Opening: In the opening ofa gray-sale image, we remove small light deals, while relatively undisturbed overall gray levels and larger bright features feb=(fOb)eb. ‘The structuring element is rolled underside the surface off, All the peaks that are ‘arow with respect to the diameter ofthe structuring element wil be reduced in amplitude and sharpness. The initial erosion removes the details, but it also darkens the image. The subsequent di the detail totally removed by erosion, ‘Opening a G-S picture is descrbable as pushing object B under the sean-tine graph, ‘hile traversing the graph according the curvature of B fon again increases the overall intensity of the image without reintroducing To Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation Closing: In the closing of gray-seal ‘undisturbed overall gray levels and larger dark features feb=(f®b)Ob. is rolled on top of the surface off, Peaks essentially ae left Image, we remove small dark detail while relatively “The structuring eler in their original form (assume that their separation at the narrowest poins exceeds the iameter of the structuring element). ‘The inital dilation removes the dark details and brightens the image. The subsequent erosion darkens the image without reintroducing the details totally removed by dilation Closing a G-S piture is deeribable as pushing object B on top of the sean-tine graph, ‘while traversing the graph according the curvature of B, The peaks are wsually remains in theie original frm, Aid aT x.Basi Morphological Algorithms Boundary Extraction: ‘The bound 'y of a set A is obtained by first eroding A by structuring element B and then taking the set difference of A and it’s erosion, The resultant image after subtracting the eroded image from the original image has the boundary of the objects extracted, The thickness of the boundary depen on the size of the structuring element, The boundary of a set A is obtained by first eroding A by structuring element B and then taking the set difference of A and it’ erosion. The resultant image after subtracting the eroded image from 20 Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation the original image has the boundary of the objects extracted. The thickness of the bound depends on the size of the structuring element. The boundary f (A) of a set A is B(A)= A-(A@B) —Origin ab ed FIGURE 9.13 (a) Set A. (b) Structuring element B.(c) A eroded by B. (d) Boundary, given by the set difference between n B A and its erosi AGB B(A) FIGURE 9.14 (a) A simple binary image, with Tsrepresented in white (b) Result Eq. (9.8-1) with the stcteing lement i Fig. 9.130)Region Filling or Hole Filli ‘A Hole may be defined as a background region surrounded by connected border of foreground pixels. This algorithm is based on a set of dilations, complementation and intersections. Let P is the point inside the boundary, and that is filled with the value of 1. Xu = (Xx-1 © B)NAS > The process stops when Xi = Xi. Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation » The set X, contains all the filled holes » The result that given by union of A and Xx, is a set contains the filled set and the boundary. abe def ghi FIGURE 9.15 Region filling. (a) Set A. (b) Complement of A (6) Structuring element B. (4) Initial point inside the boundary: (e)-{h) Various steps of Eq. (95-2). (i) Final result [union of (a) and (hhHit-or-Miss Transform: ‘The hit-and-miss transform is a basic tool for shape detection, The hit-or-miss transform is a general binary morphological operation that can be used to look for particular pattems of foreground and background pixels in an image. Concept: To detect a shape: > Hit object 2b > Miss background Let the origin of each shape be located at its center of gravity, > v v v % BL v ¥ If we want to find the location of a shape~ X , at (larger) image, A Let X be enclosed by a small window, say ~ W. ‘The local background of X with respect to W is defined as the set difference (W = x) Apply erosion operator of A by X, will get us the set of locations of the origin of X, such that X is completely contained in A. It may be also view geometrically as the set of all locations of the origin of X at which X found a mateh (hit) in A. Apply evasion operator on the complement of A by the local background set (W — X). Notice, that the set of locations for which X exaetly fits these two last operators. above. If B denotes the set composed of X and it’s background B = (B1,B2) ; Bl =X , B2=(W-X), ‘The match (or set of matches) of B in A, denoted as A@B=(A OB) n (4° OB) Object related, B2: Background related inside A is the intersection of ‘The reason for using these kind of structuring element B = (B1,B2) is based on definition two or more objects are distinct onl they are disjoint (disconnected) sets. In some applications, we may interested in detecting certain patterns (combinations) of 1’s and 0°s, not for detecting individual objects In this case a background is not required and the hit-or-miss transform reduces to imple erosion This simplified pattern detection scheme is used in some of the algorithms for - identifying characters within a text.Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation Aaxuvur ab ed e a FIGURE 9.12 (a) Set A.(b) A window, W. and the local background of X with respect to W, (W — X). (©) Complement ‘of A, (d) Erosion of A by X. (e) Erosion of A® Ww — X). () fntersseton of () and (e), showing the location of the origin of X,as desired. oxourow ie ‘The structural elements used for Hit-or-miss transforms are an extension to the ones. used with dilation, erosion etc, The structural elements can contain both foreground and background pixels, rather than just foreground pixels, i.e. both ones and zeros. The structuring element is superimposed over each pixel in the input image, and if an exact match is found between the foreground and background pixels in the structuring element and the image, the input pixel lying below the origin of the structuring element is set to the foreground pixel value. If it does not match, the input pixel is replaced by the boundary pixel value.4.3, Pseudo color image processing sci color (also called false color image processing consists of essigning coors to ny values based on a specified criterion. The term pseudo of false color is used to Aifferentiste the process of assigning colors to monochrome images from the processes associated with true color images. The process of gray level to color transfomnations is known as pseudo color image processing. The two techniques used for pscudo color image processing are, > Inensty Stcing > Gray Levelt Color Transformation 42.1. Intensity Slicing: ‘The technique of intensity (sometimes called density) sing and color coding is one ofthe simplest examples of pseudo color image processing Ian image is interpreted as 83. function intensity versus spatial coordinates), the metho can be viewed a one of placing planes parallel to the coordinate plane ofthe image: each plane then “slices” the funetion in the area of intersection. The folowing figure shows an example of using a plane at fx y)= i to slice the image function into two levels 40 Fig. Geometric interpretation ofthe intensity slicing technique IF a ferent colori assigned to each sie ofthe plane shown in the above Figure any pixel whose gray lve is above the plane wll he coded with one color and any pixel below the plane will he coded withthe other: Level that lie om the plane itself may be arity assignod one ofthe two colors. The result i a two-color image whose relative appearance can be controlled by moving the slicing plane up and dove the gray-fvel ans. In general, the technique may be summarized as follows, Let (0, L~ 1 represent the sniy scale, level [W(x y) = L = 1, Suppose that P planes perpendicular to the intensity ais are defined at levels fy. Thon, assuming that 0-< P< I~ 1, the Pplanes patton the gray sale ito l represent black {Hix, y) = Oh and level f+ represent white Ps Limtervals, V1, V2. Vp ¢ 1. Gray-level to color assignments are made according to the relation f.9) =e iffR DEVE Where eis the color associat withthe k intensity interval Vi, defined by the Paitioning planes at =k - I and f= An altemative representation defines the same ‘mapping according to the mapping function shown in te following figure. Any inpat ary levels assigned one of to colors, depending on whether itis above or below the value ofl ‘When more levels are wed, the mapping function takes on a staircase form, An alternative representation ofthe intensity slicing technique4.3.2. Gray Level to Color Transformation: This approach is to perform three independent transformations on the gray level of any input pixel. The three results are then fed separately into the red, green, and blue channels of a color television monitor. This method produces a composite image whose color content is modulated by the nature of the transformation functions. These are transformations on the gray-level values of an image and are not functions of position. In intensity slicing, piecewise linear functions of the gray levels are used to generate colors. On the other hand, this method can be based on smooth, nonlinear functions, which, as might be expected, gives the technique considerable flexibility. The output of each transformation is a composite image. Red transformation Se(X.¥) « transformation fay) Fol ¥) Blue transformation Sal ¥) Fig. Functional block diagram for pseudo color image processingMorphological smoothing > Perform opening followed by a closing > The net result of these two operations is to remove or attenuate both bright and dark artifacts and noise. 3b : Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation Morphol I gr: » Dilation and erosion are use to compute the morphological gradient of an image, g=( @b)- FO) » Ituses to highlights sharp gray-level transitions in the input image. denoted g: > Obtained using symmetrical structuring elements tend to depend less on edge directionality.42.1. The RGB Color Mod In the RGB model, each color appears in its primary spectral components of red, ‘green, and blu, This model is based on a Cartesian coordinate system, The colo subspace of interest is the cube show i the following figure. In which RGB values are at three comers: cyan, magenta, and yellow are at thre other comers; blak is atthe origin and white sat the comer farthest from dhe origin. In this mode, the gray scale (points of equal RGB values) extends from black to white along the line joining these two points. The diferent colors in ‘his model are points on or inside the cube, and are defined by vectors extending fom the origin, For convenience, the assumption is that al color values have been normalized so that the cube shown in the figure isthe unit cube. That s all values of R, G. and B are assumed to be inthe range (0, 1. Fig. Schemati of the RGB color cube Images represented in the RGB color move consis of thee component images, one for cach primary color. When fed into an RGB monitor, these three images combine om the phosphor sreen to produce a composite eolor image, BF — ? Fig, Generating the RGB image of the cross Sectional color plane “The numberof bits used to represen each pixel in RGH space is called the pixel depth. Consider an RGH image in which each ofthe red, green, and blue images isan $-bit_ Image. Under these conditions each RGB color pixel [hat is, «triplet of valves (R, G. BNL is sa to have a depth of 24 bits C image planes times the numberof bits per plane). The term full-color image is used offen to denote a 24-bit RGB color image. The total aumber of colors in a 24-bit RGB image i 28)" = 16,777,2164.2.2. The CMY and CMYK Color models Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the secondary colors of light or, alternatively, the primary colors of pigments, For example, when a surface coated with cyan pigment is illuminated with white light, no red light is reflected from the surface. That is, cyan subtracts red light from reflected white light, which itself is composed of equal amounts of red, green, and blue light. Most devices that deposit colored pigments on paper, such as color printers and copiers, require CMY data input or perform an RGB to CMY conversion internally. This conversion is performed using Cc 1 R M|=|1|]-|] G ¥ 1 B Where, again, the assumption is that all color values have been normalized to the range [0, 1]. The above equation demonstrates that light reflected from a surface coated with pure cyan does not contain red (that is, C = 1 — R in the equation), Similarly, pure magenta does not reflect green, and pure yellow does not reflect blue, So, the RGB values can be obtained easily from a set of CMY values by subtracting the individual CMY values from 1. Equal amounts of the pigment primaries, cyan, magenta, and yellow should produce black. In practice, combining these colors for printing produces a muddy-looking black. So, in order to produce true black, a fourth color, black is added, giving rise to the CMYK color model.424. Conversion from RGB colar model to HSI color model Given an image in RGB color format, the H component of each RGB pixel is obtained using the equation, 360-6 Na-cstr-m) [-oF +R-axG-By 0=008 3 ear tink 6.5) (R+6+B) Its assumed that the RGB values have been normalized tothe range [0,1] and that angle 0 is measured with respect tothe red axis of the HST space. The SI values are in (0.1), and the H value can be divide by 3600 tobe inthe same range. 42.5. Conversion from HSI color model to RGB color model Given yalus of HSLin the interval (01 |, one aa find the comesponding RGB values in the same range. The applicable equations depend on the values of H. There are three sectors of interest, corresponding tothe 120" interval in the separation of primaris. RG sector (0° Let R represent the entire image region > Sogmentation is a process that pastitions R into subregions, R,.Ry,....Ry, such that (b) R, is a connected region, i =1,2,.... (©) ROR, =¢ foralliand j,i 4 j (d) P(R,) =TRUE fori = 1, an (e) P(R,UR,)=FALSE for any adjacent regions R, and R, where PCR) logical predicate defined over the points in st Ry For example: P(R,)=TRUE if all pixels in Rchave the same gray level ed FcURE 10.40 (@) Image () Hound ‘Sspmented Setectve welds couresyof XTTEK Systems tw,Morphological Image Processing & Image Segmentation Fig. 10.41 shows the histogram of Fig. 10.40 (a). It is difficult to segment the defects by thresholding methods. (Applying region growing methods are better in this case.) Figure 10.41 Figure 10.40(a)Overview Smoothing in image processing is a technique used to reduce noise and fine details in an image by applying a low-pass filter. This filter works by replacing each pixel value with an average value of its neighboring pixels. Smoothing can help to improve the visual quality of an image and make it easier to analyze by reducing the impact of small variations in pixel values. However, too much smoothing can result in the loss of important information, so it's important to choose an appropriate level of smoothing based on the specific requirements of the application Introduction Ab | U St refe AS N ce Smoothing in image processing refers to the process of reducing noise or other unwanted artifacts in an image while preserving important features and structures. The goal of smoothing is to create a visually appealing image that is easy to interpret and analyze. Smoothing techniques use various algorithms, such as filters or convolutions, to remove noise or other distortions in the image. Effective smoothing requires striking a balance between removing unwanted artifacts and preserving important image details, and is an essential step in many image processing applications, including image segmentation, object recognition, and computer vision.