OVERVIEW OF

STEEL PROCESSES
STEEL MANUFACTURING, TESTING AND PRODUCTS
 WHAT IS A METAL/STEEL?
Metal: An element whose electrons* aren’t bound to particular
atoms and have a partially filled valence band.

Valance Band

Nucleus (contain neutrons, protons)

Diagram
of an Atom
Orbital Electrons (filled ‘rings’)

Steel: Iron + Carbon (usually less than 1%)

A hard, strong, gray or bluish-gray alloy of iron with carbon and
usually other elements, used extensively as a structural and
fabricating material.

*’Free electrons in outer ring (valance) are free to move throughout metal – that’s why metals conduct heat, electricity.
2
 WHAT IS MICROSTRUCTURE?
Microstructure – The fine structure of materials (in a metal or other
material), such as, type, size and arrangement of grains that determine
material properties, which can be made visible at 100x+ magnification and
examined with a microscope. Microstructure can help
Types of Microstructure predict the behavior and/or
failure in certain conditions of
a component made of a
Ferrite: BCC - Iron (Fe) (low solubility for Carbon). particular material.
Cementite: Iron Carbide (Fe3C).
Pearlite: Two phase microstructure composed of
Ferrite and Cementite forms at 1000F-1341F
(one goal of annealing, the cementite
spheroidizes).
Austenite: Present at temperatures above 1414F;
high solubility of carbon (100x greater than
ferrite).
Martensite: Formed when austenitic steel is rapidly
cooled preventing diffusion of carbon (like a
supersaturated solution).
Bainite: Consists of Ferrite and Cementite forms at
lower temp than pearlite (420-1000F).
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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING – PROCESS FLOW

Hot Strip
Mill

YouTube video
Steel from Start to Finish: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA
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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Diagram of a Blast Furnace
Iron Ore (pelletized)

Naturally occurring source of iron

Coke (purified Coal)

Fuel source to generate heat and

CO/CO2
Pig Iron (liquid)
Limestone/Dolomite

Tapped and left in torpedo

car to BOP

Fluxing agent to remove impurities

(slag)

Heated Air
Supersonic heated air used to react
with coke, travels @ ~450-650 mph,
1700-2400°F 5
 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Steelmaking – BOF & LMF

Ladle Metallurgy Facility (LMF) Refinement of Pig Iron to “Steel-like”

• Deoxidizing (Killing) Chemistry (BOF)
o Removes oxygen content during steel • Scrap charged
manufacturing
• Hot metal (Pig Iron) charged
• Desulphurization
o Treated with Ca first and skimmed to
o Removes sulfur from a mineral
keep high S & P out of the BOF
resource
• Argon stirring • Calcium/flux added
o Opens an eye in the slag • Commercially pure 02 blown into
float out inclusions
o
vessel
• Alloying additions o “Burn out” C, Mn, Si
o Bulk/Wire
o Chemical reactions add the heat
• Temperature control o React P & S into slag
o Electrode
• Vacuum degassing/decarburizing
• Ingot and wire alloy feed for
precise chemistry
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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
What does it mean to “kill” a Steel?
• Oxygen is blown through liquid iron to remove carbon to produce steel.
• Once carbon is reduced, there is still a lot of oxygen in heat of steel.
• Liquid steel can hold more oxygen in solution than solid steel.
• Have to remove oxygen or bubbles will form in steel as it cools.
• When the oxygen is removed, the steel is ‘killed.’
• Generally all steels today are ‘killed’ with aluminum.
o Aluminum is a better oxidizer than silicon.
o Forms less dense oxides.
o AK steels tend to be cleaner internally.
o Ties up N better than Si*** does.

*** Si killed steels today generally would only be required for some case-hardened, electrical or carburized applications.

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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Steelmaking - Degassing
Process of removing carbon from liquid steel to produce ultra-low carbon steel with
improved ductility. Removal of O2, H2 and N2 gases from liquid steel is also necessary
since these gases harm the properties of steel.
R-H Degasser

Cycle time: Chamber is moved 50-60 times

with a cycle time of 20 seconds. Adequate
degassing is possible in 20-30 cycles.
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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Continuous Casting
Converting liquid metal into slab, solidifying into shape

Steel Products

• Flat Products
o Plate
o Hot Rolled Sheet
o Coated Sheet
o Cold Rolled Sheet
o Cold Rolled Strip

Tundish
 Weirs and dams
 Bigger is better

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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Continuous Casting

The Mold

• Mold powder purpose

o Thermal insulation
o Prevents re-oxidization
o Absorbs inclusion
o Lubrication

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INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Integrated production of Hot Bands
Reheats Removes Rolling mill for
Hot Strip Mill
steel black converting
stock oxide from steel
bars surface of ingots into
before iron or blooms,
being steel at billets, or slabs
rolled high
temps

Serves
to crop Surface
the texture/finish
transfer of iron or
bar at its steel, usually
head rough and
and tail lacks lustre
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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Integrated Production of Hot Bands
• Purpose: Take slab from cast slab dimensions to prepare for
finishing mills.
• Establishes crown and coil width.
• Generally the slab is twice the finished thickness.
• Austenite grains are deformed and re-crystalized with each
rolling pass.

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 INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
Finishing Mills
• Finishing mill temps
o Steel enters at 1950-1550F
o Steel exits at 1750-1550F
• Temperature selected depends upon properties desired.
• Determines shape and gauge.
• Generally takes 6-7 mill stands to reduce to final gauge.

Source: Guthrie,Engr in Process Metallurgy

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INTEGRATED STEELMAKING
The Coilers
• High temps produce coarse
grains (1250-1300F).
• Low temps produce smaller
grains (1100-1200F).
• Lower temps produce flat grains
(950-1050F).
• It depends upon the properties
you want.
• The smaller the grain the harder
the material.
• The larger the grain the softer
the material.

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 MINIMILL PRODUCTION OF HOT BANDS
Process Flow: Thin Slab Molds – Thinnest (~2”)
Bulge in top of mold allows room for the SEN

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 INTEGRATED VS. MINI-MILLS
Cast Height – Higher cast Slab Thickness – Thicker slab allows
height allows more time for more time for solidification/NMI’s to
NMI’s to diffuse to top of mold float to top
Integrated mill Integrated Slab x-section

Mini-mill
NMI flow
Mini Mill Slab x-section

Area = length * width

Perimeter = 2 * (length + width)
Ex: given 90”wide mold
2” thick slab: x-section area=180sqin
perimeter = 184 “
Liquid 9” thick slab: x-section area=810sqin
Solidifying shell perimeter = 198”

Mini-mills have much larger surface area 16

 INTEGRATED VS. MINI-MILLS
Slab reduction
• More reduction results in fewer cracking issues (HR only).
• Integrated product tends to have better surface due to greater
reduction due to original slab thickness.
• Mini-mills have tendency to have caster folds from mold design
difference which has higher potential for cracking the thicker the
HR gauge.
• Mini-mill product has higher residual elements from using 100%
scrap which leads to slightly higher hardness in HR product.
Formability differences
• Simple bends and shallow draws both are suitable.
• Both similar quality CR properties for most applications.
• Complex or deep draws, integrated substrate performs better.
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 INTEGRATED VS. MINI-MILLS
HSM length – Integrated mills are much longer due to original slab size.
Slab Size – Integrated (8-10”); Mini-mills (2-5”)
Reheat Furnaces
• Integrated mills: Start of the process, often reheat slab from ‘cold’.
• Mini-mills: Integral part of process located immediately after caster,
utilizes heat from casting process to save time, money.
Properties
• Gauge: Mini-mills have tighter gauge control as the slab rolls
through the furnace so no cold spots are created as in integrated
mills with walking beam and pusher type reheat furnaces where lab
rests on a bar.
• Crown: Mini-mills have less crown due to thinner slab size and roll
bending but as more integrated mills acquire that technology the
difference is disappearing.
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 WHAT IS A LAMINATION?

• A lamination is often detected by visual

inspection.
• It appears as localized separating of
steel; either present on flat surface or
after forming, bending, cold reduction or
stamping.
• Occurs when non-metallic inclusions
(NMI) become entrapped under the
surface of the steel.
• When enough NMIs are present then the
steel is susceptible to splitting or
laminating because NMI’s weaken the
grain boundaries.

19
 COMMON SOURCES OF LAMINATION
Steelmaking
• Oxygen reacts with elements forming oxides which aren’t
“trapped” by the slag
• Improper taping of ladle

Continuous Casting
• Liquid steel comes in contact with oxygen
• Improper mold practices
• Poor flux / casting practices Analysis of inclusion:
• Ladle Slag, Tundish Flux, Mold
Hot Strip Mill powder NMI’s all have fairly
distinct compositions
• Rolled over scratches • HSM related NMI’s usually form
• Rolled in scale of iron oxide
• Poor side guide practices
• Frictional pickup during coiling of steel
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PICKLING: WHAT IS IT
Dryers

Acid Tanks
Contain Hydrochloric Acid at an elevated temperature
Pickling is a metal surface
Rinse Tanks treatment used to remove
Deionized water spray to remove acid from strip surface impurities, such as stains,
inorganic contaminants, rust or
Dryer scale from ferrous metals.
Dry the strip to remove any chance of rust forming

Oiling
Oil is applied to top surface at down coiler on exit end of line and wrap to wrap transfer coats
bottom surface
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 PICKLING
Acid Pickling
• Remove surface scale on hot rolled coils prior to cold rolling or further processing
• Hot rolled coils are processed through an acid bath to produce a pickled (oiled)
product free of surface scale and rust

Eco Pickling
• EPS = Eco Pickled Surface
• Mechanical vs Acid Scale Removal (environmentally friendly)
• Blasts surface of the black band with a slurry of steel grit and water

Continuous Pickling
• Coils are welded or “stitched” together
• Accumulating towers allow for constant line speed though pickling section (800-1200
ft/min line speed)
• Scheduling is limited by width, gauge and alloy
Push-Pull Pickling
• Coil is fed or “pushed” through line until received into take-up (recoil) reel then
“pulled” through
• Slower line speed of 200-400 ft/min, but greater flexibility in scheduling and grades of
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steel that can be processed
COMMON APPEARANCE AND CAUSES OF STAINING

Appearance
• Light to dark brown - most often line stop related

• Black; longer line stops, less available oxygen so

different type of oxide (heavier)

• Bluish; often related to rinse temperature, spray

pressure

Causes
• Line stops
• Rinse temperature
• Spray pressure
• Excessive turbulence in the rinse bath
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 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RUST AND STAIN

IF both are forms of oxidation what’s the difference?

• Rust normally seen (transit, water damage, pinpoint,
condensation) is hydrated rust, meaning water and oxygen are
the catalyst for this type of orange rust which will continue as
long as H2O and O2 are present.
• Stain, although a type of low temperature oxide (FeO or Fe3O4)
which is formed on the bare steel surface as a result of
dissolved oxygen in the water.
o Bare steel surface is very active, will prefer to “grab”
excess O2 before reacting with H20.
o This forms a stable oxide which will not “grow” or get worse
over time like “normal” rust seen on steel.

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 COLD ROLLING
Rolling metal at a temperature below the softening point of the metal
to create strain hardening (work-hardening).

Same as cold reduction, except that the working method is limited to

rolling.

Cold rolling changes the mechanical properties of strip and produces

certain useful combinations of hardness, strength, stiffness, ductility
and other characteristics known as tempers.

Why
• Produce gauges that are lighter than hot rolled steel
• Improve thickness tolerance
• Improve surface
• Improve shape
• Obtain a wide range of metallurgical properties
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 COLD ROLLING

Cold Rolling Metallurgy

• During cold working…

o Grains are elongated
o The number of dislocations
increase
• As a result…
o The “textured” grains create an
anisotropic material (properties
vary with direction)
o Yield and tensile strength
increase
o Elongation (ductility) decreases

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TYPES OF COLD MILL ROLL CONFIGURATIONS

• The more rolls, the

better suited for heavy
reductions on harder
grades of steel

• Can achieve very close

gauge tolerances

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 ANNEALING
Full hard cold rolled steel is annealed by heating to a specified temperature,
holding for a specified length of time, and cooling.
Benefits of hydrogen:
Typical annealing temperatures are 1100 F to 1400 F. • Higher heat diffusivity
Steel is annealed in atmospheres that protect the steel • More uniform properties
• Cleaner surface / less smut
from oxygen. • No nitrogen pickup at surface

Annealing softens the full hard cold reduced steel to produce improved
mechanical properties.

Basic Types of Annealing:

• Regular Batch Annealing
Coils heated in hydrogen/nitrogen atmosphere, susceptible to age hardening due to
Nitrogen. Used for any application where drawn properties or spheroidization of carbides
is desired.
• Continuous Annealing
Hydrogen/nitrogen atmosphere, similar to annealing in Galvanize line, consists of
cleaning, rinsing and drying sections as well as heating, holding (strip at anneal temp for
1-2 minutes) cooling sections. Advantage is speed, more uniform hardness values and
can use cooling section to create martensitic steels (very high YS,TS). Continuously
Annealed product is harder than Batch Annealed due to shorter time at temperature.28
 ANNEALING

Batch/Bell • During cold rolling, grains get

stretched out and flattened resulting
in harder, less ductile material.
• During anneal, grains “relax” and
regain their prior circular (equiaxed)
shape and, depending on annealing
cycle, grow in size.
• Longer anneal = Softer product
• Shorter anneal = Harder product
• Another use for annealing is to
spheroidize (change from angular to
circular) the carbides which makes
stamping parts easier, especially
high carbon steels (i.e. SAE
1030,1050).

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 ANNEALING
Annealing Metallurgy
Recovery>Recrystallization>Grain Growth

Recrystallization
• New crystals form and consume
the old grains
• Function of time and temperature
• Large change in mechanical
properties

Grain Growth
• Large grains consume small
grains
• Moderate change in mechanical
properties

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 TEMPER ROLLING
Light cold reduction after annealing

Why?
• If formed without temper rolling, steel will experience localized
bending called discontinuous yielding (Luder lines).
• To prevent this, the steel is rolled introducing many small locations
(dislocations) for steel to start yielding from, so any forming or
drawing done on steel produces a smooth surface, free from luder
lines.

Also…
• Set final mechanical properties
• Impart final surface finish
• Improve flatness

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 TEMPER MILL
• Improves shape Luder Line Prevention
• Better surface
• Gauge correction
• Eliminates Luder lines
• Minimizes chance of
coil breaks during
further processing
COIL BREAKS - CR
• Reduces effect of
camber during slitting

COIL BREAKS - HR

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 TENSION/ROLLER LEVELING
Shape defects that leveling can correct:

CANNOT CORRECT

Tension Leveling is the process of pulling the strip

beyond its yield point to permanently change the
shape of the strip and make it flat. It’s a
combination of elongating the strip and bending
the fibers.
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 COATED PRODUCTS – CORROSION PROTECTION

Barrier Protection
• All coatings protect the base metal by providing a shield from the
environment.

Galvanic Protection
• Coatings that offer cathodic protection to the steel substrate; also
known as galvanic or sacrificial protection.
• Prevent corrosion even if base metal is exposed.

34
 COATED PRODUCTS – CATHODIC PROTECTION

Anode
Cathode

• When zinc-coated steel is scratched, a local “galvanic cell” is formed

• This is also what protects the bare edges 35
 COATED PRODUCTS – ALUMINIZED COATING

Steel that has been hot-dip coated on both

sides with aluminum-silicon alloy.

This process ensures a tight metallurgical

bond between the steel sheet and its
aluminum coating.
Credit: Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 Unported

A unique combination of materials is

produced that neither steel nor aluminum
possess alone.

Aluminized steel shows a better behavior

against corrosion.
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 COATED PRODUCTS – HOT DIP GALVANIZING

Zinc coating applied by passing the steel

through a bath of molten zinc in a
continuous operation.

Base substrate may be hot roll or full-

hard cold roll. In-line continuous
annealing.

Applications include corrugated pipe,

construction materials, automotive, air-
conditioning equipment, and farm
machinery.

37
 COATED PRODUCTS - GALVANNEAL

Applied using the hot-dip

process.

After the steel leaves the

molten zinc bath, it travels
through an induction furnace.
Galvanneal
The furnace heats the strip to
greater than 900°F to diffuse
VS.
iron from the steel into the
zinc coating.

Galvanized
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COATED PRODUCTS – GALVANIZED SURFACE FINSHES

Spangle
• Crystalline appearance on surface
• Obtained by adding lead or antimony to the
zinc bath
• Undesirable for painted applications
• WS Delta and Spartan produce a “spangle
free” product

39
 COATED PRODUCTS – GALVANIZED SURFACE TREATMENT
Coating weight: amount of zinc coating applied to a product for a given surface area.

Prevents “White Rust” - zinc oxide may form from moisture intrusion or condensation
during shipment or storage.

Oil Chromate (a.k.a. Chem Treat) Acrylic Phosphate

Rust preventative Thin, relatively invisible, Chromate in a Thick, dense, crystalline

film of chromate sealed organic deposit of hydrated zinc
polymer phosphate

Also effective Superior in preventing Fingerprint proof Dull gray appearance

lubricant during white rust and maintaining
forming the bright galvanized
appearance
Usually not compatible with Suitable primer Good adherent base for paint
most pre-treatments used for painted
on paint lines applications

Hexavalent chrome is not

RoHS compliant

40
 SLITTING / BLANKING
Slitting
• Master coils are cut (slit) to various
widths by means of passing material
through a tooling set-up called an
arbor. The arbor sets the width of the
material with precision hard-tooling
spacers.
• Rubber stripper rings keep the strip
flat and level.
• The material is “cut” with high
carbon alloy slitting knives which are
off-set between the top and bottom
arbors.

41
 SLITTING / BLANKING
Anatomy of a Slit Edge

42
 SLITTING / BLANKING
Edge Types
Illustrations are examples only; actual edge profiles may vary from illustrations.

No. 1 Edge No. 3 Edge

(square) (slit)
Broken radial corners Approximately square
Most Commonly Used

No. 4 Edge
No. 1 Edge (round)
(round) Rounded corners – may be flat
Radius approximately with slitting fracture visible
equal to ½ thickness across the edge

No. 2 Edge No. 5 Edge

Natural mill edge Approximately square
(No. 3 Edge de-burred)

No. 6 Edge
(square)
Radial corners – may have
slitting fracture visible across
the edge
43
 THE STEEL TREE – PLAIN CARBON AND HSLA
Steel

Plain Carbon Steel High Strength Steel

Alloy Steels

Traditional Ultra High

Low Medium High Dual phase
High Strength
Carbon Carbon Carbon Steel (DP)
Strength Steel (UHSS)
Steel Steel Steel
Steel (HSLA)

Low carbon – Offered as basic grade or as HSLA – Structural members where weight is
structural grade. a consideration
Medium carbon – Offered as basic grade or UHSS – Safety members in cars
structural grade Dual Phase (DP) – Applied in areas which
High carbon – Offered as basic grade require higher forming for required TS,
Specifications – Can be to recognized crumple zones.
standard or customer specific. Specifications – Can be to recognized
Part forming/customer expected properties standard or customer specific
critical to know for non-structural grades Part forming is critical for CR HSLA grades,
less so for standard grades 44
 TYPES / GRADES OF STEEL
Low Carbon Hot Rolled vs Cold Rolled
Hot Rolled Grades Hot Rolled Steel
• Commercial Steel (CS) • Black or pickled surface
• Drawing Steel (DS) • Heavier thicknesses
o Option boron
o Need to exercise caution on using boron • Wider gauge tolerance
• Not as flat
Cold Rolled Grades • Less mechanical property control
• Commercial Steel (CS)
Cold Rolled Steel
• Drawing Steel (DS) • Uniform/smooth surface
• Deep Drawing Steel (DDS) • Lighter thicknesses
• Extra Deep Drawing Steel (EDDS) • Tighter gauge tolerance
• Vacuum degassed/IF • Improved flatness
• More mechanical property control

45
 TYPES / GRADES OF STEEL

Low Carbon
Commercial Steel (CS) Drawing Steel (DS/DDS) Extra Deep Drawing Steel (EDDS)

Carbon up to .15 Carbon under .08/.06 Vacuum degassed to remove carbon/nitrogen

and improve cleanliness
‐Ti and/Nb added to combine with any
remaining C/N
Higher hardness Lower hardness Cold Rolled to produce pancake grain structure
‐CR: 45‐65 RB ‐CR: 40‐55 RB for resistance to thinning (higher
‐HR: 55‐75 RB ‐HR: 60‐6 RB Rvalue/drawbility)
Bending and simple forming More difficult forming, Lowest strength/highest formability
stretching, drawing ‐Hardness under 40 RB
‐Nvalue .23‐.27
‐Rvalue 1.7‐2.1
Used in most difficult/complex, deep drawn
parts
‐Avoid progressive dies due to cold work
embrittlement (hardenability)

46
 TYPES / GRADES OF STEEL

High Carbon Alloy HSLA

.30 carbon and above 41XX(Cr, Mo), 51XX(Cr), Low carbon levels (under .15)
(1030 – 1095) 61XX(CrV)
Primarily heat treated or Improved hardenability Alloyed with a small amount of Nb, Ti
“full hard” parts (heat treat response) over or V
high carbon
-Precipitate strengthening and grain
refinement
Can be annealed to lower Improved high temperature Better formability than high carbon steels
strength/improve properties
formability
Boron can be added for Domestic specs
hardenability -SAE J1392
-ex 050 XLF
-SAE J2340
-ex 340 XF
-ASTM A1011 and A1008
-ex HSLAS-F Grade 50 Class 2

47
 TYPES / GRADES OF STEEL

Tensile strength (TS) is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate. Tensile
strength resists tension (being pulled apart). It is measured by the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before breaking.
48
 METALLURGY OF AHSS
MULTIPHASE Structure  Manage Phase Transformation  Coupled
Key Factors: PROCESS and CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
PROCESS = control the structure at high temperature + the continuous
cooling
« Conventional »
Strip Temperature steels
CGL or CAL

TRIP steels

DP steels

time (s)

Adjusted by chemical Area of Ferrite formation during cooling

composition and
Area of Bainite formation during cooling
processing
Area of Martensite formation during cooling
49
 DUAL PHASE STEEL

• Ferrite matrix with islands of

hard martensitic second
phase.
• Continuous soft ferrite phase
for excellent ductility.
• Strain concentrates in lower
strength ferrite phase for
unique high work hardening
rate.
• Available in different strength
levels. Specified by minimum
tensile strengths of 490, 590,
780, 980 and 1180 MPA.
• Most applications are Cold
Rolled or coated Cold Rolled.

50
 TRIP – TRANSFORMATION INDUCED PLASTICITY
• Dispersion of hard second phases
in soft ferrite creates initial high
work hardening rate.
• Retained austenite also
progressively transforms to
martensite with increasing strain.
• Transformation increases work
hardening at higher strain levels.
• Typically used in place of DP where
formability is an issue.
• Available in different strength
levels. Specified by minimum
tensile strengths of 590, 690, 780
and 980 MPA.
• Most applications are Cold Rolled
or coated Cold Rolled.
51
 Complex Phase (CP)

Complex Phase (CP)

• Ferrite/bainite matrix with martensite, retained austenite and
pearlite and fine precipitates
• Very fine grains (V, Ti and/or Nb)
• Hot Rolled
• Good energy absorption
• Relatively small usage

Ferritic-Bainitic Steels (FB)

• Fine ferrite/bainite
• Strength from fine grains and bainite
• Excellent edge stretchability
• Hot Rolled
• Also called stretch flangeable (SF) or High Hole Expansion (HHE)

52
 MARTENSITIC STEELS

Austenite transforms almost completely to martensite due to

quenching on the run-out table (HR) or cooling section of a
continuous annealing line (CR).

Highest tensile strength AHSS.

Must be electrogalvanized due to loss of mechanical properties

during hot dip galvanizing.

Typically roll formed due to limited formability.

53
 PRESS HARDENED STEELS (PHS)
• Hot Stamped Steels, Boron Steels
• Medium carbon boron steels – similar to 10B21
• Excellent formability at elevated temperatures
• Processing: austenitize, hot form, in-die quench
• Oxide removal and corrosion protection: Bare vs. aluminized vs. zinc coated

54
 STEEL TESTING
Common Types of Steel Tests
Hardness Testing
Superficial Hardness Testing
Tensile Testing
Surface Roughness Measurement
Charpy Test

Hardness Testing
• One of the oldest methods of evaluating a material.
• Variety of test methods, scales, machines etc.
• Most common is Rockwell Hardness Testing

55
 STEEL TESTING
Common Types of Steel Tests
Hardness Testing
Superficial Hardness Testing
Tensile Testing
Surface Roughness Measurement
Charpy Test

• Most common method to measure hardness and

provides relative indication of hardness.
• Multiple scales depending on material hardness.
o “B” and “C” most commonly used with HR,CR.
o For light gauge sheet, the 30T test should be used
(< 0.061cm).
• Hardness inaccuracy can increase if..
o Too close to edge (< 0.635cm or ~ 0.25”)
o Sample bent
o Test too close to each other (min distance 0.318cm)
o Use wrong scale
• At least 3 tests should be taken on one sample to get
average result to eliminate using a bad test result.
56
 STEEL TESTING
Common Types of Steel Tests
Hardness Testing
Superficial Hardness Testing
Tensile Testing
Surface Roughness Measurement
Charpy Test

Tensile Strength
• Various standards:
Ex: ASTM E8, JIS Z 2241, DIN DIN EN ISO 6892-1

• Gives a measure of a variety of properties and that can be used to

predict performance.
Ex: tensile strength, yield strength,
% elongation

57
 STEEL TESTING
Common Types of Steel Tests
Hardness Testing
Superficial Hardness Testing
Tensile Testing
Surface Roughness Measurement
Charpy Test

Ra: It is the average deviation of the profile from the mean line. However it doesn’t
differentiate between peak and valley height/depth(units-micro-inches)

Rz: More sensitive to surface roughness changes than Ra since measures

roughness in 5 discreet sections

1 2 3 4 5 58
 STEEL TESTING
Common Types of Steel Tests
Hardness Testing
Superficial Hardness Testing
Tensile Testing
Surface Roughness Measurement
Charpy Test

• Invented in 1900
• Measures impact
strength of
materials
• Used in steel
primarily for low
temperature
strength for
rollover structures
59
Credit: Jordan, Jeremy. Ductile to brittle transitions in materials. Materials Science. Nov 2016.