to find
happiness.
o Hence, -from straight monogamy, to serial monogamy.
• Mate selection: young men/women increasingly being given say
• Changes in age:Sarda Act, 1929 and subsequent amendment in 1978
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• Change in marriage rules and customs: Ironically, with sc& tech, traditionalism and
complex rituals becoming more pronounced. Very rarely simple marriages
• Changes in goals: Not mode of procreation. companionship emotional, etc bond
• In India, the relationship is defined and sanctioned by custom and law prevalent in a
hetero-normative and patriarchal social milieu- Rate of marital discord- brought
before court vexing questions like he right to fatherhood versus a woman’s right
over her own body.
• NRI’s coming to India to marry
Family: Link with socio-1, Functional perspective etc
• The family is a unique institution in that it is both a private and a visibly public institution at
same time
• The family, broadly refers to primary group comprising husband wife unit (parents) and
children.
• Thus, the family is based on the principles of kinship whose members usually share a
common residence.
Household:
They reside in a house/homestead. This residential unit is called the household.
o The household (ghar) is a residential and domestic unit composed of one or more
persons living under the same roof and eating food cooked in the same kitchen
(hearth/chulah)
o These members then reside in two or more households but they consider
themselves as belonging to the same family. The household is a commensal and
coresident group/ unit (with provision for the phenomenon of single person
households). Thus kin and residence rules distinguish between family and
household
o Kolenda is another sociologist who has consistently worked towards clarifying the
conceptual issues about family and household. She has proposed the 12 type
classificatory scheme in her comparative study of the Indian joint family
o A household in itself is neither joint nor nuclear, but becomes either of these by
virtue of its being under progression and regression in a developmental process. For
example, a married son’s moving out of his father’s house in patrilineal society
makes the son’s house a nuclear one, or rather a separate one. This act may or may
not simultaneously make his father’s household a nuclear one
• Process View: Phases of Household Development: it is clear that the family is not a static
institution. A household may experience progression and/or regression or both on the basis
of birth, adoption and in- and out-marriage, and death, divorce and separation of members
over a period of time.
• Acc to Shah: The pattern of developmental process in each society is affected by three
major factors:
o The first is the demographic factor, which not only includes the phenomena of birth,
adulthood and death but also the sex and number of members. While these
phenomena are demographic in origin, they are social in operation.
o The second factor is the series of explicitly stated norms regarding the residence of
various relatives in a household.
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o The third is the pattern of interpersonal relations in a household, largely dependent
on the norms or codes of proper conduct attached to kinship relationships in the
household’
Household dimensions of the family
o AM Shah- bookhousehold dimension of indian family-fundamental question- joint
household disintegrating or joint family- proportion of joint households more today as
compare to past- reason- rising population- construction of houses costly- migration for
employments etc- bigger households splitting into smaller households- but strong emotional
ties though not staying together- joint household splitting not joint families.household study
important.
o Pauline Kolenda- after modernity joint households and joint families still exist- no
conclusion unlike Marxist scholars.
o Feminist view- whether joint family or nuclear family transformation is not affecting status
of women- sexuality,DOL, reproduction based on patriarchy.
o Classical sociologists-modernity- Household residencial place- family social istitution.
Rise of socialism and modernity- family funtions are being taken by play schools, old age homes,
marriage bureaus, child care centers- family importance down- household importance up-
scandinavian countries- household study is important.
From household study- can find out changes in indian society.
Global migration-Phillipines and India- married women- job outside- living in households with
friends or alone.
In household- more importance to friendship to kinship- immense individual liberty- sexual freedom-
limited or no liability towards other members- suitable for fragile or mobile population-
Scandinavian sensus more importance to households than families.
Household study is taking place of family study, so as friendship study taking place of kinship study.
Types of families:
• Nuclear Family: The most basic among the families is called natal or nuclear or elementary,
or simple family, which consists of a married man and woman and their offspring (rest of
paulkolenda)
Nature of joint family:
What constitutes joint family?- factors of commensality, common residence, joint ownership of
property, cooperation and sentiment of jointness, ritual bonds like worship of common deity.
Scholars like I.P. Desai and K. M. Kapadia point out that jointness should be looked in functional
terms.
Structural functionalist like SC Dubey-Jointness grounded in commensality. Territorial distance not
the only parameter. Like brother coming to city to study with elder brother & sister-in law
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The Continuum of Nuclear and Joint Family Systems
This means that these two types of family systems have to be looked at as something interrelated in
a developmental cycle. The structure of a family changes over a time period in terms of size,
composition, role and status of persons, the family and societal norms and sanctions. There
probably is rarely a family in India, which remains perpetually nuclear in composition. The nuclear
family then, is a stage in a cycle with other structural types of families.
Pauline Kolenda: Additions modification in nuclear family- types:
• Nuclear family refers to a couple with or without children.
• Supplemented nuclear family - nuclear family + one or more unmarried, separated, or
widowed relatives of the parents, other than their unmarried children
• Subnuclear family is identified as a fragment of a former nuclear family
• Single person household
• Supplemented sub nuclear family
Pauline Kolenda: Additions modification in joint family- types
• Collateral joint family: It comprises two or more married couples b/w whom there is a
sibling bond
• Supplemented collateral joint family: collateral joint family along with unmarried/ divorced
etc
• Lineal joint family: 2 couples, b/w whom - lineal link, like between a parent and his married
son
• Supplemented lineal joint family
• Lineal collateral joint family: type three or more couples
• Supplemented lineal - collateral joint family
M.S. Gore’s view, it would be inappropriate to look at the joint family system as a collection of
nuclear families
Changes in family:
• Clifford Geertz-Short Circuit Theory: Tries to explain divorces Smaller family- greater
expectations from individual members- thus volatile insti- short circuit-fuse
• William Goode: Book World Revolution and family transformation: Nucleated family not
always an offshoot of industrial economy. Eg of Philippines- kids with grandparents in village
and husband wife together in city.
• Post Family worlds- Household worlds High divorce rate Nordic countries incentives to
give birth Africa – 40% kids born to unwed mothers High life expectancy- delayed
decisions, if early death then second marriage issues of teen pregnancy (America) Diff
sexualities- LGBT rules of adoptionLivin relationships
• Factors of Change and Process of Disintegration of the Joint Family:
o Economic Factors: Monetisation (introduction of cash transactions), diversification
of occupational opportunities for employment in varied spheres, technological
advancements (in communication and transport) are some of the major economic
factors.
o Industrialisation
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o Educational factors: Educated women (especially college educated) were expected
to have a different kind of influence on family matters than uneducated or less
educated women. Kannan says that the spread of higher education both among the
males and females is one of the reasons for the increase in the incidence of inter-
caste and inter-religious marriages amongst the younger generations in the cities.
o Legal Factors: Eg: Minimum Wages Act 1948, helped to reduce the economic
reliance
o Urbanisation: Limited availability of living space, impersonality and anonymity
o Land Refors: Earlier, the members of the joint family normally lived together due to
common ancestral property. Land reforms imposed ceiling restriction on
landholdings
o Growing sense of individualism: A high sense of individualism is also growing among
section of the villagers. Penetration of the mass media (viz., the newspapers, the
T.V., the radio), formal education, consumerist culture and market forces have
helped individualism grow at a faster rate than ever.
Factors of Change Leading to Reinforcement of the Joint Family
o K.M. Kapadia - families, which have migrated to cities, still retain their bonds with
their joint family in the village or town. The joint family ethic is very much evident in
the performance of certain role obligations
o Milton Singer: In his study The Indian Joint Family in Modern Industry, points out
that the joint family continues to be the norm among industrial entrepreneurs,
despite changes in their material conditions of living. Challenges dysfunctional
aspect of industrialization.
o Paul Kolenda in her study Regional Differences in Family Structure in India observes
that industrialisation serves to strengthen the joint family because an economic
base has been provided to support it or because more hands are needed in a
renewed family enterprise
Emerging patterns
o Previously, The father-son relationship (filial relationship) &bw brothers (fraternal
relationship) more crucial than the husband-wife or conjugal relationship. Now
changes. It is also found that a ‘new concept of wifehood’ (i.e. emphasis on conjugal
relationship) has emerged which is associated with urban living in contemporary
society in India. Raj Gandhi
o Aged parents, who formerly used to look towards their eldest son or other sons for
support in old age, are now adjusting themselves to the new demands of family life
by making economic provisions for their old age. In a situation of generation gap,
many of the aged feel frustrated, dejected and neglected in society
o Gandhi believes that what urbanism does is to increase the ‘price’ of the college
educated urban youth of India in the matrimonial market
o From forces of urbanisation, following trends, family wise:
Families of Proprietary Class. Their basic resource is the family of capital.
The elder males in the family have substantial authority, as they own and
control property. These are mostly the joint-households.
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Families of the Entrepreneurial-cum-Professional Category: Though these
families are joint in nature, there is a tendency of breaking up as adult sons
marry
Faimilies in service sector:Hierarchy eroding and individualism stronger
TN madan- MONEY ORDER ECONOMY
Continuity of family:
o It was initially assumed that the process of urbanization leads to a decline in family
size, weakening of family ties and break up of joint family system into nuclear
families
o But as evidence gathered by sociologists studying family in urban India reveals, this
hypothesis does not hold much credence
o In fact, sociologists like A.M, Shah ,Kapadia ,Gore and others observe a cyclical
change from nuclear to joint to nuclear family within a period of time.
o I. P. Desia in his study of Mahuva considers ‘jointness’ of Indian family when seen in
the light of the actions of members guided by the traditional norms, and then
examines the effects of urbanization on ‘jointness’.
o Mukherjee: He discovered that the upper castes, who also generally belong to the
upper economic classes gave more importance to the joint family organization than
the lower castes and lower economic classes
o Physical separation does not speak for the departure from the spirit of jointness of
the family structure. Sense of effective cooperation in need, and obligation to each
other, have remained prevalent among family members in spite of being separated
from erstwhile joint family.
Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour
• Bio+physiological diff manifested in inequalities
• High dropout rates
• Inheritance rules
• Trobriand societies- women make nets but not allowed in fishing ritual
• Todas- not allowed in buffalo pens
• Technology (tractor and trucks – men and cars- women allowed cuz former means of prod’n)
• Feminists patriarchy more pronounced in modern societies Pink occupations- teaching,
nursing, hospitality sector, entertainment sector, no IPS etc
• Uma Chakravarty- Dalit patriarchy- violence, brahmanic patriarchy- rules & rituals
1. Khaps and honour killings
• If a jatav boy to marry a thakur girl, the two face violence at the hands of respective caste
panchayats
• documented cases of forced marriages, excommunication, unlawful locking, outright
murders /suicides
• The Special Marriage Act of 1954 provides for secular and civil marriage before a registrar
2. Alternative relationships: 377
• Bohanan , has distinguished the rights of a woman as a wife (rights in uxorem) from rights
over the children she may bear (rights in genetricem)
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• Leach: All universal definitions of marriage are in vain.
• Gough- marriage a polythetic- with open checklist
• One not sure if queer or marginalised sexualities can occupy - recognisable space in
mainstream
Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour
Entitlement- form of individual right- culture- rules of law- by society
Modernist theory- various forms of entitlements- now extended to every section gender not a
criteria. Feminists criticised this.
Talcolt parson- Industrialisation, urbanisation, migration- occupational mobility- empowerment of
women and gender gap reduced.
Modernist theory in case of India- relationship between husband and wife prceeding parent child
relationship- conjugal relationship more impo than obligation towards kinships- irrespective of
gender every child inherits property from parents- selection of mates no longer familys
responsibility- child birth is linked to economics and mutual agreement between spouse- modernity
has broken down traditional form of marriage,hierarchical form of relationship.
Hinduism emphasis- sexual purity so child marriage- sexual experimentation outside mariage and
premarital sex is hell- male child makes a woman complete- divorce is evil- widowhood is disaster-
culture defines sexuality- reproduction- DOL,sexuality- Modernist contradicted- nuclear family- child
birth by choice- individual control over sexuality.
Indira Jai Singh- All laws of entitlements based on patriarchy than gender equality- Hindu marriage
act- divorce can be based on adultery- but have to be proved in court- (New act update ??)
Victims of rape has to recast the same experience again and again in order to get justice- inheritance
rights over parents property to women recently made law- Legal laws based on patriarchy.
Tulsi Patel- Women consider it as sin to prohibit their husbands from sexuality- unwanted
pregnancy- lose life during child birth- in bad healths also they accept to patriarchal convention-
forgetting their entitlements- Wage payment women less than half compared to men-despite doing
twice work than men in factories.
Family is a paradise in a hopeless world- where marriage, child birth, motherhood makes womans
life complete.
Feminist movements is not rebellion against patriarchy rather asking for equality
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