Section-B

Fashion in Minoan Culture

The fact that the Minoans had created the first remarkable civilization is
something that also emerges from the clothes they wore. Looking at the
Minoan frescoes and the Minoan figurines that have been found in Crete, in
ancient Greece (Sparta, Athens) as well as in ancient Egypt, and
Mesopotamia, we see that the Minoans are the first in the world who cut
and sewed clothes to the measurements of a person.
Already from 2000-1500 BC, they made different clothes for men, women,
priests, etc. Therefore, the Minoans are the first to create tailored clothing
and fashion. In other words, we see that the Minoans had a multi-complex
culture and more advanced not only than what the previous societies have
had but also than what the societies that followed in Greece and Italy since
they seem to wear a variety of garments, which are not only luxurious but
also elegant and complex.
We do not know exactly what these Minoan garments were called then.
Nonetheless, it is obvious that from them come those that today we call:
skirt, dress, cardigan, salwar, shorts, robe, sandals, boots, belt, etc. It
should be noted that the rest of the Greeks (Athenians, Spartans), and
Romans, during the Minoan era, as well as many years after the so-called
Minoan Empire wore clothes that were something like today’s bed linen
called a tunic.
Garments for Minoan Women
The Minoan women’s clothing, as it appears from the description in
Homer’s Iliad, as well as the frescoes and figurines found in
Knossos, consisted at least of the following, woolen or linen,
garments.
Colorful & Elaborated Skirts
They were just like today. These skirts had pleats, ribbons,
trimmings, and fringes. There were also multi-layered, bell-shaped
skirts with a series of horizontal ruffles, which gradually widened
until they reached the ground.
Tight Handweaved Corsets
They appear something like the later cardigans. They usually had
short sleeves, were fitted, and open at the front. At the same time,
they contained a mechanism of breast augmentation, however, the
Minoans simply left their breasts uncovered, as a fertility symbol.
Thick Breast Cloths
The breastplate was either opaque or cobweb fabric that covered
the breasts. If it was a requirement, itwas supported with laces
around the neck. Sometimes mythological beings wore a
breastplate as a distinctive item of clothing.
Beautifully Embellished Belts
It appears like that of today’s Cretan traditional costume, which is,
long, wide, and richly decorated. It was tied around the waist and
tight to emphasize it and is a symbol of distinction.
Fancy Quilted Aprons
Typically it was either made of a single or double-layer (front and
back) and went over the skirt. It was tied at the waist with a strap.
The single-layered one was similar to that of the Cretan traditional
costume. The double was two aprons joined in the middle to
protect the skirt on the seats. The apron was richly decorated with
embroidery and adorned the outfit.
Garments for the Lower Body
‘Anasyrida’ is the name of the low-rise bloomer, in Greek. It looked
something like a sack, with only two holes in the bottom, for the
legs to go through. These undergarments were worn by Minoan
women, around 3000 BC and were redeveloped in the 19th century
and soon became a symbol of women’s rights because early
activist Amelia Bloomer wore drawers long enough to stick out from
under her dress.
Air Flowing Shorts
They were like today’s athletic shorts which were formed by the
double Minoan apron joining the center of the backside apron with
the center of the front side with the crotch. It was not until the
1930s, when shorts started to be worn for casual comfort (e.g.
outdoor and athletic activities) by both men and women. However,
it was still taboo to wear shorts outside certain activities, whereas
for Minoan women, it was part of their attire thousands of years
ago.
Accessories for Minoan Women
In Minoan Crete, women’s clothing was made from a wide variety
of materials, such as linen, leather, and wool. They decorated them
with bright colors and patterns, with ribbons at the ends, bows,
delicate veils. The jewelry, made of gold, metal, stone, or bone,
were sewn on. Particularly important are the figurines findings,
mainly those that come from the sanctuaries of eastern Crete from
the Middle Minoan Era (2000-1600), but also the seal stones,
jewelry and objects, which were related to the care and
beautification of the body.
Tailored Shoes
Minoan women’s shoes were sandals, which were fitted to the foot
with relatively high straps and short boots. Although, the ‘ancient
Greek’ sandal trend is still relevant nowadays, with big fashion
brands bringing them to the forefront during their fashion shows, it
all started with the Minoans. Nonetheless, inside the houses and
sanctuaries, the Minoans were always barefoot.
Precious Jewelry
The Mioans made jewelry out of a variety of materials: gold and
precious or semi-precious stones, such as silver, agate, amethyst,
crystal, amber, most of which must have been imported. The drop-
shapes, macaroons, or spherical beads (‘psifoi’) were made from
the above materials but also from faience and a blue glass mass,
which as a cheaper material could replace gold. They also had
many kinds of jewelry: armbands, necklaces, bracelets, and ankle
bracelets. Minoans wore these decorative items for personal
adornment, and they were either attached to the body or the
clothes.
Sophisticated Cosmetics & Hairstyling
Minoan women used to take care of their face, body, and hair,
apply natural cosmetics, and have special hairstyles. The
excavations shed light on the fact that Minoan women instinctively
knew that olive oil was itself one of the most effective beauty
secrets for their skin and hair. They created essential oils, which
they extracted from various parts of plants such as rose, nutmeg,
fennel, anise. Other ingredients used to make perfumes and
ointments were coriander, honey, and wine. Perfume-making
workshops have also been located in the palace of Zakros and
Mycenae, where in addition to the jars, there was a heating
system, catalogs of aromatic plants and amphorae, the vases for
storage and, as it turned out, jars for transporting perfumes
abroad.
As for make-up, the women applied white powder on their face,
while painting their lips, cheeks, nails and ear lobes red. They also
intensely painted their big eyes with dark paint. All dyes came from
plants. As they showed particular interest in their appearance, they
chose extravagant hairstyles. Sometimes the hair was gathered in
a bun and small curls fell on the forehead and ears. Other times,
they adorned their long and thin curls with hairpins, beads, and
clips often in the shape of a flower. They often complemented their
hairstyles by adding ribbons, nets, diadems, and even hats in
various shapes, sometimes with buckles and tiaras.
Garments for Minoan Men
From the description in Homer’s Iliad as well as from the frescoes
and statuettes that were excavated in Knossos, it appears that the
Minoan men were looser in their clothing than the Minoan women.
However, they dressed in an impressive, elegant, and complex
way. Homer characterizes them as well-groomed and polished, with
gleaming, clothes and even cut and sewn to their measurements.
In particular Minoan menswear, consisted of at least the following
garments:
Decorative Loincloths
The ‘zoma’, which was a wide strip of cloth like a belt with fringes
and beads at one end. With the ‘zoma’ they wrapped the body from
the waist down to the thighs forming a skirt. The ‘zoma’, which is
the earliest forms of clothing, in the Minoan era was worn in rituals,
gymnastic demonstrations, at home, in hunting, etc. Basically
wherever the requirement was light clothing.
Basic Long Tunics
Usually, that was a short-sleeved tunic, made in white or in other
colors with a lightweight fabric. It was a one-piece dress,
something like the current robe or gown. They wore it in their
formal appearances, sacrificial ceremonies, shrines, etc.
Embroidered Short Tunics
The short tunic or the Greek ‘kontochi’ of the Cretan traditional
costume, is the ancestor of the blazer, vest, and sleeved jacket.
The Minoan men had no idea that they had designed the base of
today’s formal menswear!
Custom-Made “Pericarps”
A special, luxurious category was the pericarps, which would
emphasize the body shape letting it stand out. The type of these
transparent fabrics is evident in Minoan frescoes of Crete. These
fabrics were made of very fine yarn or were mesh, while the
possibility of using fine silk yarn has been suggested by some
scholars. The male pericarp was a fitted dressy upper garment,
similar to today’s blouse.
Formfitting Cloth Belts
Men’s belts are characterized by how tight fabric was tied around
their waists. However, the very thin waist, which appears in the
Minoan depictions, is probably an artistic convention. It probably
does not correspond entirely to reality. They often decorated their
belts richly with fringes or beads on the ends. On the belt, the
Minoan men supported a small sword or a knife, something found
in Cretan folks wear clothing as well.
Lightweight Cloaks
The men’s shorts was a short cloak like today’s shorts. They wore
it in rituals and gymnastic demonstrations and they formed them by
joining the double Minoan apron, between the legs.
Stylish Hoses
The low-waisted hose called ‘anissyrida’ in ancient Greek was both
men’s and women’s clothing. They formed a long skirt, joining,
between the legs with two holes, so that the legs could pass
through there. Today, the hose is part of the traditional Cretan
folkswear clothing for men. People on other Greek islands in the
Cyclades and the Dodecanese as well as in Cyprus would also
wear it.
Winter Wear
During the Minoan era, there would also be coats (men’s cloaks,
capes) for the winter months, which simply have not been depicted.
Accessories for Minoan Men
According to Homer, Minoan men in ritual practices appear with a
knife in the waist belt. This resembles what the Cretans wear in
their traditional costumes as well. Moreover, it is also something
that can be seen in the figurines found in Knossos. Cretan
merchants traveled to the Eastern Mediterranean to procure gold,
copper, and ivory. In return, they offered oil, wine, and aromatic
oils. The palace workshops processed these materials with great
care, creating works of art unsurpassed in terms of quality and
technique.
Fine Jewelry
Minoan men wore rings, mainly made of gold with mythological and
other representations on them. Jewelry such as earrings, bracelets,
rings, necklaces (‘periapta’, ie jewelry hung around the neck with a
chain, often as an amulet and beads), pins, and headpieces, were
necessary to complement the appearance of men and women at
any formal event.
Custom Footwear
The Minoans appear in some performances barefoot, and in others
with sandals. The sandals were adjusted to the foot with relatively
high straps and more rarely they were seen in boots. The word
“sandal” itself is of pre-Greek origin, it might even be Minoan.
Athletes, hunters, and soldiers usually wore boots.
The Fashion of Minoan Athletes
The information we have about the clothes of the athletes of
Minoan Crete comes from the bullfighting performances and the
boxing scenes. The sportswear was simple, thus facilitating the
movements of the athletes. It consisted of the so-called Minoan
cloth belt that resembles today’s swimwear and a very narrow belt
that supported the waist of athletes. Athletes usually had bare feet
but sometimes wore soft shoes with slightly raised toes or leather
sandals with straps.
The frescos of the bullfights from Knossos depict, that female and
male athletes are together at the same time during the religious
sport event. Therefore, religious sportswear was common to both
sexes. For this very reason the bodies of the female athletes are
symbolically not much different from the male athletes. The gender
distinction in this mural is indicated only by the different colors
used to depict the skin of the two sexes. Female athletes, however,
wore jewelry and had more intricate hairstyles.
Mycenaean Greece
Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy
of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials,
such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and
objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil,
perfume, wine, wool and pottery. International trade of that time was not
only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants.
Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical
artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that
Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction
with most of the Bronze Age people living in this
region: Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and Egyptians. The 14th
century BC Uluburun shipwreck, off the coast of southern Anatolia, displays
the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw
materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such
as copper and tin for the production of bronze products. A chief export of
the Mycenaeans was olive oil, which was a multi-purpose product.
Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between
Mycenaean Greece and the Middle East, based on the considerable
greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there. On the other hand,
trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited.
Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes
expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea.
Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern
Black Sea coast.
Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the
western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were
exported to southern Italy, Sicily and the Aeolian islands. Mycenaean
products also penetrated further into Sardinia, as well as southern Spain.
Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant
locations, like in Central Europe, such as in Bavaria, Germany, where an
amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been
unearthed. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from
the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and
in Wessex and Cornwall in England.
Anthropologists have found traces of opium in Mycenaean ceramic
vase. The drug trade in Mycenaean Greece is traced as early as 1650–
1350 BC, with opium poppies being traded in the eastern Mediterranean.
Ancient Greek Clothing:
The civilization of ancient Greece flourished from the 8th century BCE to
600 CE. It was located in southeastern Europe along the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea and included the modern-day countries of Greece and
parts of Turkey, Italy, and Bulgaria. Today, the ancient Greeks are known
for their contributions to philosophy, politics, art, architecture, and science.
They were also known for their unique clothing styles, inspired by their
environment and cultural traditions. In movies about ancient Greece,
characters portraying Greek citizens, soldiers, or mythological figures often
wear these clothing styles.
Traditional Greek Clothing
The characteristics of traditional Greek fashion included long, flowing
garments made of lightweight materials such as linen or wool. People
draped these garments over the body in a manner that allowed for a range
of movement and comfort. Both men and women wore tunics that were
knee-length or longer. They could be worn as a standalone garment or
layered over other clothing. People fastened their tunics at the shoulder
with a pin or brooch and often wore a belt to cinch the waist. Overall, the
clothing of ancient Greece was functional and practical but also imbued
with cultural and artistic significance. Intricate patterns, designs, and
embroidery often adorned garments, and they were often made of luxurious
materials such as silk or gold-threaded fabric.
Ancient Greek Jewelry
Greeks that were wealthy wore a lot of jewelry. Gold and gems were
favorites in ancient Greece. The Greeks learned how to make jewelry with
gems such as emeralds, pearls, and amethysts. Necklaces, bracelets,
earrings, armbands, and thigh bands were some of the most popular types
of accessories worn. Some women even had jewels sewn into the fabric of
their clothing.
Etruscan
Etruscan, member of an ancient people of Etruria, Italy, between the Tiber
and Arno rivers west and south of the Apennines, whose urban civilization
reached its height in the 6th century BCE. Many features of Etruscan
culture were adopted by the Romans, their successors to power in the
peninsula.
The origin of the Etruscans has been a subject of debate since
antiquity. Herodotus, for example, argued that the Etruscans descended
from a people who invaded Etruria from Anatolia before 800 BCE and
established themselves over the native Iron Age inhabitants of the region,
whereas Dionysius of Halicarnassus believed that the Etruscans were of
local Italian origin. Both theories, as well as a third 19th-century theory,
have turned out to be problematic, and today scholarly discussion has
shifted its focus from the discussion of provenance to that of the formation
of the Etruscan people.
In any event, by the middle of the 7th century BCE the chief Etruscan
towns had been founded. Before reaching the Arno River in the north and
incorporating all Tuscany in their dominion, the Etruscans embarked upon
a series of conquests initially probably not coordinated but undertaken by
individual cities. The pressing motive for expansion was that by the middle
of this century the Greeks not only had obtained a grip on Corsica and
expanded their hold on Sicily and southern Italy but also had settled on the
Ligurian coast (northwestern Italy) and in southern France.
Etruscan expansion to the south and east was confined at the line of
the Tiber River by the strong Italic Umbrian people settled beyond it on the
south and the Picenes on the east. To the northeast no such united power
opposed their expansion, since the Apennine mountains in Aemilia
(modern Emilia) and Tuscany were held by scattered Italic tribes. Through
these the Etruscans were able, in the middle of the 6th century BCE, to
push into the Po River valley.
As capital of this northward region they established the old Villanovan
centre at Bologna (the Etruscan city of Felsina) and on the banks of the
Reno founded Marzabotto. On the Adriatic coast to the east, Ravenna,
Rimini (ancient Ariminum), and Spina traded with Istria (ancient Istra) and
the Greek Dalmatian colonies. From the Po valley, contacts were made
with the central European La Tène cultures. Etruscan conquests in the
northeast extended to include what are now the modern cities of Piacenza,
Modena, Parma, and Mantua. To the south they were drawn
into Latium and Campania from the end of the 7th century BCE, and in the
following century they had a decisive impact on the history of Rome, where
the Etruscan dynasty of the Tarquins is said to have ruled from 616 to
510/509 BCE. It is possible that the Roman Tarquins were connected with
a family called Tarchu, which is known from inscriptions.

Rome before the Etruscan advent was a small conglomeration of villages. It

was under the new masters that, according to tradition, the first public
works such as the walls of the Capitoline hill and the Cloaca Maxima (a
sewer) were constructed. Considerable evidence of the Etruscan period in
Rome’s history has come to light in the region of the Capitol. That there
were rich tombs in Rome itself cannot be doubted—tombs similar to those
in the Latin town of Praeneste (modern Palestrina).
Meanwhile, by the beginning of the 6th century BCE, the Etruscans had
included Fiesole (ancient Faesulae) and Volterra (ancient Volaterrae) in
their northern limits and at the same time began to push southward into
Campania. Capua became the chief Etruscan foundation in this region and
Nola a second; a necropolis has been found in the Salerno region and
Etruscan objects in low levels at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The coastal
region was still, however, in Greek hands. When the Etruscans attacked
the Greek foundation of Cumae in 524 BCE, their advance was finally
checked by their defeat at the hands of Aristodemus of that city.
The rivalry between Greek trade in the western Mediterranean and that
carried on between the Etruscans and Carthage had already come to a
head at the battle of Alalia in 535 BCE, a battle which the Greeks claimed
to have won but which so upset them that they determined to abandon
Corsica to Etruscan and Carthaginian influence.
In the last quarter of the 6th century BCE, when Etruscan power was at its
height from the Po to Salerno, small settlements of Etruscans might have
been planted beyond these limits. At Spoleto (ancient Spoletium) in the
north and Fossombrone in Liguria their power was not, however, to last
long; Cumae felt the first of sharp waves of resistance coming from Greeks,
Samnites, Romans, and Gauls. In 509 BCE the Etruscans were chased
from Rome, as reflected in the story of the expulsion of Tarquinius
Superbus, the intervention of Lars Porsena of Clusium, and the Latin
victory over Aruns Porsena’s son at Aricia. When Latium was lost, relations
between Etruria and its Campanian possessions were broken with
disastrous effect. A series of piecemeal feuds between Etruscan cities and
Rome led to the incorporation of the former into the Roman sphere—first
the nearby town of Veii in 396 BCE, after which Capena, Sutri, and Nepet
(modern Nepi) fell in turn, thus beginning the end of the first of many
unsuccessful attempts at unifying Italy.

Nevertheless, the Etruscans had established a thriving commercial and

agricultural civilization. Characteristic of their artistic achievements are the
wall frescoes and realistic terra-cotta portraits found in their tombs. Their
religion employed elaborately organized cults and rituals, including the
extensive practice of divination.
Roman Clothing
The ancient Romans took the clothing traditions of the past and adapted
them into one of the most distinctive costume traditions in all of history. The
greatest influences on Roman fashion came from the Etruscans, who
developed an advanced society in Italy hundreds of years before the
Romans became powerful, and from the Greeks. It was from these two
cultures that Romans inherited their love of draped garments. Yet Romans
were also influenced greatly by the surrounding peoples they conquered
over the years of their expansion. From the Gauls, who lived in present-day
France, they inherited a garment something like modern pants, and their
trade in the Far East enabled them to use silk and precious stones.There
were two different sides to Roman clothing, however. On the one hand, the
Roman clothing tradition was very stable, with the dominant garments
staying the same from the time of the founding of the Roman Republic in
509 b.c.e. to the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 c.e. Yet the
materials used to make the garments and the way they were decorated
changed a great deal. Garments made from rough wool in the early years
were made from rich, imported silk in the later years of the empire (27
b.c.e.–476 c.e.). Strict rules about the kinds of stripes, or clavi, that could
be worn on men's tunicas, or shirt, and togas, a long cloak, in the early
years gradually disappeared, and men later wore intricately patterned
garments.
Romans were also a sharply divided society, with a small number of very
wealthy people and masses of poor people. Wealthy Roman men simply
did not go outside without a toga draped over a tunica. Respectable women
also had an official outfit, consisting of a long dress called a stola, often
worn beneath a cloak called a palla. From the lowest classes of society up
through royalty, men wore the toga to public ceremonies. It was difficult for
the poor people to afford a toga or a stola, yet they had to wear one on
certain occasions. Even the poorest Roman citizen, however, was
distinguished from slaves or barbarians (the name Romans gave to people
from other countries), who were banned from wearing Roman clothes like
the toga.
Romans were very careful about the way they dressed. So careful, in fact,
that they had a number of rules about who could wear certain items and
how certain items should be worn. Romans created some of the first
sumptuary laws, which regulated the color and type of clothing that could
be worn by members of different social classes. (Sumptuary relates to
personal expenditures especially on luxury items.) They also had unwritten
rules about such things as the length of a toga or stola and demands for
different togas for different social occasions. Wealthy Romans had slaves
who helped their masters choose and adjust their clothing to just the right
style. Observers have written about how intense the pressure was to wear
clothing correctly in ancient Rome.
There is much more of interest about Roman clothing traditions. Because
their empire grew so great and took Romans into very different climates,
the Romans became the first major society to wear seasonal clothing—that
is, clothes for both warm and cold climates. They made warm winter boots
and the first known raincoat. The spread of their empire also meant that
Roman traditions spread into other countries, particularly throughout
Europe and into the British Isles. Variations on ancient Roman costume
can still be seen in the vestments, or priestly clothing, worn by members of
the Roman Catholic Church.
Most of what we know about Roman clothing comes from evidence left by
the wealthiest Romans. The many statues and paintings that have
survived, and the various writings from the time, all discuss the clothing
styles of those Romans who were very well off. It is likely that poorer
Romans wore similar garments, though of much lower quality, but it may be
that there were other clothing items that have simply been lost to history.