PERSONAL

RELATIONS
THERAPY
THE COLLECTED PAPERS OF
H. J. S. GUNTRIP

Edited by
Jeremy Hazell
Copyright © 1994 by Jason Aronson Inc.
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Created in the United States of America

To Bertha
 Table of Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Section I 1952-1958 THE FAIRBAIRN PERIOD

OF “BROADLY OEDIPAL” ANALYSIS
1. Early Perceptions of the Schizoid Problem
2. The Psychotherapist as Parent and Exorcist
3. Object Relations Theory as a Synthesis of the
Intrapsychic and the Interpersonal
4. Moving Beyond Freud to “A More Actively
Personal Kind of Treatment”

Section II 1960-1962 THE SCHIZOID

COMPROMISE: THE NEED AND FEAR OF
REGRESSION
5. Deeper Perception of the Schizoid Problem
6. The Appalling Risk of the Loss of Definite
Selfhood and the Struggle to Retain a
“Familiar Self”
7. Devitalisation and the Manic Defence

Section III 1962-1969 THE WINNICOTT

PERIOD: REGRESSION AND REGROWTH
 8. “In Truth the Need to Regress Cannot be
Taken Lightly”
9. The Infant in the Patient: A Unique Centre of
Meaningful Experience
10. Thinking What We Feel; Feeling What We
Think
11. The Heart of the Personal

Section IV 1971-1978 “LIVING”: THE POST-

WINNICOTT PERIOD
12. Freud, Adler and Dickie Valentine
13. Psychology and Common Sense
14. Freud, Russell and “The Core of
Loneliness”
15. Psychodynamic Realities

Appendix 1 Can the Therapist Love the Patient?

Appendix 2 Reply to Hammerton

Appendix 3 Response to Eysenck

Credits
 FOREWORD

This book gives us the broad sweep of work

of a remarkable psychoanalytic writer, one
whose place is at the forefront of our efforts to

explain the role of an emergent and resilient self

in the organization and maintenance of human
relations. I believe that a substantial part of
Guntrip’s discovery, his work on a painful and
bleak frontier that was simultaneously within

himself and in the realm of the science of

psychoanalysis, has been absorbed into the

sensibility of the field with far less attribution

and direct appreciation than is warranted.

In drawing together these papers Jeremy

Hazell has offered us far more than if they were

ancillary documents. Guntrip’s books are

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 synthesized documents, each with a purpose and
organic whole of its own. To a considerable

degree, that synthetic achievement obscures the

humbler path of theoretical and personal growth
in Guntrip’s thinking, therapeutic work, and

theoretical contribution. Here, however, as we

follow the individual documents through the
span of Guntrip’s productive psychoanalytic life,

we can see the unfolding and change, the review

and reworking of old themes undisguised by the
need to produce coherent texts with each book.
It is here that we can trace Guntrip’s personal
and theoretical struggle, his questioning pastoral
and scientific mind, his ardent dedication to

personal growth for himself and for his patients.

There are few scientific or even therapeutic

writers known for their passion. Guntrip is such

a person. Urgently personal, assiduously critical

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 of friends and foes, of his own analysts, and of
himself, he cares deeply, on every page. Jeremy

Hazell has documented in his account of therapy

with Guntrip the deep and pervasive sense of
caring in Guntrip’s clinical work that also

emerges on these pages.

The publication of this work is an event that

has a personal importance to many. Jason

Aronson tried to get Guntrip to publish a book

made up of these collected papers during his
own lifetime. Jock Sutherland hoped to bring
Guntrip’s achievement more into the light. I had

the privilege of hearing Guntrip give the

landmark paper on his analyses with Fairbairn

and Winnicott in 1973 at the Tavistock Clinic,

and have been haunted by the experience of

hearing him ever since. Guntrip brought a

unique intensity to the examination of personal

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 experience in constructing and validating
psychoanalytic meaning. His heritage draws

directly on the tradition of Freud, whose

personal struggles formed the raw data for The
Interpretation of Dreams. There are few works

of such stature in the annals of our work, few

examples of the blending of life and art, life and
science.

Guntrip’s work, his life exemplified through

his work, is one of them. In this volume, Jeremy

Hazell has done far more than simply collect the
record. He has done that, and he has allowed it

to stand for itself. But he has done so through his

own lens, through a depth of understanding and
valuing that shines through. His introduction is a

record of the interweaving of Guntrip’s personal

growth with his psychoanalytic understanding. It
is a Baedeker of Guntrip’s travels, a rich

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 appreciation, a tribute, and a fine work in its own
right.

Guntrip’s work is important to us, perhaps

now more than ever. The issues with which he
grappled have come to haunt us in a time of ever

more consciousness of the toll of social and

personal deprivation, and of a growing
awareness that our work is not concerned with
egos—with the mechanisms of an autonomous

mind— as much as it is with selves in relation to

others. Taking from his teachers and colleagues,
from Fairbairn, Winnicott, and Sutherland,

Guntrip worked tirelessly to teach that it is in the

depth of personal relations that we find
ourselves, and that dedication to this process

offers us what we have to give to our patients.

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 Jeremy Hazell has drawn together the record
of this personal journey. He has understood it,

absorbed its meaning, and given it to us that we

may use it and expand its reach. I am grateful to
him for his dedication, and for the appearance of

this collection at long last, a work that will

illuminate paths of new exploration in
psychoanalysis for many years to come.

David E. Scharff, M.D.

Co-editor, Library of Object Relations

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr. Jason

Aronson, the publisher of this volume, and Drs.
David and Jill Scharff, the series editors, for

making this book possible; to Maurice Kidd, for

his friendship, for first introducing me to
Guntrip’s writings; to Murray Leishman,
chairman of the Harry Guntrip Memorial Trust,
for his active encouragement of this project; to

Molly Sutherland for entrusting to me Guntrip’s

biographical material, together with his

correspondence with W.R.D. Fairbairn and her

late husband, Dr. J. D. Sutherland; to Gwen and

Denis Greenald for their unhesitating support of
the work, and their kind provision of private
correspondence and memorabilia; to Bertha

Guntrip for her generosity and warm-hearted

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 encouragement at every stage; and especially to
my wife, Valerie Hazell, for her constant and

indispensable assistance in the organisation and

production of this book.

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 The thought of our past years in me doth
breed
Perpetual benediction: not indeed
For that which is most worthy to be blest
…;
But for those obstinate questionings
Of sense and outward things,
Fallings from us, vanishings;
Blank misgivings of a Creature Moving
about in worlds not realised.…

—William Wordsworth
“Intimations of Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood”

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 INTRODUCTION

In 1975, in a paper published posthumously,

(Chapter 16) Harry Guntrip recorded his
experience of analysis with Fairbairn and

Winnicott, the details of which put the whole

range of his earlier writings into intriguing
perspective. That paper was a greatly condensed
account of a projected “psychoanalytic
autobiography,” for which Guntrip accumulated

a great deal of material toward the end of his

life. His purpose was to make psychoanalytic

theory live by reference to personal experience.

By way of introduction to this volume,

therefore, it seems appropriate to set the

collected papers in the context of Guntrip’s own

search for understanding, which was so closely

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 related to the course of his professional
development. His theory always closely

followed his personal experience, both his

subjective experience in his own analyses with
Fairbairn and Winnicott and his “emotional

perception” of the experiences of his schizoid

patients. Thus Guntrip (1975) wrote:

[O]n the difficult question of the sources of

theory, it seems that our theory must be
rooted in our psychopathology. That was
implied in Freud’s courageous self-analysis
at a time when all was obscure. ... If our
theory is too rigid it is likely to
conceptualise our ego-defences. If it is
flexible and progressive, it is possible for it
to conceptualise our ongoing growth
processes, and throw light on others’
problems and on therapeutic possibilities,
[p. 156]

It is not surprising, therefore, that Guntrip’s

collected papers reflect the progress of his own

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 search for understanding. The earlier papers are
the formal presentation of a determined struggle

on the part of a man of exceptional intelligence

to achieve relief from mental pain by means of
psychoanalytic understanding, a process which,

from the start, he felt to be inseparable from

empathic personal relationship. His later
writings reflect a growing sense of personal

fulfilment. For example, Guntrip’s concept of a

regressed libidinal ego, withdrawn in fear and
repressed—clearly a defensive structure—came
also to represent the individual’s dissociated
“unevoked psychic potential,” his “latent natural
health.” Correspondingly, Guntrip (1968) came

to feel that Fairbairn’s “pristine unitary ego,”

which implied “a whole individual at birth,”
should be understood to mean “pristine unitary

psyche with latent ego-quality” waiting to relate

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 and grow in a good relationship, for he came to
believe that “although the human psyche does

not always develop a very definite ego,” an

innate potentiality for ego development is never
entirely lost (pp. 249-250). In addition to

Guntrip’s major papers, reference will be made

here to a number of less formal writings, which
show the astonishing range and vigour with

which he pursued any task that he felt should be

done, especially where the inherent value of the
individual or the reality of his subjective
experience was in danger of being discredited.

Guntrip’s own background as a

Congregational minister had closely acquainted
him with all sorts and conditions of men,

women, and children on the level of everyday

living, and his earliest writings exude a
passionate desire to make psychological

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 understanding available to them. Moreover, he
had about him a rugged individualism. He was

always questioning received wisdom and gave

the strong impression that he would have been
uneasy to find himself in the majority. His first

psychological book, Psychology for Ministers

and Social Workers, was published in 1949,
following his resignation from the full-time

pastorate, in order to take the post of long-term

research worker in psychotherapy in the
psychiatry department at Leeds University and
to develop his fast-growing psychotherapy
practice. In the preface to that early book, which
he wrote at the request of the Yorkshire

Congregational moderator, Guntrip set forth a

definition of psychotherapy that he never saw

reason to change:

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 Psychotherapy is a cooperative effort of
two people, in the dynamic personal
relationship of the analytical situation, to
solve the problems of one of them. In the
end, medical, religious and social work is
the recreative power of knowledge applied
in and through personal relationships. [p.
11]

Guntrip began his psychotherapy practice in

1938 when his general practitioner asked him to
take on one of the physician’s female patients.

Guntrip agreed, on the understanding that he

should receive supervision from Dr. H.

Crichton-Miller of the Tavistock Clinic, London,

with whom he had been in analysis, rather
sporadically, for the preceding two years. The

practice grew steadily with the onset of the

Second World War, and in 1943 Guntrip’s work

became recognised by Dr. W. Macadam, a

professor of medicine at Leeds University, who

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 referred to him a steady stream of patients.
Macadam also invited Guntrip to lecture to the

Leeds medical students, as a “Temporary

Lecturer in Psychology in Relation to
Medicine.” Thus Guntrip was well placed to

augment the new psychiatry department that was

set up after the war, with H. V. Dicks as
professor and it was here that he undertook the

research work in psychotherapy that continued

for the rest of his life. In his review of this
period, Guntrip (personal communication, 1973)
noted that the problems he encountered were
those of

increasingly ill people who did not

respond, as less ill people did, to the
interpretation of their problems in Freudian
terms of the Oedipus Complex … [which]
seemed often to explain satisfactorily the
conflicts of later childhood, but the more ill
patients seemed to present problems of a

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 much more obscure and profound origin,
the nature of which I did not then
understand.

These proved to be “schizoid problems of

failure of the very beginnings of ego or self-
development in the earliest infancy period,”

before oedipal rivalries could have developed.

GUNTRIP'S SYMPTOMOTOLOGY
G

Through his attempts to understand these

seriously disturbed patients, Guntrip was coming

ever closer to the roots of his own problem. This

was chiefly of two kinds: a profoundly

debilitating sense of weakness (“ego-

weakness”), almost of nonexistence (“ego-

loss”), at the heart of his personality, and a

“manic defence” of extreme cerebral and general

physical restlessness by which he strove to

maintain a “viable ego” in consciousness, often

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 at the expense of severe psychosomatic
symptoms and sleeplessness. He knew from

family lore that the problem of weakness was

likely to be associated with the death of his baby
brother, which he was said to have witnessed at

the age of 3½ years and after which he collapsed

and was thought to be dying. Although he had an
amnesia for that event, he could recall that after

a short convalescence with a motherly aunt he

developed a series of psychosomatic illnesses
for the next eighteen months, compelling his
mother to attend to him. These consisted of
fevers, stomachaches, heat spots, constipation,
loss of appetite, and refusal to eat. There is

evidence that his mother responded to him

during that period, making him a “tent-bed” and

coming in to see him from the shop she ran in

the front of the house, but a further change

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 occurred when, at the age of 5, Guntrip was

circumcised, without explanation, on the table in

the parlour where his brother had died. The
physical disturbances stopped and he became

markedly passive and submissive. Perhaps

provoked by his nonresponsiveness, his mother
beat him cruelly, until improved financial

circumstances enabled her to sponsor his

growing interest in sports, music, and carpentry
as he entered puberty.

Throughout adolescence Guntrip was aware

of strong schizoid tendencies. In his adopted

family, the Salvation Army, he was continually
preoccupied by a strong need to be apart, and

despite a dauntingly exacting workrate,

expressed by ministering to others, by his late
teens he was disturbed by “experiences of
apartness, of not understanding people, and of

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 being somehow ‘out of touch’ ” (Guntrip’s
“devotional diary,” 1918).

As he proceeded through New College and

University College, London and into the

Congregational ministry, Guntrip was assailed
recurrently by severe states of exhaustion
whenever he was obliged to be in his mother’s
presence. During the vacation before his final
year at the university, when the departure of a

close friend, Leslie Tizard, coincided with

“being at home with mother again,” his

symptoms of “lack of energy, tight head and

extreme photophobia” lasted for the entire

vacation of sixteen weeks, completely

debilitating him. The combination of his
mother’s negativity—for she was consistently
hostile to his relationship with his wife-to-be—
and the departure of a brother-figure would

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 appear to have rearoused the earlier “tent-bed”
illnesses though without the feverish

temperatures.

These were the bases of Guntrip’s

symptomatology. His father, though he

possessed a quiet, supportive integrity that

Guntrip always deeply appreciated, was quite
unable to constitute a strong personal presence

for him either to identify with or to contest. That

his father did represent some underlying hope or
respite for Guntrip is suggested by the latter’s
feeling that it was only his marriage to Bertha

Kind in the year that his father died that saved

him from a full-scale breakdown into the

“exhaustion illness.”

With his father gone, however, the new

marriage was more than ever exposed to his

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 mother’s consistently destructive presence. As
Guntrip began his new pastorate at Salem
Congregational Church in Leeds, his symptoms
worsened to include sleeplessness and acute
sinusitis, as well as two further exhaustion
illnesses associated with the departure of

professional colleagues. Some indication of the

severity of these states may be gathered from the
fact that Guntrip’s period of analysis with
Crichton-Miller was arranged at the urgent

instigation of the surgeon who operated

(ineffectually) on his left sinus, so that Guntrip
and his wife felt it appropriate to take rooms in
London for the first six weeks of sessions.

Crichton-Miller’s analysis, along classical

Freudian lines, did little to alleviate Guntrip’s
problem, despite the latter’s strenuous attempts
to conform to the diagnosis that he was a

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 “mother-fixated narcissan,” defending himself
against an unconscious identification with his

father’s passivity. His symptoms of insomnia

and sinusitis were diagnosed as a reaction to the
continual effort to avoid his father’s passivity by

maintaining his personality on the level of his

mother’s success in dominating everyone, which
he was assumed to admire. No account was

taken of his need to be or to have a self of his

own, or of the complex family situation of his
early years, which had prevented such a
development. It was a moralistic diagnosis that
sidetracked Guntrip’s self-analysis for many
years into a spate of self-criticism for any sign of

self-assertiveness, rivalry, or jealousy of others’

success. It was clear to Guntrip that his own
problem, as well as those of schizoid patients,

called for a deeper understanding than this

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 character trait analysis. When he came to reread
his sessional notes forty years later, he was

astonished at how assiduously he had accepted

and applied to himself, in the therapeutic
situation, interpretations based on instinct theory

with which he was in fundamental disagreement.

In time, it was not only Guntrip’s symptoms

but his dreams (of which he kept a meticulous
record) that called for deeper analysis, in terms

not of an Oedipus complex but of a profound

fear that if he once let up on his struggle to keep
going, he would collapse as he did after his

brother’s death, alone with a nonrelating mother.

What haunted him was not the threat of his
father’s passivity, but of a relapse into his own

unmothered state of breakdown. It was not until

many years, and two analyses, later that Guntrip

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 came to accept and integrate that deeply
regressed heart of his personality.

THE FAIRBAIRN PERIOD

Guntrip was much relieved when, in 1948, a

new professor of psychiatry, Professor D. R.
McCalman of Aberdeen, was appointed at

Leeds. In his first address to the staff, McCalman

lectured on Fairbairn’s object-relations theory of
psychoanalysis. At the time, Guntrip described

how the lecture came as a revelation to him: “It

was exactly what I had been trying to reach in
my theoretical studies without the equipment to

achieve it” (personal communication, 1973). At

McCalman’s prompting, Guntrip wrote to
Fairbairn, who sent him copies of all the papers
he had written. In the following year Fairbairn

accepted him into a training analysis, for which

Guntrip traveled from Leeds to Edinburgh for

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 two days and four sessions each week. Guntrip
wrote: “Fairbairn saved the situation for me as a

psychotherapist … [for] without that deeper

knowledge I could not have gone on” (personal
communication, 1973).

Guntrip’s own flair for writing resulted in the

publication in 1951 of You and Your Nerves,
which was based on a series of radio broadcast
talks. He next turned his literary attention to

Fairbairn’s work. In the course of the next

eighteen months he sent the manuscripts of two
papers to Fairbairn for his consideration. They

were the manuscripts of the first two papers in

the present collection “A Study of Fairbairn’s
Theory of Schizoid Reactions” and “The

Therapeutic Factor in Psychotherapy.” In the

first paper Guntrip gave vivid descriptions of the
schizoid state that were effectively based on his

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 own experience as well as that of his schizoid

patients. Many years later the American analyst

Bernard Landis described how, when he
remarked that these descriptions were “graphic,”

Guntrip replied, “Well, it’s all firsthand. I know

what it is,” and went on to describe “an acute
sense of feeling shut in, trapped and lifeless that

it was imperative to rectify” (Landis 1981, p.

112). In this paper the depressed state was
contrasted with the earlier schizoid state against

which it represents a defensive struggle to

maintain a sense of relationship and spurious
ego-strength by hating, thus warding off a

deeper sense of depersonalisation and ego-loss

at the expense of pathological guilt. The states
were due, respectively, to exaggerated anger

(“love made angry”) at the oral biting stage and

exaggerated hunger (“love made hungry”) at the

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 oral sucking stage. Both states were ego-
reactions to unsatisfying objects, and the
solution to the earlier schizoid problem was seen

as a gradual dissolution of the identification of

the weak ego with its bad object by the steady
maturing of the personality toward
differentiation and emotional equality with the
analyst.

In the second paper Guntrip described the

therapist’s intervention along the lines of a good

parent. Avoiding the extremes of erotic

mothering on the one hand and impersonal

technique on the other, the good parent acts as a

savior, freeing the libidinal ego from his internal

bad objects who are “dissipated” by his love and

justice, both saving him from gross anxiety and,
most importantly, supporting his development

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 from infantile dependence to mature

dependence.

The effect of the manuscripts on Fairbairn

was mixed. His response shows a certain

ambivalence. For one thing, Guntrip’s first paper

covered much of the ground that he himself had
prepared for the first chapter of his own book

(Fairbairn 1952). Although Guntrip’s manuscript

impressed him as “extremely good,” Fairbairn
made it clear that his own material, which he
had already presented in a paper to the Scottish

branch of the British Psychological Society but

which he had temporarily mislaid, was crucial to
his book and that he intended to use it. In fact,

he wished that he had taken it into account

before writing his Revised Psychopathology of
the Psychoneuroses and Psychoses, so that he
should have “avoided some of the inaccuracies

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 [that] crept into the later papers” (personal
communication, August 1951). It would seem
that Guntrip’s paper was, to some extent, viewed
as an example of the very identification to which
it draws attention. Guntrip’s second paper
evoked a sharper response. While Fairbairn

(personal communication, 1957) paid tribute to

the paper’s undoubted quality, he wrote: “There
are passages in which you give expression to

ideas [that] are derived from me, without due

acknowledgement of the source, when such an

acknowledgement would be appropriate,” and he

proceeded to list them. Regarding the
transference issues, he was equally unequivocal.
Pointing out that they would have to be dealt

with in sessions, he wrote, “Whilst it would not

be a good thing for me to play the role of
‘castrating father’ in reality, it would be no

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 better for you to implement in reality the

stealing of your father’s penis” (personal

communication, May 1952).

It is interesting that Guntrip comments upon

this kind of oedipal interpretation in the paper

about his analyses (Chapter 16). He had never
felt helped by such interpretations, because they

were above the level of his deepest trauma and

need. His identification with Fairbairn and his
ideas, rather, was evidence of his profound need

to make good the weakness resulting from early

environmental failure. To some extent he was
experiencing in analysis with Fairbairn the same

oedipal interpretations that his own patients

could not use, and that thus not only prevented
him from reaching and resolving his deepest
problem, but also ensured the perpetuation of

infantile dependence and identification.

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 Fairbairn was not disposed to look a gift
horse in the mouth. Guntrip’s writing was more
fluid and readable than his own, and his

intellectual energy, though driven, was

formidable. Thus Fairbairn finally acknowledged
the value of Guntrip’s active support for his
views and offered constructive criticism, adding
that Sutherland, at that time the editor of the
British Journal of Medical Psychology, was also

favourably impressed. It was in that journal that

the papers duly appeared.

All Guntrip’s papers at this time were written

during the long train journeys between Leeds

and Edinburgh and were typed by his wife, who

backed him in his long search. Guntrip himself
was clear that he could not have received the
same benefit from his analyses without Bertha’s
support, for which he was profoundly grateful.

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 The formality of the analytical relationship
with Fairbairn gradually softened as time went

on. Correspondence was frequent, and when

Fairbairn’s (1952) book aroused a storm of
criticism from orthodox analysts, Winnicott and

Masud Khan among them, Guntrip was strong in

defence of his mentor. Fairbairn was isolated in
Edinburgh and suffered attacks from within his

own psychiatric and academic community there

(see Sutherland 1989). It is not surprising,
therefore, that when formal sessions were over,
Fairbairn discussed theoretical issues with
Guntrip. However, although Guntrip later stated
to Winnicott that he knew Fairbairn best in his

letters and these discussions, he was never able

to achieve with Fairbairn the deep, therapeutic
intimacy that he needed. Fairbairn had worked

effectively with children and psychotic patients

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 earlier in his career (see Guntrip 1975, p. 146),
but by 1954 he had come to distrust regression
as a form of treatment and repeatedly warned
Guntrip of its dangers.

Perhaps characteristically, it was to

therapeutic regression that Guntrip now turned
his attention, and it says much for Fairbairn’s
generosity of spirit that he himself wrote to
Winnicott asking him to send Guntrip a copy of

his “Metapsychological and Clinical Aspects of

Regression within the Psychoanalytical Set-up”

(Winnicott 1954 in Winnicott 1958), a paper that

was to have a far-reaching and decisive effect

upon Guntrip. Characteristically again, Guntrip,

while he was increasingly certain of the need for
therapeutic regression both for himself and his
patients, took Winnicott to task for his poor
theorising, especially regarding his rather

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 indiscriminate use of the Freudian id when

referring to the basis of the personality.

What preoccupied Guntrip was the

increasing weakness of the lost heart of the self

that lay beneath the level of the exaggerated

hunger and anger aroused by unsatisfying
personal relations. It seemed to him that unless
the schizoid patient could regress to infantile

dependence in the security of the therapist’s

understanding, his weakness could not be
redressed. Moreover, he felt that the problem of

depression could only be resolved if it were

acknowledged that the anger and guilt involved

represented a desperate attempt on the part of a

weak ego to negotiate from strength rather than

from weakness. This acknowledgement could

not be made if the basis of the personality was

held to be an impersonal id as a source of

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 innately destructive aggression. Guntrip himself
regarded aggression as a constructive, energetic
striving aspect of the primary libidinal energy of
the unified psyche-soma for object-relating, with

a capacity to intensify, potentially destructively,

when influenced by anxiety, especially
separation anxiety. Although separation anxiety

could begin very early, he believed aggression to

be a capacity of the psyche-soma for object-
seeking, not a biologically innate destructive

drive (Guntrip 1971a, pp. 133-139).

Despite their differences, Winnicott was able

to encourage Guntrip’s attempts to implement

therapeutic regression with his own schizoid

patients, notably, a case described in Personality

Structure and Human Interaction (Guntrip 1961,
pp. 416-417). Winnicott confirmed that Guntrip
was justified in moving beyond interpretive

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 technique to a nurturant holding of the more
severely ill patient: “In more severe cases this

probably becomes the main thing over a phase.

Some people think analysis has been abandoned
when the analyst acts so, but I am sure that these

people fail with analyses that could have

succeeded” (personal communication, August
1954). From these and similar deliberations

Guntrip produced the 1956 paper “Recent

Developments in Psychoanalytic Theory”
(Chapter 3) in which he drew together
Fairbairn’s theory of “dynamic structure” and
Winnicott’s views on therapeutic regression,
suggesting that “the patient may have a genuine

need for a therapeutic regression in order to

recover his ‘true self,’ ” and observing,

we are very far here from the Freudian

concepts of the id and ego, but we are
much nearer psychological realities.

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 Winnicott has not suggested that his views
imply a revision of Freud’s scheme of
psychic structure. But clearly the psyche-
soma is not an impersonal id, but the
primary, natural self, the libidinal psyche,
and it is the “true self’ with which the
patient must recover contact, [p. 90]

The paper forms the basis of his first major

psychoanalytical book (1961) mentioned above,

with the proposal that “the elaboration in Great

Britain of a different theoretical orientation”
(i.e., object-relations theory) forms a synthesis

of the Freudian “psychobiological” thesis, and

the American “culture pattern” antithesis, by

developing concepts of the internal world “as

parallel to external objects in the outer world,

and so comes to correlate the internal and the

external object relationships in which the

personality is involved” (p. 83).

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 The year 1956 was a productive one for
Guntrip. As the analysis developed with

Fairbairn, he sought to bring together the new

orientation with his religious experience in a
new book, Mental Pain and the Cure of Souls

(1956). He and Fairbairn found themselves in

agreement that psychotherapy was sterile unless
conducted from a point of view that makes the

value of the person central, and moreover that

those who had been accustomed to regard life
from a religious standpoint were more likely to

take this view than those whose outlook led

them to approach the individual as an organism.

In psychotherapeutic terms this distinction was

represented by the comparison between object-

relations theory and process theory, respectively.

The same year marked the centenary of the

birth of Sigmund Freud. Guntrip was ineligible

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 to attend the centenary celebrations, since he

was not a member of the British Psychoanalytic

Society. But with typical crusading spirit, he
published “Centenary Reflections on the Work

of Freud” (Chapter 4) in the Leeds University

medical journal of that year, drawing attention,
among other things, to the fact that Freud’s

greatness as a scientist was enhanced by his

“human neuroses” and his use of self-knowledge
for the advancement of science. The parallel

with Guntrip himself is clear. The research

psychotherapist was finding that his true field of
research lay principally within himself. Not only

was this the only field of which he had direct

experience, but he believed that it was the
indispensable basis for understanding others—

all within the setting of a therapeutic

relationship, the only “laboratory” in which

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 repression could be eased and insight
introjected.

In this same paper Guntrip continued his

argument against the depersonalising methods of
Eysenck and the behaviourists, who, in their

desire for scientific status, showed a tendency to

reduce the patient to an oversimplified
mechanism. By contrast, Guntrip noted true
science is never static and accepts the psychic

reality of each patient in its own terms as a

challenge to further understanding. In this quest,
he argued, the real issue was not the battle

between instincts and cultural pressures, as

Freud maintained, but “how can we best secure
the growth of human personality to full

maturity” (p. 166), an endeavour that was

ultimately of greater importance for humanity
than the study of nuclear physics. One can

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 perhaps detect in these arguments the struggles

of a nonmedical psychoanalytic psychotherapist

working daily in academic departments of
psychiatry and psychology, with their strongly

organic and behavioural influence.

Guntrip’s own perception of what constituted

the best conditions for the growth of the human

personality to full maturity emerged clearly in a

bout of correspondence in the pages of the
British Weekly (1958) with J. C. McKenzie,

professor of theology at Nottingham University.

The argument centred upon the ability, or
inability, of the psychotherapist to love the

patient. McKenzie, while affirming his faith in

love as the therapeutic factor, maintained that,
since the psychotherapist could not love his
patient, psychotherapy could not be therapeutic;

only the love of God in Christ could set the

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 patient free from his guilt. Guntrip detected in
this attitude the same avoidance of the patient’s

need that he had encountered in classical

Freudianism. He wrote:

I have had to treat two patients who had

previously been treated by psychotherapists
who were cold, detached and intellectually
remote, believing that to be, as Professor
McKenzie apparently holds, the proper
attitude for the therapist. The results were
disastrous. In both cases, the patients
became steadily more and more frustrated
and disturbed until at length they could not
stand the situation any longer and left the
therapist, the one in a despairing, depressed
condition and the other afraid of an
accumulation of pent-up frustration-rage
which was becoming incredibly difficult to
manage. [See Appendix One, p. 400]

Stating his view that the psychotherapist’s

attitude should be “a maturely parental one,”

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 which one of his patients had described as a
“cherishing” of her, he added,

It is the psychotherapist’s responsibility to

discover what kind of parental relationship
the patient needs in order to get better. …
The child grows up to be a disturbed
person because he is not loved for his own
sake as a person in his own right, and as an
ill adult he comes to the psychotherapist
convinced beforehand that this
“professional man” has no real interest or
concern for him. The kind of love the
patient needs is the kind of love that he
may well feel in due course that the
psychotherapist is the first person ever to
give him. It involves taking him seriously
as a person in his difficulties, respecting
him as an individual in his own right even
in his anxieties, treating him as someone
with the right to be understood and not
merely blamed, put-off, pressed and
moulded to suit other people’s
convenience, regarding him as a valuable
human being with a nature of his own that
needs a good human environment to grow

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 in, showing him genuine human contact,
real sympathy, believing in him so that in
the course of time he can become capable
of believing in himself. All these are
ingredients of true parental love (agape not
eros), and if the psychiatrist [sic] cannot
love his patients in that way, he had better
give up psychotherapy. … Very slowly,
perhaps over a period of years, as patient
and psychotherapist work together, the
patient grows little by little out of the
legacy of an unhappy childhood, in and
through the medium of his relationship
with the therapist until at last the mature
human being can emerge into healthy and
active self-expression and self-fulfilment.
… Moreover, as the patient gets better, he
or she usually feels perfectly genuine
emotions of gratitude and regard for the
psychotherapist [that] represent an
important aspect of the “cure”: the patient,
whose capacity to love has hitherto been
choked by hates and fears, is now
becoming free to feel in more natural ways.
If the therapist were to reject the patient’s
love at that point he would inflict most

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 serious damage to growing normality and
confidence. [See Appendix One]

Guntrip’s true feelings were often more

vividly expressed in less formal publications.
The vital heart of his therapy was his profound

concern for the patient as a person, and all his

interpretations were guided by that principle. He
believed that such an approach to the schizoid

patient is likely to involve him in a therapeutic

regression to a state of “primary identification”
with the therapist, in the medium of which he
may outgrow the original identification with a

maladaptive parent and so be enabled to proceed

with his hitherto arrested development. In
correspondence with Guntrip, Fairbairn made

clear that despite his belief that identification

was the original infantile form of relation to, and
dependence on, objects, he remained extremely

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 cautious regarding the regression involved,
having himself suffered from the destructive
pressure of a regressing patient. Moreover, it is
not certain that Guntrip himself could have

undergone a therapeutic regression with

Fairbairn even if the latter had been more
encouraging. In his very first psychoanalytical

paper on schizoid reactions, Guntrip (1952) had

described one of the anxieties involved in
dissolving identification as the fear “that

separation is felt to involve, not natural growth

and development, but a violent, angry,
destructive break-away, as if a baby, in being

born, were bound to leave a dying mother

behind” (p. 98). At the time, Fairbairn’s health
was deteriorating and he was recently bereft of

his first wife. Thus Guntrip’s feeling of a need to

protect Fairbairn in his bereavement and illness

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 would surely have hindered his own
differentiation, by making him acutely

concerned about its effects upon his ailing

analyst (see Guntrip 1975, p. 151).

Guntrip, however, stated that he did derive

considerable benefit from his analysis with

Fairbairn. Not only had Fairbairn’s analysis of
the negative transference revealed the “complex

structure” of Guntrip’s internalised struggle to

compel his mother to mother him from ages 3½
to 5, with “all the fears, rages and guilts”
involved (Guntrip 1975, p. 150), but it had

clearly shown how the internalised conflict had

been reproduced in Guntrip’s sinusitis, to the

latter’s very great, though sadly temporary,

relief.

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 Indeed, Fairbairn himself described how he
linked Guntrip’s sinusitis to his anal-

retentiveness in childhood. In his valuable paper

“Observations on the Nature of Hysterical
States” (1954), using the pseudonym Jack for

Guntrip, Fairbairn wrote:

[B]oth these bodily manifestations of an

emotional blockage were found to
represent dramatisations of an internal
situation in which his relationship to a
dominating, possessive and frustrating
mother was crystallised and perpetuated;
and, when, at a favourable opportunity, I
pointed out to him that he was dramatising
a state of imprisonment by his mother in
his sinusitis, the symptom underwent a
remarkable and almost immediate
improvement, [p. 118]

It was also part of Fairbairn’s thesis in the

paper that “the development of hysterical
symptoms depends upon the simultaneous

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 experience of excitement, on the one hand, and
frustration or rejection, on the other, all in the
setting of object-relationships” (p. 113).
Accordingly, he sought to demonstrate, by
reference to two of Guntrip’s dreams in which
carnivorous animals were being suppressed (by

a mother-figure and Guntrip, respectively) that

both an oral-sadistic and a genital component
were involved in the conflict. However, Guntrip,
while he experienced little difficulty in

recognising the oral component, was inclined to

associate a sprawling leopard with the
suppression of a vital energetic side of his
personality when his brother was born, rather
than a specifically genital component. In fact,

although Fairbairn claimed to have brought

home to Guntrip the existence of the genital
component, it would appear that the latter had no

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 serious problems in that area, apart from a short
period of sexual impotence after his mother first

moved permanently into his home. Fairbairn

added a footnote to the effect that, whereas he
regarded hysterical problems as essentially

personal, he did not intend to minimise the

importance of the specific field within which
these problems are staged. Guntrip, however,

felt that, far from minimising the genital field,

Fairbairn was unable to move beyond oedipal
analysis, where he kept him “marking time on

the same spot,” analysing “internalised

libidinised and anti-libidinised bad object-

relations,” thereby keeping them operative in

Guntrip’s inner world, “as a defence against the

deeper schizoid problem” (1975, p. 147) of ego

weakness or loss in a relational vacuum.

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 Thus, despite its very considerable benefits,
Fairbairn’s analysis failed to deal with Guntrip’s
“withdrawnness”—his feeling of being out of
touch and cut off from other people—which
Guntrip increasingly felt to be “a problem in its
own right, not just a defence against

[Fairbairn’s] closed system ‘internal world of

bad object-relations’ ” (Guntrip 1975, p. 147).
He came to believe that there could be little

therapeutic gain from an analysis that identifies

sadistic or masochistic love-needs on the
infantile or any other level, “unless these are
shown to be expressions of ego-weakness, the

desperate struggle of the infant-person to remain

viable” (sessional record of Winnicott analysis).
It is probably not without significance that

Fairbairn’s disguised account of the progress of

Guntrip’s analysis appeared in print in the same

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 year (1954) as Winnicott’s paper on regression,

in which he addressed the very problem that

Fairbairn at that time could not deal with.

Guntrip gradually ceased bringing his “real

experiences” to Fairbairn, but his gradual

running down of the analysis was balanced by
increasingly mutually beneficial discussion of
psychoanalytical issues, both in correspondence

and in visits whenever his wife and he visited

Scotland to see her mother in Perthshire. The
correspondence testifies to the fact that Fairbairn
was much helped and cheered by this, and there

is no doubt that Guntrip sharpened his own

intellectual capacities in these debates, as the

opportunity for the working through of

emotional issues diminished. In a letter to

Sutherland years later, Guntrip recorded his

pleasure that he had helped to keep “Fairbairn,

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 the thinking analyst, alive to the end” (personal

communication, September 1974).

A further fact that drew Guntrip’s attention

to his increasing need for therapeutic regression
was the death of his friend Leslie Tizard, the

effect of which was a reemergence of the

exhaustion illness. This happened shortly before
Fairbairn himself almost died from a severe

attack of viral influenza, necessitating a break of

six months in the analysis and making his
retirement a serious possibility. Guntrip, despite
a heavy workload and increasing weariness, paid

tribute to Tizard by editing and completing two

books on which they had collaborated, Middle

Age and Facing Life and Death, both published

in 1959. These events impressed upon him the

idea that the core problem for psychotherapy

was the weakness of the ego, against which the

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 sadomasochistic inner world of bad-object
relations was employed as a defence, bad
relations being preferred to none. The threatened

loss of the ego in a vacuum of relatedness was,

for Guntrip, the heart of the problem, and as his
analysis with Fairbairn was finally terminated in
I960, he produced “Ego-Weakness and the Hard
Core of the Problem of Psychotherapy” (Chapter
5). In this and the next two papers in Section 2

of this book, he tried to work out intellectually

what he could not experience emotionally with
Fairbairn. It was not only an intellectualisation
of his state, however, for “spontaneous insights
kept welling up at all sorts of times,” and he
“jotted them down as they flowed with

compelling intensity” (Guntrip 1975, p. 151).

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 SCHIZOID COMPROMISE

The exhilaration of these outpourings was

considerably offset by what was surely a

manically excessive rate of clinical work.
During the period of Fairbairn’s illness Guntrip
was seeing twelve patients a day, five days a

week, and writing on the other two days. He

recalled in 1973, when he reviewed his analysis
with Fairbairn, that he had never felt so ill as he

did during this period, except in 1971 when

Winnicott’s death triggered off the final work-

out of his childhood trauma (see Guntrip 1975,

p. 154). One can sense his illness in the 1960
paper on ego weakness as he asks, “What is it

that leads to the perpetuation of a weak,

undeveloped, fearful and therefore ‘infantile
dependent’ ego?... It remains buried in the

unconscious and makes no progress to maturity”

(p. 170).

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 In considering the various levels of
internalised bad-object situations, into which the
psychotherapist must prevent himself from being
fitted by the patient in order to “outflank them by
his genuine regard for him,” Guntrip arrives at
“the problems of regression … the most difficult

problems of all for psychotherapy” (pp. 176-

181). Although he saw regression as forced upon
the child by impingement (Winnicott) or “needs

of destructive intensity” (Fairbairn), he was also

aware of “purposiveness” in regression as a

search for womb-security and “a revival of

identification.” Thus he came to formulate his
extension of Fairbairn’s theory of endopsychic
structure, proposing “the deepest split of all, of

the Libidinal Ego into an active, masochistic,

oral (anal and immature genital) Libidinal Ego,
and a passive, Regressed Libidinal Ego ... of

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 profound schizoid, fear-ridden retreat from life

with its threats of depersonalisation” (p. 183).

Although he later became dissatisfied with
“regressed” and “passive” as descriptive terms

(Guntrip 1968, pp. 215-216), his retention of

“libidinal” for the regressed ego carries the
implication that, however devitalised it may

become, the regressed ego never loses its

libidinal (i.e., person-seeking) quality —a point
that some writers have apparently failed to
appreciate.1 The paper ends with a note of

cautious optimism and a reference to Winnicott:

the “closed system” (Fairbairn) of internal self-
persecution can yield to “an open system in

touch with outer reality, an opportunity to grow

out of deep-down fears in a good-object
relationship with the therapist,” if the latter “can

reach the profoundly withdrawn Regressed Ego,

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 relieve its fears and start it on the road to
regrowth and rebirth, the discovery and

development of all its latent potentialities. This

is what Winnicott speaks of as a ‘therapeutic
regression’ ” (p. 184). Winnicott published his

own paper “Ego Distortion in Terms of True and

False Self” (1965) in the same year. He wrote to
Guntrip to ask, “Is your Regressed Ego
withdrawn or repressed?” Guntrip (1975)

replied, “Both. First withdrawn and then kept

repressed” (p. 147).

However reserved he may have been in the

analytic situation, Fairbairn, who read the paper

in manuscript, was unreserved in his approval of

it. He responded to it in detail and concluded,

I consider your concept of the splitting of

the Libidinal Ego into two parts—an oral,
needy libidinal ego, and a regressed
libidinal ego—an original contribution of

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 considerable explanatory value. It solves a
problem which I had not hitherto
succeeded in solving. Your emphasis on the
“purposiveness” of regression is, if not
entirely original in view of Winnicott’s
work, at any rate extremely good, [personal
communication, January I960.]

In the same letter, however, Fairbairn once

again made clear his reservations concerning the

implications of therapeutic regression, for both
patient and therapist, adding,

Don’t forget that these difficulties in the

case of one patient gave Winnicott a
coronary thrombosis. I think it is worth
considering whether such cases should
only be treated under hospital conditions,
and whether responsibility for the
regressed patient should be shared by the
nursing staff. If these patients need an
“environment,” why not provide them with
one?

With canny Scottish practicality he proceeded to

wonder who, if the regressed patient had “to

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 abandon all effort,” would pay the analyst’s fees.

In 1961 Guntrip published his first major

psychoanalytic book, Personality Structure and
Human Interaction, to be accompanied in the

same year by a second seminal paper, published

in the British Journal of Medical Psychology,
“The Schizoid Problem, Regression and the

Struggle to Preserve an Ego (Chapter 6). In that

paper Guntrip stated that he was concerned
“with diagnosis, not treatment,” and he showed a
caution that suggests he had taken Fairbairn’s
warning to heart. He confronted the problem that
if therapeutic regression was specific for the cure
of profound ego-weakness, it could result in the

loss of the conscious, familiar functioning ego.

The patient, having regressed, “faces the
appalling risk of the loss of definite selfhood,”
so that “regression and schizoid withdrawal are

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 one and the same thing” (1961, p. 227). Guntrip
concluded that unless skilled help were available
to enable the person to grow out of his fears of a

good relationship as engulfing, a “compromise

situation” (i.e., Guntrip’s own position at that
time) “is often the best remedy” (p. 230). As he
wondered once more about the causes of
schizoid withdrawal, he again regarded
Winnicott’s “impingement” as “more primitive”

than “deprivation of needs,” though both play a

part in provoking withdrawal. He concluded that

“probably deprivation in the sense of ‘tantalising

refusal’ leads to active oral phenomena, while
impingement and deprivation as ‘desertion’ lead
to shrinking away inside into a passive state” (p.

235). Guntrip was surely trying to discern, for

his patients and for himself, the precise nature of
the bad-object who provokes withdrawal of the

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 regressed libidinal ego, and to distinguish it
from the type of bad-object who activates the
active oral phenomena (i.e., oral sadism) in the
active libidinal ego.

In a moving description of his own handling

of two seriously schizoid patients, Guntrip
moves closer to the origin of his own deepest

problem, the loss of the ego in a sheer vacuum

of personal relations, and to what he feels is
needed from the therapist. In both cases it was

the sheer warmth of his feeling with and for the

patients, experienced in their dreams and in the

external reality of the sessions, that forestalled

the emptying or fading away into

unconsciousness of the ego. Clearly Guntrip’s

feelings for his patients stemmed from his own
experience of similar states and his sense of
what was needed. Thus he ends the paper with a

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 plea for a patient to receive “an object relation of
understanding acceptance and safeguarding his

rights with a therapist who does not seek to force

on the patient his preconceived views of what
must be done; but who realises that deep down

the patient knows his own business best if we

can understand his language” (pp. 239-240). He
does not hesitate to cite some encouraging

examples from his own practice of patients who

were able to unlearn, and to grow out of, their
ruthless antilibidinal self-driving, while
simultaneously gradually developing

a constructive faith that if the needs of the

Regressed Ego are met, first in relation to
the therapist who protects it in its need for
an initial passive dependence, this will not
mean collapse and the loss of active
powers for good and all, but a steady
recuperation from deep strain, diminishing
of deep fears, revitalising of the
personality, and rebirth of an active ego

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 that is spontaneous and does not have to be
forced and driven; what Balint calls “the
new beginning.” [p. 244]

It seems probable that Guntrip was aware in

the early 1960s of a growing ferment of ideas
about the therapeutic effects of regression, of
which Balint (1952, 1959) and Winnicott were
prime exponents. Thus in this paper he

suggested that his regressed ego was “identical”

with Winnicott’s “true self in cold storage”—
though he wondered if its “storage” may, in the

case of some patients, be warm rather than cold,

since they were so reluctant to leave it.

Guntrip’s next paper, “The Manic

Depressive Problem in the Light of the Schizoid
Process” (1962) (Chapter 7) together with the

two preceding papers, formed the basis of his

second major book, Schizoid. Phenomena,

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 Object Relations and the Self (1968). The paper
was regarded by Fairbairn as Guntrip’s

profoundest yet. He wrote,

I congratulate you wholeheartedly. … Your

idea of a split in the Libidinal Ego has
proved very fruitful; as I have already
indicated, it is quite original. It is your
idea, not mine. ... I think your idea of
depression being the result of a failure to
put up a defence against regression
extremely … well worked out. The same
applies to your conception of the role
played by the manic defence. I also like
your ‘Fight or Flight’ idea, and your
contrast between love and fear of
relationships—also your description of the
Oedipus Complex in terms of a defence
against regression. Then I like your thesis
that depression arises out of an attempt to
fend off depersonalisation by
internalisation of the lost object as an
accusing object. Altogether I think your
paper is magnificent, [personal
communication, July 1961]

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 After this article appeared in the
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
Fairbairn noted two further marks of originality
and difference from himself; namely, that
Guntrip, in proposing that depression was bound
up with a defence against schizoid withdrawal,

had concluded that there was only one ultimate

psychopathological state, schizophrenia. Guntrip
had also defined mania as a defence against
schizoid withdrawal, rather than as a defence

against depression. These were strong signs that

his identification with Fairbairn was now well
advanced in the process of dissolution — at any

rate, at an intellectual level—and Fairbairn

observed benignly: “You may well be right,” and
pointed out that “many of the phenomena

described in cases of depression are really

schizoid—apathy being one.” He added, “You

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 are certainly right in regarding hyperactivity as a

characteristic manic symptom” (personal

communication, June 1962). Maybe
significantly, Fairbairn did not comment on the

clinical section of the paper that contained a case

description involving a successful controlled
regression of a patient who had been diagnosed
as constitutionally manic-depressive and beyond

psychotherapeutic help. The patient’s condition

closely resembled Guntrip’s own state, as
exemplified by his manic work rate at that time.

However that may be, one can only admire

Fairbairn’s acceptance of the limitations of his
own theorising and his generous support of

Guntrip’s advance.

Their correspondence continued warmly

through the publication in the British Journal of

Medical Psychology of another paper by Guntrip

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 in 1962, “The Schizoid Compromise and the
Psychotherapeutic Stalemate” (Chapter 8). The

title accurately and implicitly describes

Guntrip’s position at that time, and for a good
time before that, of which he wrote: “I have

come to regard a prolonged therapeutic

stalemate ... as a very important indication of the
severity of the deepest level anxieties the patient

will have to face if he ventures further. … He

dare not give up and he dare not let go . . .” (p.
277). He went on to describe the patient as
experiencing the “most intense fear as the
Regressed Ego draws near to consciousness,”
both “utter and hopeless aloneness and yet also

fear of the good object as smothering. ... In truth

the need to regress cannot be taken lightly.” Yet,
“given time and favourable circumstances, this

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 problem can be resolved in psychoanalytical
therapy” (pp. 285-286).

In a sense, the paper conveys an accurate

impression of this highly independent man

contemplating the increasing need for, and the
possible consequences of, analysis with a

therapist who took regressive needs seriously.

On January 17, 1962, Guntrip wrote to
Winnicott describing his problem, his early
history, and his experience with Fairbairn,
whose serious illness in 1958 had presaged the
gradual ending of the analysis. He enclosed his
paper on manic depression for Winnicott’s

interest and wrote, “I have one further paper on

the stocks and perhaps it is significant that the
subject is ‘The Schizoid Compromise and the
Therapeutic Stalemate’. . . beyond this point I
don’t at present see particularly clearly and I feel

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 that some sessions with you will set things
moving again, to the benefit of both myself and

my work.” Winnicott responded warmly, and the

analysis for which Guntrip travelled from Leeds
to London for two sessions each month began on

March 6, 1962.

THE WINNICOTT PERIOD

By the spring of 1963 Fairbairn’s health had

begun to deteriorate again, and he felt moved to
express his appreciation of Guntrip’s efforts to

promote his work. He wrote: “I am deeply

indebted to you for your furtherance of my
work. I feel I have passed the ball to you now;

and I feel I could not do better” (personal

communication, 27th March 1963). On
December 31, 1964, Fairbairn died. His last
letter to Guntrip was an invitation to stay at his

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 home while visiting Edinburgh to lecture at the
Davidson Clinic.

In his 1963 paper “Psychodynamic Theory

and the Problem of Psychotherapy” (Chapter 9)

Guntrip pays considerable tribute to the work of
Fairbairn, who remained “the only analyst who
has taken up the task of the overall revision of
theory” from the point of view of the ego as "a
unique centre of meaningful experience growing
in the medium of personal relationships,” which,

as he states, represents “an impressive

intellectual achievement” (pp. 166-167). In the
section entitled “Psychotherapy,” he

complements Winnicott’s description of a

patient who, after a successful oedipal analysis,
requested “therapeutic regression aiming at the
rebirth of the true self,” with some further
encouraging results of his own use of controlled

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 therapeutic regression with his schizoid patients,

who had “never grown an adequate feeling of a

real self” (p. 170). Guntrip was fortunate at that
time to have the cooperation of the medical

superintendent of Scalebor Park Psychiatric

Hospital at Leeds, who supported him in his
treatment there of regressed patients, despite

considerable criticism from the staff. As he

knew all too well, “There is an infant in the
patient who actually needs to be accepted for
what he is, by being helped to whatever degree

of therapeutic regression proves to be necessary

... to nullify the results of early environmental
failure” (p. 172). In a letter to his daughter,

Guntrip described how one of his clinic patients

had, “after a long difficult analysis, broken down
into a regressed state and entered Scalebor like a

panicky, sobbing tiny child. Now she’s out and

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 I’m seeing her every day, and she’s reliving in a

fantastic way a grossly insecure childhood in a

bad, drunken slum home” (personal
communication, February 1962).

The feelings that Guntrip was now taking to

Winnicott were of a similar intensity. At his first
session, after Winnicott had drawn his attention
to the absence of a “true meeting” between

them, Guntrip replied, “I feel there is a part of

me that withdrew and regressed, though I don’t
really know what that involves, but I need to get

that part of me accepted.” At their second

session the next day he said, “I realise I did ask

the date of a paper of yours because I needed to

hear your voice and place you.” Winnicott

replied, “You know about me but I’m not a

person to you yet, and you may go away feeling

alone and that I’m not real” (sessional record,

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 1962). This must indeed have come as a
revelation to a man who hitherto had only seen
and heard these feelings reflected in his patients’
needs of and feelings for himself as therapist, yet
which he strove to conceptualise and to meet by
his own analytically guided “sympathetic

identification” with them (see Guntrip 1968, p.

349 ff). Nevertheless, he believed that this
matching of his patient’s experience to be the

only basis on which genuine psychodynamic

research could be carried out. In the gap between
the two analyses he had conceptualised the
problem; now he was gathering the clinical

material in his own and his patients’ experience

to test, confirm, falsify, or amend the concepts,
the ultimate results of which were to be

reviewed in his paper on his experience of

analysis with Fairbairn and Winnicott (Guntrip

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 1975). Meanwhile, some of the material was

included in a new book, Healing the Sick Mind

(1964), an extremely useful and readable
summary of the new perspective, upon which

Winnicott wrote to congratulate Guntrip.

The analysis had moved on to a point at

which Winnicott observed: “In some sense a part
of you did die. You had an experience of death,

and need to find out that there is a way out with

me, from having to be one of mother’s dead
objects” (sessional record, 1963). In the silences
of their sessions Guntrip was encountering the

fear of “absolute ultimate isolation,” which he

knew presaged the emergence into

consciousness of the regressed ego.

Winnicott was careful not to avoid his

patient’s need by offering reassurance. He said,

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 That illness is there, and in a way always
will be. You can’t be as though it had never
happened. When it stirs, you can feel as ill
as ever. But you can grow strong enough to
live with it. … Patients regress with the
analyst to find security and become strong
enough to re-encounter the illness, the
original illness, and get over it. Patients
suffer acute pain in regression. You want to
know if I can help you with your illness,
and not just make you push it away. You
may fear I might need to make a success of
your treatment instead of helping you to be
ill and get over it. [sessional record, 1963]

One can imagine that such a fearless

confrontation of the problems of therapeutic

regression had a releasing effect on Guntrip

despite the acute pain involved. The compelling
intensity of his writing eased, and Guntrip began
to engage more publicly in person in the
psychoanalytic world. In August 1964 he gave a

paper in response to R. D. Laing’s presentation

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 on psychotherapy at the Sixth International
Congress of Psychotherapy, and he told
Winnicott, “I feel I was there by right of my

work. My paper was well received.” It is no

surprise that the paper, which was eventually
revised to become part of Chapter 13 in
Guntrip’s Schizoid. Phenomena, Object
Relations and the Self (1968), emphasised the
need for therapist and patient to meet. He wrote,

It is not easy for two people to meet. The

clearing out of the ‘carryover from the past,
transference and counter-transference’
clears the ground for therapist and patient
to meet ‘mentally face to face’, and at long
last know that they know each other as two
real human beings. Most therapeutic
sessions are experiences of transient reality
amidst a lot of unreality. Real
psychotherapy does as much for the
therapist as for the patient, because he
cannot pretend to himself or play roles in
it. If he does, his patient cannot find him

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 and nothing happens. [Guntrip 1968, p.
354]

The influence of Guntrip’s analysis with

Winnicott is clear, for in his session at the end of
July, just before he gave the above paper, he said

to Winnicott, “I feel now I’ve got my central self

in touch with you. You’ve understood and
accepted, and no need to talk now. I can relax

and be quiet” (sessional record, 1964).

Guntrip wrote no major psychoanalytic

papers between 1963 and 1967, when the fruits

of the Winnicott analysis began to become

manifest, though a number of minor papers
show evidence of the gains he was making
during that period. The present writer has

recorded his experience of an extremely positive

change in Guntrip at this time, during the course
of analysis with him (Hazell 1991). In 1967

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 Guntrip had been able to recover an experience
of “the basic good” in his family, represented by
his father’s reliable integrity and some original

maternal feeling in his mother, the feeling of

which he found reflected in his growing sense of
security in the psychotherapeutic relationship.
Thus he was able to say to Winnicott: “Now in

silence with you I find my faith in the

indestructibility of my internal good objects, and
can relax and feel safe” (sessional record,

February 1967). A decisive stage had been

reached, for it was shortly after this that
Winnicott made “a striking observation” in
which he confirmed Guntrip’s value to him:

“You too have a good breast. I’m good for you,

but you’re good for me. Doing your analysis is

the most reassuring thing that happens to me. ...
I don’t need it and can cope without it, but in

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 fact you are good for me.” Guntrip (1975)

commented, “Here at last I had a mother who

could value her child….” (p. 153).

It is not surprising, therefore, that Guntrip in

his next paper, “The Concept of Psychodynamic

Science” (1967) (Chapter 10), emphasised the
immediacy of our subjective experience of

ourselves. He called for a language specific for

emotional experience and the building up of a
clinically tested body of reliable knowledge to

form psychodynamic science, which is every bit

as real as physical science, when considered in
terms of the new philosophy of science

described by Karl Popper in The Logic of

Scientific Discovery (1959).

In the paper Guntrip emphasised that not

only does our direct knowledge of ourselves as

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 subjects enable us to know others by

identification, but also that this knowing of each

other in an atmosphere of mutual significance
constitutes the next great challenge to
conceptualisation:

Psychodynamics is the study of that type of

experience in which there is reciprocity
between subject and object, and of the
experience of ego-emptying and ego-loss
when relationship and reciprocity fail. …
Object relations theory has not come
sufficiently to grips with conceptualising
this … the complex fact of the personal
relationship itself between two egos … two
persons being both ego and object to one
another at the same time, and in such a way
that their reality as persons becomes, as it
develops in the relationship, what neither
of them would have become apart from the
relationship. This is what happens in good
marriages and friendships. It is what
psychotherapy seeks to make possible for
the patient who cannot achieve it in normal
living, [pp. 42-43]

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 It was also what was happening to Guntrip in his
analysis with Winnicott, and as Bacal and
Newman (1990) have pointed out, Guntrip’s
view of the self as a function of mutually
satisfactory relations constitutes an effective
bridge between object relations theory and the

self psychology of Heinz Kohut (1971, 1977).

From this point, Guntrip’s theoretical writings
begin to express, with increasing confidence, his
“ongoing growth processes … and the

therapeutic possibilities” (Guntrip 1975, p. 156).

In the following year, Guntrip’s major book,

Schizoid Phenomena, Object Relations and the

Self (1968), was published to favourable

reviews. It contained much of the foregoing

material, illustrating the plight of the schizoid

sufferer. However in two chapters, 9 and 13, on
the “Ultimate Foundations of Ego-Identity” and

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 the “Psychotherapeutic Relationship,”

respectively, one can sense the writer’s own

feeling of relief as the stranglehold of the
deathly feeling within him began to ease and a

feeling of genuine life began to flow through the

aching channels of his “static internal closed
system,” as his driven serviceableness gave way

to what Winnicott has described as a “capacity

for play” (1971, p. 38). Guntrip wrote:

The ego in its earliest beginnings is the

psychic subject experiencing itself as
“satisfactorily in being”. ... It starts at
some point in the feeling of security and
the enjoyment of it, as part of the overall
experience of “being with mother” prior to
differentiation of subject and object. The
ego is the psyche growing to self-
realisation and identity, in the initial
experience of identification and shared
emotional experience with the mother. [p.
250]

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 It would be hard to find a clearer description
in formal terms of Guntrip’s own experience
with Winnicott. Perhaps the most striking
positive gain from the analysis was Guntrip’s
recovery of his lost vitality, expressed in “being
creative … producing something rich in content
… using the object and finding you don’t

destroy it” (Guntrip, 1975, p. 153)—an example

perhaps of pure aggressive energy, flowing
creatively in the service of the libidinal psyche,

free from fear and the need to react.

THE POSTANALYTIC PERIOD

One effect of his analysis with Winnicott

was that Guntrip was moved to reevaluate

themes he had discussed in earlier papers. Thus,

in “The Concept of Psychodynamic Science”

(1967) he returned to the theme of his 1956
paper on Freud, where he first considered the

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 place of psychodynamic phenomena in scientific
thought. In his next paper, “Religion in Relation
to Personal Integration” (1969a) (Chapter 11) he
applied his new insights to his views on religion,

some of which he had discussed in his 1953

paper “The Therapeutic Factor in
Psychotherapy.” Then he spoke of the analyst as

an “exorcist” dissipating the influence of the

patients’ internalised bad objects by love and
justice. Sixteen years later he was drawing

attention to the need of the patient to discover

with his psychotherapist a new quality of
experience based on

a different kind of knowing, like the

mother’s intuitive, non-intellectual,
emotional understanding of her baby
through personal relating. … This kind of
knowing, which is more than utilitarian,
involves experiences which cannot be
known unless they are shared: experiences

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 of beauty, of love, and of the religious or
personal way of feeling our one-ness with
the totality of the “real.” To be whole
human beings, we must be both poets and
scientists, both lovers and technicians, [p.
329]

One feels that Guntrip’s reaffirmation of his

religious faith at this point was no accident, for
what he experienced and thought of as “the final
tragedy”—“the emptying or loss of the ego in a
vacuum of experience”—was at last being
dissipated by the reality of the therapeutic
relationship and by the discovery within himself

of the regenerative powers of the human psyche,

the “incipient ego.”

Around the time that the paper was first

delivered at the Seventh International Congress
of Mental Health in London, Guntrip had had a

remarkable dream, which he told to Winnicott:

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 “I was with you for a session. I sat on the end of
the couch, and you sat on it and put your feet up
naturally, relaxed, very at ease. You gave me a
kiss, as a father would kiss a son with
straightforward affection and I returned it”
(sessional record 1968). This was surely a

development of the positive transference, for

Guntrip’s father characteristically relaxed on a
couch at home after his day’s work. Guntrip felt
that the dream experience represented an

entirely natural relationship and, as he (1975)

later wrote, he could hardly convey “the
powerful impression it made ... to find Winnicott
coming right into the emptiness of [my] object-
relations situation in infancy with a non-relating

mother” (p. 301).

Guntrip produced a number of minor works

on the theme of religion around this period in

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 which his views were more directly expressed.

For example, in Psychology and Spirituality

(1967a) he gave an example of a patient who
said, “I have two problems, first religion and my

position as a clergyman. I feel I have lost my

faith. Second, from my earliest years I have had
feelings of insecurity, and of being unwanted

and uncared for, so that it is difficult to have

normal relations with other people.” Guntrip
continued,

These are not two problems, but two

aspects of one … problem. … The first
revelation of God to a human being is not
in Christ, but in the love of the mother
before the baby is old enough to know
anything about God and Christ. If the
mother evokes the infant’s capacity for
loving, then he will be able to return love
for love, and will grow up capable of
knowing what “Christ” means, of seeing in
this human life a manifestation of the
indefinable things we mean by the word

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 “God.” … God is met with by us in a
human life, for “God is love” and love is of
God, even the unborn capacity for loving in
the psychopath. [pp. 99-100]

In another paper, “The Interpretation of Fear

and Guilt” (1967b), Guntrip described the
difficulty of meeting a severely emotionally
deprived person, who is often “even more afraid

of love than of hate,” feeling that “in the end,

loving involves such intense, starved, hungry,
greedy needs, that love is a devouring and

stifling thing.” He continued,

Therapeutic or healing love holds back,

without deserting those it seeks to help,
only approaches slowly, step by step, as the
anxious person is able to accept help. ... If
our love can win through to reach the
frightened heart of the shut-in individual,
then … you may say that a therapeutic
success has been achieved, or a soul has
been reborn, but these are only two ways of
saying the same thing in the end … when

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 scientific understanding and religious faith
in the absolute value of every individual
human person are welded together, then
religion will not be the obsessional
neurosis of humanity as Freud said, but one
of the foundations of mental health, [p. 47]

In his early years Guntrip had found sanctuary

from the deadly atmosphere of his home with

the good-hearted members of the Salvation

Army, whose generosity transcended their
fundamentalism. He never forgot them.

In 1968 and 1969 Guntrip was invited to

lecture at psychoanalytic centers in New York
and Los Angeles. He found the experiences

stimulating, though he encountered some

criticism from the more orthodox analysts. On
his return to Britain, he found that his reputation

had attracted a great deal of attention, both in his

own department at Leeds and in London, where
the Institute of Psychoanalysis (of which he

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 never became a member) expressed interest. He
was also in demand for public debate with
opponents of psychoanalysis. In the first of these
he responded vigorously to a talk on the BBC by
Max Hammerton of Cambridge (Guntrip’s notes
for his reply, “What Did Freud Really Do?,” are

reproduced in Appendix Two). The debate raged

for some months, with notable figures lining up
on both sides. In August 1969 Guntrip wrote to

Sutherland, “I may be prejudiced, but I think I

had the best of both rounds!” Another public
debate occupied the pages of the magazine New
Society, whose editor called upon Guntrip to
reply to an article by Eysenck (Guntrip’s
response (1969b) appears in Appendix Three),

whose reductionism was the antithesis of

Guntrip’s belief in the inherent value of the
individual as a person.

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 These activities, in addition to increased
lecturing commitments and the two overseas
visits, eventually took their toll on Guntrip. He

had concluded his analysis with Winnicott on

July 16, 1969, and by autumn 1970, a year after
his return from Los Angeles, he had contracted
pneumonia, having failed to comply with a
warning from his doctor in February. One of the
precipitating factors was his determination to

respond to an invitation to lecture at the

University of Aberdeen to mark the inauguration
of the Psychotherapy and Social Psychology
Section of the Royal Medical-Psychological
Association. The lecture, which formed the
substance of his 1971 paper, “The Ego-

Psychology of Freud and Adler Re-examined in

the 1970s” (Chapter 12) took place in the month
before he was hospitalized for five weeks. In that

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 same year Guntrip published his final book,
Psychoanalytic Theory, Therapy and the Self

which was a written record of two seminars—

one on theory, the other on clinical material—
that Guntrip had conducted at the Alanson White
Institute in New York.

The Aberdeen lecture, which also marked

the centenary of Adler’s birth, conveys a
developing sense of personal freedom despite

Guntrip’s physical exhaustion at the time. The

sense of the indomitable spirit of human beings,
so evident in the papers on religion, is

recognisable again in his reference to "the other

aspect of our existence (i.e., other than
‘behavioral’) our subjective personal

experiencing mental selves, with our purposes

and values, loves and hates [which] persisted in
being there to challenge understanding, and did

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 not go unnoticed” (pp. 306-307). The tone of
this and subsequent papers bears witness to his
own experience of the rediscovery of his “lost
vital heart” with Winnicott, which many years
earlier had been depicted by a “tomb-man”
dream (Guntrip 1975, p. 150), concerning which

he said to Winnicott in the last stages of his

analysis, “He remained alive and you have let
him out!” (sessional record 1968). Winnicott had

helped him find a dissociated aspect of himself,

a latent psychic potentiality for living and loving

that his mother had been unable to evoke.

Whereas Fairbairn had postulated the existence
of a pristine unitary ego as the core of the
personality, with a more or less developed

capacity to relate to the therapist as a good

object, Guntrip (1968), in Schizoid Phenomena,
Object-Relations and the Self, proposed a

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 “pristine unitary psyche with latent ego quality”

waiting to develop to whatever degree the

environment is experienced as facilitating. He
continued,

[A]lthough all psychic experience,

however unintegrated or disintegrated,
must have some degree of ego-quality as
the experience of a “subject” … the human
psyche does not always develop a very
definite ego ... if no very specific ego
forms, the human being struggles along “in
existence” feeling that his experience has
no proper centre and no coherent ground ...
in the worst case he may be psychotic. ...
[p. 250]

Accordingly, in the Freud and Adler paper,

Guntrip (1971b) made the point that the

psychotic [who] has been frightened off

into a drastic withdrawal by seriously bad
relationships, or even definitely shut out of
all relationship by parents who simply did
not want him and did not relate at all to

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 him ... [is by no means] incapable of
transference as Freud thought. What he is
transferring to us is his basic conviction
that no relationship is possible; he comes to
us “out of touch” and lets us see it and
hopes we will understand, for as Winnicott
(1965) says, in the very last resort there is
always a “true self” deeply hidden away in
cold storage hoping for a chance of rebirth
into a more accepting world, [p. 314]

The paper made an immediate impression, and

to his very considerable satisfaction, Guntrip
was asked to repeat it, just over a year later, as
the first lecture to the Specialist

Psychotherapists’ Section of the newly

established Royal College of Psychiatrists,
London, where it was enthusiastically received.

By 1972 Guntrip had recovered

considerably. He was in demand as a lecturer
both at the Tavistock Institute of Human

Relations and at the Institute of Psychoanalysis,

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 where he addressed the Independent Middle
Group. While in his writings and lectures he was
confidently asserting the factual nature of
psychic phenomena (“phenomenological
reality”), he was still concerned that their factual
nature was not generally accepted at the

academic and clinical psychological level. Thus

in 1972 he published “Orthodoxy and
Revolution in Psychology” (Chapter 13) in the

Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, in

which he called for an integration of an
introspectionist study of behaviour patterns with
a more personalistic study of behaviour patterns
interwoven with spontaneous and creative
functioning, which in turn should be linked with

a psychodynamic psychoanalytic psychology of

psychopathological phenomena, to form a
unified approach to the person as a whole

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 individual, with the mixture of relatively normal

and varyingly pathological experience.

A further sign of Guntrip’s returning vitality

was his untiring effort to secure republication of

Fairbairn’s book to include his unpublished

papers. However, the publishers would neither
alter the original format nor release the

copyright, and so this attempt failed. Guntrip,

until the end of his life, was intent on
representing Fairbairn’s views together with
those of Winnicott, and he pressed Sutherland to
write a biographical introduction to his own
account (sadly unfinished), which later formed

the basis for Sutherland’s own book Fairbairn’s

Journey into the Interior (1989).

As a result of the impact of his American

lecture tours, Guntrip published two papers in

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 U.S. journals, both in 1973. In the first of these,

“Sigmund Freud and Bertrand Russell” (1973a)

(Chapter 14) taking Russell as his ‘soul-brother’
so to speak, he muses upon the therapeutic
possibilities, had Russell been possessed of

Freud’s psychological motivation and

opportunities. Citing A. Ayer (1972), Guntrip
notes that Russell, like himself, had had “a

sudden revelation of the loneliness of the human

soul” and had realised that “nothing can
penetrate it except the highest intensity of the
sort of love that religious teachers have
preached,” concluding that “one should
penetrate to the core of loneliness in each person

and speak to that” (p. 278). It is surely also

significant that Russell, like Guntrip himself,
spent the last years of his life writing

autobiographical material “in a last attempt to

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 understand and make sense of his life” (see
Guntrip 1975, p. 153). Guntrip also speculated

that, had Freud had Russell’s bleak childhood,

he would have progressed beyond the Oedipus
complex and transference analysis. The paper

created a sensation in the United States,

especially in New York, and there were many
requests for reprints from many other parts of

the world.

In his second American paper, “Science,

Psychodynamic Reality, and Autistic Thinking”

(1973b) (Chapter 15), Guntrip again confronted

critics of psychoanalysis with the factual,
incontestable nature of psychic experience,

drawing on the work of Harold Searles (1959,

1971) with schizophrenic patients in support of
his argument. The paper ends with a most
moving account, though regrettably condensed,

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 of Guntrip’s own work, over twenty years, with

a man who was “exhausted, having screaming

nightmares, severe chest pains, and fears of
attacking his wife” (p. 21). The account carries
the unmistakable ring of truth. Much of

Guntrip’s therapeutic work was at this level. It

was small wonder that he felt an urgent need to
draw attention to “psychodynamic reality” and

that he reacted sharply to suggestions by

physical scientists such as Sir Peter Medawar
(1969) that psychotherapy was a comforting
surrender “to a professional and stipendiary
God” (p. 7). Such a view had no place in the
psychotherapy of Guntrip, who early in his

analysis with Fairbairn had to be persuaded by

the latter to charge “realistic fees.” But, with
characteristic astuteness, he reminds Medawar

that the terrifying confusion of the schizophrenic

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 causes him to find himself confused by “a whole
Olympic Pantheon of professional, stipendiary

and often very bad Gods,” so that he was not

“psychically free to conform to Medawar’s
theories” (p. 20).

There is no doubt that as his own physical

health began to decline, Guntrip’s motivational
energy was optimal. In the autumn of 1973 he

wrote to his daughter Gwen, “I have enough

publishing work on the stocks to last several
years—possibly four books: Fairbairn’s
Collected Papers, my own Collected Papers—

which New York Science House [has] invited

me to send them—and two new studies of
Fairbairn and Winnicott, based on fascinating

material from my own analyses.” The reference

to Science House was made with regard to an

invitation to Guntrip by Jason Aronson, the

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 publisher of this present volume, to submit his

collected papers for publication. Guntrip was

keen to respond, wishing especially “to preserve
the Aberdeen paper and the American papers,”
but was prevented by ill health. The present

writer discovered the correspondence while

researching Guntrip’s autobiographical writings
and renewed the contact with Jason Aronson,

who responded warmly after twenty years. The

present volume is the result.

In the last full year of his life it was the

reevaluation of Fairbairn’s work that most

preoccupied Guntrip. Not only did he wish to

draw attention to Fairbairn’s “rejection of

‘psychobiology’ and his changing of the entire

philosophical basis of psychoanalysis, as the

most important post-Freudian event in its

history,” but he also wanted to show “signs of

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 gradual change” that led to Fairbairn’s

acceptance of his own extension of his theory

and to carry out “a study of limitations of the
kind that necessitates Winnicott’s work as the

real post-Fairbairn development of ‘Personal

Object Relations Theory’ ” (personal
communication, November 1974). In fact,
Guntrip had covered much of this ground by

reference to his own experience of analysis in an

address to the Institute of Psychoanalysis in
London, and, realising that time was against his

desire to complete his “psychoanalytic

autobiography” he now decided to develop his

address as a paper. It was this paper, published

posthumously in 1975, that set in perspective all

the earlier papers collected in this volume,

which, however much they may be seen as the

development of a man’s thought, could now also

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 be understood as a record of a man’s striving for
understanding of himself and his experience

through two analyses. Guntrip often observed

that analysis characteristically moved through
three stages: (1) oedipal analysis, (2) schizoid
compromise, and (3) regression and regrowth. It

is plausible to consider these stages as

corresponding to (1) his analysis with Fairbairn,
(2) the interval between analyses when he

produced his “theoretical advance,” and (3) the

analysis with Winnicott. It is into these three
sections that his collected papers seem to me
most naturally to fall, together with a final

section containing the post-Winnicott papers.

In a sense, Guntrip stands as representative

for all those whose early experience was of

overwhelming instability, weakness, and fear;
who cannot experience themselves as “pristine

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 unitary egos” in relation to their objects; whose
feeling of weakness overrides their capacity to

claim what they lack; and whose sense of

relationship, and therefore of self, is always
tentative and vacillating. They are not

psychically free to conform to theories and

therapies that assume an intact ego in a
relationship with the therapist. Because of the

combination of a cruel but indomitable mother

and a father who, though largely passive after
marriage, had a quiet integrity, and because of

his own inherited gifts, Guntrip found it within

himself both to stand up to those who sought to
confine psychoanalysis to those in whom good
enough mothering had given rise to a unitary

ego and to stand up for and understand the many

who had not.

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 In “My Experience of Analysis with
Fairbairn and Winnicott” (1975) (Chapter 16) he

describes how the amnesia of his baby brother’s

death was in fact the touchstone for an earlier
problem. In noting the absence of a genuine
meeting, Winnicott was also in a position to

introduce Guntrip to a deeper perception of the

origin of his problem, which he had hitherto
associated with the first exhaustion illness after

finding his brother dead. Winnicott maintained

that the origin lay deeper: in an earlier
experience of maternal neglect. He said, “You
must have had an earlier illness before Percy

was born and felt mother left you to look after

yourself” (in Guntrip 1975, p. 152). Winnicott

went on to suggest that Percy’s arrival had

enabled Guntrip to project his need onto the new

baby and to look after it in him; hence his

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 collapse when the baby died. In effect the
amnesia had served as a mask, not for rage at the

birth of a rival sibling, as some have suggested

(Eigen 1981, Padel 1991), but for the deadly
feeling of the loss of the emergent ego in a

vacuum, of extreme ego-weakness or loss with a

nonrelating mother. In the gaps of silence with
Winnicott, Guntrip experienced in the
transference that original abandonment by his

mother, and Winnicott, noticing his discomfiture

pointed out that the gaps were caused by his

mother’s forgetting him, not by any lapse of his,

adding, “You’re finding an earlier trauma which
you might never recover without the help of the
Percy trauma repeating it. You have to

remember mother abandoning you by

transference to me” (Guntrip 1975, p. 153).

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 This interpretation threw an entirely new
light on Guntrip’s manic defence. His driven

intellectual energy, which Fairbairn had

interpreted as “trying to steal father’s penis” (p.
152) by taking over the analysis, was seen by
Winnicott as Guntrip having to work hard to

keep himself “in existence”—in effect, fighting

for his very life, as it must have seemed to him,
since in his very deepest experience he felt no

life-sustaining relationship, only an indefinite

gap. As Landis (1981) has stated, Guntrip “just
did not believe that an analysis of the
vicissitudes of sadism and anger was vital for his

cure … not the experiencing of an alleged

infantile rage nor subsequent vindictiveness but

the incorporating of an affirming analytic

relationship was the heart and means of cure”

(pp. 114-115). Winnicott had searched in vain

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 for Guntrip’s “sadism,” perhaps because the
latter’s early experience had been too barren for
him to be able to consolidate sufficient ego-
structure to support overt sadistic reactions.
Instead, his experience was dominated by that
other ego-reaction to threat, namely, fear.

Ultimately, the crucial difference between

Guntrip’s two analytical experiences was that,
whereas Fairbairn took the existence of the ego

for granted, Winnicott recognised the possibility

of its nonexistence in a nonrelating environment.
Thus Guntrip, like another of Winnicott’s

patients, came to feel fully communicated with

for the first time when his feeling of
nonexistence was recognised (Winnicott 1965,

p. 151). Winnicott had written about this early

state of privation in the paper on regression that
he had sent to Guntrip in 1954 (in Winnicott

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 1958) and in which he emphasised that if the
need for regression is not met, “the result is not
anger, only a reproduction of the environmental

failure situation that stopped the processes of

self-growth. The individual’s capacity to ‘wish’
has become interfered with, and we witness the
re-appearance of the original cause of a sense of
futility” (p. 288). Masud Khan (1975), in his
introduction to Winnicott’s collected papers,

explains Winnicott’s belief that

a person on the point of the need to regress

can never manage it on his own, or ask for
it, unless someone can sense this need in
him and reach out and meet it. . .. [T]here
are persons whose primary care-taking
environment has been so deficient that
what they need to tell happened when they
had not the necessary ego-capacities to
cope with or cognise it. They could only
register it. Hence the responsibility of the
analyst to reach out, read and meet their
need. [pp. xxiii-xxiv]

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 So it was in the case of Guntrip. Articulate,
intelligent, and determined as he was, the heart
of his nature was held in check and he could
only put himself in the presence of someone
who seemed both to promise the warmth of
relation and to understand his fear of it, and wait

—as Guntrip (1968) himself wrote, “a potential

self awaiting a chance to be reborn into an
environment in which it is possible to live and

grow” (p. 405).

In the 1954 paper on regression Winnicott

had noted “the way in which the individual

stores up memories and ideas and potentialities

... as if there is an expectation that favourable
conditions may arise justifying regression and

offering a new chance for forward development,

which was rendered impossible or difficult
initially by environmental failure” (p. 281). It

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 would be difficult to find a truer description of
Guntrip, with his photographic memory and
compulsive thinking and conceptualising of his

state and needs, possessing all the equipment for

personal living, yet always in the background
the drag of unrealised personal potential. The
fact that he was able to describe so exactly what
he needed of Fairbairn (see Hughes 1989) does
not imply arrogance on his part, but only the

laborious rationalised articulation of an unmet

and fundamental longing for personal

recognition. It was ultimately the reliving of that

earlier trauma with Winnicott that enabled
Guntrip to learn that, despite her “paralysing
schizoid aloofness,” his mother had almost

certainly had a period of initial maternalism with

him and to find her re-created in Winnicott in the
transference (1975 p. 152).

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 Guntrip has recorded his view that “the ego
potential at birth must be given something,
however small, to begin to live by or it will die”
(personal communication, November 1971). It
was Winnicott’s ability to facilitate the growth
of this early potential that enabled Guntrip

finally, after Winnicott had died, to integrate the

extreme and desolate experience of a mother
“who had no face, arms or breasts. She was

merely a lap to sit on, not a person” (1975 p.

154). Unmothered herself, and forced to act as
mother to younger siblings, four of whom died
in childhood, she had entered marriage almost

devoid of maternalism and determined to make

her way in business. Later in Guntrip’s
childhood she was able to sponsor financially his

hobbies and interests, and one might reasonably

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 argue that she “transmitted” to him also a certain
determination to keep going at all costs.

Guntrip (1975) records “a mood of sadness

for my mother who was so damaged in

childhood that she could neither be, nor enable
me to be, our ‘true selves’ ” (p. 155). He also

makes clear that without his wife’s

understanding and support, he “could not have
had those analyses or reached this result” (p.
155). The degree of disturbance that Guntrip
experienced would surely have tried, very
severely, even the strongest of marriage
relationships, unsupported by psychotherapy. He

himself certainly felt that the function of therapy

(at every level, but most vitally at the schizoid
level) was to

provide a reliable and understanding

human relationship of a kind that makes

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 contact with the deeply repressed
traumatised child in a way that enables one
to become steadily more able to live, in the
security of a new real relationship, with the
traumatic legacy of the earliest formative
years, as it seeps through or erupts into
consciousness, [p. 155]

The subtitle of Guntrip’s (1975) paper raises

this question: How complete a result does
psychoanalytic therapy achieve? The tone of the
paper is very much one of the recovery of a

basic vitality and the development of ego-

strength as a function of growth in personal
relationships. At the same time, Guntrip points

out that one “cannot have a different set of

memories” and quotes Fairbairn’s view that,
although “emotion can be drained out of the old

patterns by new experience … water can always

flow again in the old dried up water courses” (p.
145). Moreover, “Psychoanalytic therapy is

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 not... an objective ‘thing in itself’ working
automatically. It is a process of interaction, a
function of two variables, the personalities of

two people working together towards

spontaneous growth” (p. 155). He is surely
correct in stating, “There must be something
wrong if an analyst is static when he deals with
such dynamic experiences” (p. 155).

But there are signs that Guntrip may not

have fully appreciated the need for “phase-
appropriate responses from selfobjects
throughout life” (Bacal and Newman 1990, p.
170), for he does give an impression of an

indissoluble ego-relatedness once it is

adequately laid down and experienced so that it
becomes “an established property of the psyche”
(1971a, p. 117). Certainly, in 1972, when the
American analyst Bernard Landis visited him,

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 Guntrip was still exposed to “the dread of

aloneness” with which he had had a lifelong

struggle and which he described by reference to
a recent dream: “I was floating in dark space,

attached by a long ectoplasmic cord, reaching

from my naval to a shadowy feminine figure.
The cord became thinner and thinner and

snapped, leaving me falling in space in sheer

panic” (Landis 1981, p. 115). Perhaps the point
is made that the greatest sign of therapeutic

effectiveness lies in the growing capacity of the

patient to believe in the possibility of personal
revival in mutually satisfying relations with
another person, and thus to see how it is possible

to live with the disturbed experience to whatever

extent it recurs.

Toward the end of his life Guntrip

corresponded more and more frequently with

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 Sutherland. Although they differed on some
points of theory, Guntrip valued their friendship,
seeing Sutherland as a surviving younger

brother. Their correspondence was at times

spirited, as, for example, when Guntrip was
frankly critical of Fairbairn’s structural scheme
for sticking too closely to Freud’s tripartite
pattern. He wrote: “The Anti-Libidinal
Ego/Rejecting Object only accounts for

aggression as identification with the Rejecting

Object, against the Libidinal Ego, but not for
direct aggression, anger against the Rejecting
Object. [Fairbairn’s] Central Ego is left to be
simply Winnicott’s ‘False Self on a conformity
basis,’ which is a very incomplete analysis”

(personal communication, October 4, 1973).

It was certainly a feature of Guntrip that his

capacity for forthright, hard-hitting argument

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 carried all the marks of true, unrestrained
conviction. He was extremely vigorous and
unfailingly just in all his debates at the
professional level, and never patronising. He
never retired from lecturing at Leeds University,
and, as a colleague remarked, he was always in
demand since he was “clear pointed and

compelling because, above all, he had a message

to convey” (Markillie 1975).

Guntrip died on February 18, 1975, at the

age of 73. It was agreed that Sutherland should

collate Guntrip’s writing on science and

psychoanalysis, which he had intended to

include in his Fairbairn book. Sutherland did so,

with characteristic care and respect.

“Psychoanalysis and Some Scientific and

Philosophical Critics” (Chapter 17) was

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 published in the British Journal of Medical

Psychology in 1978. The final section especially

makes compelling reading, containing further
examples of Guntrip’s devotion to his patients’

needs, which was always his first priority, and

by which he sought to demonstrate before the
scientific world the indelible reality of subjective

inner experience as it was gradually tested and

validated in the medium of the therapeutic
relationship. However important he believed it

to be to confront with psychic reality those who

were “imprisoned in physicalism,” Guntrip’s
main concern was with the emotional maturity

of the psychotherapist as a person. The

following lines from his reply in The Listener
magazine (1968) to a broadcast talk by Max

Hammerton form a fitting summary of his views:

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 The problem of psychotherapy is not that it
is not scientific; it has its own kind of
science. The difficulty is that we ourselves
may not be equal to its demands. We may
not have the depth of understanding,
sympathy, tolerance, and capacity to take
the strain that is required to help a suffering
human being to drop his defences and lay
bare his crippling fears, in the confidence
that we can understand and stand by him
till he has grown out of them. [See
Appendix Two p. 411]

REFERENCES

Ayer, A. (1972). Russell. London: Fontana Collins.

Bacal, H. A. and Newman, K. M. (1990). Theories of

Object Relations, Bridges to Self-Psychology.
New York: Columbia University Press.

Balint, M. (1952). Primary Love and Psycho-

Analytic Technique (1st ed.). London: Hogarth.

_____ (1959). Thrills and Regressions. London:

Hogarth.

Eigen, M. (1981). Guntrip’s analysis with Winnicott.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis 17 (1): 103-111.

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 Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of
the Personality. London: Tavistock.

_____ (1954). Observations on the nature of

hysterical states. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 27:105-125.

Greenberg, J. R. and Mitchell, S. A. (1983). Object

Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.

Guntrip, H. (1949). Psychology for Ministers and

Social Workers. London: Independent Press.

_____ (1951). You and Your Nerves (rep. 1970 and

retitled Your Mind and Your Health. London:
Allen and Unwin.

_____ (1952). A study of Fairbairn’s theory of

schizoid reactions. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 25 (parts 2 and 3): 86-103.

_____ (1953). The therapeutic factor in

psychotherapy. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 26 (part 2): 112-132.

_____ (1956a). Recent developments in

psychoanalytic theory. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 29 (part 2): 82-99.

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 _____ (1956b). Centenary reflections on the work of
Freud. Leeds University Medical Journal 5(3).

_____ (1956c). Mental Pain and the Cure of Souls.

London: Independent Press.

_____ (1958). Reply to J. C. McKenzie’s article

“Limitations of Psychotherapy.” British Weekly
#6, March.

_____ (1960). Ego-weakness and the hard core of the

problem of psychotherapy. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 33 (part 3): 163-184.

_____ (1961a). Personality Structure and Human

Interaction. London: Hogarth.

_____ (1961b). The schizoid problem, regression and

the struggle to preserve an ego. British Journal
of Medical Psychology 34: 223-244.

_____ (1962a). The manic-depressive problem in the

light of the schizoid process. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 43: 98-112

_____ (1962b). The schizoid compromise and

psychotherapeutic stalemate. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 35: 273-287.

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 _____ (1963). Psychodynamic theory and the
problem of psychotherapy. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 36: 161-173.

_____ (1964). Healing the Sick Mind. London: Allen

and Unwin.

_____ (1967a). The concept of psychodynamic

science. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 48: 32-43.

_____ (1967b). “Psychology and spirituality” in

Spirituality for Today, ed. E. James. London: S.
C. M. Press.

_____ (1967c). The interpretation of guilt and fear.

In The Role of Religion in Mental Health, pp.
41-49. London: National Association for Mental
Health.

_____ (1968a). Schizoid Phenomena, Object

Relations and the Self. London: Hogarth.

_____ (1968b). What did Freud really do? The

Listener August 29th.

_____ (1969a). Religion in relation to personal

integration. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 42: 322-333.

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 _____ (1969b). Response to Eysenck’s paper
“Behaviour Therapy Versus Psychotherapy.”
New Society.

_____ (1971a). Psychoanalytic Theory, Therapy and

the Self. London: Hogarth.

_____ (1971b). The ego psychology of Freud and

Adler re-examined in the 1970s. British Journal
of Medical Psychology 44:305-318.

_____ (1972). Orthodoxy and revolution in

psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 25:275-280.

_____ (1973a). Sigmund Freud and Bertrand

Russell. Journal of Contemporary
Psychoanalysis 9:(3): XX-X.

_____ (1973b). Science, psychodynamic reality and

autistic thinking. Journal of the American
Academy of Psychoanalysis 1(1): 3-22.

_____ (1975). My experience of analysis with

Fairbairn and Winnicott. International Review
of Psychoanalysis 2:145-156.

_____ (1978). Psychoanalysis and some scientific

and philosophical critics. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 51:207-224.

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 Hazell, J. (1991). Reflections on my experience of
psychoanalysis with Guntrip. Contemporary
Psychoanalysis 27 (1): 148-166.

Hughes, J. (1989). Reshaping the Psychoanalytic

Domain. University of California Press.

Khan, M. (1975). Introduction. In D. W. Winnicott,

Through Paediatrics to Psychoanalysis, pp. xi-
xlix. London: Hogarth.

Kohut, H. (1971). The Analysis of the Self. New

York: International Universities Press.

_____ (1977). The Restoration of the Self. New

York: International Universities Press.

Landis, B. (1981). Discussions with Harry Guntrip.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis 17(1):112-117.

Markillie, R. (1975). Obituary. Leeds University

Journal, February.

Medawar, P. (1969). Induction and Intuition in

Scientific Thought. London: Methuen.

Padel, J. (1991). Fairbairn’s thought on the

relationship of inner and outer worlds. Free
Association 2(24):589-615.

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 Popper, K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery.
London: Hutchinson.

Searles, H. (1959). Integration and differentiation in

schizophremia. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 32: 261-281.

_____ (1971). Pathologic symbiosis and autism. In

The Name of Life, ed. B. Landis and Tauber.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Sutherland, J. D. (1989). Fairbaim’s Journey into the

Interior. London: Free Association Books.

Tizard, L. (1959). Facing Life and Death. London:

Allen and Unwin.

Tizard, L. and Guntrip, H. (1959). Middle Age.

London: Allen and Unwin.

Winnicott, D. W. (1958). Through Paediatrics to

Psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth.

_____ (1965). The Maturational Processes and the

Facilitating Environment. London: Hogarth.

_____ (1971). Playing and Reality. London:

Tavistock.

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 Note
[1] For example, in Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory,
Greenberg and Mitchell (1983) state that Guntrip makes
“flight the predominant motivation in human experience”
(p. 215) this despite his clear statement in Schizoid
Phenomena, Object Relations and the Self (1968) (from
which they apparently derive this view) that “the ego is
always a latent potentiality in . . . the human psyche” and
“the human psyche is an incipient ego . . .” (pp. 249-250).

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 Section I
1952-1958
THE FAIRBAIRN
PERIOD OF
“BROADLY OEDIPAL”
ANALYSIS

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 1

EARLY PERCEPTIONS OF THE

SCHIZOID PROBLEM2

THE SCHIZOID CONDITION

The psychotherapist must be greatly

concerned with those states of mind in which

patients become inaccessible emotionally, when

the patient seems to be bodily present but

mentally absent. A patient, A, recently said ‘I

don’t seem to come here’ as if she came in body

but did not bring herself with her. She found

herself in the same state of mind when she asked

the young man next door to go for a walk with

her. He did and she became tired, dull, unable to

talk; she commented: ‘It was the same as when I

come here: I don’t seem to be present.’ Her

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 reactions to food were similar. She would long
for a nice meal and sit down to it and find her

appetite gone, as if she had nothing to do with

eating. One patient, B, dreamed: ‘My husband
and I came to see you and he explained that I

wasn’t here because I’d gone to hospital.’

Complaints of feeling cut off, shut off, out of
touch, feeling apart or strange, of things being

out of focus or unreal, of not feeling one with

people, or of the point having gone out of life,
interest flagging, things seeming futile and
meaningless, all describe in various ways this
state of mind. Patients often call it ‘depression’,
but it lacks the heavy, black, inner sense of

brooding, of anger and of guilt, which are not

difficult to discover in depression. Depression is
really a more extraverted state of mind, in which

the patient is struggling not to break out into

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 angry and aggressive behavior. The states
described above are rather the ‘schizoid states’.

They are definitely introverted.

External relationships seem to have been

emptied by a massive withdrawal of the real

libidinal self. Effective mental activity has

disappeared into a hidden inner world; the
patient’s conscious ego is emptied of vital

feeling and action, and seems to have become

unreal. You may catch glimpses of intense
activity going on in the inner world through
dreams and phantasies, but the patient’s

conscious ego merely reports these as if it were a

neutral observer not personally involved in the

inner drama of which it is a detached spectator.

The attitude to the outer world is the same; non-

involvement and observation at a distance

without any feeling, like that of a press reporter

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 describing a social gathering of which he is not a
part, in which he has no personal interest, and by

which he is bored. When a schizoid state

supervenes, the conscious ego appears to be in a
state of suspended animation in between two

worlds, internal and external and having no real

relationships with either of them. It has decreed
an emotional and impulsive standstill, on the

basis of keeping out of affective range and being

unmoved.

These schizoid states may alternate with

depression, and at times seem to be rather

confusingly mixed with it so that both schizoid

and depressive signs appear. They are of all
degrees of intensity ranging from transient

moods that come and go during a session, to

states that persist over a long period, when they

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 show very clearly and distinctly the specific
schizoid traits.

An example of a patient, C, describing

herself as depressed when she is really schizoid
may be useful at this point. She opened the

session by saying: ‘I’m very depressed. I’ve

been just sitting and couldn’t get out of the chair.
There seemed no purpose anywhere, the future
blank. I’m very bored and want a big change. I

feel hopeless, resigned, no way out, stuck. I’m

wondering how I can manage somehow just to
get around and put up with it.’ (Analyst: ‘Your

solution is to damp everything down, don’t feel

anything, give up all real relationship to people
on an emotional level, and just “do things” in a

mechanical way, be a robot.’) Her reaction

brought out clearly the schizoid trait: ‘Yes, I felt
I didn’t care, didn’t register anything. Then I felt

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 alarmed, felt this was dangerous. If I hadn’t
made myself do something I’d have just sat, not

bothered, not interested.’ (Analyst: ‘That’s your

reaction in analysis to me: don’t be influenced,
don’t be moved, don’t be lured into reacting to

me.’) Her reply was: ‘If I were moved at all, I’d

feel very annoyed with you. I hate and detest
you for making me feel like this. The more I’m

inclined to be drawn towards you, the more I

feel a fool, undermined.’

The mere fact of the analyst’s presence as

another human being with whom she needed to

be emotionally real, i.e. express what she was

actually feeling, created an emotional crisis in
her with which she could only deal by

abolishing the relationship. So her major defence

against her anxieties is to keep herself
emotionally out of reach, inaccessible, and keep

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 everyone at arm’s length. She once said: ‘I’d
rather hate you than love you’, but this goes

even further. She will neither love nor hate, she

won’t feel anything at all, and outwardly in
sessions often appears lazy, bored at coming,

and with a ‘laissez faire’ attitude. This then is

the problem we seek to understand. What is
really happening to these patients and why?

FAIRBAIRN’'S THEORY OF SCHIZOID

REACTIONS

The purpose of this paper is to state

Fairbairn’s theory of schizoid reactions and to

illustrate it by clinical material. His

revolutionary rethinking of psycho-analytical

theory was first presented as a recasting of the

classic libido theory and as a revised

psychopathology of the psychoses and psycho-

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 neuroses. Only two points in his theory need to
be mentioned here.

1. First he laid it down that the goal of the

individual’s libido is not pleasure, or merely
subjective gratification, but the object itself. He

says: ‘Pleasure is the sign-post to the object’

(1941, p. 255). The fundamental fact about
human nature is our libidinal drive towards good
object-relationships. The key biological formula

is the adaptation of the organism to the

environment. The key psychological formula is
the relationship of the person to the human

environment. The significance of human living

lies in object-relationships, and only in such
terms can our life be said to have a meaning.

Quite specially in this region lie the

schizoid’s problems. He is driven by anxiety to

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 cut off all object-relations. Our needs, fears,
frustrations, resentments and anxieties in our

inevitable quest for good objects are the real

problem in psychopathology, because they are
the real problem in life itself. When difficulties

in achieving and maintaining good object-

relations are too pronounced, and human
relations are attended with too great anxiety and

conflict, desperate efforts are often made to deny

and eliminate this basic need. People go into
their shell, bury themselves in work of an
impersonal nature, abolish relations with actual
people so far as they can and devote themselves
to abstractions, ideals, theories, organizations,3

and so on. In the nature of the case these

manoeuvres cannot succeed and always end

disastrously, since they are an attempt to deny

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 our very nature itself. Clearly we cannot do that

and remain healthy.

The more people cut themselves off from

human relations in the outer world, the more

they are driven back on object-relations in their

inner mental world, till the psychotic lives only
in his inner world. But it is still a world of

object-relations. We are constitutionally

incapable of living as isolated units. The real
loss of all objects would be equivalent to
psychic death. Karen Horney (1946) says:

‘Neuroses are generated by disturbances in

human relationships.’ But Horney thinks only in
terms of relations to external objects at the

conscious level. The real heart of the matter is a

far less obvious danger, a repressed world of
internalized psychic objects, bad objects, and
‘bad-object situations’. What is new in all this is

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 the theory of internal objects as developed in
more elaborate form by Melanie Klein and
Fairbairn, and the fact that Fairbairn makes
object-relations, not instinctual impulses, the
prior and important thing. It is the object that is
the real goal of the libidinal drive. We seek

persons not pleasures. Impulses are not psychic

entities but reactions of an ego to objects.

What is meant by a world of internal objects

may be expressed as follows: in some sense we

retain all our experience in life and ‘carry things

in our minds’. If we did not, we would lose all

continuity with our past, would only be able to

live from moment to moment like butterflies

alighting and flitting away, and no relationships
or experiences could have any permanent values
for us. Thus in some sense everything is
mentally internalized, retained and inwardly

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 possessed; that is our only defence against
complete discontinuity in living, a distressing

example of which we see in the man who loses

his memory, and is consciously uprooted.

But things are mentally internalized and

retained in two different ways which we call

respectively memory and internal objects. Good
objects are, in the first place, mentally

internalized and retained only as memories.

They are enjoyed at the time, the experience is
satisfying and leaves no problems, and can later
on be looked back to and reflected on with

pleasure. In the case of a continuing good-object

relationship of major importance as with a

parent or marriage partner, we have a

combination of memories of the happy past and

confidence in the continuing possession of the

good object in an externally real sense in the

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 present and future. There is no reason here for
setting up internalized objects. Outer experience
suffices to meet our needs. On this point
Fairbairn differs from Melanie Klein.

Objects are only internalized in a more

radical way when the relationship turns into a
bad-object situation through, say, the object
changing or dying. When someone we need and
love ceases to love us, or behaves in such a way
that we interpret it as cessation of love, that

person becomes, in an emotional, libidinal sense,

a bad object. This happens to a child when his
mother refuses the breast, weans the baby, or is

cross, impatient and punitive, or is absent

temporarily or for a longer period through
illness, or permanently through death: it also
happens when the person we need is emotionally
detached and aloof and unresponsive. All that is

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 experienced as frustration of the most important
of all needs, as rejection and desertion or else as

persecution and attack. Then the lost object, now

become a bad object, is mentally internalized in
a much more vital and fundamental sense than

memory. Bereaved people dream vividly of the

lost loved one, even years afterwards, as still
actually alive. A patient, beset by a life-long fear

of dying, was found under analysis, to be

persistently dreaming of dead men in coffins. In
one dream, the coffined figure was behind a
curtain and his mind was on it all the time while
he was busy in the dream with cheerful social
activities. A fatal inner attraction to, and

attachment to, the dead man threatened him and

set up an actual fear of dying. The dead man was
his father as he had seen him actually in his

coffin. Another patient had a nightmare of his

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 mother violently losing her temper with him,
after she had been dead twelve years. An inner

psychic world (see Riviere 1952) has been set

tip duplicating the original situation, but it is an
unhappy world in which one is tied to bad

objects and feeling therefore always frustrated,

hungry, angry, and guilty, and profoundly
anxious.

It is bad-objects which are internalized,

because we cannot accept their badness and yet

cannot give them up, cannot leave them alone,
cannot master and control them in outer reality

and so keep on struggling to possess them, alter

them and compel them to change into good
objects, in our inner psychic world. They never

do change. In our inner unconscious world

where we repress and lock away very early in
life our original bad objects, they remain always

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 rejecting, indifferent or hostile to us according to
our actual outer experience. It must be
emphasized that these internalized objects are
not just phantasies. The child is emotionally

identified with his objects, and when he mentally

incorporates them he remains identified with
them and they become part and parcel of the

very psychic structure of his personality. The

phantasies in which internal objects reveal their
existence to consciousness are activities of the

structures which constitute the internal objects.

Objects are only internalized later in life in this
radical way by fusion with already existing

internal-object structures. In adult life situations

in outer reality are unconsciously interpreted in
the light of these situations persisting in

unconscious, inner, and purely psychic reality.

We live in the outer world with the emotions

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 generated in the inner one. The fundamental
psychopathological problem is: how do people

deal with their internalized bad objects, to what

extent do they feel identified with them, and how
do they complicate relations with external

objects. It is the object all the time that matters,

whether external or internal, not pleasure.

2. From this point of view Fairbairn

constructed a revised theory of the psychoses

and psychoneuroses, the second point relevant

for our purpose. In the orthodox Freud-Abraham
view, these illnesses were due to arrests of

libidinal development at fixation points in the

first five years: schizophrenia at the oral sucking
stage, manic-depression at the oral biting stage,

paranoia at the early anal; obsessions at the late

anal; and hysteria at the phallic or early genital
stages. Fairbairn proposed a totally different

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 view, based not on the fate of libidinal impulses,

but on the nature of relationships with internal

bad objects. For him, the schizoid and
depressive states are the two fundamental types

of reaction in bad-object relationships, the two

basic or ultimate dangers to be escaped from.
They originate in the difficulties experienced in

object-relationships in the oral stage of absolute

infantile dependence and he treats of paranoia,
obsessions, hysteria and phobias as four

different defensive techniques for dealing with

internal bad objects so as to master them and
ward off a relapse into the depressed or schizoid

states of mind. This makes intelligible the fact

that patients ring the changes actually on
paranoid, obsessional, hysteric and phobic

reactions even if any particular patient

predominantly favours one technique most of

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 the time. The psychoneuroses are, basically,
defences against internal bad-object situations
which would otherwise set up depressive or

schizoid states; though these situations are

usually re-activated by a bad external situation.

Thus what has to be done in deep treatment

is to help the patient to drop these unsatisfactory

techniques which never solve the problem, and
find courage to become conscious of what lies

behind these symptom-producing struggles with

internal bad objects; in other words, to risk

going back into the basic bad-object situations in

which they feel they are succumbing to one or

other of the two ultimate psychic dangers,

depression or schizoid loss of affect. Naturally

depressive and schizoid reactions constantly
break through into consciousness, in varying
degrees of severity, in spite of defences.

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 3. The nature of the two ultimately

dangerous situations may be simply described.

When you want love from a person who will not
give it and so becomes a bad object to you, you

can react in either or both of two ways. You may

become angry and enraged at the frustration and
want to make an aggressive attack on the bad

object to force it to become good and stop

frustrating you: like a small child who cannot
get what it wants from the mother and who flies

into a temper-tantrum and hammers on her with

his little fists. This is the problem of hate or love
made angry. It is an attack on a hostile, rejecting,

actively refusing bad-object. It leads to

depression for it rouses the fear that one’s hate
will destroy the very person one needs and

loves.

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 But there is an earlier and more basic
reaction. When you cannot get what you want
from the person you need, instead of getting
angry you may simply go on getting more and
more hungry, and full of a sense of painful
craving, and a longing to get total and complete

possession of your love-object so that you

cannot be left to starve. Love made hungry is the
schizoid problem and it rouses the terrible fear

that one’s love has become so devouring and

incorporative that love itself has become

destructive. Depression is the fear of loving lest

one’s hate should destroy. Schizoid aloofness is
the fear of loving lest one’s love should destroy,
which is far worse.

This difference of the two attitudes goes

along with a difference in appearance, so to
speak, of the object. The schizoid sees the object

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 as a desirable deserter, or as Fairbairn calls it, an

exciting needed object4 whom he must go after

hungrily but then draw back from lest he should
devour and destroy it in his desperately intense

need to get total possession of it. The depressive

sees the object as a hateful denier, or in
Fairbairn’s term a rejecting object to be

destroyed out of the way to make room for a

good-object. Thus one patient constantly dreams
of wanting a woman who goes away and leaves

him, while another dreams of furious, murderous

anger against a sinister person who robs him or
gets between him and what he wants. The
schizoid is hungry for a desirable deserter, the

depressive is murderous against a hateful robber.

Thus the two fundamental forms of internal

bad objects are, in Fairbairn’s terminology, the

needed object and the rejecting object. In the

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 course of years many externally real figures of
both sexes may be absorbed, by layering and
fusion, into these two internal bad objects, but at

bottom they remain always two aspects of the

breast-mother. They are always there, and parts
of the ego (split off, disowned, secondary or
subsidiary ‘selves’) are always having disturbing
relationships with them, so that the depressive is
always being goaded to anger, and the schizoid

always being tantalized and made hungry.

The depressive position is later and more

developed than the schizoid, for it is ambivalent.
The hateful robber is really an aspect of the

same person who is needed and desired, as if the

mother excites the child’s longing for her, gives
him just enough to tantalize and inflame his
appetite, and then robs him by taking herself
away. This was neatly expressed in patient C’s

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 dream. ‘I was enjoying my favourite meal and
saved the nicest bit to the end, and then mother

snatched it (the breast, herself) away under my

nose. I was furious but when I protested she said
“Don’t be a baby”.’ There is the guilt reaction,

agreeing with the denier against oneself and

giving up one’s own needs. Fairbairn holds that
depression has occupied too exclusively the

centre of the picture of psychopathological states

as a result of Freud’s concentration on
obsessions with their ambivalence, guilt and
super-ego problems. He believes the schizoid
condition is the fundamental problem and is
preambivalent.

Melanie Klein (1932, 1948) stressed how

ambivalence rises to its maximum over the

weaning crisis at a time when the infant has

learned to bite and can react sadistically. Love

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 and hate block each other. The infant attacks and
also feels identified with, the object of his
aggression, and so feels guilty and involves
himself in the fate, factual or phantasied, of the
object. Hate of the object involves hate of
oneself, you suffer with the object you attack

because you cannot give up the object and feel

one with it. Hence the familiar guilt and
depression after a bereavement: you feel guilty

as if you have killed the lost person and

depressed as if you were dying with him or her.

Three patients who all suffered marked guilt and

depression recovered repressed and internalized
death-bed scenes of a parent.

What is the meaning of hate? It is not the

absolute opposite of love; that would be
indifference, having no interest in a person, not
wanting a relationship and so having no reason

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 for either loving or hating, feeling nothing. Hate

is love grown angry because of rejection. We

can only really hate a person if we want their
love. Hate is an expression of frustrated love

needs, an attempt to destroy the bad rejecting

side of a person in the hope of leaving their good
responsive side available, a struggle to alter

them. The anxiety is over the danger of hate

destroying both sides, and the easiest way out is
to find two objects and love one and hate the
other.

But as we have seen, the individual can

adopt an earlier simpler reaction. Instead of

reacting with anger, he can react with an

enormously exaggerated sense of need. Desire

becomes hunger and hunger becomes greed

which is hunger grown frightened of losing what

it wants. He feels so uncertain about possessing

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 his love-object that he feels a desperate craving
to make sure of it by getting it inside him,
swallowing it and incorporating it. This is
illustrated by patient B, who phantasied standing

with a vacuum cleaner (herself, empty and

hungry), and everyone who came near she
sucked them into it. At a more normal and

ordinarily conscious level this is expressed by

patient C thus: ‘I’m afraid I couldn’t make
moderate demands on people, so I don’t make

any demands at all.’ Many people show openly

this devouring possessiveness towards those
they love. Many more repress it and keep out of

real relations.

This dream brings out the schizoid situation.

So much fear is felt of devouring everyone and
so losing everyone in the process, that a general
withdrawal from all external relationships is

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 embarked on. Retreat into indifference, the true
opposite of the love which is felt to be too

dangerous to express. Want no one, make no

demands, abolish all external relationships, and
be aloof, cold, without any feeling, do not be

moved by anything. The withdrawn libido is

turned inwards, introverted. The patient goes
into his shell and is busy only with internal

objects, towards whom he feels the same

devouring attitude. Outwardly everything seems
futile and meaningless. Fairbairn considers that a
sense of ‘futility’ is the specific schizoid affect.
Just as the depressive is identified with the one
he attacks and so hurts himself, so the schizoid

is identified with the object he devours and

loses, and so loses himself; e.g. the snake eating

its own tail. The depressive fears loss of his

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 object. The schizoid, in addition, fears loss of his
ego, of himself.

THE SCHIZOID'S RELATION TO OBJECTS

(NEED AND FEAR OF OBJECT-RELATIONS)

Active: Fear of Loss of the Object

The Object as a Desired Deserter or Needed

Object

Theory only lives when it is seen as

describing the actual reactions of real people,

though the material revealing the schizoid

position only becomes undisguisedly accessible

at deep levels of analysis, and is often not

reached when defences are reasonably effective.

In the very unstable schizoid it breaks through

with disconcerting ease, a bad sign.

A headmaster, D, described himself as

depressed, and went on to say, ‘I don’t feel so

worried about the school or hopeless about the

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 future.’ He had said the same things the week
before and regarded it as a sign of improvement,

but the real meaning emerged when he remarked

‘Perhaps my interest in school has flagged’ and
it appeared that his loss of the sense of

hopelessness about the future was due simply to

his not thinking about the future. He had cut it
off. He then reported a dream of visiting a camp

school. ‘The resident head walked away when I

arrived and left me to fend for myself and there
was no meal ready for me.’ He remarked: ‘I’m

preoccupied with what I’m going to eat and

when, yet I don’t eat a lot. Also I want to get

away from people and am more comfortable

when eating alone. I’m concerned at my loss of

interest in school. I don’t feel comfortable with

father and prefer to be in another room. I’m very
introverted; I feel totally cut off.’

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 Here is a gradually emerging description, not

of depression but of a schizoid state, loss of

interest in present and future, loss of appetite for
food, getting away from people, introverted,

totally cut off. The situation that calls out the

reaction is that of being faced with a desired but
deserting object, the head in the dream who

prepares no meal for him, and leaves him to fend

for himself when he is hungry. The head is the
father, of whom he complains that he can never

get near him: also the analyst to whom he says:

‘you remain the analyst, you won’t indulge me
in a warm personal relationship, you won’t be

my friend. I want something more personal than

analysis.’ The schizoid is very sensitive and
quickly feels unwanted, because he is always

being deserted in his inner world.

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 Faced with these desired deserters he first
feels exaggeratedly hungry, and then denies his

hunger, eats little and turns away from people

till he feels introverted and totally cut off. He
has withdrawn his libido from the objects he

cannot possess, and feels loss of interest and loss

of appetite. There is little evidence of anger and
guilt as there would be in depression; his attitude

is more that of fear and retreat.

The Object as Being Devoured

The entire problem is frequently worked out

over food. The above patient is hungry but
rejects both food and people. He can only eat

alone. The patient C says that whenever her

husband comes in she at once feels hungry and
must eat. Really she is hungry for him but dare

not show it. The same turning away from what

one feels too greedily and devouringly hungry

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 for is shown very clearly by this same patient in

other ways. Visiting friends she was handed a

glass of sherry, took a quick sip and put it down
and did not touch it again. She had felt she

wanted to swallow it at one gulp. Her general

attitude to food was one of rejection. Appetite
would disappear at the sight of food, she would

nibble at a dish and push it away, or force it

down and feel sick. But what lay behind this
rejecting attitude was expressed in a dream in

which she was eating an enormous meal and just

went on and on and on endlessly. She is getting
as much as she can inside her before it is taken
away as in the dream where her mother whipped

it away under her nose. Her attitude is

incorporative, to get it inside where she cannot
be robbed of it, because she has no confidence

about being given enough. The breast one is sure

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 of can be sucked at contentedly and let go when
one feels satisfied: one knows it will be available

when needed again. The breast that does not

come when wanted, is not satisfying when one
has it because it might be snatched away before

need is met. It rouses a desperate hungry urge to

make sure of it, not by merely sucking at it but
by swallowing it, getting it inside one altogether.
The impulse changes from ‘taking in from the

breast’ into an omnivorous urge to ‘take in the

whole breast itself’. The object is incorporated.

The contented baby sucks, the angry and

potentially depressive baby bites, the hungry and
potentially schizoid baby wants to swallow, as in
the case of the vacuum cleaner phantasy. A

patient who at first made sucking noises in

sessions, then changed to compulsive gulping
and swallowing and nausea.

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 Fairbairn (1941, p. 252) writes: ‘The
paranoid, obsessional, and hysterical states—to

which may be added the phobic state—

essentially represent, not products of fixations at
specific libidinal phases, but simply a variety of

techniques employed to defend the ego against

the effects of conflicts of oral origin.’

Now, as Fairbairn says: ‘You can’t eat your

cake and have it.’ This hungry, greedy,

devouring, swallowing up, incorporating attitude
leads to deep fears lest the real external object be
lost. This anxiety about destroying and losing

the love-object through being so devouringly

hungry is terribly real. Thus the patient C, who

has become more conscious of her love-hunger

with the result that on the one hand her appetite

for food has increased enormously, and on the

other her anxious attitude to her husband has

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 become more acute, says: ‘When he comes in I
feel ravenously hungry, and eat, but towards him

I’m afraid I’m a nuisance. If I make advances to

him I keep saying “I’m not a nuisance am I, you
don’t ‘not want me’ do you?” I’m terribly

anxious about it all, it’s an appalling situation,

I’m scared stiff, it’s all so violent. I’ve an urge to
get hold of him and hold him so tight that he

can’t breathe, shut him off from everything but

me.’ She has the same transference reaction to
the analyst. She dreamed that ‘I came for

treatment and you were going off to America

with a lot of people. Someone dropped out so I
went and you weren’t pleased.’ Her comment
was ‘you didn’t want me but I wasn’t going to

be thrown off. I was thinking to-day of your

getting ill, suppose you died. Then I got in a
furious temper. I’d like to strangle you, kill you.’

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 That is, get a strangle-hold on the analyst so that
he could not leave her, but then he might be

killed. The schizoid person is afraid of wearing

out, of draining, or exhausting and ultimately
losing love-objects. As Fairbairn says, the

terrible dilemma of the schizoid is that love

itself is destructive, and he dare not love. Hence
he withdraws into detachment and aloofness. All

intimate relationships are felt in terms of eating,

swallowing up, and are too dangerous to be
risked. The above patient says: ‘I lay half awake
looking at my husband and thinking, “What a
pity he’s going to die.” It seemed fixed. Then I
felt lonely, no point of relationship with all I

could see. I love him so much but I seem to have

no choice about destroying him. I want
something badly and then daren’t move a finger

to get it. I’m paralysed.’

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 Schizoid Reactions to Food and Eating

From the foregoing we may summarize the

schizoid’s reactions to food and eating, for since

his basic problems in relation to objects derive
from his reactions to the breast, food and eating

naturally play a large part in his struggles to

solve these problems. His reactions to people
and to food are basically the same. Thus patient
C says: ‘Two men friends make me excited but

it’s not even a taste, only a smell of a good meal.

I’m always feeling I want to be with one or the
other of them, but I can’t do it or I’ll lose them

both. One of them kissed me and I gave him a

hug and a kiss and enjoyed it and wanted more.

Ought I? I’ve sought desperately for so long and

now I feel I must run away from it. I don’t want

to eat these days. I couldn’t sleep. I felt I’d lost

him: what if he or I had an accident and got

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 killed. It’s ridiculous but I’m in a constant furore
of anxiety, I must see him: nothing else matters.

I knew I’d be like this if I didn’t see him but I

didn’t go. It’s funny, I don’t think I’m in love
with him, yet I need him desperately. I can’t

engage in any other activity. I felt the same with

a fellow ten years ago. He went away for a day
and I was in an agony of fear; what if he were

killed, an awful dread. It feels it must happen. I

don’t even like mentioning it in case this present
friend gets killed, and I feel I’ll have an
accident, too. I get desperately tired, and feel
empty inside and have to buy sweet biscuits and
gobble them up.’

Thus she has the kind of relation with this

man (and with all objects) that compromises her

stable existence as a separate person when she is

not with him: she goes to bits. She wants to eat

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 him up as it were, and feels swallowed up in her
relation to him, and feels the destruction of both

is inevitable whether she is with him or apart

from him.

The patient B, before she started analysis,

was having visual hallucinations of leopards

leaping across in front of her with their mouths
wide open. At an advanced stage of treatment
these faded into phantasies and she had a

phantasy of two leopards trying to swallow each

other’s head. She would enjoy a hearty meal and
then promptly be sick and reject it. There is a

constant oscillation between hungry eating and

refusal to eat, longing for people and rejecting
them.

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 The Transference Situation

The necessary and inevitable frustration of a

patient’s libidinal needs in the analytical

situation is peculiarly well adapted to bring out

schizoid reactions, as we have already noted.

The patient longs for the analyst’s love, may

recognize intellectually that a steady, consistent,

genuine, concern for the patient’s well-being is a

true form of love, yet, because it is not love in a
full libidinal sense (Fairbairn reminds us that it

is agape, not eros), the patient does not ‘feel’ it

as love. He feels rather that the analyst is cold,
indifferent, bored, not interested, not listening,
busy with something else while the patient talks,
rejective. Patients will react to the analyst’s

silence by stopping talking to make him say

something. The analyst excites by his presence

but does not libidinally satisfy, and so constantly
arouses a hungry craving.

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 The patient will then begin to feel he is bad
for the analyst, that he is wasting his time,

depressing him by pouring out a long story of

troubles. He will want, and fear, to make
requests lest he is imposing on the analyst and

making illegitimate demands. He may say ‘How

on earth can you stand this constant strain of
listening to this sort of thing day after day?’ and

in general feels he is draining and exhausting,

i.e. devouring, the analyst.

He will oscillate between expressing his

need and feeling guilty about it. The patient A

says: ‘I felt I must get possession of something
of yours. I thought I’d come early and enjoy

your arm chair and read your books in the

waiting room.’ But then she switches over to:
‘You can’t possibly want to let me take up your
time week after week.’ Guilt and anxiety then

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 dictate a reversal of the original relationship.
The patient must now be passive and begins to
see the analyst as the active devourer. He drains
the patient of resources by charging fees, he
wants to dominate and subjugate the patient, he
will rob him of his personality. A patient, after a

long silence, says: ‘I’m thinking I must be

careful, you’re going to get something out of
me.’ The analyst will absorb or rob the patient.

This terrible oscillation may make a patient

feel confused and not know where he is. Thus a
patient, E, says: ‘I’ve been thinking I might lose

your help, you’ll make an excuse to get rid of

me. I want more analysis but you don’t bother
with me. Analysis is only a very small part of a

week. You don’t understand me. There’s a part

of me I don’t bring into analysis. I might be
swallowed up in your personality and lose my

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 individuality, so I adopt a condescending attitude

to you. What you say isn’t important, you’re

only a bourgeois therapist and don’t understand
the conditions of my life, your focus of

analytical capacity is tiny, you’re cabined within

bourgeois ideas. But if I said what I felt, I’d
make you depressed and lose your support. You
ought to be able to give me specific advice to

help me when I feel helpless and imprisoned. I

feel much the same with my girl. In analysis I
feel I should get out, and away from it I feel I

should be in. This week I feel in a “no man’s

land”.’

Here the whole dilemma of ‘craving for’ yet

‘not being able to accept’ the needed person,

comes out in transference on the analyst. The

swing over in transference to the opposite, from

‘devouring’ to ‘being devoured’, leads to the

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 specific consideration of the passive aspect of

the schizoid’s relation to objects.

Passive: Fear of the Loss of Independence

The Object as Devouring the Ego

The patients’ fears of a devouring sense of

need towards objects is paralleled by the fear
that others have the same ‘swallowing up’

attitude to them. Thus patient C says: ‘I can’t

stand crowds, they swallow me up. With you I
feel if I accept your help I’ll be subjugated, lose

my personality, be smothered. Now I feel

withdrawn like a snail, but now you can’t

swallow me up. I get a “shutting myself off”

attitude which lessens my anxiety.’

The patient B, a very schizoid married

woman of 30, has for a long time been talking

out devouring phantasies of all kinds, and slowly

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 emerging from her schizoid condition. She was
thin, white, cold, aloof, frigid: often it was some
time before she could start talking in session,

and would arrive terrified but hiding it under an

automatic laugh or bored expression. When she
did start talking she would begin to look tense,
and tears would roll silently down and she
would say she felt frightened. Gradually she has
begun to talk more freely and put on weight and

colour and be capable of sexual relationships

with her husband. Her phantasies included those
of his penis eating her and of her vagina biting
off his penis. On one occasion she said: ‘Last
night I felt excited at coming here to-day, and
then terrified and confused. I couldn’t sleep for

thinking of you. I felt drawn towards you and

then shot back. Then I felt I was one big mouth

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 all over and just wanting to get you inside. But

sometimes I feel you’ll eat me.’

A male patient, F, of 40, living in a hostel

reported that he had begun to get friendly with

another very decent type of man there, and

commented: ‘I’ve begun to get frightened. I
don’t know why but I feel it’s dangerous and I

just cut myself off. When I see him coming I

shoot off up to my bedroom.’ Then he reported a
nightmare from which he had awakened in great
fear. A monster was coming after him and its

huge mouth closed over him like a trap and he

was engulfed. Then he burst out of its head and
killed it. So the schizoid not only fears

devouring and losing the love-object, but also

that the other person will devour him. Then he
becomes claustrophobic, and expresses this in
such familiar ways as feeling restricted, tied,

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 imprisoned, trapped, smothered, and must break
away to be free and recover and safeguard his
independence: so he retreats from object-
relations. With people, he feels either bursting
(if he is getting them into himself) or smothered
(if he feels he is being absorbed and losing his

personality in them). These anxieties are often

expressed by starting up in the night feeling
choking, and is one reason for fear of going to

sleep.

Relationships as a Mutual Devouring

We are now in a position to appreciate the

terrible dilemma in which the schizoid person is

caught in object-relationships. Owing to his

intensely hungry and unsatisfied need for love,

and his consequent incorporating and

monopolizing attitude towards those he needs,
he cannot help seeing his objects in the light of

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 his own desires towards them. The result is that

any relationship into which some genuine

feeling goes, immediately comes to be felt deep
down, and unconsciously experienced, as a

mutual devouring. Such intense anxiety results

that there seems to be no alternative but to
withdraw from relationships altogether, to

prevent the loss of his independence.

Relationships are felt to be too dangerous to
enter into.

THE SCHIZOID RETREAT FROM OBJECTS

The ‘In and Out’ Programme

The chronic dilemma in which the schizoid

individual is placed, namely that he can neither

be in a relationship with another person nor out

of it, without in various ways risking the loss of

both his object and himself, is due to the fact

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 that he has not yet outgrown the particular kind
of dependence on love-objects that is

characteristic of infancy: namely identification

in an emotional sense, and the wish to
incorporate in a conative, active sense. He and

those he loves feel to be part and parcel of one

another, so that when separated he feels utterly
insecure and lost, but when reunited he feels
swallowed, absorbed, and loses his separate

individuality by regression to infantile

dependence. Thus he must always be rushing

into a relationship for security and at once

breaking out again for freedom and
independence: an alternation between regression
to the womb and the struggle to be born,

between the merging of his ego in, and the

differentiation of it from, the person he loves.
The schizoid cannot stand alone, yet is always

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 fighting desperately to defend his independence:

like those film stars who spend their best years

rushing into and out of one marriage after
another.

This ‘in and out’ programme, always

breaking away from what one is at the same time
holding on to, is perhaps the most characteristic

behavioural expression of the schizoid conflict.

Thus a young man engaged to be married says:
‘When I’m with Dorothy I’m quiet, I think “I
can’t afford to let myself go and let her see that I
want her. I must let her see I can get on without
her.” So I keep away from her and appear

indifferent.’ He experienced the same conflict

about jobs. He phantasied getting a job in South
America or China, but in fact turned down every
job that would take him away from home. A girl

in the twenties says: ‘When I’m at home I want

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 to get away and when I’m away I want to get

back home.’ Patient A, who is a nurse residing

in a hostel, says: ‘The other night I decided I
wanted to stay in the hostel and not go home,

then I felt the hostel was a prison and I went

home. As soon as I got there I wanted to go out
again. Yesterday I rang mother to say I was

coming home, and then immediately I felt

exhausted and rang her again to say I was too
tired to come. I’m always switching about, as

soon as I’m with the person I want I feel they

restrict me. I have wondered if I did get one of
my two men friends would I then want to be free

again.’ The patient F, a bachelor of 40 who is

engaged, says: ‘If I kiss Mary my heart isn’t in
it. I hold my breath and count. I can only hug

and kiss a dog because it doesn’t want anything

from me, there are no strings attached. I’ve

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 always been like that, so I’ve got lots of
acquaintances but no real close friends. I feel I
want to stay in and go out, to read and not to

read, to go to Church and not to go. I’ve actually

gone into a Church and immediately come out
again and then wanted to return in.’

So people find their lives slipping away

changing houses, clothes, jobs, hobbies, friends,
engagements and marriages, and unable to

commit themselves to any one relationship in a

stable and permanent way: always needing love

yet always dreading being tied. This same

conflict accounts for the tendency of engaged or

married couples to phantasy about or feel

attracted to someone else: as if they must

preserve freedom of attachment at least in
imagination. One patient remarked: ‘I want to be
loved but I mustn’t be possessed.’

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 Giving up Emotional Relations to External
Objects

The oscillation of ‘in and out’, ‘rushing to

and from’, holding on and breaking away’ is

naturally profoundly disturbing and disruptive of
all continuity in living, and at some point the
anxiety aroused becomes so great that it cannot

be sustained. It is then that a complete retreat

from object-relations is embarked on, and the
person becomes overtly schizoid, emotionally

inaccessible, cut off.

This state of emotional apathy, of not

suffering any feeling, excitement or enthusiasm,

not experiencing either affection or anger, can be
very successfully masked. If feeling is repressed,
it is often possible to build up a kind of

mechanized, robot personality. The ego that

operates consciously becomes more a system

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 than a person, a trained and disciplined
instrument for ‘doing the right and necessary

thing1 without any real feeling entering in.

Fairbairn makes the highly important distinction
between ‘helping people without feeling’ and

‘loving’. Duty rather than affection becomes the

key word. Patient A sought temporary relief
from her disruptive conflict over her man friend

by putting it away and making a list of all the

things she ought to do, and systematically going
through them one by one, routinizing her whole
life—and that had been a life-long tendency. She
had always had to ‘do things in order’; even as a
child she made a note-book list of games and

had to play them in order.

The patient F, a man with strongly, in fact

exclusively, religious interests, showed
markedly this characteristic of helping people

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 without really feeling for them. He said: ‘I’ve no

real emotional relations with people. I can’t

reciprocate tenderness. I can cry and suffer with
people. I can help people, but when they stop

suffering I’m finished. I can’t enter into folks’

joys and laughter. I can do things for people but
shrink from them if they start thanking me.’ His

suffering with people was in fact his identifying

himself as a suffering person with anyone else
who suffered. Apart from that he allowed no

emotional relationship to arise.

It is even possible to mask more effectively

the real nature of the compulsive, unfeeling zeal

in good works, by simulating a feeling of

concern for others. Some shallow affect is
helped out by behaviour expressive of deep care
and consideration for other people; nevertheless,

genuine feeling for other people is not really

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 there. Such behaviour is not, of course,
consciously insincere. It is a genuine effort to do

the best that one can do in the absence of a

capacity to release true feeling. What looks
deceptively like genuine feeling for another

person may break into consciousness, when in

fact it is based on identification with the other
person and is mainly a feeling of anxiety and

pity for oneself.

Many practically useful types of personality

are basically schizoid. Hard workers,

compulsively unselfish folk, efficient organizers,

highly intellectual people, may all accomplish
valuable results, but it is often possible to detect

an unfeeling callousness behind their good

works, and a lack of sensitiveness to other
people’s feelings, in the way they will over-ride
individuals in their devotion to causes.

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 The schizoid repression of feeling, and
retreat from emotional relationships, may
however go much further and produce a serious
breakdown of constructive effort. Then the
unhappy sufferer from incapacitating conflicts
will succumb to real futility: nothing seems

worth doing, interest dies, the world seems

unreal, the ego feels depersonalized. Suicide
may be attempted in a cold, calculated way to
the accompaniment of such thoughts as ‘I am

useless, bad for everybody, I’ll be best out of the

way.’ The patient F had never reached that point,
but he said: ‘I feel I love people in an

impersonal way; it seems a false position;

hypocritical. Perhaps I don’t do any loving. I’m
terrified when I see young people go off and

being successful and I’m at a dead bottom,

absolute dereliction, excommunicate.’

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 THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM:
IDENTIFICATION

Identification and Infantile Dependence

It has already been mentioned that schizoid

problems arise out of identification, which

Fairbairn holds to be the original infantile form

of relation to, and dependence on, objects. The
criticism is sometimes made that psycho-

analysis invents a strange terminology that the

layman cannot apply to real life. We may
therefore illustrate the state of identification with

the love-object in the words of Ngaio Marsh

(1935), a successful writer of detective fiction.

In Enter a Murderer she creates the character of

Surbonadier, a bad actor who expresses his

immaturity by being a drug addict and

blackmailer. Stephanie Vaughan, the leading
lady, says: ‘He was passionately in love with

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 me. That doesn’t begin to express it. He was
completely and utterly absorbed as though apart

from me he had no reality.’ In other words, the

man was swallowed up in his love-object, had
no true individuality of his own, and could not

exist in a state of separation from her. He had

never become born out of his mother’s psyche
and differentiated as a separate and real person

in his own right, and identification with another

person remained at bottom the basis of all his
personal relationships.

The patient E said: ‘If I go away from home

I feel I’ve lost something, but when I’m there I

feel imprisoned. I feel my destiny is bound up
with theirs and I can’t get away, yet I feel they

imprison me and ruin my life.’ The patient A

dreamed of being ‘grafted on to another person’.

The patient F said: ‘Why should I be on bad

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 terms with my sister? After all I am my sister’,
and then started in some surprise at what he had
heard himself say. The patient B, struggling to

master a blind compulsive longing for a male

relative she played with as a child, said: ‘I’ve
always felt he’s me and I’m him. I felt a terrible
need to fuss around him and do everything for
him. I want him to be touching me all the time. I
feel there is no difference between him and me.’

Fairbairn holds that identification is the cause of

the compulsiveness of such feelings as
infatuation. Identification is betrayed in a variety
of curious ways, such as the fear of being buried
alive, i.e. absorbed into another person, a return
to the womb; also expressed in the suicidal urge

to put one’s head in a gas oven: or again in

dressing in the clothes of another person. Patient
C, feeling in a state of panic one night when her

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 husband was away, felt safe when she slept in
his pyjamas.

Dissolving Identification: Separation-Anxiety,

and Psychic Birth

The regressive urge to remain identified for

the sake of comfort and security conflicts with
the developmental need to dissolve identification
and differentiate oneself as a separate
personality. This conflict, as it sways back and

forth, sets up the ‘in and out’ programme.

Identification, naturally, varies in degree, but the
markedly schizoid person, in whom it plays such

a fundamental part, begins to lose all true

independence of feeling, thought and action as
soon as a relationship with another person
attains any degree of emotional reality. A single

illuminating example will suffice.

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 The patient C says: ‘I feel I lack the capacity
to go out. I can never leave the people I love. If I
go out I’m emptied, I lose myself. I can’t get
beyond that. If I become dependent on you, I’d
enjoy my dependence on you too much and want
to prolong babyhood. Being shut in means being

warm, safe, and not confronted with unforeseen

events.’ But this kind of security is also a prison,
so the patient goes on to say: ‘I feel I’m walking
up and down inside an enclosed space. I

dreamed of a baby being born out of a gas oven

(i.e. reversal of the suicide idea). I was struck
with the danger of coming out, it was a long
drop from the oven to the floor. I feel I’m
disintegrating if I go out. The only feeling of

being real comes with getting back in and being

with someone. I don’t feel alone inside even if
there’s no-one there. Sometimes I feel like

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 someone falling out of an aeroplane, or falling

through water and expecting to hit the bottom

and there isn’t one. I have strong impulses to
throw myself out of the window.’ This ‘birth

symbolism’ shows that suicidal impulses may

have opposite meanings. The gas oven means a
return to the womb, a surrender to identification

with mother. Falling out of the window means a

struggle to separate and be born (and also
casting out the person with whom one is
identified). The struggle to dissolve

identification is long and severe, and in analysis

it recapitulates the whole process of growing up
to the normal mixture of voluntary dependence

and independence characteristic of the mature

adult person. One of the major causes of anxiety
is that separation is felt to involve, not natural

growth and development, but a violent, angry,

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 destructive break-away, as if a baby, in being

born, were bound to leave a dying mother

behind.

SCHIZOID CHARACTERISTICS

There are various characteristics which

specifically mark the schizoid personality, and

the most general and all-embracing is:

Introversion. By the very meaning of the

term, the schizoid is described as cut off from

the world of outer reality in an emotional sense.

All his libidinal desire and striving is directed

inwards towards internal objects and he lives an

intense inner life, often revealed in an

astonishing wealth and richness of phantasy and

imaginative life whenever that becomes

accessible to observation; though mostly this

varied phantasy life is carried on in secret,

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 hidden away often even from the schizoid’s own
conscious self. His ego is split. But the barrier
between the conscious and the unconscious self
may be very thin in a deeply schizoid person and
the world of internal objects and relationships
may flood into and dominate consciousness very

easily.

Narcissism is a schizoid characteristic that

arises out of the predominantly interior life he

lives. His love-objects are all inside him, and

moreover he is greatly identified with them, so
that his libidinal attachments appear to be to

himself. This subtly deceptive situation was not

recognized by Freud when he propounded his
theory of autoeroticism and narcissism, and ego-

libido as distinct from object-libido. The

schizoid’s physically incorporative feeling
towards his love-objects is the bodily

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 counterpart, or rather foundation, of the mentally

incorporative attitude which leads to mental

internalization of objects and the setting up of a
world of internal psychic objects. But these

mentally internalized objects, especially when

the patient feels strongly identified with them,
can be discovered, contacted and enjoyed, or
even attacked, in his own body, when the

external object is not there. One patient, who

cannot be directly angry with another person,
always goes away alone when her temper is

roused and punches herself. She is identified

with the object of her aggression which leads to
a depressive state, though, of course, it is a

libidinal attachment at bottom. The normally so-

called autoerotic and narcissistic phenomena of
thumb-sucking, masturbation, hugging oneself

and so on are based on identification. Autoerotic

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 phenomena are only secondarily autoerotic;

autoerotism is a relationship with an external

object who is identified with oneself, the baby’s
thumb deputizes for the mother’s breast.
Narcissism is a disguised object-relation. Thus

the patient B felt depressed while bathing and

cried silently, and then felt a strong urge to
snuggle her head down on to her own shoulder,

i.e. mother’s shoulder in herself, and at once she

felt better. Again sitting with her husband one
evening reading, she became aware that she was
thinking of an intimate relation with him and
found she had slipped her hand inside her frock
and was caressing her own breast. These

phenomena lead to a third schizoid

characteristic:

Self-sufficiency. The above patient was

actually taking no notice of her husband as an

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 external person: her relation with him was all
going on inside herself and she felt contented.
This introverted, narcissistic self-sufficiency

which does without real external relationships

while all emotional relations are carried on in
the inner world, is a safeguard against anxiety
breaking out in dealings with actual people.
Self-sufficiency, or the attempt to get on without
external relationships, comes out clearly in the

case of patient C. She had been talking of

wanting a baby, and then dreamed that she had a

baby by her mother. It was suggested that having

a baby meant getting something of her husband
inside her, and deep down that felt to be getting
something of mother inside her. But since she

had often shown that she identified herself very

much with babies, it would also represent being
the baby inside the mother. She was wanting to

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 set up a self-sufficiency situation in which she

was both the mother and the baby. She replied:

‘Yes, I always think of it as a girl. It gives me a
feeling of security. I’ve got it all here under

control, there’s no uncertainty.’ In such a

position she could do without her husband and
be all-sufficient within herself.

A sense of superiority naturally goes with

self-sufficiency. One has no need of other
people, they can be dispensed with. This over-
compensates the deep-seated dependence on

people which leads to feelings of inferiority,

smallness and weakness. But there often goes
with it a feeling of being different from other

people. Thus a very obsessional patient reveals

the schizoid background of her symptoms when
she says: ‘I’m always dissatisfied. As a child I
would cry with boredom at the silly games the

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 children played. It got worse in my teens,
terrible boredom, futility, lack of interest. I
would look at people and see them interested in

things I thought silly. I felt I was different and

had more brains. I was thinking deeply about the
purpose of life.’ She could think about life in the
abstract but couldn’t live it in real relationships

with other people.

Loss of affect in external situations is an

inevitable part of the total picture. A man in the
late forties says: ‘I find it difficult to be with
mother. I ought to be more sympathetic to her
than I can be. I always feel I’m not paying

attention to what she says. I don’t feel terribly

drawn to anyone. I can feel cold about all the
people who are near and dear to me. When my
wife and I were having sexual relations she

would say: “Do you love me?” I would answer:

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 “Of course I do, but sex isn’t love, it’s only an

experience.” I could never see why that upset

her.’ Feeling was excluded even from sexual
activity which was reduced to what one patient

called ‘an intermittent biological urge which

seemed to have little connexion with “me” ’.

Loneliness is an inescapable result of

schizoid introversion and abolition of external

relationships. It reveals itself in the intense
longing for friendships and love which

repeatedly break through. Loneliness in the

midst of a crowd is the experience of the
schizoid cut off from affective rapport.

Depersonalization, loss of the sense of

identity and individuality, loss of oneself, brings

out clearly the serious dangers of the schizoid

state. Derealization of the outer world is

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 involved as well. Thus the patient C maintains

that the worst fright she ever had was a

petrifying experience at the age of two years. ‘I
couldn’t get hold of the idea that I was me. I lost
the sense for a little while of being a separate

entity. I was afraid to look at anything; and

afraid to touch anything as if I didn’t register
touch. I couldn’t believe I was doing things

except mechanically. I saw everything in an

unrealistic way. Everything seemed highly
dangerous. I was terrified while it lasted. All my
life since I’ve been saying to myself at intervals
“I am me”.’

FAIRBAIRN AND FREUD

When one surveys the material here set out,

it becomes apparent that Fairbairn’s theory of
the schizoid problem represents a radical

revision in psycho-analytical thinking. Freud

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 rested his theory of development and of the
psychoneuroses on the centrality of the Oedipus
situation in the last phase of infancy. Failure to
solve the Oedipus conflict of incestuous love and
jealous hate of the parent of the same sex led to
regression to pregenital levels of sexual and

emotional life and a lasting burden of guilt. This

now looks rather like a pioneer’s rough sketch-
map of an uncharted territory by comparison
with Fairbairn’s detailed ordnance survey map

of infantile development which is based on, but

goes a long way beyond, Melanie Klein’s
discoveries about internal objects and the

depressive position. The Oedipus problem as

Freud saw it was, in fact, no more than the
gateway opening into the area of the

psychopathology of infancy. Yet Fairbairn’s

position is essentially simple. Once stated it

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 should be apparent that man’s need of a love-

relationship is the fundamental thing in his life,

and that the love-hunger and anger set up by
frustration of this basic need must constitute the

two primary problems of personality on the

emotional level. Freud’s ‘guilt over the
incestuous tie to the mother’ now resolves itself

into the primary necessity of overcoming

infantile dependence on the parents, and on the
mother in particular, in order to grow up to

mature adulthood. The Oedipus conflict theory

in a purely biological and sexual sense is seen to
have misrepresented and distorted the real

problem, and sidetracked inquiry. The

fundamental emotional attitude of the child to
both parents is the same and is determined, not

by the sex of the parent but by the child’s need

for libidinal satisfaction and protective love, and

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 a stable environment, and by the fact that all its
relationships start off on the basis of
identification. In its quest for a libidinally good
object the child will turn from the mother to the
father, and go back and forth between them
many times. The less satisfactory the object-
relationships with his parents prove to be in the

course of development, the more the child

remains embedded in relationships by
identification, and the more it creates, the

remains tied to, an inner world of bad internal

objects who will thereafter dwell in its
unconscious as an abiding fifth column of secret
persecutors, at once exciting desire and denying

satisfaction. A deep-seated ever unsatisfied

hunger will be the foundation of the personality,

creating the fundamental danger of the schizoid
state.

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 CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS OF SCHIZOID
FEARS

Academic psychologists are fond of accusing

psycho-analysts of dealing with abnormal minds

and drawing from them unjustified conclusions

about normal minds. In fact psycho-analysis

shows conclusively that this is an entirely

misleading distinction. It would be easy to

demonstrate every psycho-pathological process

from the study of so-called normal minds alone.

Nowadays many people seek analysis not for

specific neurotic breakdowns but for character

and personality problems, and many of them are

people who continue to hold effectively
positions of responsibility and who are judged

by the world at large to be ‘normal’ people. Thus

psychopathology should be capable of throwing

an important light on many aspects of ordinary

social and cultural life. This is far too large a

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 theme to be more than touched on here. A few
hints must suffice.

Common mild schizoid traits. One has only

to collect up some of the common phrases that

describe an introvert reaction in human
relationships to realize how common the

‘schizoid type’ of personality is. One constantly

hears in the social intercourse of daily life, such
comments as ‘he’s gone into his shell’, ‘he only

half listens to what you say’, ‘he’s always

preoccupied’, or ‘absent-minded’, ‘he lives in a
world of ideas’, ‘he’s an unpractical type’, ‘he’s
difficult to get to know’, ‘he couldn’t enthuse

about anything’, ‘he’s a cold fish’, ‘he’s very

efficient but rather inhuman’, and one could
multiply the list. All these comments may well
describe people whose general stability in any
reasonable environment is quite adequate, but

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 who clearly lack the capacity for simple,
spontaneous, warm and friendly responsiveness
to their human kind. Not infrequently they are
more emotionally expressive towards animals
than towards the human beings with whom they
live or work. They are undemonstrative: it is not

merely that they are the opposite of emotionally

effervescent, but rather that their relationships
with people are actually emotionally shallow. It
is as well to recognize, from these schizoid

types, that psycho-pathological phenomena

cannot be set apart from the so-called ‘normal’.

Politics. All through the ages politics has

rung the changes, with monotonous regularity,

on the themes of ‘freedom’ and ‘authority’. Men
have fought passionately for liberty and
independence; freedom from foreign
domination, freedom from state paternalism and

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 bureaucratic control, freedom from social and

economic class oppression, freedom from the

shackles of an imposed religious orthodoxy. Yet
at other times men have proved to be just as

willing, and indeed eager, to be embraced in,

and supported and directed by, some totalitarian
organization of state or church. No doubt urgent

practical necessity often drives men one way or

the other at different periods of history and in
different phases of social change. But if we seek

the ultimate motivations of human action, it is

impossible not to link up this social and political
oscillation of aim, with the ‘in and out’

programme of the schizoid person. Man’s

deepest needs make him dependent on others,
but there is nothing more productive of the

feeling of being tied or restricted than being

overdependent through basic emotional

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 immaturity. Certainly human beings in the mass
are far less emotionally mature than they
suppose themselves to be, and this accounts for
much of the aggressiveness, the oppositionism,
and the compulsive assertion of a false, forced,
independence that are such obvious social

behaviour trends. The schizoid person frequently

‘has a bee in his bonnet’ about freedom. The
love of liberty has been for so long the keynote

of British national life that what Erich Fromm

(1942) calls ‘the fear of freedom’ found in
totalitarianism, and in political as well as
religious authoritarianism seems to us a strange

aberration. It is well to realize that both motives

are deeply rooted in the psychic structure of
human personality.

Ideology. Much has been said of ‘depressed

eras’ in history, but when one considers the cold,

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 calculating, mechanical, ruthless, and unfeeling
nature of the planned cruelty of political
intellectuals and ideologists, we may well think
this to be a ‘schizoid era’. The cold and

inscrutable Himmler showed all the marks of a

deeply schizoid personality and his suicide was
consistent. The schizoid intellectual wielding

unlimited political power is perhaps the most

dangerous type of leader. He is a devourer of the
human rights of all whom he can rule. The way

some of the most ruthless Nazis could turn to the

study of theology was significant of a schizoid
splitting of personality. But if we turn to the

purely intellectual and cultural sphere it is not

difficult to recognize the impersonal atmosphere
of schizoid thinking in Hegelianism. Its dialectic

of thesis breeding antithesis seems an

intellectual version of the schizoid need for unity

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 which in turn breeds the need for separation.
Still more apparent is the schizoid sense of
futility, disillusionment, and underlying anxiety
in Existentialism. These thinkers, from
Kierkegaard to Heidegger and Sartre, find
human existence to be rooted in anxiety and

insecurity, a fundamental dread that ultimately

we have no certainties and the only thing we can
affirm is ‘nothingness’, ‘unreality’, a final sense

of triviality and meaninglessness. This surely is

schizoid despair and loss of contact with the
verities of emotional reality, rationalized into a
philosophy; yet Existentialist thinkers, unlike the
Logical Positivists, are calling us to face and
deal with these real problems of our human

situation. It is a sign of the mental state of our

age.

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 SUMMARY

We may finally summarize the emotional

dilemma of the schizoid thus: he feels a deep

dread of entering into a real personal
relationship, i.e. one into which genuine feeling

enters, because, though his need for a love-

object is so great, yet he can only sustain a
relationship at a deep emotional level, on the
basis of infantile and absolute dependence. To

the love-hungry schizoid faced internally with

an exciting but deserting object all relationships
are felt to be ‘swallowing-up things’ which trap

and imprison and destroy. If your hate is

destructive you are still free to love because you

can find someone else to hate. But if you feel

your love is destructive the situation is
terrifying. You are always impelled into a

relationship by your needs and at once driven

out again by the fear either of exhausting your

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 love-object by the demands you want to make or
else losing your own individuality by over-

dependence and identification. This ‘in and out’

oscillation is the typical schizoid behaviour, and
to escape from it into detachment and loss of
feeling is the typical schizoid state.

The schizoid feels faced with utter loss, and

the destruction of both ego and object, whether
in a relationship or out of it. In a relationship,

identification involves loss of the ego, and

incorporation involves a hungry devouring and
losing of the object. In breaking away to

independence, the object is destroyed as you

fight a way out to freedom, or lost by separation,
and the ego is destroyed or emptied by the loss

of the object with whom it is identified. The only

real solution is the dissolving of identification
and the maturing of the personality: the

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 differentiation of ego and object and the growth
of a capacity for co-operative independence and
mutuality.

REFERENCES

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1941). A revised

psychopathology of the psychoses and
psychoneuroses. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 22:250.

_____ (1944). Endopsychic structure considered in

the light of object-relationships. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 25:70.

Fromm, E. (1942). The Fear of Freedom. London:

Kegan Paul.

Horney, K. (1946). Our Inner Conflicts. London:

Kegan Paul.

Klein, M. (1932). The Psycho-analysis of Children.

London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1948). Contributions to Psycho-analysis.

London: Hogarth Press.

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 Marsh, N. (1935). Enter a Murderer. London:
Penguin Books.

Riviere, J. (1952). The unconscious phantasy of an

inner world. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 33:160.

Notes
[2] Expanded from a paper read at the Clinical Discussion
Group, Leeds Department of Psychiatry, June 16, 1951.

[3] This does not imply that such activities are necessarily
always schizoid. That depends on how much personal
feeling enters into the activity.

[4] Fairbairn now prefers simply the term ‘Exciting Object’

(E.O.).

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 2

THE PSYCHOTHERAPIST AS
PARENT AND EXORCIST5

It is well known that as Freud grew older he

grew more cautious in his estimate of the
therapeutic value of psycho-analysis, though he

retained an undiminished regard for it as

instrument of scientific research on mental life.
His judgement may have been due to some

undetected preconceptions in his own view of

psychotherapy, or to the limiting effects on
therapy of deficiencies in his theory which time

and further research could remedy. It is now

apparent that in practice psycho-analysis only
has value as an instrument of scientific research
into the painful areas of unconscious feeling and

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 impulse because the patient believes that the
method has therapeutic value and will relieve

him of his disabilities. Even then his co-

operation is opposed by tremendous inner
resistance. If faith in the therapeutic value of

psycho-analysis proves unwarranted, it will have

no more value as a scientific method than have
the laboratory methods of academic psychology.

The person investigated just does not allow these

to touch painful areas of his inner life. If ever we
are to gain scientific understanding of the
dynamic development and functioning of human
personality we must learn to combine
investigation and therapy. That is what psycho-

analysis claims to do, and it is our only hope of

entering this closely guarded, tenaciously
defended area. This makes Freud’s cautious

estimate of the possibility of psychotherapy all

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 the more challenging. Therapeutic optimism and
pessimism have alternated in the history of the

psychoanalytic movement. On the one hand

there are blocked analyses, negative therapeutic
reactions, the gaining of intellectual insight

without accompanying emotional change and the

fact that distortion and embitterment of human
personality can go so far and be so deep-seated

that the individual seems to be virtually

inaccessible to healing influences. On the other
hand, there is the undoubted fact that many
patients do actually show great changes in
personality, lose symptoms and become happier
and more effective people as a result of this form

of treatment. The problem of the possibility and

nature of psychotherapy calls for urgent and
continuous investigation.

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 It may make for clarity of exposition if I first
state simply my conclusions before elaborating

the clinical material and reasoning that sustains

them.

In conformity with ‘object-relations’ theory

the therapeutic factor is to be found in the

object-relations of patient and psychotherapist.
Here, as in all other matters, ‘object-
relationships’ are the fundamental thing in

human living and in the functioning of

personality, whether maladjusted or mature. A
maladjusted person is ‘cured’ by the

development that becomes possible in a

relationship with a mature person. Thus the
therapeutic situation makes a big demand on the

psychotherapist, one that may well daunt his

moral courage and make him approach his task
with befitting humility.

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 This therapeutic factor is primarily in an
object-relationship of a parental order. The

patient grew maladjusted in bad-object

relationships with parents and/or parent-
substitutes. He can only develop in a good-

object relationship. But he is, at bottom, a

frightened child, and as such needs a parent-
figure. In the psychotherapeutic, as in the family

situation, the chances of the child growing to

maturity depend on the extent to which the
parent or parent-substitute can offer the
possibility of a mature relationship. That is the
reason why the real training for psycho-
analytical therapy is to undergo a personal

analysis. It is only secondarily to learn the

technique, though that is important. It is

primarily to increase the maturity of the

psychotherapist. Similarly, the real meaning of a

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 ‘cure’ for the patient is not removal of
symptoms, or any degree of social and

vocational rehabilitation, but the achievement of

reasonable or optimum maturity as a person. The
other welcome results follow from that. The

child grows up without guilt and anxiety and

becomes capable of living without parental (or
analytical) support.

The fundamental therapeutic factor in

psychotherapy is more akin to religion than to

science since it is a matter of personal
relationship rather than of the application of

impersonal knowledge and technique. Bertrand

Russell (1925, p. 28) once defined the good life
as ‘the life inspired by love and guided by

knowledge’, which provides a neat formula for

relating the scientific and religious factor in
psychotherapy and in human life generally.

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 Religion has always stood for the saving power
of the good-object relationship. Religion is

distinguished from science as the historical form

under which the therapeutic factor for
personality ills has been recognized and

cultivated. Unfortunately, it has so often lacked

the accurate knowledge which science could
supply of the nature of the problems and how

best to apply the remedy. Science stands for the

discovery of the necessary knowledge without
which love may be ineffective.

DIFFICULTIES IN ASSESSING
PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC RESULTS

The difficulties of promoting and assessing

constructive changes in personality have

sometimes led to a hasty scepticism about

psychotherapy in general. A recent example is

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 provided by Eysenck’s estimate of the effects of
psychotherapy.

It is often assumed that psychotherapy,

whether Freudian or eclectic, tends to
alleviate or cure neurotic disorders. A
search was made for follow up studies in
this field. ... It would appear that two out of
every three severely ill neurotics are cured
or at best improve very much within a
period of two years without benefit of
psychotherapy; a similar proportion show
evidence of cure or improvement after
eclectic psychotherapy. After psycho-
analysis results are somewhat less
propitious than after eclectic treatment, or
after no treatment at all. The data fail to
confirm the hypothesis that psychotherapy
alleviates or cures mental illness. (1952a,
p. 41)

The superficiality of this statistical approach is

shown by the fact that it permits the assumption
that after two years the ‘cured’ patient is in

exactly the same state of mind whether he has

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 received psychotherapeutic treatment or not. It
would require a far more subtle method of

investigation either to prove or to disprove this

assumption.

It is stated that two out of three neurotics are

cured or improve within two years without

psychotherapy. This is a quite inadequate
statement of the case. In 1950 the writer
broadcast some short talks on ‘Nerves’ which

brought in over 1500 letters from radio listeners.

One of the outstanding facts in this
correspondence was the large number of elderly

people who reported that they had suffered their

first nervous breakdown in the late teens or early
twenties and that since then they had

experienced severe and repeated relapses at

intervals of four, five or so years up to the fifties
or sixties (their age at the time of writing). All

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 these would come within the category of ‘cured

or improved within two years’, a result that is of

little significance in any deeper sense. It is not
surprising that remissions of overt neurosis

should occur, since a neurotic illness is an

emotional crisis, and emotion inevitably ebbs
and flows in intensity. Anxieties of even deep

origin are greatly affected, either stimulated or

damped down, by every unfavourable or
favourable change in circumstances. Emotional

crises are reactions to changing situations both

within the mind and in the outer world, and the
natural and automatic defence of repression is

not a fixed and constant factor: it is constantly

being weakened or reinforced by the ever-
changing life-situation. Disappearance of

symptoms is not ‘cure’ in the psycho-analytical

sense. The criteria for ‘cure’ can only be

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 satisfied where there is evidence of some
important and stabilizing change of personality.

In the second place, Eysenck states that ‘a

similar proportion (two-thirds) show evidence of

cure or improvement after eclectic
psychotherapy’. The implication, presumably, is
that the same remission of neurosis would have
taken place without psychotherapy. We have,
however, seen that this has little real

significance. It would be necessary to ascertain,

first whether and how often relapses occurred

after psychotherapy at intervals greater than two

years; secondly how far psychotherapy in each

particular case had led to some decisive

personality change and what bearing that had on
liability to relapse; and thirdly, if there was
relapse, was it over the same conflict that the
psychological treatment had dealt with.

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 Psychotherapy cannot deal with everything at
once.

In the third place, a statistical summary

giving the numbers or proportions of patients
who do or do not recover, with or without

psychotherapy, has little meaning since it takes

no account of the motives patients may have for
recovery or non-recovery. Many patients feel

guilty about taking treatment because of the

opposition of disapproving relatives, or because
they feel involved in talking about parents and
relatives “behind their backs’ and feel they

ought not to do that even in order to get well.

Some types of patient, who are aggressive and

wish always to be master of other people, or to

be independent at all costs, find extreme

difficulty in accepting psychotherapeutic

treatment at all. They are always secretly

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 wanting to frustrate and defeat their analyst even
at the price of remaining ill. They dread
admitting any kind of dependence on an analyst
or on anyone. Again, other patients are
genuinely terrified of the emotional upheaval
they must face in psycho-analysis; they are

perhaps constitutionally deficient in ‘tension

capacity’ or ability to stand up to anxiety.
Sometimes a patient’s human environment is so
frustrating that it offers no better alternative than

illness and he has no real incentive to get well.

Yet again some patients enter on
psychotherapeutic treatment not because they
themselves really want it or have arrived at their
own conclusion that they need it, but because

some other person, doctor or relative, has

persuaded them to it. There is always an

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 underlying resistance in such cases, which may
not be surrendered.

Finally, there is a fundamental factor which

is mentioned last because it opens up our main
line of inquiry. The schizoid patient whose basic

strategy in life is to keep outside of all real

personal relationships and not allow any feeling
to be evoked in him, may be unable to form any

sufficiently real relationship with the

psychotherapist for therapy to proceed. There is
a real dilemma here. Until psychotherapy has
helped him to effect some measure of genuine

relationship with the analyst he cannot make

much use of the treatment, yet, while he cannot

effect this relationship spontaneously because of

his anxieties, the treatment cannot get under way

to help him. The problem is not insoluble in

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 practice but constitutes probably the major
difficulty in treatment.

This brings us to the most serious omission

in any statistical analysis of therapeutic results.
It fails to take into consideration the nature of

the relationship between psychotherapist and

patient, but treats of psychotherapy as if it were
a fixed and known entity, the same thing in
every case. The patient reacts at once,

unconsciously if not consciously, to the person

of the psychotherapist or analyst. If therapy were
a purely objective, scientific procedure or

‘method’ this would not matter. The patient’s

reaction to the doctor in purely organic disease is
not primarily important though this ceases to be

true as one gets into the realm of psychosomatic

illness. The therapeutic powers of the old family
doctor rested to an incalculable extent on his

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 personality and the personal relationship
between doctor and patient. In the sphere of
psychological healing this becomes the all-
important factor which no statistical analysis of

results can record or evaluate. No doubt analysts

as individuals do better with some types of
patient than with others. Patient and analyst need

to be ‘matched’ to secure the best results. Dr

George Groddeck would refuse to treat a patient
if he did not take to him. It is certain that ‘choice

of analyst’ is highly important from a patient’s

point of view. Such highly relevant factors are
too subtle to be weighed in merely statistical

scales. Eysenck’s sweeping conclusion, ‘the data

fail to confirm the hypothesis that psychotherapy
alleviates or cures neurotic mental illness’,

appears as a hasty unscientific generalization

based on inadequate methods of investigation. It

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 may be that some early distortions of personality
become irreversible. But we do not need to

prove that psychotherapy must be 100%

effective in every case, to show that it is a real
and valuable possibility.

THE PERSONAL RELATION OF ANALYST

AND PATIENT: TRANSFERENCE

The factor of personal relationship between

analyst and patient was quickly recognized by
Freud and incorporated into the body of psycho-
analytical teaching under the term
‘transference’. He saw how large a part the

patient’s emotional reactions to the analyst

played in treatment. Usually patients very
largely repress what they are feeling about their

analyst and strive to maintain a consciously

good relationship with him on the moral level of
winning and keeping his approval. The

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 repression of their actual feelings is, needless to

say, like all repression, unconscious and

automatic. Often they are quite unaware that
they are feeling anything directly about their

analyst, and are mostly very resistant to any

interpretation of their behaviour designed to help
them to become conscious of their feelings.

Freud recognized that the patient ‘transfers’ on

to the analyst repressed and forbidden infantile
reactions to parents, both of love and hate. He

held that the original neurosis must be replaced

by a transference neurosis if a cure is to be
achieved. It seems doubtful, however, whether

the basic implication of this transference

problem was realized. Though it was Freud who
seized on the importance of this personal

relationship factor in treatment, there is

justification for thinking that he looked at it

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 more from the point of view of the patient’s
reactions to the analyst than from the point of
view of what the analyst was in reality to the

patient.

It has become customary to speak of

analysts’ ‘counter-transferences’ to their

patients, and these, presumably, should likewise

be analysed. The writer once said to Fairbairn
‘counter-transference must be harmful to a

patient’. He replied: ‘You may do more harm to

a patient if you are too afraid of counter-

transference.’ The reason no doubt is that if the

analyst eliminates all personal feeling for a

patient in the interests of pure scientific

objectivity, the patient will be too justified in

feeling that he is dealing with someone who has
no genuine interest in him as a person. Patients
feel that anyway. They say: ‘You can’t be really

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 concerned about me, I’m only one of a crowd of

patients to you, I’m only a “case” to you: I need

something more personal, more human than
analysis. I want to feel you care for me, that you

are my friend.’ There is, naturally, a great deal

of transference in this. It conceals sexual
phantasies of intimate relationships with the

analyst, which reproduce old, unsatisfied wishes

towards parents. These can be made conscious if
the patient feels safe, as in two cases of more

innocent transference reactions which, however,

greatly embarrassed two of my own patients.
One, a married woman in the thirties with three

children, suddenly felt she wanted to run over to

me, climb on my lap and curl up and go to sleep,
as she used to do with her father. The other, a

headmaster in the forties, felt a strong wish to

lay his head on my shoulder and have my arms

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 round him, and recalled being held in his
father’s arms and laying his head on his father’s
shoulders. It was so real to him that he could
smell the tobacco of father’s pipe. These early
erotic wishes must become conscious before
they can be outgrown.

THE ANALYST AS PROJECTION SCREEN

AND AS REAL OBJECT

But the patient’s personal needs towards the

analyst are not exhausted by the transfer of

infantile eroticism. The patient has genuinely
realistic emotional needs towards the analyst,
and psychotherapy depends, it seems, almost

entirely on their satisfaction. If the analyst

persists in being, in reality, a merely objective

scientific intelligence with no personal feeling

for the patient, he will repeat on the patient the

original emotional trauma which laid the

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 foundations of the illness. Those who were one

of a sibling group are apt to say ‘I’m no more

than one of a crowd of patients to you’, while
those who were ‘only children’ will say: ‘You

ought not to have any other patients but me.’

They are seeking a parent-child relationship.
They unconsciously want it in the erotic form

characteristic of infancy and, if they got it, it

would keep them in an emotionally immature
state. Yet if the patient were ‘merely one of a

crowd of patients’ to the therapist, how could he

be helped to develop a sense of his own reality
and worth as a person. What the patient needs as
a basis for recovery must be described in two

stages. First he needs a parent-figure as a

protector against gross anxiety. He feels like a
drowning man with no lifebelt. The

psychotherapist is first and foremost a ‘saviour’

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 to him: he will often say, if a good ‘rapport’ is
established fairly soon: ‘I feel you are the first
person who has ever understood me, or taken the

trouble to understand me’: or, as one patient put

it, ‘An analyst is better than prayers.’ But such
frank dependence is equivalent to one aspect of
the infantile parent-child relationship: it is the
child’s need for a purely supportive, protective,
reassuring love. Cure depends on getting beyond

that to the second stage. Here the patient begins

dimly to feel that what, to some not very
enlightened extent, he consciously desires and
seeks, and what he really needs, as distinct from
what he unconsciously wants, is the later form of
non-erotic parental love which is the real

condition of the child’s ability to grow up. The

analyst or psychotherapist must do for the
patient what his parents failed to do. He must

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 help him to give up his infantile erotic wishes
towards parents by giving him a love that

approves and supports his desire to be

independent, and his developmental urge to
become a person in his own right and to be

himself. This releases him to take his erotic

needs to a non-parental equal partner and to
enter into new, extra-familial relationships. The

analyst cannot do that unless he has got genuine

feeling for the patient, and is not himself afraid
of the emotional relationship or of the role the
patient needs him to fill. But it takes a patient a
long time to accept the analyst as a liberating
parent. All the fears, distrusts and resentments

he feels towards his own parents rise up again,

and all their restrictive and rejective attitudes to
him are projected on to the analyst. This is

where psycho-analytical or psychotherapeutic

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 techniques come in. The analyst’s insight must
detect the problems as they emerge, and his skill
and technique must enable him to help the
patient to uncover them.

Yet all that is of little avail unless there is the

basis of a ‘real’ good relation over and above the
‘transference disturbances’. These can go on
more openly on the basis of a steadily deepening
realistic confidence in the analyst, without which

the patient will let out very little, however

skillful the technique. He must have some firm

standing ground in present-day reality if he is to

revive, recognize and work through problems

originating in the past. Even then there is no

automatic guarantee that a patient will use
analysis to be cured. After all he is still a person
who can harbour and pursue purposes of his
own. The psychotherapist has no power, nor

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 should he have, to force a patient to get better

against his will. He may have what are to him,

on balance, more important purposes to serve
than getting cured. He may be determined to

revenge himself on the family, or by

transference, on the psychotherapist. In that case
he will use the analysis to get worse, not better,

and will accuse the analyst of destroying

everything he had to cling to, his beliefs, duties,
ideals, hopes, illusions or what not. Thus he can
finally say to the analyst: ‘Look at the mess

you’ve made of my life, look what you’ve done

to me.’ A negative therapeutic reaction enables
him to ‘expose’ the bad parent or even the whole

family, and the bad analyst all in one. Hate has

its satisfactions in destructiveness even at the
price of self-destruction. These may under

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 certain circumstances appeal to a person more
than the constructive satisfactions of love.

The final result a patient achieves in analysis

may well be the result he sets out to achieve, in

the sense of having unconsciously aimed at all

along! If his aim is constructive he will respond
to the analyst but he must have a real ‘person’ to

respond to. No one will be saved from anxiety

by talking to an impersonal ‘projection screen’.

OBSTACLES TO PSYCHOTHERAPY

Before we deal further with the analyst’s

significance for the patient, let us consider three
basic obstacles to successful psychotherapy.

1. Physical pain often covers over, and

defends against, mental pain, and the mental
pain will emerge if the physical pain is lost. That
is the situation in hysteria and psychosomatic

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 illness. In that case, unless one can alleviate the
mental pain, the patient dare not give up the

physical pain which is easier to bear. Prof.

Bonamy Dobree, in a Third Programme
broadcast on Kipling, spoke of the poet’s interest

in mental breakdown and his knowledge of inner

mental hells and horrors which have ‘to be
experienced to be appreciated’. ‘In his younger

days, he was eager only to tell the stories as part

of the enthralling, darkly striated, pageant of
life; later he became interested in the causes, and
finally he was absorbed in the healing of the
horror.’ Dobree refers to the charge that Kipling
was ‘callous about physical pain’ but replies that

he knew ‘it was as nothing compared with

spiritual agony. This he states unequivocally in

the Hymn to Physical Pain (1952, p. 967):

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 Dread Mother of Forgetfulness
Who, when Thy reign begins,
Wipest away the Soul’s distress,
And memory of her sins. . . .
Wherefore we praise Thee in the deep,
And on our beds we pray
For Thy return, that Thou may’st keep
The Pains of Hell at bay!’

That is the situation the psychotherapist faces.

An elderly woman known to the writer lost

her husband and, left alone, developed eczema

all over her body. For more than a year medical
treatment secured no more than improvements

followed always by relapse. She was then cured

by a kindly elderly woman herbalist who
personally massaged a wonderful ointment into

her for an hour twice a week. She was cured, no

doubt, not by the ointment but by the
‘mothering’, albeit of an infantile erotic order.

Evidently in many cases a patient cannot give up

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 an illness unless something better can be put in
its place as a defence, in the case of this woman

against separation anxiety and depression. What

kind of ‘something better’ can the
psychotherapist give? Not infantile erotic

mothering, but also certainly not a cold

impersonal scientific technique of investigation.
That has its place but it is not the therapeutic

factor.

2. The second and fundamental obstacle to

therapy, though in fact it is the same obstacle

viewed in a deeper way, is what Fairbairn calls

‘the libidinal cathexis of bad objects’ (1943, p.
334). This is one of his most original and radical

contributions. In the paper on ‘Analysis

Terminable and Interminable’, Freud (1937, p.
332) describes psychotherapy as supporting the
patient’s ego against the quantitative strength of

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 his innate instincts. He says: ‘The quantitative

factor of instinctual strength in the past opposed

the efforts of the patient’s ego to defend itself,
and now that analysis has been called in to help,

that same factor sets a limit to the efficiency of

this new attempt. If the instincts are excessively
strong the ego fails in its task. … The power of

analysis is not infinite, it is limited. … We shall

achieve our therapeutic purpose only when we
can give a greater measure of analytical help to

the patient’s ego.’ This instinct theory may well

make us pessimistic about therapy. If the illness
is due to innate biological drives which are too

strong for the patient to master, then our chance

of curing him seems very limited.

However, the biological concept of instinct

is to-day under drastic criticism by
psychologists. On the academic side Allport

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 (1949), in America, and Vernon (1942) and Pear
(1942) in this country, reject the concept, while

Burt, (1941, 1943) Myers (1942) and Thouless

(1951) reduce it to ‘innate directional
determining tendency’ which clearly needs some

actual object or situation for its evocation.

Freud’s concept of instinct, on a psychological
level, is to-day increasingly regarded as a relic

of faculty psychology. Horney (1939), Fromm

(1942) and Sullivan (1947) in America have
discarded instinct theory and Fairbairn in this
country regards the term ‘instinct’ as only useful
in an adjectival sense. These views are
representative of a widespread movement of

thought which either rejects altogether the utility

and relevance of the concept of ‘instinct’ for

human psychology, or drastically limits it to

‘innate potentialities for reaction’ which underlie

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 developmental processes. The actual impulses

and emotions with which we deal in patients are

not in themselves fixed innate biological factors:
they are reactions of the ego to persons and

situations encountered in the active process of

living. They are appropriate to the way the ego
perceives the object, and express the ego’s

relation to the object. Change the object either in

reality or in perception and the impulse and
emotion change. In this sense the cure for

troublesome emotions and impulses is simple in

theory, if not in practice, i.e. change the human
environment. As adults we can sometimes do
that, as children practically never. A child’s only

way of escaping from the bad object aspect of

family figures is by a kind of mental trick. The
real object is split in the child’s mind into two

objects, one ideally good and one totally bad.

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 The image of the good parent is projected, i.e.
the real parent is idealized. The image of the bad

parent is repressed and forms a highly disturbing

‘mental object’ inhabiting, and reacted to, in an
unconscious inner world. A whole secret world

of bad figures is internalized and embedded in

the unconscious structure of the personality. It is
these ‘internal bad objects’ as they are now
called, and not instincts, which cause the

trouble. The turbulent emotions and impulses of

the neurotic are not fixed inborn instincts; they

are personal reactions to these frightening and

frustrating figures in the unconscious, and they
would die down if these internal persecutors
were got rid of.

Psycho-analysis is not the reinforcement of

instinct-control, it is exorcism (Fairbairn 1943,
pp. 333, 336), casting out the devils that haunt

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 people in the unconscious inner world, devils
who can be seen clearly enough in patients’

dreams. Where then lies the difficulty? One

would think patients would be only too glad to
let go their devils but nothing could be further

from the truth. One of my patients, a woman in

the fifties, is still dreaming of her father
thrashing her and she said: ‘If that were

happening at least I wouldn’t be an ageing

woman and living alone.’ Another, a man of
thirty who in real life cannot bring himself to
leave a home in which he is violently unhappy,
dreams of being on a muck heap frantically
raking to find something valuable. A cyclist goes

by and calls to him to come and join him, but he

stays on the muck heap. ‘Mucky’ is one of his
epithets for his mother. He won’t give up his

muck heap that he is still trying to get something

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 out of. A third patient says: ‘My husband and
father are devils, but I never let go my devils.’

Patients cling tenaciously to their external bad

objects because they are indispensable persons.
If they give them up in the outer world, they

cling to them all the more inside as internal

mental objects in the unconscious. To part with
them sets up the fear of death. Bad parents are

better than none. The major source of resistance

to psychotherapy is the extreme tenacity of our
libidinal attachments to parents whatever they

were like. This state of affairs is perpetuated, by

repression, in the unconscious inner world
where, at the deepest level, they are always bad
figures. The analyst is regarded as someone who

is going to rob the patient of his parents. It takes

the patient a very long time to feel deep down
that the analyst is in fact a better parent. Even

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 accepting his help feels like a fundamental
disloyalty to the patient’s own parents and

arouses guilt. Family loyalty dictates the

defence and justification of parents against all
outsiders. One of my patients said: ‘Sometimes I

feel that this business is against my parents, that

they haven’t brought me up properly which I
deny, and Secondly that it’s pulling me away

from them which I don’t want.’ Fairbairn says:

The resistance can only really be overcome

when the transference situation has
developed to a point at which the analyst
has become such a good object to the
patient that the latter is prepared to risk the
release of bad objects from the
unconscious. [1943, p. 332]

And again,

It is only through the appeal of a good

object that the libido can be induced to
surrender its bad objects ... it may well be
that a conviction of the analyst’s ‘love’ (in

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 the sense of Agape and not Eros) on the
part of the patient is no unimportant factor
in promoting a successful therapeutic
result. At any rate, such a result would
appear to be compromised unless the
analyst proves himself an unfailingly good
object (in reality) to his patients. [1943, p.
336; also cf. sections 6 and 8]

Flügel (1945, p. 176 n) endorses Fairbairn’s

view. Giving up parents, even in the form of

internal bad objects, arouses guilt and fears of
punishment, fears of isolation and death, and

fears of injuring and killing parents by leaving

them. The difficulty of emotional detachment
from parents in the unconscious is the real

reason why neurosis is so hard to cure.

The view of psychotherapy here maintained

is that the patient cannot be weaned from, and

become independent of, internalized bad
parental-objects, and so cannot become healthy

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 and mature, unless he can consolidate a good
relationship to his analyst as a real good-object.

At this point we come upon a third fundamental

obstacle to psychotherapy, namely the severe
difficulties patients have about entering into any

relationships at all with real human beings in

their outer world, even though such relationships
are what they most deeply need. Thus they both

seek and resist a real good-object relationship

with the analyst. In the depressive position their
trouble is the ambivalence of their reactions.
They cannot love him without finding that
aggression and hate surge up as well. But the
deeper and much more difficult problem is their

reactions in the schizoid position. Here their

need of love-objects is so starved and
exaggerated, their basic attitude to people is so

greedy, hungry and devouring, and thus they feel

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 so destructive, that they are afraid to need, want
and love anyone. They retreat into a cold, aloof,

unfeeling detachment, sometimes masked by

intellectual interest and a superficially friendly,
co-operative attitude. Genuine ‘rapport’ is not

there.

This difficulty is well illustrated by the

headmaster already referred to (p. 118). The
proof that he needed and sought a personal

relationship with his analyst was indirectly

provided by the way he resisted it. As he came
into one session he observed: ‘I feel an uprising

of tension but the thought occurs that I’m old

and you’re older.’ That thought embarrassed
him, he did not know why. He went on to say:

No one loves me because I’m old, but

you’re older still. One becomes less
physically attractive as one grows older,
and less likely to be loved. As I grow older

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 there are fewer people by whom I can be
loved in a paternal way. One’s props get
less. I feel angry but if I were aggressive
you’d resent it; it would become a personal
matter between us. It’s only because as
analyst and patient there’s no personal
relationship that I can let things out.

It was explained that he wanted, but was

afraid, to see his analyst as a real human being

who could have real feelings about him, afraid to
allow the analytical relationship to become

emotionally alive and personal, and that that was

an effective defence which halted real progress
in treatment. He was remaining detached from

the analyst and keeping the analyst remote from

himself. In that situation nothing of any
emotional significance was likely to emerge and

he would be safe from outbursts of anxiety. He

was afraid of the very relationship he desired,
that being his general problem in life. He

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 replied: ‘I find any personal relationship with
anyone impossible. I don’t really know what it

means. I want a personal relationship but am too

proud to ask for it, too independent.’

THE ANALYST AS A REAL GOOD OBJECT

If the patient cannot, and dare not, part with

his bad psychic objects in his inner world until

the analyst has become for him a sufficiently

good real object in his outer world, in what
sense must the analyst become a good object
whose ‘love’ cures the patient? Maxwell

Gitelson (1952, p. 1) has recently written about

‘The Emotional Position of the Analyst in the
Psycho-Analytical Situation’, and says that
‘recent developments in the psychotherapeutic
functions of psychoanalysis … have pointed to

the importance of the analyst as a real object’.

His paper, however, is confined to dealing

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 largely with countertransferences, with the fact
that ‘the analyst may bring into the analytical
situation interfering emotional factors’ (p. 3). To
off-set these he holds that the qualified analyst
brings to the patient ‘intellectually sublimated
curiosity. … Object-attitudes including emphatic

compassion … and helpfulness’ and finally an

emotionally ‘open’ and flexible personality ‘in a
spontaneous state of continuing self-analysis’

(pp. 3-4). This does not carry us far enough.

Gitelson rightly says that: ‘the analyst as a mere
screen does not exist in life. He cannot deny his
personality nor its operation in the analytical

situation as a significant factor’ (p. 7). But he

seems to draw back from the goal towards which
his argument moves when he writes: ‘This is far

from saying, however, that his personality is the

chief instrument of the therapy which we call

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 psycho-analysis ... It is of primary importance

for the analyst to conduct himself so that the

analytical process proceeds on the basis of what
the patient brings to it’ (p. 7). Surely what the

patient brings to analysis represents at bottom a

need which must be met by what the analyst
brings to it. Gitelson concludes that: ‘the
sustaining psychotherapeutic factor in the

conduct of an analysis, the real ego support that

the patient needs, resides in the actuality of the
analyst’s own reality-testing attitudes’ (p. 8).

‘One can reveal as much of oneself as is needed

to foster and support the patient’s discovery of
the reality of the actual interpersonal situation’

(p. 7). This, however, still falls short of giving a

definite statement of the nature of the specific
element in ‘the reality of the actual interpersonal

situation’ which meets the patient’s need for a

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 good-object who will enable him to give up his

internal bad objects.

The urgency and reality of the need felt by

one of my patients in this matter is vividly
expressed in the following dream:

I’m looking for Christ on the seashore. He

rose up as if out of the sea and I admired
His tall magnificent figure. Then I went
with Him into a cave and became
conscious of ghosts there and fled in stark
terror. But He stayed there and I mustered
up courage and went back in with Christ.
Then the cave was a house and as He and I
went upstairs He said ‘You proved to have
greater courage than I had’ and I felt I
detected some weakness in Him.

The patient associated the admired tall figure of

Christ with that of his athletic father, and then
remarked to the analyst

I associate Him somehow with you, I’ve

got the idea you may inveigle me into

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 courage to face the ghosts and then let me
down. Mother was the menacing figure.
Father was weak, mute before her
onslaughts. He once said it wasn’t a good
thing to have one parent constantly
dominating another in front of a child, but
he never showed any anger at all.

Here is the patient oscillating between the old

fear that father lets him down if he tries to stand

up to the violent-tempered mother, and the new

wavering hope that the analyst will not let him
down in facing up to the ‘ghost’ of the angry

mother within. In a later dream he encountered

the ghost of mother coming out of a room while

a figure representing myself stood by. Such

dreams give sharp point to Fairbairn’s view that

the analyst is an exorcist who helps the patient to

cast out the ghosts or devils who haunt his inner

world.

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 The analyst naturally does not seek to play

the role of a Christ or Saviour, but it is clear that

the patient needs to regard him in this light, as
one without whose help he can neither face nor

give up his internal bad objects. Only by

working through that phase can he later give up
his need for the analyst in the role of one who

‘saves’ him from bad objects. By then the

analyst will have become a non-possessive good
object, with whom the patient has out-grown the

dependencies of childhood, and achieved the

kind of satisfactory, mature relationship which is
not lost or damaged by his going away (‘leaving

home’) to live his own proper life.

Before, however, we seek to develop the

point of view involved in this religious analogy,
let us approach the problem from another angle.
The analyst is not a good object merely by virtue

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 of being a good technician. The technique of
psychoanalysis as such does not cure. It is not
endowed with any mystic healing power. It is
simply a scientific method of investigating the
unconscious, an instrument of research. It plays
an essential part in psychotherapy but is not

itself the therapeutic factor. It is a way of

making unconscious mental contents conscious,
though ‘contents’ is too mechanical a term. It

means providing a patient with an opportunity to

talk to someone with complete freedom to say

anything and everything without encountering

disapproval or retaliation, so that he can bring
the unconscious operations of his personality to
conscious awareness, and discover himself to

himself in the act of self-expression.

But what is to be done with what becomes

conscious? The technique of psycho-analysis

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 provides both the therapist and patient with

information. Certainly a problem cannot be

solved until a patient has become consciously
aware of it. Abreaction or ‘talking out’ (like

‘acting out’) further gives temporary relief to

pent-up feeling, and temporary security is
experienced in an ad hoc good relationship, but

this does not of itself lead to permanent changes.

Thus the analytical technique as such is more an
instrument of research and of temporary relief
than of radical therapy: at best it involves a

transient therapeutic factor in that one cannot

unburden oneself to any helpful listener without
feeling less anxious and alone. If that were all,

the results would be mainly intellectual, and

would lead to no deep permanent emotional
change.

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 It is the continuing relationship of analyst
and patient on an emotional level that enables

the patient to deal with what is made conscious.

The writer (1948, p. 11) defined psychotherapy
as

a co-operative effort of two people, in the

dynamic personal relationship of the
analytical situation, to solve the problems
of one of them. In the end, medical,
religious and social work is the creative
power of knowledge applied in and through
good personal relationships. The need to
understand this is bringing together
workers in all these fields.

It seems necessary now to make the matter

clearer by saying that it is only the kind of

knowledge that is arrived at as a living insight,

which is felt, experienced, in the medium of a

good personal relationship, that has therapeutic
value.

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 In the book quoted the writer developed the

theme that integration, individuation and

personal relationships were but distinguishable
aspects of one and the same thing which might

be called ‘mental health’ from the psychiatric

point of view or ‘peace’ and ‘salvation’ from the
religious point of view. Thus:

The total self is always tending one way or

the other, and it is in good or bad personal
relationships that the personality grows
morally and spiritually healthy or diseased.
… The ethical choice in favour of love can
only be actualized in and through the
processes of development which are
described from the psychological point of
view as integration and individuation, the
process of becoming a true, whole and
harmonious self. That is what creates the
state of mind called ‘peace’; and there is an
important link between the psychological
idea of integration and the religious
conception of peace. ... As soon as we
realize that in the large sense neurosis is

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 simply the drama of human life, the
struggle of fear, hate and love for mastery
in the soul of man, we must see that what
the psychologist describes as the
integration process is the gradual
harmonization of the personality in the
course of its transition from hate to love;
looked at psychiatrically that is identical
with the transition from disease to health,
and from conflict to integration. Looked at
religiously it is surely the same thing as
that redemption from sin, from pride, hate,
lovelessness and selfishness which is called
‘salvation.’ [1948, pp. 201-202]

Whatever terminology different interests

may use to describe the change, the important

point is that this therapeutic change can only
come about in, and as a direct result of, a good-

object relationship. That has been clearly

understood by religious thinkers. In terms of
Fairbairn’s view that object-relations have

priority over instinctive impulses and are the key

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 to every psychological or personal process, we
must regard the good-object relationship of the
analyst to the patient as the therapeutic or

‘saving’ factor in psychotherapy. In the terms of

the dream quoted, the patient feels that that is
what saves him from his desperate plight in the
power of his internal bad objects.

This is, of course, true in real life. The bad

objects internalized and repressed in infancy can

be progressively modified if the child

experiences an increasingly good relationship to

parents in the post-infancy period. That is the

cue for psychotherapy. The maturing of

personality takes place by natural growth and

development on the basis of the right kind of

parental love. In infancy, parental love has an
erotic element and is expressed in physical
handling of all kinds, in bodily contact and care.

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 As the child grows up parental love must lose
this erotic component, or rather the erotic
component must be reduced to minor
proportions, if the child is to become capable of

marriage. Parental love should turn into a non-

erotic, non-possessive, non-dominating,
affection which supports the child in his

development of separate and independent

individuality. He is backed up and encouraged to
think and act for himself, to explore, experiment,

take risks, use and develop his own powers and

in short helped to be ‘himself. This is the kind of
parental love appropriate to latency and

adolescence, and it leads finally to a replacing of

the early erotic attachments which are dependent
in the child and supporting in the parent, by

mature relationships of mutual respect, equality,

and the affection of friendship. Then the grown-

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 up child is free without anxiety or guilt to enter
an erotic relationship with an extra-familial

partner, and to exercise an active and

spontaneous personality free from inhibiting
fears. This kind of parental love is what the

Greeks called agape, not eros, and it is the kind

of love the psycho-analyst and psychotherapist
must give the patient because he did not get it

from his parents in sufficient measure or in a

satisfactory form. Parents and analysts can only
approximate to this ideal of agape, or spiritual
love, but only in so far as this is done can
patients be helped to a cure.

For the achieving of the more permanent

therapeutic results, something depends on how

bad the internal bad objects are: they may be too

terrifying for the patient to release them, even
with the analyst’s help. Much also depends on

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 the general calibre of the patient. But perhaps

most depends on the maturity of the analyst, on

his capacity to give the patient the right kind of
love (which carries with it the ability to avoid

making technical mistakes in dealing with the

patient) and on analysis lasting long enough for
the patient really to grow in a consolidated good

relationship. A famous Scottish preacher, Dr

Chalmers, once described how a converted
drunkard threw his bottles of beer out of the

window when the love of God came into his

heart. That showed, he said, ‘the expulsive
power of a new affection’. Likewise the patient
gives up his attachment to his early frustrating

love objects, and casts out his internal bad

objects, only through ‘the expulsive power of
the new affection’ that he gets from, and feels

for, the parental analyst. He is able to grow to

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 adult stature emotionally because it is the kind
of love that approves of his doing so and helps

the process. But there is a parable of Jesus which

psychotherapists would do well to ponder. The
devil was cast out of a man and the house of his

soul left swept and garnished but empty, with the

result that seven other devils came and took
possession of him. If we could succeed in

ridding patients of their symptoms without

giving them a constructive relationship with
ourselves to build on, we would do them more

harm than good in the end. They never will give

up their devils inside if they are given nothing in

their place. Psychotherapy is more like exorcism

than a purely scientific technique of treatment. It

is a good-object relation that cures people by

weaning them from bad objects who make them
ill. It is not a fixed uniform procedure or method

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 the results of which could be statistically
estimated.

It should now be clear that it is the dynamic,

personal factors which are the crux of the matter

in psychotherapy, and that these are altogether
too subtle to be taken account of by statistical
study of the results of samples of psychotherapy.

Such investigations do not envisage the

necessity of studying the personalities and the
developing relationship of patient and

psychotherapist in every case before it would be

possible to assess the nature of the ‘cure’ or the

reasons for therapeutic failure. Eysenck speaks

of cure or improvement ‘without benefit of

psychotherapy’, but he makes no attempt to give

meaning to the phrase by studying the life-

situation and the personal relationships in the
midst of which the patients did or did not

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 recover. There is no such thing as improvement

‘without benefit of psychotherapy’ for life itself

has its psychotherapeutic factors, of which
professional psychotherapy is a scientifically

specialized development. The meshes of the

statistical scientific fish-net (vide Eddington) are
too large to catch these ‘facts’ of interpersonal
relations. We cannot, therefore, conclude that

they are not ‘facts’ and infer that psychotherapy

is to be scientifically debunked.

In a letter to the Editor of the Quarterly

Bulletin of the British Psychological Society,

Eysenck (1952b) compares ‘papers devoted to

scientific (experimental and statistical) studies in

abnormal psychology’ with ‘papers dealing with

ideographic, psycho-analytic and other

“dynamic” topics’. The first he calls ‘factual’

and the second ‘speculative’. But the fallacy of

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 refusing the status of ‘fact’ to what one’s own
particular method is incapable of taking account

of, has always been one of the most dangerous

blind-spots of investigators; Eysenck has clearly
fallen into that trap. Psychotherapy is not a

purely scientific procedure since it involves the

art of sustaining an actual kind of personal
relationship. But a supposedly scientific study of

psychotherapy by methods which fail to take

into account the all-important personal factors of
motivation and relationship, is not truly
scientific.

Two psychotherapists may be treating two

patients, using the same kind of technique and
interpretations, and yet what really goes on in

the two treatments may be utterly different,

leading in one case to a blockage and in the

other to a cure. That may be due partly to the

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 patient, partly to the psychotherapist, and partly
to whether they are or are not ‘well matched’, or
to all three causes. But we shall certainly be led

astray if we attribute therapeutic results purely to

our technique of investigation. The technique
makes problems accessible to treatment. It is the
relationship with the therapist that enables the
problem to be solved. Freud discovered that, at
the very beginning. He wrote of his decision to

drop hypnosis and the abreactive, cathartic

technique, as follows:

It was true that the disappearance of the

symptoms went hand in hand with the
catharsis, but total success turned out to be
entirely dependent upon the patient’s
relation to the physician. ... If that relation
was disturbed, all the symptoms
reappeared, just as though they had never
been cleared up. [1922, p. 110]

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 Apparently Kipling also recognized this.
Dobree writes:

If, then, the world includes hells for men

and women so intolerable that the strain
actually breaks them, what is the cure?
Kipling had all sorts of mechanism for
healing, varieties of psycho-analysis which
clear up complexes. But these are merely
mechanisms, and the driving force, the
virtue without which no cure can be
effected is—I state this quite boldly—
compassion. [1952, p. 963]

We must observe that the hells which finally

break people are not those in the outer world. It

is astonishing what human beings can stand if
they are at peace within themselves. It is the

hells hidden within the mind itself which are

reactivated by the outer hells, that break our
resistance. Furthermore, ‘compassion’ is not
fully adequate as a description of the healing

factor, though it is an essential element in it. But

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 the distinction between ‘mechanisms’ and the
‘therapeutic factor’ is central to our theme.

THE ANALOGY BETWEEN

PSYCHOTHERAPY AND RELIGION

It is not suggested that the personal relation

alone is important in psychotherapy and the

technique irrelevant. The technique is necessary

in order to make unconscious problems
accessible once more to a new solution. Nor is it

suggested that any kind of good-object

relationship is therapeutic in the radical
psychoanalytical sense. If it were, then a good
marriage or a powerful religious experience

could be relied on to cure neurosis and

thoroughly mature the personality; whereas in
fact the therapeutic effects they do often have

are usually more due to their being a powerful

support and defence against internal bad objects,

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 than to their bringing about an exorcism of bad

objects and a radical maturing of the self. It is

maintained rather that the special kind of good
object that the patient needs to find in the

analyst is best defined as the mature, non-

possessive, non-dominating parent who
approves and helps the child’s development

towards adult independence, self-reliance, and

libidinal spontaneity, free from anxiety and guilt.
The child can then grow up to the parent’s level
of maturity and become capable of adult love,

friendship and creativity.

It is time, however, that we now investigated

the relationship which evidently exists between

psychotherapy and religion. The subject has

always intrigued psycho-analysts. Freud

bestowed much thought upon it, though he was

least objective and most obviously influenced by

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 emotional bias when he wrote about religion and

philosophy. The writer in the passages quoted

(1948), pursued the link between religion and
psychotherapy, not however in terms of detailed

psychopathology and the problems of internal

objects. Money-Kyrle (1951, p. 84 n) defines
religion as ‘a form of psychotherapy which

promotes a belief in the existence of idealized

good objects as a defence against persecutory
and depressive guilt’. We must not pause here to
discuss the metaphysical and theological, i.e.

extra-psycho-analytical, questions that raises,

except perhaps to say that the motive and the
truth of a belief are not identical problems, and

that a psycho-analytical definition does not settle

all issues. We quote the definition rather as a
clear acknowledgement of common ground

which exists for religion and psychotherapy.

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 That being so, there should be much to be
learned from the study of religion as throwing
light on the patient’s psychotherapeutic needs,
since it is the age-old form of psycho-therapy
that man has always resorted to.

Fairbairn’s article on ‘The Repression and

The Return of Bad Objects’ is crucial for the
nature of psychotherapy and he there utilizes
religious concepts at a number of points in an

illuminating way. Thus, in dealing with the

‘moral defence’ against repressed bad objects,
he states that: ‘Religious terms … provide the

best representation for the adult mind of the

situation as it presents itself to the child’ (1943,
p. 331). He describes the situation of the

individual at the level of the super-ego or ‘moral

defence’ organization, in religious terms, thus:

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 It is better to be a sinner in a world ruled
by God than to live in a world ruled by the
Devil. A sinner in a world ruled by God
may be bad: but there is always a certain
sense of security to be derived from the
fact that the world around is good—‘God’s
in His heaven—All’s right with the
world!’: and in any case there is always a
hope of redemption. In a world ruled by the
Devil the individual may escape the
badness of being a sinner: but he is bad
because the world around him is bad.
Further, he can have no sense of security
and no hope of redemption. The only
prospect is one of death and destruction.
[1943, pp. 331-332]

As we have seen, the unconscious is

precisely the world ruled by the Devil, the cave

of the patient’s dream (p. 123) where dwell the

terrifying ghosts whom he felt unable to face

alone unless he could find a Christ, a Saviour, to
go along with him. Jung, though he did not

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 express it in psycho-analytical terms, sensed the

patient’s dilemma. He writes:

The psychotherapist … must decide in

every single case whether or not he is
willing to stand by a human being with
counsel and help upon what may be a
daring misadventure … man has never yet
been able single handed to hold his own
against the powers of darkness—that is of
the unconscious. Man has always stood in
need of the spiritual help that each
individual’s own religion held out to him.
[1933, p. 277]

Jung’s conception of analytical treatment is

not the same, in technique and method, as

Fairbairn’s fundamentally Freudian practice. The

word ‘counsel’ belongs more to conscious re-

education than to analysis. But Jung had realized

both that the relationship of the patient and the

analyst is the vital therapeutic factor and that it

has a very close relationship to religious

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 experience, as the words italicized in the
quotation show. The matter, however, becomes
far more clear when we think in terms of internal

bad objects, than when we think in terms of

archetypes. Fairbairn says:

It is to the realm of these bad objects, I feel

convinced, and not to the realm of the
super-ego that the origin of all
psychopathological developments is to be
traced: for it may be said of all
psychoneurotic and psychotic patients that,
if a True Mass is being celebrated in the
chancel, a Black Mass is being celebrated
in the crypt. It becomes evident,
accordingly, that the psychotherapist is the
true successor to the exorcist. [1943, p.
333]

But how are these internal bad objects, these

ghosts or devils, to be cast out? Or how can the

patient become able to give them up? In

discussing the case of Christoph Haitzmann, the

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 subject of Freud’s paper ‘A Neurosis of

Demoniacal Possession in the Seventeenth

Century’ (1923, p. 436), Fairbairn observes:

It was only after his pact with the Devil

was replaced by a pact with God that his
freedom from symptoms was finally
established. The moral would seem to be
that it is only through the appeal of a good
object that the libido can be induced to
surrender its bad objects: and, if Christoph
was relieved of his symptoms by a
conviction of the love of God, it may well
be that a conviction of the analyst’s ‘love’
(in the sense of Agape and not Eros) on the
part of the patient is no unimportant factor
in promoting a successful therapeutic
result. [1943, p. 336]

It would appear that patients, at different

times, tend to seek in the analyst a good object

of two different kinds. These correspond to the

Christian conceptions of God and of Christ,
personified justice and personified love. The

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 patient will repeatedly seek to make the analyst
the head and representative of his super-ego or
moral defence and become convinced that the

analyst must pass stern moral judgement on him.

In fact a patient would become more, not less,
anxious, if an analyst were to try to relieve guilt
by undermining the patient’s proper moral sense.

The patient seeks to be saved from his

unconscious devils viewed as morally bad
objects by clinging to the analyst as a stern

judge, even exalting him to the position of God

the Father. One of my patients woke dreaming
and thought he saw me standing in the corner of
the room; then I changed into God, and the

patient was afraid but stretched out his arms

towards me in an appeal for help. Perhaps only a

very naive patient would express this tendency
so frankly but since Freud says that God is the

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 projected father image, we would expect patients

at times to feel that the paternal analyst is God.

But another patient, who is a deeply

religious man, says frankly that he does not like

God the Father, a stern punishing figure; he fears

and obeys Him but all his religious devotion is
directed towards Christ. As a lonely and anxious

little boy he would go to sleep phantasying

himself comforted and loved on the bosom of
Jesus, the Great Lover. Christ is clearly a

libidinally good object to offset the Devil as a

libidinally bad object: while God the Father is a
morally good object to offset the Devil as a

morally bad object. The patient certainly longs

for the analyst to love and comfort him and so
reassure and save him from his haunting inner
fears, and frequently asks outright for such

support.

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 It is tempting to suggest that since the

internal bad objects frequently haunt the

individual (in dreams) as ghosts, unseen sinister
influences, an immaterial menace, they are offset
in that respect by the third Christian conception

of God as the Holy Ghost who ‘fills’, ‘inspires’,

and pervades the soul as a good influence. The
final place of the analyst in the life of a matured

patient would not be ill represented as a

pervading and inspiring influence for good, for
love and creative activity. In Christian theology
it is to be noted that the orthodox belief most
emphatically insists on the unity of this triune
God in three modes, a welcome insistence which

points the way to the integration of all good

objects, and therefore of the individual ego in
relation to good objects. The splitting asunder of

love and justice could only maintain

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 disintegration in the ego. So far Christian
theology has not been able to deal with the Devil
in any other terms than total rejection, and
certainly patients can only be cured by such a
consolidated relationship to the analyst as a
good-object in reality that they are able to

relinquish their phantasied devils, who have no

other existence than that with which they are
endowed in being internally and psychically
maintained. Thus as it were, they vanish as

illusions. It is true there are objectively real

counterparts of these devils in the form of bad
human beings, of whom the political life as well

as the criminal records of our generation give

ample illustration. Yet these ‘bad men’ are bad
because they are so dominated by, and identified

with, their own inner devils, who likewise could,

in theory at any rate, be dissipated into unreality.

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 It seems a not unjustified inference to hold that

devils as such are not integrated but evaporated

and lost as psychic illusions at last. Thus good,
not evil, is the basic, enduring reality of life. We

should perhaps add that this psychological

analysis is made without prejudice to the interest
that other, philosophical and theological,

disciplines have in the question. It is designed to

show, first, that the evolution of the complex
Christian doctrine of God meets point by point

the needs for psychotherapy of the devil-haunted

soul of man; and secondly that it does throw a
highly illuminating light on what the

psychoneurotic patient feels he needs to find in

the psychotherapist. If we now say that devils
and ghosts are internalized phantasied bad

parents and God is the saving good parent

sought in the healing, parental analyst, that is not

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 necessarily all that is to be said on the subject.
Man still faces, and feels he needs an adjustment
to, an all embracing universal reality which he is
as likely as ever to conceive in terms of religion
in a larger sense, which raises issues with which
psycho-analysis has no special competence to
deal. So far as psychotherapy is concerned, the

cured, matured patient has outgrown the need to

find a Saviour in his analyst.

Returning to the narrower questions of

psychotherapy, we may say that religion has

always understood and used the true therapeutic
factor of personal relationship without, however,

possessing an accurate scientific understanding

of the problems to which it needed to be applied.
On the other hand, a purely scientifically
orientated psychotherapy which imagines that
the technique of treatment itself ‘does the trick’,

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 may gather a lot of information about human
nature and its troubles but lack the therapeutic
factor to apply to them: and it will probably
grow sceptical about psychotherapy. A true

psychotherapy must be a combination of

scientific technique for opening up the
unconscious, and the parental factor of healing

love. Prof. J. MacMurray holds that science

concerns the relation of persons to things in
terms of utility values, whilst religion concerns

the relation of persons to persons in terms of

intrinsic values. He writes: ‘The field of religion
is the whole field of common experience

organized in relation to the central fact of

personal relationship … the field of religion is
the field of personal relations, and the datum

from which religious reflection starts is the

reciprocity or mutuality of these. Its problem is

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 the problem of communion or community.
Religion is about fellowship and community’
(1936, p. 43). Thus the therapeutic factor may be

properly described as religious.

The hell of suffering from which people

need to be saved is the hell of love-starvation at

bottom, for which the only cure is a good-object

relationship in which personality can be
reconstructed and matured free from anxiety and

guilt. So fundamental is this factor of a saving

personal relationship that the scientific technique
of psycho-analysis cannot even be operated
successfully without it. The patient lets nothing

out of the unconscious except in proportion as

he feels safe with the analyst. If repressed
material is prematurely forced into
consciousness by other methods, the patient will
repress or forget it again, unless he has been able

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 to grow a sufficiently deep trust in, and reliance
on, his psychotherapist to be able to cope, on the
basis of that relationship, with the problems
which have emerged. Dr Clara Thompson has
recently strongly emphasized this factor of
personal relationship in psychotherapy. ‘Around

1920 there was a growing feeling of pessimism

about psychoanalysis as a method of therapy’
(1952, p. 230). ‘Around 1925 there was
evidence that the goal of therapy was changing’

(1952, p. 236). In discussing the analytical

experience as ‘an interpersonal situation’ she
says that in spite of the different theoretical
orientations of different analysts, the patient
achieves a cure ‘if in the interpersonal

experience with the analyst the patient’s genuine

problems of living have been explored’ (1952,
pp. 242-243).

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 THE TECHNIQUE OF THE GOOD OBJECT

One further word must be said about the

technique of ‘being a real good object’ to the
patient. This cannot be accomplished, naturally,

by direct intentional effort. It would be worse

than useless to try to impress the patient with
one’s friendliness and one’s concern for his

welfare, or to try to persuade him into trust and

reliance on oneself. Some patients would react
erotically to such advances, others would react

with fears of being influenced, possessed, tied,

dominated. Even, at the best, if a patient were

helped, he would only be consciously supported;

at unconscious levels he would react with all the

conflicts he always experiences in human

relationships and would be less able to bring

them out as reactions to his analyst for fear of

disturbing the good relationship. Patients are

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 patients because their fears are as strong as their
needs with respect to good-object relations.

There is only one way for the patient to

become convinced that the analyst is a good

object for him, and that is to discover it for
himself. This he can only do by working through
his positive and negative transferences and
finding out that what the analyst withholds (the
erotic love and comforting support his infantile

self craves for) is withheld for his real good; and

that the analyst’s apparent bad-object aspects are
due to the projection of internal bad-object

phantasies. Slowly he becomes ever more free to

experience directly and in more mature ways the
reality of the analyst as a mature helper who is

enabling him to grow into a mature adult person.

He ‘discovers’ that the analyst does ‘love’ him
in the mature adult sense which releases him

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 from his attachment to his infantile objects in his
inner world, and helps him to venture into new
and more satisfactory object-relationships in his
outer world. At this point, maybe, one final

comment calls to be made. For a ‘perfect’

therapeutic result, it is necessary that it should
be open to the patient to establish basic good-

object relationships in real life. For this reason,

other things being equal, a better therapeutic
result may be expected with a married man or

woman in the thirties where the marriage

contains genuine sound elements and
possibilities of further development, than in the

case of a spinster in the forties for whom the

chances of a satisfying marriage are fast
receding, or in the case of an elderly person

most of whose life has been ruined by early

difficulties and later neurosis, and who cannot

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 now retrieve the position, having little active life
to look forward to. There is not only the
difficulty of helping the patient to accept a
therapeutic relation to the analyst, but there is
also the further difficulty of helping him to wean
himself from too long-continuing dependence on

the analyst, which would be equivalent to the

grown-up child not being able to leave home.
Just as a child would not leave his parents unless

he had the prospect, in growing up, of a fuller

life to enter into, so the patient cannot easily
leave the analyst without relapse unless he has
the chance of a real life of love and creative
activity within his own measure to enter into.
There must be a realistic incentive for

therapeutic success. That enables the

relationship between the matured patient and the
analyst, after the close of treatment, finally to

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 become something analogous to that of a child
who has grown up, developed his own proper
personality, left home to marry and run his own

life and affairs, but whose affection for his

parents, respect for their experience and good
qualities, and pleasure in their interest and
goodwill remains on an adult level.

REFERENCES

Allport, G. W. (1949). Personality. London:

Constable and Co.

Burt, C. (1941). Is the doctrine of instincts dead? A

symposium. I. The case for human instincts.
British Journal of Educational Psychology
11:155-172.

_____ (1943). Is the doctrine of instincts dead? A

symposium. VII. Conclusion. British Journal of
Educational Psychology 13:1-15.

Dobree, B. (1952). The Listener, 12 June.

Eysenck, H. J. (1952a). Quarterly Bulletin of the

British Psychological Society 3, no. 16 (April).

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 _____ (1952b). 3, no. 17 (July).

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1943). The repression and the

return of bad objects. British Journal of
Educational Psychology 19. (Reprinted as
chapter 3 in Psychoanalytic Studies of the
Personality (1952). London: Tavistock
Publications Ltd.)

Flügel, J. C. (1945). Man, Morals and Society.

London: Duckworth.

Freud, S. (1922). Psycho-analysis. Collected Papers,

vol. 5. London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1923). A neurosis of demoniacal possession

in the seventeenth century. Collected Papers,
vol. 4. London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1937). Analysis terminable and interminable.

Collected Papers, vol. 5. London: Hogarth
Press.

Fromm, E. (1942). The Fear of Freedom. London:

Kegan Paul.

Gitelson, M. (1952). The emotional position of the

analyst in the psycho-analytic situation.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 33.

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 Guntrip, H. (1948). Psychology for Ministers and
Social Workers. London: Independent Press.

Horney, K. (1939). New Ways in Psycho-Analysis.

London: Kegan Paul.

Jung, C. G. (1933). Modem Man in Search of a Soul.

London: Kegan Paul.

MacMurray, J. (1936). The Structure of Religious

Experience. London: Faber.

Money-Kyrle, R. (1951). Psycho-Analysis and

Politics. London: Duckworth.

Myers, C. S. (1942). Is the doctrine of instincts dead?

A symposium. VI. Retrospect and prospect.
British Journal of Educational Psychology
12:148-155.

Pear, T. H. (1942). Is the doctrine of instincts dead?

A symposium. V. Not dead, but obsolescent?
British Journal of Educational Psychology
12:139-147.

Russell, B. (1925). What I Believe. London: Kegan

Paul.

Sullivan, H. S. (1947). Conception of Modem

Psychiatry. Washington, DC: William Alanson

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 White Psychiatric Foundation.

Thompson, C. (1952). Psycho-Analysis: Its

Evolution and Development. London: Allen and
Unwin.

Thouless, R. H. (1951). Social and General

Psychology, 3rd ed. London: University Tutorial
Press.

Vernon, P. E. (1942). British Journal of Educational

Psychology 12:1.

Note
[5] Expanded from a paper read on May 8, 1952 at the Clinical
Discussion Group, Department of Psychiatry, Leeds
University.

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 3

OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY AS A

SYNTHESIS OF THE INTRAPSYCHIC
AND THE INTERPERSONAL

Psychoanalytical theory has been in a state

of continuous development from the beginning.
The genius of its creator, Sigmund Freud, so

dominated this process that, during his lifetime,

theoretical developments were almost if not
quite wholly determined by himself. Here and
there in his writings he adopts suggestions from

some fellow workers, while their contributions

were in the main elaborations and developments

of new theories which he himself propounded.

In sober truth all the fundamental new ideas did

come from Freud himself.

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 Though we await the judgement of an
impartial historian of psychoanalysis (if such

there can be in matters so closely touching

human emotions) it is probably not unfair to
state that the works of men like Jung, W. Reich

and Rank, each in different ways, exhibited

ultimately a speculative bent rather than the
predominantly scientific, analytical, clinical line

of Freud, while Adler may be said to have raised

the problem of ego-analysis prematurely, and too
superficially. But it must be admitted that
Freud’s own speculative bent broke out in his
theory of the death instinct. He himself wrote:
‘What follows is speculation, often far-fetched

speculation, which the reader will consider or

dismiss according to his individual predilection’
(1920, p. 27). Nevertheless, he thereafter refers

to the conclusions of this book as if they were

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 now established facts. His speculations in the
realm of the application of psychoanalysis to

sociology have less bearing on basic matters of

theory than have those in the book just quoted.

It was, however, indisputably Freud’s own

work that established psychoanalysis as a

coherent and closely knit system. Perhaps it was
inevitable that in the first phase of

psychodynamic investigation schools formed in

isolation from one another, and an unscientific
atmosphere of ‘orthodoxy versus heresy and
deviation’ arose. At least this protected the

distinctive features of Freud’s own work, which

could have been obscured and lost, to the great

disadvantage of future workers. Development

has gone on within the psychoanalytic

movement more narrowly defined, and it has

been felt necessary to state that theoretical

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 progress cannot be halted with the death of
Freud. Brierley writes:

As knowledge grows, older hypotheses

become inadequate and have to be revised,
expanded, or reformulated to contain newer
facts. Freud did this himself, time after
time, and if psycho-analysis is to continue
to develop as a living science this process
of recasting hypotheses and expanding
theory must also continue. ... To expect to
conserve the letter of all Freud’s
statements, as a kind of ‘Bible of Psycho-
analysis’ is to condemn psycho-analytic
enquiry to stasis and, therefore,
psychoanalysis as a science to death.
[1951, p. 89]

But it is not insignificant that such words needed

to be written. In a broad sense an unconscious

pattern of development as a process of a

dialectical type can now be discerned. Recent
developments have not been haphazard and
purely individualistic contributions. They have

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 rather been determined by, and have arisen out
of, that larger and all-embracing milieu of

cultural change within which psychoanalysts

like all other investigators must do their
thinking. For example the influence of sociology

(a science much less developed in Freud’s

creative period than now), on American
psychoanalytic thought is recognized. Fairbairn

has referred to the influence of a changing

scientific and cultural orientation in calling for a
revision of basic psychoanalytical theory at
those points where it was determined by the
atomistic scientific outlook of Helmholtz, a view
that now no longer dominates physics or science

in general. Furthermore, in Freud’s day, the

concept of the ‘person’ and of ‘personality’ had

not assumed the importance in philosophical

thinking that it came to do later, with far-

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 reaching effects on all the human sciences.
Culturally and conceptually, to-day is the era of

human personal relationships rather than of

instincts; the problem is, given innate
endowment, how is that shaped by what goes on

between people?

In tracing out the broadly dialectical pattern

of development in psychoanalytical theory, we
find some help (again, only in a broad way) in

taking note of the differences between

psychoanalytical thinking in different
geographical areas. Balint, in 1937, referred to

different emphases in London, Vienna and

Budapest. We can recognize the same
phenomenon on a larger scale affecting total

theoretical orientation. A useful way of

correlating recent developments is the following
dialectical scheme, which, however, is not

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 intended to be pressed rigidly or regarded as a
strictly chronological development, but used

only as a guiding idea:

Thesis. The original European

psychobiology of Freud and his early coworkers

from 1890 onwards, an ‘instinct-theory’ which

was not modified by the later development in the
1920’s of a more purely psychological ego-
analysis. This may be referred to as the classic

psychoanalytical teaching.

Antithesis. The rise of psychosociology in

America, in the ‘culture-pattern’ and ‘character-
analysis’ theories of writers like Karen Horney,
Erich Fromm, and H. S. Sullivan, from the

1930’s.

Synthesis. The elaboration in Great Britain

of a different theoretical orientation which,

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 while not indifferent to sociological and
biological considerations, developed the

concepts of the ‘internal object’ and the ‘inner

psychic world’ as parallel to external objects and
the outer world, and so comes to correlate the

internal and the external object-relationships in

which the personality is involved. This
development arises out of the work of Melanie

Klein and others, and is worked out in a

systematic and comprehensive way by Fairbairn.
It too dates from the 1930’s.

Clara Thompson, in her recent book (1952),

unfortunately only deals with phases one and

two and quite ignores the British contribution
which is in truth an exceedingly radical and

important one.

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 THESIS: THE CLASSIC FREUDIAN
THEORY
In order to make clear where and why
development was needed, we must consider

certain aspects of the theory of psychoanalysis

as laid down by Freud. Considered
developmentally his work falls into two parts.

The instinct theory (1890 to 1920) culminated in

the monograph Beyond the Pleasure Principle

where he outlined his final view of a dualism of

instinctive equipment, libido and aggression, the

life and death instincts. After that Freud

produced a considerable reorientation in his
thinking, with the development of ego-analysis
and the scheme of psychic structure, namely the
id, ego and super-ego. Hartmann, Kris &.

Loewenstein write:

Since a structural viewpoint was

introduced into psychoanalytic thinking,
hypotheses previously established must be
reintegrated. The task of synchronization is

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 larger than it might seem at first. [1946, p.
12]

We have then to consider what criticisms of

instinct theory in general, and of Freud’s instinct
theory in particular, and also what criticisms of

his scheme of psychic structure, have arisen; and

what is the relationship between these two parts
of Freud’s theory. To consider only criticisms,

which is our business here, may seem an unduly

negative approach to Freud’s work, so we should
remember that the most constructive critics
themselves rest on a firm basis of Freud’s

discoveries, and their criticism is evidence of the

vitality of his achievement.

Freud’s Instinct Theory

The concept of instinct was borrowed by

Freud as a working concept to start with. It was
already current in the biological and general

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 thought of his day and was much used by
academic psychologists. Freud and W.
McDougall made instinct the basis of their
psychological theories. Broadly speaking the
concept has proved of more use in animal than
in human psychology. Animal behavior is

largely based on specific instincts resting on a

definite neurological structure. The nest-building
instinct of birds, the web-spinning instinct of

spiders, the pecking instinct of the newly

hatched chick, are cases in point; though as one

comes higher up in the scale of complexity of

animal life, intelligence becomes an increasingly
obvious factor in modifying pure instinctive
reaction. McDougall ultimately replaced the

concept of instinct by that of ‘propensity’, a

more vague and general term, in the case of
human beings. Any simple instinct theory is now

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 viewed with disfavour by academic
psychologists, though the existence of innate

motivational factors is accepted. Thouless sums

up his discussion as follows:

There seems to be no reason for denying

the existence of human instincts or
propensities if these are defined as innate
forces behind behaviour. It seems better to
avoid the word ‘instinct’ in connection
with human behaviour, since this word may
lead to misunderstanding. On the other
hand, it is doubtful whether the conception
of human instincts or propensities is of
much service in explaining differences
between societies or between individuals,
since it is not possible to determine how far
these differences are innate and how far
they are acquired. There seem to be strong
reasons for rejecting the doctrine that the
driving forces behind human behavior are
entirely derived from innate propensities.
[1951, p. 41]

Allport states his views in the following words:

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 The instinct theory asserts that there are …
propensities operating ‘prior to experience
and independent of training’. ... In recent
years it has become common to reject this
somewhat extravagant portrayal of human
purposes. … The doctrine of drive is a
rather crude biological conception. … The
personality itself supplies many of the
forces to which it must adjust. [1949, p.
119]

The psychology of personality must be a

psychology of post-instinctive behavior. …
Whatever the original drives or
‘irritabilities’ of the infant are, they
become completely transformed in the
course of growth into contemporaneous
systems of motives. [1949, pp. 194-195]

Thus the sucking reflex in the newborn

infant is instinctive like the innate specific

behavior patterns of more primitive forms of
life, but the ‘sucking need and the sucking
attitude to life’ of the adult neurotic is certainly

no simple instinctive phenomenon. The general

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 innate factors in man are better described in the
term of C. S. Myers as ‘innate directional

determining tendencies’ to react in certain ways

when certain types of situation call for
appropriate response. In particular, it is not held

that specific impulses exist prior to experience.

Rather an innate tendency is a precondition of a
specific impulse arising in response to a specific

environmental object or situation. Thus the

‘instinct’ of aggression would not mean that we
are permanently charged with an aggressive
drive, always straining at the leash and seeking
an outlet, whether there be good cause for anger
and attack or not. Anger and aggression form an

innate potentiality for reaction when we meet

with frustration or danger.

This general position of academic

psychology with respect to the theory of instinct

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 is of great interest when we consider the views
that Freud propounded. The general

development of his instinct theory is well

known. It passed through three stages. First,
instincts of self-preservation and race

preservation, of hunger and sex, were suggested,

the former being regarded as ego-instincts and
the latter as belonging to the primary

unconscious. With the theory of narcissism,

Freud recognized libidinal or sexual instincts in
the ego; and he finally determined on the
dualism of libido and aggression in the form of
life instincts and death instincts. These libidinal
and destructive drives were both innate and

operated prior to experience, and were at

perpetual warfare in the organism. Aggression

had nothing originally to do with frustration and

operated primarily within the organism, working

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 towards its destruction. What we know
practically and clinically as aggression was the
extraversion of this original self-destructive
innate drive, its turning outwards against objects

in the interests of self-preservation. This theory

means that the basic conflict within human
nature is ultimately irreducible and its final

outcome in the victory of the destructive drive is

only staved off for a time by compromises in
which the two opposite drives coalesce, as in

sadism and masochism, or else are both turned

upon objects as in ambivalence, a problem
which is then practically solved for the time

being through keeping the two drives apart by

choosing different objects for love and hate.

Freud’s early paper, ‘Civilized sexual

morality and modern nervousness’ (1908),
illustrates a view of instinct from which he never

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 really departed. The impulses of sex and
aggression are dangerous innate forces which

operate without regard to social necessities and

moral values. The ego must defend itself against
them at all costs, but is shut up to three

possibilities. It can repress them and become

neurotic, or express them and become criminal,
or (and this is a possibility open only to the

favored few) sublimate them into socially

acceptable activities that have cultural value. On
this view psychotherapy is limited to (a)
strengthening the ego against the force of the
innate drives, and (b) persuading society to
lower its cultural demands to the absolute

capacity of human beings. In the paper referred

to, Freud writes:

Our civilization is, generally speaking,

founded on the suppression of instincts.
Each individual has contributed some

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 renunciation of his sense of dominating
power, and the aggressive and vindictive
tendency of his personality. From these
sources the common stock of the material
and ideal wealth of civilization has been
accumulated. [1908, p. 82]

The task of mastering such a mighty

impulse as the sexual instinct is one which
may well absorb all the energies of a
human being. Mastery through
sublimation, diverting the sexual energy
away from its sexual goal to higher cultural
aims, succeeds with a minority, and with
them only intermittently ... of the others,
most become neurotic or otherwise come to
grief. [1908, p. 88]

Granting the correctness of this theory of

biochemically determined instinctive drives
existing prior to experience and possessing a
fixed and absolute quantity of energy, Freud’s

conclusions follow quite logically. His dilemma

is that the denial of instinct is necessary for

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 culture and civilization, whilst the gratification
of instinct and the relaxation of culture is
necessary for health. This pessimistic conclusion

may well arouse our suspicions, which find

support in the criticism of instinct theory by
academic psychologists, for whom instinct has
more and more fallen into the background, as a
primary potentiality for reaction which is shaped
to specific modes of behavior only by post-natal

experience. This in fact was what Freud himself

came to understand when he undertook his

analysis of the ego, and created his theory of

psychic structure, which allows for motivational
forces which were not originally present in the
psyche but come into existence as a result of

internalizing external, parental and social,

demands. But Freud did not recognize that this

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 necessitated a revision of his original theory of

instincts.

It is, of course, true that human beings

present all the appearance of being possessed of

dangerous and socially recalcitrant sexual and

aggressive drives, but psychoanalytic study of
these phenomena has itself made it clear that

they are not in that form innate and essentially

unmodifiable impulses. They are, in fact,
neurotic phenomena, and when the innate
potentialities of human beings operate in a

mature and mentally healthy person they do not

take this form of dangerous anti-social drives
calling for mastery by repression or sublimation.

It seems that Freud early confused ‘instinctual’

and ‘neurotic’ and created a theory of instincts
which implies that our fundamental drive to
activity, our ‘life-force’, is simply the energy of

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 physical appetite and not a function of the ‘total
personality’. Sexual difficulties are now seen as
due not to the constitutional strength of the
sexual instinct, but to the developmental
immaturity of the whole personality, and more
specifically to the internal and unconscious

perpetuation in the psyche of the frustrating

object-relationships of early life. The same
applies to compulsive aggressive tendencies.

Neurotic suffering is not due to the repression of

strong and healthy constitutional sexuality and

aggression, but to the struggle to master

infantile and immature impulses which are
continually evoked in the unconscious inner
world. The important issue at stake,

theoretically, is that if Freud’s instinct theory

were correct, the problem could only be solved
by repression or cultural regression, except for a

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 favoured minority. The diagnosis now available

at least opens the possibility of solving the

problem by promoting conditions that aid the
emotional maturing of the individual without

necessitating the sacrifice of cultural aims.

Freud’s theory involves a negative theory of

culture, as existing to enforce and reconcile men

to renunciation of instincts. His view of culture

arose from his theory that aggressive and
libidinal impulses are essentially nonaltruistic

and represent a basic biologically determined

instinctive endowment, which lies behind even
their aggravated and frustrated forms, and which

cannot be changed. Thus human nature is

innately unfitted for, and hostile to, good
personal relationships. It is only fitted for the
exploitation of objects in the interests of

biological, appetitive needs. Freud’s picture of

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 the ‘state of nature’ in The Future of an Illusion
(1927, p. 25) outdoes Hobbes’s picture of it as
‘nasty, brutish and short’. There is no room here

for such a conception as that of the realization of

a man’s true nature and individuality in
development towards maturity.

It will be convenient to include at this point

the criticism of Freud’s theory of instinct put
forward by the American ‘culture-pattern’
school, and, from a different point of view, by
Fairbairn, leaving their positive contributions for
later consideration. Clara Thompson has
summarized the criticisms made by such writers

as Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and H. S.

Sullivan in her book. She writes:

The emphasis on constitution turned

attention away from what we would now
call the cultural orientation. … The
impression grew on Freud that the patient

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 fell ill primarily because of the strength of
his own constitutional drives. ... It tended
to close his mind to the significance of
environment and led him to pay too little
attention to the role of the emotional
problems of parents in contributing to the
difficulties of their children. … Freud did
not envision people in terms of developing
powers and total personalities. He thought
of them much more mechanistically—as
victims of the search for the release of
tension. [1952, pp. 9-10, 42-43]

These writers maintain that the neurotic

sexuality of oral, anal and genital kinds, and the
manner of sexual development through oral, anal
and genital phases, which Freud took to be a

basic biological phenomenon, is highly

culturally conditioned. Customs of breast-

feeding, and of cleanliness training, and

tolerance or intolerance of the child’s early

masturbatory activities, are the main

determining factors in the patterning of sexuality

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 around these functions. Similarly, the degree of
intensity of the Oedipus conflict is determined
by the extent to which neurotic parents force this
situation upon the child, so that it is not to be
regarded as mainly an inevitable biological
phenomenon. Differing cultural patterns play a

large part in determining the kind of pressures

parents put upon their children, often leading to
the gross inhibition of any kind of natural and

spontaneous behaviour on the part of the child.

Karen Horney regarded what Freud called

instincts as largely ‘neurotic personality trends’.

Freud’s theory of a death instinct has met

with much criticism. Otto Fenichel cites a

number of objections of which the chief are as
follows:

There is no proof that (aggressive drives)

always and necessarily came into being by

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 a turning outwards of more primary self-
destructive drives. ... It seems rather as if
aggressiveness were originally ... a mode in
which instinctual aims are sometimes
striven for, in response to frustrations or
even spontaneously. ... A death instinct
would not be compatible with the approved
biological concept of instinct. The clinical
facts of self-destruction likewise do not
necessitate the assumption of a genuine
self-destructive instinct. [1945, p. 60]

Thompson writes:

[Freud] assumes that suicide and

destructiveness towards other are products
of the death instinct. More recent
observations by others, however, suggest
that they have much more to do with the
feeling of being thwarted in living. …
Aggression normally appears in response
to frustration. It represents a distortion of
the attempt to master life, but cruelty for its
own sake probably only occurs as a result
of having experienced it from others. Far
from being a product of the death instinct,

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 it is an expression of the organism’s
attempt to live. [1952, pp. 52-54]

Fairbairn’s criticism of Freud’s instinct

theory is based on fundamental theoretical

considerations which go beyond clinical
observation. It is bound up with the problem of
psychic structure and the question of general

cultural orientation already mentioned. Fairbairn

writes:

If ‘impulses’ cannot be considered apart

from objects, whether external or internal,
it is equally impossible to consider them
apart from ego structures. … ‘Impulses’
are but the dynamic aspects of endopsychic
structures, and cannot be said to exist in the
absence of such structures. … Ultimately,
‘impulses’ must be simply regarded as
constituting the forms of activity in which
the life of ego structures consists. [1952, p.
88]

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 Thus Fairbairn discards Freud’s divorce of
energy and structure, involved in differentiating

an id and an ego. For Freud the id is the source

of instinctive energies, id-impulses, while the
ego is the organized structure of controls. He

favours instead a theory of ‘dynamic structure’

in which energy and structure are not treated as
separate factors, but ‘instincts’ are the ‘forms of

energy’ and ‘impulses’ are the ‘forms of

activity’ which ‘constitute the dynamic of
endopsychic structures’. This theory avoids the
now outmoded ‘atomistic’ type of theory. He
writes:

Freud’s divorce of energy from structure

represents a limitation imposed upon his
thought by the general scientific
atmosphere of his day. The scientific
atmosphere of Freud’s day was largely
dominated by the Helmholtzian conception
that the universe consisted in a

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 conglomeration of inert, immutable and
indivisible particles to which motion was
imparted by a fixed quantity of energy
separate from these particles. However,
modern atomic physics has changed all
that. ... So far as psychoanalysis is
concerned, one of the unfortunate results of
the divorce of energy from structure is that,
in its dynamic aspects, psychoanalytical
theory has been unduly permeated by
conceptions of hypothetical ‘impulses’ and
‘instincts’ which bombard passive
structures. … From the standpoint of
dynamic structure, ‘instinct’ is not the
stimulus to psychic activity, but itself
consists in characteristic activity on the
part of a psychical structure. Similarly,
‘impulse’ is not, so to speak, a kick in the
pants administered out of the blue to a
surprised, and perhaps somewhat pained,
ego, but a psychical structure in action—a
psychical structure doing something to
something or somebody. [1952, p. 150]

Thus Fairbairn envisages:

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 A replacement of the outmoded impulse
psychology, which, once adopted, Freud
had never seen fit to abandon, by a new
psychology of dynamic structure,

in which (and this conforms with the views of

academic psychology on the question) instincts
as mental entities are discarded and

the instinctive endowment of mankind only

assumes the form of general trends which
require experience to enable them to
acquire a more differentiated pattern.
[1952, p. 157]

Nor are the structural units to be hypostatized

either. He refers to

[t]he impossibility of regarding these

functioning structural units as mental
entities. After all, the general tendency of
modern science is to throw suspicion upon
entities; and it was under the influence of
this tendency that the old ‘faculty
psychology’ perished. Perhaps the
arrangement of mental phenomena into
functioning structural groups is the most

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 that can be attempted by psychological
science. At any rate, it would appear
contrary to the spirit of modern science to
confer the status of entity upon ‘instincts’;
and in the light of modern knowledge an
instinct seems best regarded as a
characteristic dynamic pattern of behavior.
[1952, p. 218]

Fairbairn has undoubtedly raised, in this

discussion of the concept of ‘instinct’, the

fundamental issue for psychoanalytical theory.
The publication of E. Jones’s Sigmund Freud:
Life and Work, vol 1, and of Freud’s letters to
Fleiss (1954) has confirmed in the clearest
possible way the tremendous extent to which

Freud’s thinking was dominated by the scientific

outlook of his time, and in particular by the

concepts of Helmholtzian physical and

physiological atomistic views. It is established
that Freud to the end regarded psychological,

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 and psychoanalytical, theories as a stop-gap
mode of thinking to be used consistently and

exhaustively, but only until such time as the

phenomena can be explained in physical terms.
In fact the theorizing of Freud is to a large extent

the transference into the psychological sphere of

the broad pattern of ‘thought-forms’
characteristic of physical science. It is this, in

the end, that makes necessary the radical re-

thinking of the theories by means of which he
explained the far-reaching discoveries he made
concerning mental functioning. Freud’s thought-
forms are revealed in such terms as ‘mental
apparatus’, ‘defence mechanism’, the

impersonality of the biological id, etc., and this

type of theory needs to be recast into terms

suitable to the study of personal phenomena. M.

Brierley’s consideration of psychoanalysis from

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 the point of view of personology points this way,

though her treatment of it as process theory

perpetuates the earlier point of view of reducing
personal to impersonal phenomena.

Freud’s Ego-Psychology and Structural Concepts

In his early studies of hysteria Freud was

naturally preoccupied with dissociation
phenomena, and therefore with the

differentiation of the psyche into conscious and

unconscious, and with the reformulation of

dissociation into dynamic repression. He then

became concerned with the study of what was
repressed and created his instinct and libido
theory. His later study of depression and of

obsessional neurosis turned his attention to the

factor producing repression. This he regarded as
a moral factor, conscience reinforcing the

controlling ego, and so he came to plan out the

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 organizational pattern of the total psyche in
structural terms. The result looks very much like

a scientific description of the traditional tripartite

division of personality into body, mind and
spirit; i.e. instincts, the self of everyday life, and

conscience; the id, ego and super-ego.

Nevertheless, this was a tremendously
significant theoretical advance. Psychic conflict
had hitherto been understood in terms of the

controlling ego mastering instinct-derivatives,

isolated impulses, in deference to outer reality.

Now the problem of conflict between the ego

and the super-ego arises and this is a problem of
conflict between psychic structures as theoretical
wholes within the larger whole of the total

psyche. This ought naturally to have led to a

reformulation of the earlier view of repression of
isolated impulses, by way of a structural

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 definition of that aspect of personality
represented by the basic, natural, instinctive

needs. Instead the two different views were

allowed to continue side by side. As Hartmann,
Kris and Loewenstein say:

Functions of the id center around the basic

needs of man … rooted in instinctual
drives. … Functions of the ego center
around the relation to reality ... we speak of
the ego as of a specific organ of
adjustment. … Functions of the super-ego
center around moral demands. Self-
criticism … self-punishment and the
formation of ideals. [1946, p. 15]

This Freudian scheme of psychic structure

laid the foundations for all subsequent study of
the internal dynamics of personality in terms of
a properly psychological and psycho-dynamic

theory, even though it does not prove immune

from criticism, and, as Fairbairn puts it, ‘a

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 developing psychology of the ego came to be
superimposed upon an already established

psychology of instinct’ (1952, p. 59). Critical

examination of this scheme has mainly come
from orthodox Freudians and from Fairbairn.

The culture-pattern writers have little to say

about this problem.

The Id and the Ego

It is at once apparent that ‘id’ is a biological

concept, while ‘ego’ and ‘super-ego’ are

psychological concepts, so that the scheme rests
on mixed principles of classification. The id is

natural energy, which is conceived as separate

from ego and super-ego which are structural
developments. Alexander writes:

The notion of the id, as originally defined,

is problematical. Strictly speaking, a
completely unorganized, inherited mass of

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 instinctual urges is not found even at birth.
Learning starts immediately at birth, and it
is therefore difficult to see at what period
the sharp distinction between an
unorganized id and an organized ego
obtains. [1949, p. 83]

Hartmann et al. deal with this problem:

Freud speaks of a gradual differentiation of

the ego from the id; and as an end result of
this process of differentiation the ego, as a
highly structured organization, is opposed
to the id. Freud’s formulation has obvious
disadvantages. It implies that the infant’s
equipment at birth is part of the id. It
seems, however, that the innate apparatus
and reflexes cannot all be part of the id, in
the sense generally accepted in
psychoanalysis. We suggest a different
assumption; namely, that of an
undifferentiated phase during which both
the id and the ego are formed. . . .To the
degree to which differentiation takes place
man is equipped with a special organ of
adaptation, i.e. with the ego. … The
differentiation accounts for the nature of

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 the instinctual drives of man, sharply
distinguished as they are from animal
instincts. … Many manifestations of the id
are farther removed from reality than any
comparable behaviour of animals. [1946, p.
19]

Thus we have the id and ego as parallel

differentiations within the primary and at first

undifferentiated total psychic self, while the id is
no longer simply instinct such as is found in
animals. They further describe the differentiation
of ego and id as brought about by the infant’s
mixed experience of part deprivation and part

gratification. The ego is evidently the primary

self in so far as it adjusts itself to reality by
reconciling itself to deprivation or postponement
of satisfaction, while the id is plainly that same

primary self in so far as it goes on demanding

gratification. All justification for the continued
use of the impersonal term ‘id’ has thus gone.

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 We must anticipate by observing that so far
apparently only Fairbairn has recognized this

and discarded the unsatisfactory term ‘id’ in

favour of the term ‘libidinal ego’, the primary
natural self with its libidinal needs. It is in no

sense a mere impersonal biological energy. In

Freud’s sense the id is not a structure properly
speaking, and what it represents can only be

included in a structural scheme if its proper

‘ego’ or ‘personal self quality is recognized.

The Ego

The Freudian ego is that part of the primary

self which is modified to conform to the
demands of the environment, becoming an organ

of adaptation. This raises acute problems.

Hartmann et al. observe that ‘Freud’s use of the

word [ego] is ambiguous. He uses ego in

reference to a psychical organization and to the

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 whole person’ (1946, p. 16). Prior to the
publication of Beyond the Pleasure Principle

(1920), psychoanalysis ‘had first come to know

[the ego] only as a repressive, censoring agency’
(p. 69). With the development of the theory of

narcissism the ego expanded into ‘the true and

original reservoir of libido and it is only from
that reservoir that libido is extended on to

objects’ (p. 70). He considered further that the

ego contained destructive instincts as well. Just
as object-libido was the extraversion of
narcissistic ego-libido, so aggression against
objects was the extraversion of self-destructive
ego trends. The ego had swallowed up

everything and become in effect the primary,

unitary total psychic self, i.e. the whole person,

the primary reservoir of all instinctual energies,

libidinal and aggressive. In Group Psychology

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 and the Analysis of the Ego Freud wrote (1921)
‘the ego’s nucleus, which comprises the “archaic
inheritance” of the human mind, is unconscious’
(p. 10, footnote). This is really the concept of the
primary psychic self of the undifferentiated
phase of Hartmann, Kris and Loewenstein, out

of which the Freudian conforming, adaptive, ego

is differentiated from the natural libidinal self
(the Freudian id).

With The Ego and the Id (1923), however,

Freud explicitly repudiated that view. ‘Some

earlier suggestions about a “nucleus of the ego”,
never very definitely formulated, require to be

put right, since the system Pcpt-cs (perceptual

consciousness) alone can be regarded as the
nucleus of the ego’ (pp. 34-35, footnote 2). He
here swings back to restricting the term ego to
the superficial phenomenon of anxiety-

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 motivated adaptation to outer reality, while the
rest of the total self is relegated to an impersonal

id. This gives us little help in dealing with the

statement of one of my patients: ‘I have grown
up to be an outer shell of conformities and I’ve

lost touch with any real “me” inside.’ The

problem may be expressed as by Karen Horney
in her criticism that Freud’s ego is a neurotic

phenomenon. It emerges in a much more

profound way in the views of Winnicott. We
have already observed that Freud’s scheme is

clearly linked to the traditional tripartite division

of body, mind and spirit, i.e. id, ego and super-

ego. The equating of body and id, mind and ego

is implied in Winnicott’s paper, ‘Mind and its

relation to the psyche-soma’ (1954, pp. 201-

209). Thus he writes:

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 The mind of an individual … specializes
out from the psyche-soma. The mind does
not exist as an entity in the individual’s
scheme of things provided the individual
psyche-soma or body scheme has come
satisfactorily through the very early
developmental stages; mind is then no
more than a special case of the functioning
of the psyche-soma. In the study of a
developing individual the mind will often
be found to be developing a false entity,
and a false localization, [p. 201]

Certain kinds of failure on the part of the

mother, especially erratic behaviour,
produce over-anxiety of the mental
functioning. Here, in the overgrowth of the
mental function reactive to erratic
mothering, we see that there can develop
an opposition between the mind and the
psyche-soma. … Clinically this can go
along with ... a false personal growth on a
compliance basis. … The psyche of the
individual gets ‘seduced’ away into this
mind from the intimate relationship which
the psyche originally had with the soma.

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 The result is a mind-psyche, which is
pathological, [p. 203]

The mind is located then in the head while

the psyche-soma is left to reside in the body.
This is, in fact, a description of Freud’s view of
the differentiation of the ego, as an adaptive,
conforming function, from the id which it is

supposed to control. But like Horney, Winnicott

recognizes that this ego is a pathological, false
growth. He also clearly implies that the id, or
better psyche-soma, is the primary, natural self,

and is by no means impersonal.

In his paper on ‘Metapsychological and

clinical aspects of regression within the

psychoanalytical set-up’ (Winnicott 1955, pp.
16-26) the psyche-soma becomes the ‘true self’
and the ‘mind’ becomes the ‘false self’. The

patient may have a genuine need for a

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 therapeutic regression in order to recover his

‘true self’, while the ‘false self acts meanwhile

as a ‘caretaker self’ in its adaptation to the outer
world, until the ‘true self’ develops and the
‘false self’ can be surrendered to the analyst. We

are very far here from the Freudian concepts of

the id and ego, but we are much nearer to
psychological realities. Winnicott has not

suggested that his views imply a revision of

Freud’s scheme of psychic structure. But clearly
the psyche-soma is not an impersonal id, but the
primary, natural self, the libidinal psyche, and it
is the ‘true self’ with which the patient must
recover contact. There is no place, however, in

Freud’s scheme for the concept of a ‘true self’

for it is certainly neither id nor ego in Freud’s
sense. Similarly, the ‘mind’ or ‘false self’

represents the adaptive, conforming aspect of the

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 psyche as a pathological ego-growth in so far as
it is split off from and opposed to the id, psyche-
soma, or true primary self. This important

clinical fact is not provided for in Freud’s

concept of the ego, and it is clear that his
‘differentiation of the ego from the id’ in fact
conceals the fundamental splitting of the
originally unitary psychic self which is the basis
of all psychosis and psycho-neurosis. We may

observe that the terms ‘true’ and ‘false’ self are

not strictly scientific terms but rather descriptive
and evaluatory, and a new terminology is
required to replace the id and ego of Freud’s
scheme.

The Super-ego

Here again Freud’s striking term has proved

to be only the first step towards the analysis of

the clinical facts. Alexander made sometimes a

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 more and at other times a less rigid distinction

between an unconscious super-ego and a

conscious ego-ideal, though he did not take up
Melanie Klein’s distinction between persecutory

and depressive anxiety. He treats the super-ego

as a moral phenomenon throughout. Melanie
Klein treats a very early and purely sadistic

super-ego as a bad internal object. In general,

orthodox writers provide no solution to the
problem of the relationship between this very

early sadistic internal persecutor as, properly

speaking, a premoral or non-moral function, and
the later developed moral conscience with which

it can fuse in varying degrees. Hartmann, Kris

and Loewenstein (1946) also regard the super-
ego as complex, though in a somewhat different

way. They adhere to Freud’s view that the super-

ego is a creation of the oedipal conflict; it is a

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 castrator and a phallic phase phenomenon. On
the other hand, they regard morality as having its
origins in the pre-oedipal period. The super-ego
functions have ‘precursors’ (p. 33) which, like
the super-ego, develop on the basis of
identifications with parents, compliance with

their demands, guilt over rebellion and the

turning of aggression against the self (p. 32).
Thus the super-ego appears now to be, not the

origin of morality, but only one, though a very

special one, of its later developments in the

particular critical oedipal phase. In opposition to

the general trend of the views of Alexander and
Melanie Klein, their view is that the origins of
the ‘ego-ideal’ are earlier than the formation of

the cruel, sadistic, castrating super-ego. Thus of

the three terms, id, ego and super-ego, the term
super-ego seems in the end to be the most

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 unsatisfactory by reason of its confusing

complexity and it stands in need of closer

analysis on the basis of clinical material.

THE ‘CULTURE-PATTERN’ THEORY: A

SOCIOLOGICAL ANTITHESIS

The work of Karen Horney and Erich

Fromm, and in a remoter sense H. S. Sullivan,

may be considered as a development of Adler’s

early attempt to analyse the ego in terms of
inferiority feelings and compensatory power-

drives, though their analysis is far more

extensive and benefits from the impact of
detailed cultural and sociological studies. Like

Adler, they sit lightly to the Freudian concept of

the deep unconscious and, for that reason, their
illuminating studies of the importance of

‘culture-patterns’ in neurosis have more

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 descriptive importance in extension than
explanatory value in etiological depth.

Fromm and Horney

Erich Fromm is more the analytically

orientated social psychologist dealing with
politics, morality and religion, and relating

psychological to economic factors. He regards

human problems as arising, not out of the need
to satisfy instincts, but out of ‘the specific kind
of relatedness of the individual towards the

world and to himself’ (Mullahy 1948, p. 241).

The basic concept of all these writers is that our

specific ways of dealing with our human

environment are cultural, not instinctual,
phenomena. Fromm and Horney both came

finally to stress an idea that Freud made no use

of, but which appears in Jung as ‘individuation’,
and recently in Winnicott’s concept of ‘the true

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 self’, namely, that individuals under the stress of

anxiety create a false, socially conformist,

superficial self beneath which their true nature
and potentialities fail to be realized.

Karen Horney analysed conscious and

preconscious motivations, especially the more
deeply unrecognized character traits manifested

by an individual in his human relationships in

the present day. Unlike Reich (1934) these
writers do not recognize this as the analysis of a
defensive character-armour that bars the way to
the deep unconscious. Thus their work is
condemned to an ultimate superficiality from the

point of view of psychodynamic theory. They

provide a dynamic account of the conscious and
preconscious ego (the Freudian ‘conforming’ or
‘adaptive’ or ‘reality-ego’ or Winnicott’s ‘false

self’) in its inter-personal relationships in the

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 external ‘here and now’. For Karen Horney,

neurosis was constituted by compulsive,

anxiety-motivated character-trends. These
originate in childhood in parent-child

relationships and develop under social pressures.

She does not, however, explain by what means
their original infantile hard core is perpetuated in

the psyche throughout life. Having discarded

instinct theory, she has nothing to put in its place
as a means of giving a structural view of the

deep unconscious as a region of psychic life

outside the socially adapted ego. To use
Allport’s term, Horney’s is a theory of the

‘functional autonomy’ of character-trends

formed in early life. The unconscious is for her
no longer the deep unconscious of fixation to

childhood love-objects in Freud’s sense. It is

rather simply the unrecognized aspects of

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 contemporary character-structure. She therefore
underestimates how literally early object-
relationships can be reproduced in transference,

both in analysis and in real life.

The truth is rather that while culture-patterns

and culturally imposed conflicts determine the

outbreak and form of neuroses, they do not

account for their deep unconscious etiology,
except in so far as they play a large part in

determining the kind of impact the parents make

on the infant and growing child. Horney has

only a functional, not a structural, view of the

unconscious in terms of the ordinary social self.

She has lost touch with the clinically observed

fact that early bad-object relationships become

encapsulated in the unconscious, and that the
neurotic constantly moulds later situations and
experiences to fit the internally preserved pattern

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 of early ones. She has allowed sociology to
influence her psychopathology, but has not
produced a psychopathology which could have a
profound influence on sociology.

Psychotherapy, with Horney and Fromm,

tends to have a moralistic flavour. It is a matter
of the individual discovering his unsuspected

anti-social trends so that he can correct them.

But since the persistence of the character-
formation of which they are a part is assumed

rather than explained, it is not clear how it can

be changed. The patient may well feel more

guilty than ever over his lack of success. Horney

rendered an important service in shifting the

emphasis from instincts to human relationships,

and in analysing compulsive sexual and
aggressive trends as themselves neurotic needs
for love and power, not natural manifestations of

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 instincts. But these ‘neurotic character-trends’
still remain inexplicable solely in terms of

culture patterns and external social pressures.

Her emphasis on true self-realization is of
extreme importance but it is weakened by the

absence of a sound theory of psychic structure.

H. S. Sullivan

Sullivan was an independent psychiatrist,

influenced by psychoanalysis, but working out a
theory of his own which he called ‘The Theory

of Interpersonal Relations.’ Nevertheless,

reference must be made to him, since he
illustrates so clearly the reaction from a

biological to a psychosocial point of view. He

held that ‘man is not a creature of instinct’
(1947, p. 14). In the words of Clara Thompson:

‘He holds that, given a biological substrate, the

human is the product of interaction with other

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 human beings, that it is out of the personal and

social forces acting upon one from the day of

birth that the personality emerges’ (1952, p.
211).

Unlike Horney and Fromm, and the

emphasis developing in British psychoanalysis,
he regards the unique individuality of the

patients as outside the scope of science and so

confines himself solely to what goes on between
people, especially between the observed patient

and the psychotherapist as a participant

observer. The individual is under pressure from
his own needs and from those significant persons

around him whose approval he must have. His

personality develops as a ‘selfsystem’ or a ‘self-
dynamism’, which only includes what does not
incur parental disapproval. Anxiety excludes all

else. Human needs fall into two groups,

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 ‘satisfactions’ and ‘security’. Needs for
satisfactions arise out of the biological substrate,

such as needs for food, water, sleep, sex, etc.,

while needs for security are predominantly
cultural needs. ‘There is continuity between the

biological and the cultural. A human being is an

acculturated biological organism’ (Mullahy
1947, p. 122). It is in this process of

acculturation that our actual impulses and drives

are shaped.

Pre-existing fixed drives do not explain an

interpersonal situation. … [Human
behaviour] is malleable, fluid, changeable
to an almost incalculable degree. …
Interpersonal behaviour does not occur,
obviously, in a mechanical, rigidly
stereotyped manner. ... It is, then, a-person-
integrated-in-a-situation-with-another-
person-to-persons, an inter-personal
situation, which one studies. ... It is
inaccurate to speak of a-person-in-

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 isolation-manifesting-this-or-that-
tendency-or-drive. [Mullahy 1947, p. 123]

This view, that impulses are functions of

object-relationship situations, is one aspect of
the view that Fairbairn puts forth. How near to
the British theory of ‘internal objects’ and

‘internal object-relationships’ Sullivan and his

school came is clear when they point out that
some of the ‘persons’ with whom one can have

interpersonal relations are ‘illusory’ or ‘fantastic

personifications’, and also that ‘impulses and
drives cohere in “dynamisms”, relatively

enduring configurations of energy’ (Mullahy

1947, p. 123). If the ‘fantastic personifications’
were recognized more fundamentally as Melanie

Klein’s ‘internal psychic objects’ and as

Fairbairn’s ‘dynamic object-structures’; and the
‘dynamisms’ as Fairbairn’s ‘ego-structures’,

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 then Sullivan would have transcended the

‘culture-pattern theory’. But he proceeded no

further on that line, and gives us instead a study
of the process of acculturation of the ‘self-

dynamism’ or conscious ego only. Perhaps

because his interest in schizophrenia did not
force on him problems of conscience and guilt
as distinct from anxiety, he provides no theory of

psychic structure beyond the ‘self-dynamism’ as

an anxiety-product, which also gives us no clue
to the problem of the realization of the true or

natural self. ‘The self may be said to be made up

of reflected appraisals’ (Sullivan 1947, p. 10).
Thus, as Horney said of the Freudian ego, it is a

neurotic phenomenon and not a healthy

development.

Sullivan’s theory of the ‘self-dynamism’,

Horney’s ‘idealized image of the self’, and

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 Fromm’s theory of ‘automaton conformity’, all
in different ways constitute a detailed study of

the results of family, social and cultural pressure

on ego development, and serve as an
investigation into Freud’s ‘reality-ego’, to the

neglect, however, of the Freudian deep

unconscious against which it is to so great an
extent a defensive barrier.

BRITISH DEVELOPMENTS. INTERNAL

OBJECTS AND THE INNER WORLD.
SYNTHESIS

The sociological reaction of the ‘culture-

pattern’ school served to bring human relations
rather than instincts to the forefront as the vital
determining factors in psychological

development. However, their neglect of the

unconscious confined them to the study of the
ordinary ego of everyday life. The great

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 achievement of the British psychoanalysts may
be said to consist in carrying the concept of
object-relationships into the investigation of the

total psyche, making possible an account of the

‘unconscious’ parts of the psyche as well in
terms of object-relationships.

Melanie Klein

The all-important first step was taken when

Melanie Klein developed Freud’s concept of the
super-ego into a thorough-going investigation of

all the ways in which infants internalize their

emotionally significant (primarily parental)

objects, good and bad. Freud created the concept

of an internal psychic object without specifically

using that term, when he represented conscience

as functioning in the form of a separate ego, a
super-ego, over against the ego and described it

as a mentally internalized image of parents in

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 their disciplinarian, authoritarian, moral and
ideal aspect. From the point of view of the ego,

however, the super-ego is not an ego but an

object in the first place, an internal object to
which the ego is tied in varying relationships of

fear, resentment, submission, obedience, anxious

admiration, love and longing for approval. The
ego’s identification with this internal object

creates the ego-ideal and this obscured the

primary ‘object’ aspect of the super-ego. But
Klein discovered other internal psychic objects
corresponding to other aspects of parents; some
of these, of very early origin, were part-objects,
a breast, a penis, often symbolized in dreams as

an animal of frightening aspect; others were

whole objects dating from a time when the
infant became able to perceive people in

increasingly complete ways. The earlier the

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 formation of these internal objects occurred, the
more they were apt to be cruel persecutors,
sadistic precursors of the later moral ‘super-
ego’. When this inner world of mental ‘objects’
is emotionally activated it may break into
consciousness as phantasy or dream and we can

then witness its powerful psychic reality.

Melanie Klein developed a valuable

distinction between persecutory and depressive
anxiety, the former arising as a result of internal

attack by bad objects, the latter being due to

phantasied internal loss of good objects. She
came thus to view the unconscious as an inner

world, in which complex relationships of the ego

with objects are being actively lived, a psychic
world in which the patient lives a life bound to
the past, wherein much of his emotional
experience is out of touch with the present-day

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 reality, a mental world in which the past remains

alive as a psychic present. All human beings,

therefore, live in two worlds at once, an inner
psychic world representing past experience and

for the most part repressed and unconscious, and

the outer material world of the present day
which is dealt with in consciousness. Evidently

our life in both can only be understood in terms

of object-relationships, so that it is possible to
explain our psychic life in completely personal
terms throughout. Melanie Klein did not proceed

to this revision of Freud’s psychodynamic

theory. Yet her work points in this direction,
since it carries object-relationships first of all

back into earliest infancy, so casting doubt on

the Freudian primary autoerotic, objectless
stage, and presenting the infant as a whole true

self from the start; and in the second place it

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 carries object-relationships down into the

unconscious, making possible a structural view

of the unconscious, which is a properly
psychological one. If Melanie Klein had gone

beyond the description of internalized object-

relations in the unconscious in terms of
phantasy, and had represented the phantasies as

the activities of psychic structures, she would

have been compelled to embark on an extensive
rethinking of theory. Instead, phantasies are
simply taken as representatives of instinct

(Isaacs 1948). Thus her endopsychic discoveries

are only added on to the pre-existing
psychobiology, including her acceptance of the

death instinct, and fitted to the orthodox ‘id, ego,

super-ego’ analysis of structure. Nevertheless, it
is her work that has made possible a consistently

psychodynamic theory of human development.

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 Her work has stood the test of much adverse
criticism, most of which has been about
terminology (Bibring, Glover) and has not
shaken her basic clinical findings.

These appear to the present writer to

constitute the outstanding turning-point in later
psychoanalytical development since they give us
the kind of approach and concepts which alone
make possible a genuine synthesis of the

‘internal depth psychology’ of Freud and the

‘external human relations psychology’ of the
sociologically orientated writers. Here we see

how ego and object mutually interpenetrate one

another in human experience, and how the
environment enters into the constitution of the

psychic individual even while he himself is

acting upon and moulding the environment. Ego
and object are mutually constitutive. This is

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 what Sullivan means by the integration of an

interpersonal situation, but he did not carry this

as deep into the analysis of psychic life as the
work of Klein does. In popular terms, the world

and the soul are linked in indissoluble unity so

that we must understand both or neither. All one-
sided approaches are rendered null and void.

A further highly important aspect of her

work is her detailed investigation of the

enormous part played by aggression, infantile
sadism, in the early development of the
personality. Though she accepts the speculative

idea of a death instinct, she really replaces it by

an exhaustive clinical analysis of aggression in

terms of projection, introjection, the formation

of internal bad objects, and the creation of

persecutory and depressive anxiety. Her work,

not appreciated in America, and not yet

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 adequately appreciated by all British analysts,

has increasing influence beyond the Kleinian

school in the narrower sense. It is marked in the
work of Winnicott already quoted. The work of
Balint, while not specifically Kleinian, is closely

sympathetic, and brings the Ferenczi tradition

out into the open and into contact with recent
developments. A primary emphasis on object-

relations, and especially on the influence of

parents in shaping the psychogenesis of the
child’s personality, was always central with
Ferenczi, carrying with it an emphasis on an
active analyst-patient relationship in
psychotherapy that went beyond the classic

conception of the impersonal analyst as mainly a

projection-screen for transference phantasies and
an interpreter of them.

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 W. R. D. Fairbairn

Fairbairn has made the work of Melanie

Klein on ‘internal objects’ and ‘internal object-

relations’, the basis of a thorough rethinking of

psychodynamic theory. This has already been

outlined so far as it concerns the change of

emphasis from instincts to the priority of object-

relations as the determining factors in
development; and the adoption of a theory of

dynamic structure. He defines psychology as a

‘study of the relationships of the individual to

his objects, whilst, in similar terms,

psychopathology may be said to resolve itself
more specifically into a study of the

relationships of the ego to its internalized

objects’ (1952, p. 60). We shall conclude,

therefore, with a mention of Fairbairn’s theory
of endopsychic structure. With his work the term

endopsychic structure becomes for the first time

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 fully appropriate. The theory is based on the

object-relations principle throughout. He regards

libidinal needs not as a search for the pleasure of
psychic and physical detensioning (a

deteriorated form of behaviour arising out of

despair of the possibility of good object-
relationships), but as a quest for the necessary

and intrinsic satisfactions of a good relationship

with a satisfying personal object. When that
need is not met, aggression arises as a reaction

to libidinal frustration and deprivation.

Aggression is thus secondary to libidinal needs,
but is also fundamental to the creation of

psychopathological states.

‘The pristine personality of the child consists

of a unitary dynamic ego’ (1955, p. 107) and, in
proportion as the child encounters satisfying
objects-relationships from the start, i.e. good

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 mothering, so that he is loved as a real person in
his own right, then good and satisfactory ego
development results. In so far as he encounters

unsatisfying object-relationships his pristine

psychic wholeness and integrity is lost. Melanie
Klein holds that the infant inevitably internalizes
his objects because he is oral, as if mental

internalization were the counterpart of eating or

taking in. Fairbairn holds that there is no motive
for internalizing a satisfying object; it is simply

enjoyed and good ego development results. The

infant in the pre-ambivalent stage mentally
internalizes the unsatisfying object in an effort to
solve the problem it presents, and therewith

structural differentiation in the ego begins: i.e.

the ego becomes functionally and structurally

split. This is the ultimate cause of all

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 psychopathological phenomena since the ego

becomes divided against itself.

Ambivalence arises with the internalization

of the unsatisfying object. Since the object is not

wholly bad, the infant feels both love and hate

towards it, and ‘splitting’ develops to deal with
this intolerable situation. The object has an

exciting aspect and a rejecting aspect, both of

which are emotionally bad to the child, and these
are split off as separate internal objects and

repressed. The tolerable remainder then appears

as an ideal object, i.e. it is not now identical with
the real object since it has no upsetting aspects

and appears as perfect or in no way emotionally

disturbing.

As a result of this splitting of the object, the

ego is split functionally and structurally, because

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 of persisting cathexis of three different types of

object. The libidinally exciting but unsatisfying

object arouses and maintains in the infant a state
of unrelieved need and craving. This intolerable
aspect of experience is repressed in the form of

an internal bad-object relationship between an

intensely needy and never satisfied libidinal ego
and an intensely stimulating but unsatisfying

exciting object. This level of sheer libidinal

deprivation gives rise to schizoid phenomena,
for the infant becomes afraid of his own
violently hungry love needs, becomes afraid to
love lest he should devour and destroy his
needed love-objects, and so cuts himself off

from object-relationships in any vital emotional

sense. Melanie Klein has recognized the
importance of Fairbairn’s work on schizoid

states (1952, pp. 198 and 293 ff).

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 The libidinally rejecting object, whether
passively rejective, indifferent, neglectful, or
actively rejective, angry, aggressive, arouses fear
and anger in the child. This intolerable aspect of
experience is repressed in the form of an internal
bad-object relationship between a rejecting

object which presents itself as a persecutor, and

an ego that escapes persecution by abandoning
the position of libidinal need and demand, and
finding safety in identification with the rejecting

object. The rejecting object becomes endowed

through this identification with the infant’s own
anger and aggression, and develops into an

internal persecutor of fantastic sadism, while the

ego that is identified with it becomes itself
increasingly sadistic, a vicious circle of

mounting aggression all of which is directed

against the libidinal ego and the exciting object.

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 Fairbairn at first called this sadistic ego the

‘internal saboteur’ since it operates within the

personality as an active opponent and inhibitor
of all libidinal needs and strivings. He now,

however, calls this the anti-libidinal ego a more

exact scientific term which covers all the
phenomena of the turning of aggression against

the self. Here arise depressive phenomena.

With the repression of the ‘libidinal ego-

exciting object’ and the ‘anti-libidinal ego-
rejecting object’, aspects of experience, a
consciously functioning ego is left, the central
ego striving to please, appease, obey, conform to
and love the external real object which is

cathected, however unrealistically, in terms of

the ideal object, the tolerable remainder of the
internalized object after its exciting and rejective
aspects have been subtracted. At this level moral

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 functions develop in course of time as the ideal
object becomes the basis of the child’s ego-ideal,
a central ego possession. Thus ego and objects
are split together in a tripartite way and a
complete endopsychic situation is set up,
describable only in object-relationship terms, the
pattern of which is fundamental for all human

beings, however varied the individual

differences comprised within it may be. The
central ego functions consciously while its two

basic emotional functions, libidinal and

aggressive, are considerably lost to it by the
splitting off and repressing of two subsidiary
egos, the libidinal ego and the anti-libidinal ego,

in an infantile state. This central ego, being itself

only a partial and therefore inadequate ego,

seeks to retain external good-object relations by
idealizing its objects, ignoring their libidinally

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 exciting aspect, and avoiding arousing their
rejective aspect, both of which are dealt with at
the unconscious level as internalized bad
objects, the exciting object and the rejecting

object.

This threefold analysis of endopsychic

structure appears to meet all the difficulties

examined earlier that have been raised

concerning the ‘id, ego, superego’ scheme. The
id can now be viewed personally as the primary

libidinal ego. The ego of Freud, a conforming

and adaptive ego, is an aspect of the more

important concept of the central ego of our

conscious living. The complexity of the super-

ego can now be resolved into its components.

Fairbairn seeks to meet the difficulty appreciated
by Alexander, when he pointed out that the
super-ego operates on two different levels, the

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 primitive sadistic super-ego and the moral
conscience. The primitive sadistic super-ego is
the alliance between the rejecting object and the

anti-libidinal ego, so that clinically we find

patients oscillating between feeling menaced by
some persecuting figure and feeling that they
persecute themselves. This level of experience is
pre-moral or amoral and merely persecutory.
The rejecting object and the anti-libidinal ego

maintain a constant attack on the libidinal ego

and the exciting object, thus forming the hard
core of the anti-libidinal factor in the
personality, and supporting ‘the [direct]
repression exercised against it [the libidinal ego]
by the central ego, which it thus seems

appropriate to describe as a process of indirect

repression’ (1955, p. 108). This indirect

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 repression is responsible for Melanie Klein’s
‘persecutory anxiety’.

What develops into the moral component of

the super-ego is the ideal object. In neurosis, this

seeks to control and dominate the central ego,
thus supporting its repression of both the
libidinal ego and the anti-libidinal ego. The
central ego, being in fact the remainder of the
original primary self, is, of course, the agent of
primary repression by aggressive rejection of the

internal exciting object and the internal rejecting

object in the first place, a procedure which
involved it in the loss by repression of the parts

of itself cathecting those internal objects. The

central ego, however, remains also in touch with
the outer world and is open to continuing
educative influences, which is not true of the
repressed parts of the personality. This leads to

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 the evolution of two different types of guilt and

morality, the one morbid and the other

increasingly realistic and mature. Under the
attack of the anti-libidinal ego, the libidinal ego

develops not only persecutory anxiety but, at a

slightly later stage, persecutory guilt, which is
Melanie Klein’s ‘depressive anxiety’. The

morbid guilt of depression is so persecutory in

nature that it is clear that the anti-libidinal ego
plays the dominant part in its creation. It

contains a large amount of what Freud called

‘borrowed guilt’ (1949, p. 72), and it leads to the
development of a pathological morality of an

ultra-authoritarian kind: i.e. in Christian terms, a

harsh Calvinistic morality of law rather than
love. If the central ego has to do with parents

who are, even as idealized outer figures, too

intolerant of the child’s libido and aggression,

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 the ‘super-ego conscience’ will develop little
beyond the level of the sadistic, persecuting,
rejecting object and anti-libidinal ego.

We may comment at this point on the

familiar psychoanalytical idea that ‘super-ego
morality’ needs to be replaced by a rational
morality. This is better expressed as the
replacement of persecutory morality by the
morality of love. ‘Super-ego morality’ is

psychopathological since it rests on splitting

phenomena. It involves, as Fairbairn’s analysis
shows, both the sadistic persecution of the

libidinal ego by the anti-libidinal ego, and an

attempt to control the psyche as a whole by a
central ego morality based on the ideal object

and so likely to be perfectionist and unrealistic.

But since the central ego is the part of the ego
which retains the capacity to deal with outer

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 reality it will do this in ever more realistic ways
as infantile ego splitting is outgrown. ‘The
super-ego conscience’ involves the attack of one
ego upon another. A mature conscience is a

function of genuine self-judgement on the part of

the central ego by virtue of its possession of an
ego ideal which becomes progressively more

realistic as re-integration proceeds and as

external objects are perceived in their own true
nature and not in the light of the projection of an

internal ideal object.

Fairbairn’s scheme has the advantage of

being consistently psychological throughout, of

answering to clinically observed facts more

closely than the original scheme, and of

clarifying the two outstanding anomalies in

human nature; i.e. the co-existence of a primitive
non- or pre-moral level of psychic life with the

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 civilized moral level on the one hand, and on the
other the fact that the individual functions as a
self-frustrating entity by reason of his being
radically divided between libidinal and anti-
libidinal factors in his organization. The bare
bones of conceptual analysis come to life when

clothed with the flesh and blood of clinical facts.

A male patient reports that his relationship with
is wife is one of constant rows and antagonism,

while he finds another woman at work sexually

exciting; but neither of them are his ideal
woman for a wife. His ideal wife is clearly
described in terms of the internal ideal object
who is perfectly supporting but in no way
emotionally disturbing. His actual wife is the

rejecting object and the other woman is the

exciting object. Hereby he reveals the tripartite

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 split in his own ego setting up needs for three
quite different types of women. Fairbairn writes:

The conception of this basic endopsychic

situation provides an alternative, couched
in terms of personal relationships and
dynamic structure, to Freud’s description of
the psyche in terms of id, ego and super-
ego, based as this is upon a Helmholtzian
divorce of energy from structure no longer
accepted in physics, and combined as it is,
albeit at the expense of no little
inconsistency, with a non-personal
psychology conceived in terms of
biological instincts and erotogenic zones.
[1955, p. 109]

In conclusion, the most urgent task now

confronting psychoanalysis would seem to be
that of re-investigating the whole problem of

psychotherapy in terms of ‘object-relations

theory’, particularly with a view to the question
of the part played by the relationship of analyst

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 and patient as the really therapeutic factor. This
is a larger question than that of transference, and

the work of Melanie Klein, Fairbairn, Winnicott,

and the Ferenczi tradition all bear together on
this, the ultimate, practical problem, to which
Sullivan’s view of the therapist as a ‘participant

observer’ is also relevant.

REFERENCES

Alexander, F. (1949). Fundamentals of Psycho-

Analysis. London: Allen and Unwin.

Allport, G. W. (1949). Personality. London:

Constable.

Balint, M. (1939). Early developmental states of the

ego and primary object love. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 30:265-273.

Brierley, M. (1951). Trends in Psycho-Analysis.

London: Hogarth Press.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Tavistock Publications
Ltd.

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 _____ (1955). Observations on the nature of
hysterical states. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 21(2): 105-125.

Fenichel, O. (1945). The Psychoanalytic Theory of

Neurosis. London: Kegan Paul.

Freud, S. (1908). Civilized sexual morality and

modern nervousness. Collected Papers, vol 2.
London: Hogarth Press. (1949.)

_____ (1920). Beyond the Pleasure Principle.

London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1950).

_____ (1921). Group Psychology and the Analysis of

the Ego. London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1922).

_____ (1923). The Ego and the Id. London: Hogarth

Press (rep. 1949).

_____ (1927). The Future of an Illusion. London:

Hogarth Press (rep. 1928).

_____ (1954). The Origins of Psycho-Analysis

(Fleiss Letters). London: Imago.

Fromm, E. (1942). The Fear of Freedom. London:

Kegan Paul.

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 _____ (1949). Man for Himself. London: Kegan
Paul.

_____ (1951). Psycho-Analysis and Religion.

London: Gollancz.

Hartmann, H., Kris, E., and Loewenstein, R. M.

(1946). Comments on the formation of psychic
structure. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
vol. 2. London: Imago.

Horney, K. (1937). The Neurotic Personality of Our

Time. London: Kegan Paul.

_____ (1939). New Ways in Psycho-Analysis.

London: Kegan Paul.

_____ (1951). Neurosis and Human Growth.

London: Kegan Paul.

Isaacs, S. (1948). The nature and function of

phantasy. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 29 (2):73.

Jones, E. (1953). Sigmund Freud: Life and Work.

London: Hogarth Press.

Klein, M. (1932). The Psycho-Analysis of Children.

London: Hogarth Press.

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 _____ (1948). Contributions to Psycho-Analysis.
London: Hogarth Press.

Klein, M., et al. (1952). Developments in Psycho-

Analysis. London: Hogarth Press.

Mullahy, P. (1947). Appendix to Conceptions of

Modem Psychiatry by H. S. Sullivan. New
York: Norton, for William Alanson White
Psychiatric Foundation.

_____ (1948). Oedipus Myth and Complex. New

York: Hermitage Press.

Reich, W. (1934). Character Analysis. New York:

Orgone Institute Press.

Sullivan, H. S. (1947). Conceptions of Modem

Psychiatry. New York: Norton, for William
Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation.

_____ (1953). The Interpersonal Theory of

Psychiatry. New York: Norton, for William
Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation.

_____ (1954). The Psychiatric Interview. New York:

Norton, for William Alanson White Psychiatric
Foundation.

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 Thompson, C. (1952). Psychoanalysis: Evolution
and Development. London: Allen and Unwin.

Thouless, R. H. (1951). General and Social

Psychology, 3rd ed. London: University Tutorial
Press.

Winnicott, D. W. (1954). Mind and its relation to the

psyche-soma. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 27(4):201-9.

_____ (1955). Metapsychological and clinical

aspects of regression within the
psychoanalytical set-up. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis 36:1.

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 4

MOVING BEYOND FREUD TO “A

MORE ACTIVELY PERSONAL KIND
OF TREATMENT”

The centenary of the birth of Freud was

celebrated by psychoanalytical societies in many
lands, and was widely commented on in the

press and in B.B.C. programmes in this country.

Dr. Ernest Jones, in a broadcast on 6th May,
expressed the view that tributes to Freud’s
greatness were in no way exaggerated, but

added: “I am much more diffident about similar

laudatory eulogies concerning Freud’s influence

on the world … the better acquainted one is with

Freud’s work the more one realizes how little of

it has been absorbed by the outside world”
(Jones, 1956). While many have referred with

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 appreciation to his contribution, there is often in
references to Freud a cautious comment to the

effect that not all of his teaching is now

accepted. This caution is of dubious meaning.
Freud’s theoretical system has been under

constant critical examination and revision, but

that is no more than must be said of every
scientific theory. Physics did not stand still with

Newton or astronomy with Galileo; nor was it

ever likely that psychodynamic theory, the
scientific study of the emotional and impulsive
basis of human personality, would stand still
with Freud.

One suspects, however, that this is not what

is meant by contemporary warnings that not all

of Freud’s theories are now accepted. Professor

O. L. Zangwill recently wrote: “Broadly

speaking, Freud’s ideas have surprisingly often

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 proved right. But in certain of his claims he has
been decisively proved wrong. Although a final

opinion cannot yet be given, it seems likely that

Freud’s system—when shorn of its
extravagances—will earn a secure place in the

history of medical endeavour” (Zangwill, 1956).

One detects here the tone, so often adopted by
those who write about Freud, of qualified

approval, somewhat patronising agreement (cp.

“Freud’s ideas have surprisingly often proved
right”), and depreciatory hints at
“extravagances”. This attitude of grudging
admission that Freud really has done something
lasting, together with signs of uneasiness about

the acceptance of it, is now the fashion with

many. We do not quite like Freud, but we cannot
get rid of him, so he must be made safe.

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 Such critics are usually better at vague
generalizations than at exact, carefully

documented statements. Professor Zangwill does

not say what claims Freud made which have
been “decisively proved wrong”, nor what

aspects of his system are “extravagances”. These

so-called claims certainly cannot be therapeutic
ones, for of all analysts Freud was the most

cautious as to the possibility of

psychotherapeutic results. He restricted
psychoanalysis to certain types of neurosis and
personality, had little belief in rapid-cure
methods, stated explicitly that human nature
only changes very slowly, and possibly valued

psychoanalysis more for scientific research than

for psychotherapy. As for Freud being “right”,

what is truly surprising, if we consider his

clinical observations and insight as distinct from

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 his theoretical concepts, is that Freud was so
often and so searchingly right. By

“extravagances” such critics usually mean

Freud’s alleged, though in fact non-existent,
pan-sexualism. Dr. Jones (1956) wrote: “The

still less informed are apt to assert that according

to Freud everything has a sexual origin,
forgetting thereby how much of his theory has to

do with the conflict of sexual and moral

impulses.” We must in fact look behind these
criticisms to factors that belong to more general
and also more personal attitudes to the work of
Freud, if we are to evaluate and understand
them.

THE IMPACT OF FREUD

Without deliberate intention, Freud broke

upon the world as a disturber of the mental

peace of those whose defence against anxiety

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 was the ostrich policy of complacent, if
vigorous, affirmation of traditional views of the

functioning of human beings in their personal

life and social behaviour. Socrates once
observed that he was a gadfly. His awkward

questions and persistent probing enquiries stung

men into thinking afresh on matters that they
would have preferred to take for granted. Freud

made precisely that Socratic impact at the turn

of last century. We see this in the way
psychoanalysis has influenced the dissection of
character in many a modern novel. Its subtle
penetration is far greater than its official
recognition.

The majority, not only in medicine but in

religion, education and politics, preferred to go

on blindly accepting traditional views in Freud’s
day, as indeed many still do. The problems and

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 perversities of the personal life of human beings
were held to be due either to organic defect or

moral wilfulness. Neurosis, at that time chiefly

thought of in terms of hysteria, and equated in
the Middle Ages with witchcraft, was, in the

1880’s, treated as delinquency, with the

underlying reservation among medical men that
in so far as that was not the case it had a purely

physical cause. A dramatic reorientation of

thought “happened” to Freud when, in 1885, he
went to study under the famous French
neurologist Charcot at the Salpêtrière. He found
Charcot treating hysteria seriously as a genuine
problem calling for exacting scientific research,

and treating it as a disturbance of human

personality occurring not on a purely physical

level, nor on an exclusively moral level, but

calling for a new and pioneer investigation of

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 psychological cause and effect. Charcot’s
demonstration by hypnosis of the reality and

power of unconscious mental factors to

determine conscious mental reactions and
behaviour opened a new field of research for

Freud. It was one which he proceeded to make

in a specially thorough way his own territory.

It was not long before Freud began to be

made painfully aware of the fact that the

unconscious is unconscious because we human

beings want it to be unconscious. We do not like
to discover parts of our personality that are less

mature than we consciously believe ourselves to

be. Furthermore, it is uncanny and wounding to
our self-respect to have to realize that we are

influenced by things in ourselves of which we

are not consciously aware. The attempt to bring
the hidden areas of personality to consciousness

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 was met by fierce resistance, especially when
Freud revealed them to consist of primitive and

infantile components that we wish to believe we

have outgrown. Not only did this resistance
occur in patients who could only emerge from

neurotic illness when its unconscious mental

causes were brought to light, but also in thinkers
and people in general whose mental security-

systems were the product of a culture that rested

on the denial of unconscious factors in human
personality.

Freud broke into a region which had always

been so utterly forbidden that both its existence

and the taboo on its recognition were, in the
ordinary sense, unknown. Just as the gadfly

Socrates (in spite of the Delphic injunction,

“Know thyself”) was put to death for his
temerity in disturbing men in their wish not to

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 know themselves too well, so the modern gadfly

Freud was greeted with howls of rage,

recrimination and ridicule when he dared to seek
to show us to ourselves. In truth, the work of

Freud went far deeper than that of Socrates, who

pursued his probing on a purely intellectual and
philosophic level. Freud probed into the deeper

and darker regions of our unconscious emotional

life. Socrates forced men to recognize that they
did not know what they really meant when they

used words like “justice”. Freud forced men to

recognize that they did not know what they were
really feeling underneath their conscious mask

of accepted social and moral attitudes.

Thanks to the recently published life of

Freud by Dr. Jones (1954, 1955) (the only
surviving member of the early psycho-analytical
“big-four”, Freud, Ferenczi, Abraham and

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 Jones) we know that long before Freud disturbed
the world around him, he had to face, and did
face with great courage, the fact that he was
profoundly disturbing himself in his quest for
the truth about men. As a result, Freud has now
become to us a more human and sympathetic

figure than he appeared to be when tardy

recognition of his achievement had turned him
into one of the Olympians. We can now see him

in his human frailty, a man of like flesh and

blood with ourselves, discovering first of all in

himself the neurotic phenomena he was the first

to begin to understand in other people, and
ultimately to reveal as present in varying degrees
in all human beings without exception. The

more we know of the anxiety, depression, doubt

and discouragement, and of some of the serious
physical disturbances due to emotional conflict

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 and tension, that Freud endured as he fought his
way through in order to catch the first all-

important glimpses of the truth, the more our

respect for the man and our appreciation of his
true greatness is enhanced. It is fair to say that

not only his glib detractors, but many of his

serious critics, have not themselves travelled
first the hard road to self-knowledge that Freud

travelled, a discipline which is essential to the

proper evaluation of his findings. From this
point of view psychoanalysis is a scientific
experiment which has to be repeated in order to
be re-examined.

FREUD AS PIONEER

Naturally, not all Freud’s theoretical

formulations have stood the test of time. He
himself did not expect it. In 1909 he wrote to

Jung (Jones 1955):

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 Your surmise that after my departure my
errors might be adored as holy relics
amused me enormously, but I don’t believe
it. On the contrary, I think my followers
will hasten to demolish as swiftly as
possible everything that is not safe and
sound in what I leave behind.

In 1924, he wrote to Joan Riviere, who was

translating The Ego and the Id : “The book will

be obsolete in thirty years” (Klein et al. 1952).

Freud began to research and write before the

modern development of sociology had arisen,

and before the modern emphasis on

“personality” and the “person” as distinct from

the “organism” had become so fundamental. He

himself only began his psychological

investigations at the age of forty, and against the

background of his natural science education in

the Helmholtzian atomic theory of the “billiard

ball universe” type. Solid matter moving in

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 empty space was supposed to account for
everything, and “mind” was, as T. H. Huxley

said, only an “epiphenomenon”, like the steam

whistle on the train that had no effect on its
motion. It cost Freud much agony of mind, in

face of the disbelief and ostracism of his

scientific colleagues, to win his way to a clear
perception of psychological phenomena as facts

in their own right, calling for investigation in

their own appropriate terms and not in terms
borrowed from physics, physiology and biology.

In a sense Freud never was able completely

to outgrow his own early scientific education.

Much of the recent development of

psychoanalytical theory beyond Freud is

concerned with correcting his excessively

biological orientation by a more properly

psychological theory of our psychic life, though

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 Freud himself paved the way for this. Thus, the
concept of “instinct” today falls steadily into the

background, while that of “human and personal

relations” takes its place as the basic explanatory
concept. It is not so much innate endowment as

what goes on between human beings that

accounts for the development of character and
personality and its manifestations in social (or

anti-social) behaviour and psychoneurotic

illness. Yet the greatness of Freud can be seen in
the fact that he himself provided the starting-
points for all the present-day theoretical
developments beyond his own position.

It was Freud who first compelled us to see

that it is what goes on between the child and his

parents from the moment of birth and throughout

the first five years, that is the true “cause” of that
first and profoundest shaping of the psychic self

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 for good or ill, the pattern of which underlies all
later development and forms the unconscious
and deeply repressed basic structure of the
personality. He made it clear that adolescence

offers the last chance for spontaneous

modification of this pattern, and that thereafter
its alteration in any radical way is a task of the

utmost difficulty. It can only be partially

accomplished by deep psycho-analytic treatment
in favourable cases, though it is certainly

possible to do that for a number of people to a

sufficient degree to release them from the
crippling effects of nervous illness. When

psycho-analytical treatment is not suitable for

the individual case or not likely to succeed,
Freud’s work throws much light on why that is

so. His discoveries have dominated the

development of psychotherapy, and led to the

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 far-flung Child Guidance movement, since it has
come to be appreciated that in these matters

prevention is better than cure.

WELCOME HOSTILITY

The position now is that so much of Freud’s

work has been permanently absorbed (not
always with fair acknowledgement) into
psychiatric and psychotherapeutic theory, and
has greatly influenced educational, social and
even religious thinking, that Freud has begun to

be respectable. The gadfly we need to save us

from complacency is likely thus to be

neutralized. What happened to Christianity

could equally well happen to psychoanalysis: it

can be intellectually accepted, given formal
recognition, and neatly shelved, so that it loses
its capacity to disturb us into a realistic facing of

ourselves. Conventional acceptance is ever the

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 best defence against awkward truth. Fortunately

signs are not wanting that psychoanalysis still

has power to disturb and provoke opposition.
The relatives of most patients are usually

automatically against it even when they profess

some belief in it. So long as it is still thought
necessary to warn us that “not everything in

Freud is now accepted”, those who think for

themselves will be stimulated to make their own
independent study of him. A recent 600-page

textbook of “Clinical Psychiatry” by Mayer-

Gross, Slater and Roth (1954) provides further
welcome reassurance that psychoanalysis has

not yet lost its power to arouse emotional

opposition; for though the authors in the first
chapter explicitly accept at least fifty per cent of

Freud’s basic teaching, they cannot refrain from

thereafter launching into a highly unscientific

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 and emotionally biassed tirade aimed at
discouraging any further attempts to take Freud
seriously. Professor Eysenck, writing as a

psychologist, as distinct from a psychotherapist

or analyst, loses no opportunity of attacking
psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. The work of
Freud will never be safer than when it evokes
hostility. Opponents are usually the best
advertisers of what is important.

DANGERS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

There are many who, like Eysenck, prefer a

purely descriptive psychology based on

“objective tests” (the objectivity of which,
however, is subject to much doubt even among
psychologists). It is much less disturbing to its

practitioners and to the public than is direct

dealing with the anxiety-ridden psychodynamic
aspects of our personality in an intimate

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 psychotherapeutic relationship. There must

always be a grave danger of wanting to limit our

knowledge of human beings to what can be
discovered by techniques of scientific

detachment. In fact the role and influence of

science in its study of human nature raises
altogether disturbing questions. Purely objective

scientific investigation by an emotionally neutral

investigator depersonalizes the subject of the
investigation. He becomes an object of scientific

curiosity, a specimen. Ways of manipulating him

can be discovered which ignore his sensitiveness
as a suffering human person. The subject will,

naturally, never be able personally to reveal his

deepest problems to such investigators. He finds
it hard enough to reveal them even to the

sympathetic investigator who comes to help and

heal.

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 But methods of scientific re-conditioning by
impersonal techniques could be discovered
which, though ostensibly aiming at therapy (at
least in the sense of being symptom-relieving)
could well be used by political dictators for
other purposes. This is no bogey but a grim fact

that has already arisen in the practises of state

trials in totalitarian countries. In favour of
Freud’s psychoanalysis it must be said that it

depends entirely on personal co-operation

between patient and analyst and never achieves,

or tries to achieve, its therapeutic aim except in

proportion as the patient becomes convinced that
he is respected and helped in his own right and
for his own sake as a person. Yet even Freudian

psychoanalysis may not be immune from this

danger, for Freud sought to make it a purely
scientific method in the operation of which the

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 analyst was to remain a quite detached and

impersonal figure. Fortunately this method of

pursuing psychoanalysis is usually found to end
in blocking all progress. Another recent

development concerns the recognition of the

need of the more seriously ill patient for a more
actively personal type of treatment, which can

still be psychoanalytical in its radical methods of

getting to the bottom of the patient’s emotional
conflicts. But if psychoanalysis as a purely

impersonal scientific technique of investigation

is of dubious value for setting patients free from
anxieties and liberating them for the
development of healthy spontaneity and

individuality, it may yet discover facts about the

way the human mind develops from infancy
onwards, that could be used for the shaping of

psychological conditioning techniques of

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 diabolical efficiency. The mobilization of
childish guilt in political prisoners to “soften
them up” before trial, is a case in point.

We have real enough cause for fear lest the

knowledge accumulated by natural science
should be used to destroy mankind. It would be

a far more ghastly fate for the knowledge

accumulated by psychological science to be used
to enslave mankind, by careful conditioning
from birth onwards. There are already plenty of
people to be found whose personality is so
grossly inhibited, who are so internally crushed
by a ruthless, authoritarian “super-ego” or

fiercely dictatorial conscience, that every

spontaneous feeling, original thought or
challenging impulse is at once met inside them
by a storm of anxiety and guilt which crushes
the “bad, rebellious child” into subservience

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 again. They have often grown up like that under
the influence of people who believed that they

were doing their best for the child. Once we

understand completely the psychodynamic
processes that lead to such enslavement of

human personality, what is to prevent interested

parties who can remain in power long enough
from using that knowledge to stamp out the very

desire and will for freedom? This is in fact a

process that has already been extensively
developed in more superficial ways by means of
intensive propagandist conditioning of whole
populations carried down at least as far as the
educational regimes of the school years; and the

terrible thing is that human beings once enslaved

can become attached to slavery. The destructive
possibilities of A- and H-bombs may not prove

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 to be the most fearsome of the evil possibilities
of scientific knowledge applied to human life.

A lesser version of this same problem

confronts us within the range of normal human

living. The battle between coercion and
freedom, authority and spontaneity, law and
love, has raged all through history, and always
hitherto with the same result. These are regarded
as mutually exclusive opposites by different

types of personality. Those who are in the seat of

authority, whether they be parents, teachers,

politicians or religious leaders, generally tend to

assume that human beings are only capable of

being civilized by pressure and discipline. In

fact Freud himself believed that, as he made
plain in The Future of an Illusion (1928). He
regarded the general run of men as destructive
by nature and disinclined to work, and as

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 motivated only by a quest for sensuous pleasure;

so that “culture” and civilization rested on the

denial of “instincts”. Either we had to relax or
defy cultural standards in the interests of mental

health, or else accept neurosis as the price to be

paid for civilization. In that sense all
authoritarians are Freudians in their basic

assumptions about human nature, though

whereas Freud used these assumptions as a plea
for relaxation, the cultural rulers always use
them as an argument for discipline, control and

“conditioning”, thus breeding rebels whom they

then regard as proofs of the truth of their beliefs.
Even Freud held that only a select minority are

capable of escaping from this dilemma by resort

to what he called “sublimation”— surely a
psychological counterpart of the religious

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 doctrine of “election” which will hardly
commend itself to us.

CONCLUSION

In fact, however, these ideas of Freud arose

out of his theory that human motivation was
fixed by “instincts” that are antisocial and

recalcitrant to altruistic purposes. We must now,

however, restate the problem. It is not really a
battle between innate instincts and the cultural

pressures of civilized society (a view

unfortunately implied in the traditional Christian
doctrine of “original sin”). The real issue is, how

can we best secure the growth of human

personality to full maturity? In practice, the
problem is that those who operate regimes of
discipline and control, whether in the home or in

society at large, are usually motivated mainly by

the love of power and the need to vent their own

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 hate and aggression on those over whom they
have charge. We need to solve the problem of

the wise balance between freedom for self-

discovery by self-expression, and control that
takes the form of loving and supporting

guidance of the child who otherwise could

become a prey to anxiety if left too much to his
own devices. The main obstacle is that we

ourselves need to be very mature to be able to

deal with either children or subordinates in that
manner. Thus the work of Freudian
psychoanalysis leads us deeper than ever into the
heart of this perennial and most difficult and
urgent of all human problems. Certainly its best

established result is that suppression if it begins

early enough leads to paralysis of personality in

a more profound way than has ever hitherto been

understood, and that only loving regimes offer

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 any real chance for healthy human development.
Those who regard a human personality as a
more significant form of existence than an atom
must regard the discoveries of Freud as opening
up a field of knowledge that must ultimately out-
weigh in importance that explored by the nuclear

physicists.

REFERENCES

Freud, S. (1928). The Future of an Illusion. London:

Hogarth Press.

Jones, E. (1954, 1955). Sigmund Freud: Life and

Work (2 vols.). London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1956). The Listener, May 10, p. 589.

Klein, M., Heimann, P., Isaacs, S., and Rivière. J.

(1952) “Developments in psychoanalysis.”
London: Hogarth Press, p. 1.

Mayer-Gross, W., Slater, E. T. O., and Roth. M.

(1954) “Clinical psychiatry.” London: Cassell.

Zangwill, O. L. (1956) Radio Times, May 4, p. 4.

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 Section II
1960-1962
THE SCHIZOID
COMPROMISE: NEED
AND FEAR OF
REGRESSION

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 5

DEEPER PERCEPTION OF THE

SCHIZOID PROBLEM

EGO-PSYCHOLOGY

In 1913 Freud wrote: ‘The shortening of the

analytic treatment remains a reasonable wish,

the realization of which ... is being sought after

in various ways. Unfortunately it is opposed by a

very important element in the situation—

namely, the slowness with which profound

changes in the mind bring themselves about.’

Nothing has happened since those words were

written to modify that judgement. Psychotherapy

remains a slow and difficult process.

Nevertheless, we cannot scientifically remain

content with a statement to the effect that mental

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 change of a profound order is difficult. Even if it
can never be any other than slow and difficult,

we want to know why this is so, and there is

always the chance that greater understanding
may enable us to make psychotherapy more

effective. If change were too easy and mental

structure too fluid, the result would not be
quicker psychotherapy but general instability.

Relative stability at any point of the scale

between immaturity and maturity involves that
once an individual has developed a certain
organizational pattern of personality he is able to
retain it with a high degree of persistence.
Disturbed patterns persist as stubbornly as more

harmonious ones. Yet, some personality patterns

are so disadvantageous to their owners that we
would gladly know whether and how they can

be changed quickly enough to give the person a

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 chance to live normally. The whole situation is a
challenge to deeper investigation, and perhaps

also to the rethinking of things that we are

familiar with. It could be that the slowness of
psychotherapy is not only due to the inherent

difficulty of the problem, but also to the

possibility that our psychodynamic
interpretations are still in some vital sense

missing the mark. Everything in a given field

cannot be seen from one point of view, and often
a change of viewpoint brings unexpected
disclosures.

Psychoanalytic therapy was at first based on

interpretations designed to uncover repressed

libidinal needs and aggressive impulses. The

phrases ‘releasing the patient’s libido’ and

‘releasing the patient’s aggression’ were

characteristic of that approach. It led to the

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 creation of a popular ideal of ‘the uninhibited
person’. But it was found that in so far as this

was achieved, it made only a very doubtful

contribution to the deep maturing of the
personality as a whole. It may relieve the patient

of some practical disabilities that spring from

inhibitions. He may be better able to ask for
what he wants and better able to stand up for

himself. Yet, when he has done so, he all too

often recognizes that the impulses he has
released are very immature ones, and he is liable
to incur social criticism and an increase of guilt
in self-condemnation. In fact, if he does not, he
will not progress any further. To aim simply at

the release of repressed immature and anxiety-

driven impulses as if that were equivalent to the

freeing of the healthy instinctive drives of a

mature person, was seen to be naive and a

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 therapeutic delusion. Neither do impulses
automatically mature by becoming conscious

and being expressed. It is useless releasing

impulses unless they are considered all the time
as expressions of an ego, and indicative of the

state in which that ego exists. For these, among

other reasons, Fairbairn abandoned ‘impulse
psychology’ in favour of more radical ego-

analysis.

The striking feature of the development of

psychodynamic theory in the last thirty or so
years is that, through the work of Melanie Klein

in which emphasis was shifting from the impulse

to the object, there has now begun to emerge a
steady trend towards concentration on the ego.

The re-orientation of psychodynamic theory

from the point of view of the ego is certain to
bring new insights as old facts are looked at in a

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 new way. Adler raised the problem of the ego in
his theory of the inferiority complex and the

will-to-power; but he raised it superficially,

prematurely and mostly at the social level. It was
from Freud himself that the real impetus to ego-

analysis came in the 1920’s. His structural

scheme, id, ego and super-ego, in spite of its
inadequacies, was a tremendous first step

towards putting the ego in the centre of the

picture where hitherto psychobiological impulse
had reigned supreme. This is clear from the
statement of Anna Freud: ‘There have been
periods in the development of psychoanalytical
science when the theoretical study of the

individual ego was distinctly unpopular. …

Whenever interest was transferred from the

deeper to the more superficial strata—whenever,

that is to say, research was deflected from the id

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 to the ego—it was felt that here was the
beginning of apostacy’ (1936). However, it is

also clear from this that the dynamic depths of

the psyche were still regarded as an impersonal
‘id’ while the ego belonged to the ‘more

superficial strata’. So long as that relic of the

earlier ‘impulse psychology’ remained, no
satisfactory ego-theory could develop.

Freud stated clearly that: ‘We shall achieve

our therapeutic purpose only when we give a

greater measure of analytic help to the patient’s
ego’ (1937). Earlier he had written concerning

‘the therapeutic efforts of psychoanalysis’ that:

'Their object is to strengthen the ego, to make it
more independent of the super-ego, (present

writer’s italics) to widen its field of vision, and

so to extend its organization that it can take over
more portions of the id’ (1933).

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 With some re-interpretation of terms,
nothing could be nearer the truth about

psychotherapy. It is our psychotherapeutic

charter. Its great importance, however, was
obscured by the fact that the Freudian theory of

an ego limited to the ‘superficial strata’ could

give no meaning to ‘ego’ adequate to the
implications of this statement. Freud’s theory

remained one of ego and super-ego control of

psychobiological impulse. The ego remained a
superficially developed control-apparatus ‘on the
surface of the id’ and not a true self, not the real
core of the personality. It becomes ever more
clear to-day that we require the term ‘ego’ to

stand for the core of the individual’s nature and

self-knowledge as a ‘person’, and T in personal

relationships with other ‘l’s. Fairbairn has

recently written: ‘All inner problems resolve

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 themselves ultimately into ego-problems’
(1958). Winnicott speaks of ‘therapeutic

regression’ in search of the ‘true self’ which has

early been repressed and lies hidden behind a
‘false self’ which functions socially, a point of

view which classic psychoanalytical theory

cannot explain intelligibly. In fact,
psychodynamic theory is changing its

orientation from ‘the release and/or control of

instinctive impulses’ to the ‘maturing of the ego
into an adult personality’. Perhaps we should put
it in an even more elementary way, ‘the
individual’s struggle to achieve and preserve a
stable ego’, and we must rethink all the familiar

problems from this point of view.

Moreover, this is really the patient’s point of

view. A patient of mine once said: ‘I have grown
up an outer shell of conformities inside which I

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 have lost touch with the real “me”.’ She felt she

had not got a proper ego. In developing ‘Object-

Relations Theory’ Fairbairn presented the view
that we must go beyond the repression of

memories, emotions and impulses and consider

the repression of the object, making use of
Melanie Klein’s theory of ‘internal objects’

(Fairbairn 1952). His work, however, has gone

on to direct attention to the other half of the
object-relationship, namely the ego. It is clear

that our need for object-relationships lies in the

fact that without them it is impossible to develop
an ego that is sound, strong and stable: and that

is what all human beings fundamentally need.

Fairbairn quoted a patient as saying: ‘You’re
always talking about my wanting this and that

desire satisfied; but what I really want is a

father’ (1952). Now, however, we have to go

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 one step beyond that and say the reason why the
patient wants a father (and needs an analyst) is
that without a satisfactory relationship with
another person he cannot become a developing
ego, he cannot find himself. That is why patients
are so often found complaining ‘I don’t know

who or what I am, I don’t seem to have a mind

of my own, I don’t feel to be a real person at all.’
Their early object-relationships were such that

they were unable to ‘find themselves’ in any

definite way.

The nature of the problem involved seems to

me to be this: the primary drive in every human

being is to become a ‘person’, to achieve a solid

ego-formation, to develop a personality, in order
to live. This, however, can only be done in the
medium of personal object-relationships. If these
are good, the infant undergoes a natural and

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 unselfconscious good ego-development. If these
are bad, ego-development is seriously

compromised from the start; and there are no

fears worse or deeper than those which arise out
of having to cope with life when one feels that

one is just not a real person, that one’s ego is

basically weak, perhaps that one has hardly got
an ego at all. These are the ultimate fears in our

patients. Thus one patient, who was often driven

to make the kind of complaints cited in the
previous paragraph, once burst out with: ‘I’m
afraid of life, of everything. Fear’s the key.’
Psychotherapy as a process whereby the patient
is helped to achieve a mature ego and overcome

his deep fear of life is the logical goal of

Fairbairn’s revision of theory and of Winnicott’s
work in the clinical and therapeutic field. It is

the overcoming of ‘infantile dependence’ which

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 Fairbairn regards as the root cause of
psychoneurosis (the Oedipus Complex being
simply one example of this infantile
dependence), and it is the discovery of the ‘true
self’ which Winnicott regards as buried behind
the defensive operations of the years. These two

points of view appear to me to be the starting-

points of research on psychotherapy to-day.
‘Infantile dependence’ could not be more clearly
illustrated as the cause of trouble than in the

remark of a patient, himself a doctor: ‘I’m sick

to death of dragging round with me wherever I
go a timid small child inside me.’ That child was
the weak, overburdened basic ego that just could
not stand up to life. The fact that this ‘baby’ has

then to be repudiated, at the demand of the outer

world, later internalized as an inner demand,
appears in a patient’s dream. ‘I was eating my

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 favourite meal when my mother came into the
room and snatched it away from me. As I went

to protest she said “Don’t be a baby”.’ These

two instances define for us, in the patient’s own
terms the nature of the problem they bring to us.

An infantile ego has been rejected and

repressed. ('Don’t be a baby.’) It remains,
therefore, undeveloped and weak, and natural

growth of personality comes to a standstill.

THE FEAR OF EGO-WEAKNESS

If we may now, for a moment, forget all the

complex theories of psychiatric,
psychoanalytical and psychological learning,

and watch human beings at first hand as they

struggle with life in and through their dealings
with the people round them, we may ask
ourselves the simple question, ‘What are people

most afraid of?’ The multifarious ways in which

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 people are on the defensive against one another,
in business, social life, marriage and parenthood,

and even leisure activities, suggests that the one

omnipresent fear is the fear of appearing weak,
inadequate, less of a person than others or less

than equal to the demands of the situation, a

failure: the fear of letting oneself down and
looking a fool in face of an unsupportive and

even hostile world. This fear lies behind all the

rationalized self-assertiveness and
aggressiveness, the subtle exhibitionism, the
disguised boasting, the competitiveness or
avoidance of competition, the need of praise,
reassurance, and approval, the safety-first tactics

and security seeking, and a multitude of other

defensive reactions to life that lie open and on

the surface for all to see.

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 If we now turn back to our patients with this
in mind, we find the same fear of appearing
weak, often in the manifest form of a sense of
shame and humiliation in having to seek this sort

of treatment at all. In this context, fear of the

hostile world appears as fear of being despised if
it is known that they have such treatment. But

behind this fear, without exception, we come

upon the fact that patients suffer from very
serious feelings of actual weakness and

inadequacy as a result of which they are in a

state of perpetual anxiety. Their fear of
appearing weak has a foundation in fact, and

likewise their fear of a hostile world also, in

early life, had a foundation in fact. It is true that
feelings of weakness have no direct relationship

to the patient’s actual ability. They are found in

the most able people, professional folk with

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 good qualifications, men successfully running
their own businesses and so on. One of the most

undermined personalities I have ever come

across, so far as basic lack of self-confidence
was concerned, was a surgeon who had practised

excellently for twenty years. But he said that no

one knew the torture it had been. Every time the
telephone rang he was in a state of utter anxiety,

feeling certain that he was going to be asked to

perform an operation that he could not do, or
that he would fail in it. The feeling of weakness
arises out of the lack of a reliable feeling of
one’s own reality and identity as an ego. Patients
will say ‘I’m not sure of myself, sometimes I

don’t feel like a real person at all’.

With many patients, however, this deep

down fundamental weakness of the ego is not
obvious to them. We may be able to recognize

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 its signs, but the patient’s energies are

strenuously devoted to hiding, denying,

disproving, disguising, or mastering and
crushing out if possible whatever degree of these

feelings of weakness, fear, timidity and inability

to cope with life that they find in them. The
famous ‘resistance’ to psychotherapy which was

one of Freud’s most important discoveries is, in

the first instance, mainly an attempt to deny the
need for treatment. Patients will either play

down their problems, minimize their symptoms,

state frankly that they feel psychotherapy is
humiliating and that they ought to be able to

manage these difficulties themselves, resent the

most carefully and tactfully made interpretations
as criticism, and are very anxious that no one

should know that they are consulting a

psychotherapist; or else they will set forth their

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 problems as unfair or inexplicable inflictions,
with an attitude implying ‘There’s nothing really
wrong with me but somehow these misfortunes

have befallen me’ and they feel they can rightly

claim help for such things (a claim in which, in
fact, they are justified in the end). Most patients,
apart from the few who have had the opportunity
of gaining some insight, seek the removal of
their symptoms without realizing the necessity

of undergoing some basic changes in

themselves, for they do not recognize their

symptoms as evidences of basic weakness in

their personality. If they do, they all the more
regard treatment as a humiliation, and are on the
defensive from the start. These patients are often

right in fearing that they will be looked down

upon, judging by the rather thinly veiled
contempt with which hysterics are sometimes

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 referred to, even by some psychiatrists. In any

case, the patients look down upon themselves.

One of my patients dreamed that she went past
my rooms on top of a tram, but looking down

she also saw herself entering in, and thought

‘Look at that silly creature going in there’.

The more one reflects on things from this

point of view, the more impressive do the facts

become. The resistance to psychotherapy is
strictly on a par with the defensiveness of people
against one another in everyday life. If we study

this question in the light of the mass of

psychopathological data at our disposal to-day
(which did not yet exist in the early days of

psychoanalysis), we shall come near the heart of

the matter. There is a greater or lesser degree of
immaturity in the personality-structure of most
human beings, and this immaturity is

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 experienced as definite weakness and
inadequacy of the ego in face of the adult tasks
of life. The unremitting and strenuous efforts to
overcome or hide this weakness, which they do
not know how, genuinely, to grow out of,
constitutes, together with the weakness itself, the

mass of psychopathological experience and

behaviour, as seen not only in patients but also
in the general low level of mental health in the

community. The struggle to force a weak ego to

face life, or, even more fundamentally, the

struggle to preserve an ego at all, is the cause of

psychosomatic tensions and illness.

There are important reasons why so many

human beings are in a state of constant anxiety
because they feel weak and inadequate at the
very core of their inner self. Maybe we are
barely emerging from the psychological Dark

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 Ages so far as the great mass of the population is

concerned, in the matter of bringing up children.

Possibly also there are one or two primitive
tribes whose simple culture is totally ignorant of

our so-called scientific civilization, yet its

pattern of ‘permissiveness’ embodied far more
psychological wisdom than any forms of

capitalist or communist society known to our

anxiety-ridden world. Some other primitive
tribes have been described as having a paranoid

culture pattern, but certainly throughout our

modern civilization East and West, right and left
wing, religious and scientific, there goes on a
mass production of basically insecure and

psychologically weakened human beings faster

than any method has yet been found to cope with
them. Masses of children grow up frightened at

heart. Moreover, our patients constantly meet a

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 critical and unsympathetic reaction from friends.
‘Oh, we could all give in like that if we let
ourselves, you must pull yourself together. You

should think less of yourself and more of other

people.’ So the cultural attitudes drive them to
feel ashamed of weakness and to simulate
strength. Ian Suttie, many years ago now, spoke
of the ‘taboo on tenderness’ in our culture. But
the matter goes deeper. The reason why there is

a taboo on tenderness is that tenderness is

regarded as weakness in all but the most private
relations of life, and many people regard it as
weakness even there and introduce patterns of
domination into the love-life itself. The real
taboo is on weakness, the one great crime is to

be weak, the thing that none dare confess to is

feeling weak, however much the real weakness
was brought into being when they were so

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 young that they knew nothing of the import of
what was happening to them. You cannot afford

to be weak in a competitive world which you

feel is mostly hostile to you, and if anyone is so
unfortunate as to discover that his infancy has

left him with too great a measure of arrested

emotional development and a failure of ego-
growth in the important early stages, then he

soon learns to bend all his energies to hiding or

mastering the infant within.

THE BASIC EMOTIONAL PREDICAMENT

The problem of ego-weakness has been

slowly thrusting itself to the forefront of

psychodynamic research. Perhaps the terrific

resistance to admitting and facing ‘basic ego-
weakness rooted in fear’ that all human beings
show both in social life and as patients, is

reflected in the slowness with which psychiatric

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 and psychoanalytic research has come to face
this problem. It may be that we ourselves would
rather not be forced to see it too clearly lest we
should find a text-book in our own hearts. It is
less disturbing even to theorists to think in terms
of mastering instinctive drives rather than of

helping a frightened infant inside to grow up. It

is more comfortable to think of ourselves as
endowed with powerful libidinal and aggressive

instincts, than to recognize that unmanageable

libidinal and aggressive impulses are reactions

to and defences against fear. If one has a ‘mighty

sexual instinct’ (Freud, 1908) and a mighty
aggressive instinct, one does not feel weak, but
only bad. The history of psychodynamic theory

can be seen as the story of our long struggle to

overcome our scientifically rationalized
resistance to the truth. A survey of the titles of

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 articles in the International Journal of Psycho-

Analysis and the British Journal of Medical

Psychology suggests that we are becoming
overweighted with complex analyses and,

nowadays, statistical studies of secondary

phenomena, of interesting organic and
psychodynamic morbidities, and all the while

‘The Basic Human Dilemma’ in which our

patients are caught is being missed; namely that
they were born into a situation in which they
were unable to lay the foundations of a strong

ego-development, and have grown up feeling at

bottom inadequate to the demands of living,
even though they may not be conscious of this,

full of fear and struggling with considerable

though varying degrees of success to keep going
and shoulder their responsibilities. This fact of

basic ego-weakness is the hard core of all

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 personality disturbance and of the problem of
psychotherapy. The one line of research that
would seem to be most urgent and relevant to all
forms of mental illness, other than the purely

organic in origin, is that which goes to the tap

root, the failure or inability of the child in the
environment it is born into, to lay the

foundations of an adequate strong, well-

developed, self-confident and capable
personality equal to the adult tasks in life.

From the point of view of psychotherapy the

problem is why and how this early arrest of ego-

development persists? Once an initial failure has

occurred in laying the foundations of a non-

anxious and active self in infancy, a mental

organization evidently comes into being of a
kind which effectively blocks the possibility of
any further deep-level emotional growth. Life

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 then turns into an unceasing fight to force
oneself to be equal to adult living without ever

feeling that one is so in any fundamental way.

One very able graduate professional man said:
‘It’s hell having to go through life screwing

yourself up to face everything, although you

know you can do it.’ It is this psychic situation
on its inner side that proliferates into all the

psychiatric disorders. The one fact which

overrides everything else is that society demands
that the baby must grow up to become a capable
adult, an internally strong enough and self-
confident enough person to be able to look after
himself and make his own contribution to life

among other people. He must achieve a

personality, an ego, adequate to the situation of

grown-up existence if he is to live without

internally caused fears and breakdown. Yet the

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 plain fact is that probably a majority of human
beings never do feel adequate to living and are
involved in this process of ‘screwing themselves
up’. Freud pictured this state of things when, in
his own terms, he spoke of the poor ego being so
hard pressed by three taskmasters, the id, the

super-ego and the outer world. Fears of ego-

breakdown and ego-loss within come to be even
greater than the original fears of outer reality.
Freud’s ‘ego’ as we have seen is only the ‘ego of

everyday life’ in a purely controlling sense, and

not the real dynamic source or centre of the
personality. Freud called it the Reality Ego, the
ego in touch with the outer world, what
Fairbairn calls the Central Ego, and it is not of

this familiar ego, not of this part of the total

psychic self, that basic ego-weakness is a
characteristic. It is true that a profound sense of

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 weakness and inadequacy may and does break
through into the familiar conscious ego of

everyday life, but it does not originate there.

When this breakthrough does occur, it is because
the normal Central-Ego defences have cracked.

Usually the Central-Ego functions as a defence

against this devastating sense of weakness,
seeking to prevent its invasion of everyday

living. The Obsessional Character, for instance,

gives us a striking example of a Central Ego
organized on a rigid and unyielding pattern of

absolute self-control with no weakness shown:

though in fact the Central Ego may here be said

to have been captured by the Freudian sadistic

‘super-ego’.

Ego-weakness in the ultimate sense in which

it is basic and causal for all kinds of personality
disorder is a property of the infantile part of the

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 psyche which Fairbairn calls the Libidinal Ego

and which Freud called the ‘id’. ‘Id’ is, strictly

speaking, a psychologically useless term. It is
not capable of standing for anything meaningful

except the bare notion of impersonal biological

instinctive energy, and that is something that we
never meet with in clinical experience. We meet

only with energies that represent the functioning

of a personal aspect or part of the total personal
psychic self, mature or immature. The term ‘id’

can convey nothing more than the idea that the

energies used by the Libidinal Ego have a
biological source. Fairbairn’s term has a more

significant connotation. The primary nature of

the infant is endowed with natural libidinal
needs and energies in virtue of which, in a good

environment, it will grow into a strong, active

and definitely individual personality. But, where

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 personality disorder exists, that did not happen.
The Libidinal Ego represents the structural

differentiation of that aspect of the total psyche

in a state of deprivation, frustration and distress,
and hence of impotent rage, fear and knowledge

of its own weakness. It is the infantile and fear-

ridden Libidinal Ego (for which ‘id’ is an
inadequate term) that is the seat of ‘basic ego-

weakness’, and this is a deeper problem than that

portion of the feeling of weakness that seeps
through at various times into the ego of
everyday consciousness. Here is an ego-
weakness, the greater part of which is kept
hidden and repressed, dammed in behind all the

defences that enable the Central Ego to function

even if with anxiety on the adult plane. My

experience is that resistance in analysis is

directed with terrific determination to the task of

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 keeping this weak infantile ego under heavy

repression. Ego-weakness consists not in lack of

energy or innate ability, but in this unremitting
state of basic fear and lack of self-confidence of

which the individual feels ashamed.

The most obvious ways in which the person

with a basically weak and immature ego seeks to

protect himself in face of outer world pressures

and inner world fears is to hide the part of
himself that is a child facing a life that feels too

big for him, behind Central Ego detachment, or

aggressiveness, or conversion of tensions into
bodily illnesses, or obsessional self-mastery,

sheltering from realities behind technical

professional knowledge, compulsive addiction to
duty and unselfish serviceableness to others, and
so on. All the psychoneurotic defences come

into play. The more serious pathological states

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 of depression and schizoid apathy,
depersonalization, suicidal trends and

schizophrenic disintegration of the ego,

undoubtedly represent complex conditions in
which the infantile Libidinal Ego feels driven

towards the ultimate psychic dangers. The

defensive states represent rather the attempt to
force a pseudo-adult pattern which masks the
frightened child inside. This frightened child

inside, the basically weak infantile Libidinal

Ego, has, as it were, been split off and

repudiated in an attempt to live without fears.

This represents the hate and fear of weakness of
which we have spoken. Our fear and intolerance
of weakness is naturally great, and is so

embedded in our culture-pattern and is so

additionally stimulated in the infant by the adults
who handle him, that he is driven to a premature

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 repudiation of his weak infantile ego and to an
attempt to force an equally premature pseudo-

adult self. In seeking to overcome his weakness,

the child employs a method which ensures its
perpetuation, creating an endopsychic situation

in which natural development is impossible. We

must, in a moment, set this forth in more
scientific terms, but it represents what we may

well call the ‘Basic Emotional Predicament’ for

human beings in growing up, the human
dilemma: though I believe there have existed a
few simple cultures in which this dilemma did
not necessarily arise.

It appears to me that we are in danger of

being so overloaded with medical and

psychological learning concerning the

ramifications of the disease-process once it is in

being in the personality, that the tap-root is not

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 recognized with sufficient clarity. We may miss
the overall shape and meaning of the illness in

studying the variety of its manifestations.

Human infants, so long biologically and
psychologically dependent on their parents, are

not in the mass very successful in growing up to

mature adulthood. What keeps the child alive
inside so long? Why is he not normally and

naturally outgrown as the years go by, along

with increasing physical and intellectual
maturity? A person in a good state of mental

health as a result of a good early emotional

development does not feel to be an inadequate
and frightened child inside. One does not have to
have outstanding powers or exceptional

endowments to feel quite sufficiently self-

confident for normal purposes. It is much more a
matter of the emotional attitude in which one

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 lives with oneself in one’s inner mental make-
up. An enormous number of people are unable to

achieve an emotional development to mature,

unafraid, self-reliant and affectionate adulthood.
Why, however, is it not easier for human beings

to make a belated growth in ego-strength after

childhood is left behind? On a purely conscious
Central-Ego level many people, in fact, do. But

it is startling to find through deep analysis, how

little this has affected the situation in the
profoundly repressed unconscious. We may,
therefore, state in this way the problem of the
psychodynamic hard core of resistance to
psychotherapy: when once the infantile ego has

become disturbed and arrested in its

development in the earliest stages, so that it
comes to feel its weakness and to exist in a state

of fear, what is it that keeps it thereafter fixed so

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 stubbornly in that position of basic ego-
weakness? What is it that leads to the
perpetuation of a weak, undeveloped, fearful and
therefore ‘infantile dependent’ ego (in

Fairbairn’s sense). It remains buried in the deep

unconscious and makes no progress to maturity,
in spite of the strenuous efforts of the ‘self of

everyday life’ (Fairbairn’s Central Ego) to grow

and function as an adult. Why is this
endopsychic situation so hard to change? And in

what form does it persist so statically? Here is

the basic emotional predicament.

ANTILIBIDINAL RESISTANCE TO
PSYCHOTHERAPY

We are now so used to saying that the causes

lie back in childhood that we may miss the vital

point of this problem. It is true that the origins or
starting-point of the trouble lie back in

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 childhood, but the actual emotional cause of
instability and weakness in the personality in

later life is something different, something that

is going on in the personality right here and now.
It is a peculiar feature of the mental organization

of the individual (his endopsychic structure)

which keeps him in that original state of basic
fear and weakness, and perpetuates it and even

intensifies it as time goes on. We have stated this

in non-technical language as the fear and hate of
weakness in the face of the necessities of living,
and in comparison with other people. But we
have to be able to show how this fear and hate
come to be permanently embodied in the

organizational structure of the psyche.

The situation must arise in this way: a

disturbing or as Winnicott (1954) calls it

‘impinging’ environment in infancy and

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 childhood makes the infant aware of his
smallness, weakness and helplessness, and at the

same time makes him feel very frightened. The

specific feeling of being little, helpless and
frightened can emerge with great definiteness in

deep analyses. Gradually the child must become

convinced that, if he could put it into such
words, it is too frightening to be weak in an

unfriendly and menacing world, and also that

one cannot afford to have needs that one cannot
get satisfied. They make you dependent and, if
you cannot change your world, you must change
yourself. Thus he comes to fear and hate his own
weakness and his own neediness; and now he

faces the task of growing up with an intolerance

of his immaturity. This is very much bound up

with and reflects the impatience and intolerance

that grown-ups have of the dependence of the

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 infant and the childishness of the child. One
patient described how his crying as a child drew
on him such contempt and ragging that he
managed suddenly to suppress it, only to find the
crying fits replaced by temper attacks. Another
patient described how his attitude to his small

son changed during the course of his analysis. At

first when the boy cried, the father would feel in
an absolute fury of intolerance and shout at the
boy to stop it at once, which only made him

worse. Then later on he managed to moderate

this and would say: ‘Come on now, stop this
crying, you’re a big boy now.’ The patient
explained that as a boy he was himself often
very frightened of his father but never dared to

cry though he often felt like it. But his son was
not a ‘big boy now’ and the father was trying to
force him to a premature assumption of an

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 attitude older than his years, because this was
what had happened in his own case. Finally,

however, he worked through to a third position,

and he says: ‘Now, when the lad cries I don’t
feel that old fury. I can accept his childishness

better and I say “I’m sorry old chap you’re so

upset. I know how you feel, but never mind. You
have your cry and you’ll feel a lot better soon”.’

That, he says, works far better, and in a short

time the tears are dried and the boy has forgotten
it all. But all too often the child is educated into

the same intolerance of his childishness that the

parents felt towards their own. A self-frustrating

situation of deep internal self-hate arises, along

with a concentrated attempt to drive and force

oneself to the conscious feeling and behaviour

that is regarded as adult, in the light of the
pseudo-mature patterns of the grown-ups

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 around. This pseudo-adult pattern may be
conventional, practical, moral, critical,
intellectual or even aggressive, angry, cruel, but
it always masks an inward self-hate and self-
persecution. The child models his own fear and
hate of his immaturity on the parental attitudes

of intolerance and rejection of it, so that he

comes to treat his primary needy dependent but
now disturbed self as if it were a part of his

whole self that he could disown, split off, hide

and repress and even crush out of existence,
while his ‘ego of everyday life’ is compelled to
develop tougher or at least more socially

approved characteristics. The child’s ego has

now, as Fairbairn shows, been disrupted and
falls into three parts or aspects. The original

needy and now frightened and persecuted infant

(the Libidinal Ego), a newly developed

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 persecuting ego that bends all its energies to

hating the weak infant (an Anti-libidinal Ego),

and the conscious self of everyday living that
seeks security by adopting approved standards

(the Central Ego). The Central Ego is in

principle conscious; the conflict between the
Antilibidinal Ego and the Libidinal Ego is driven
down by repression and kept unconscious for the

most part, though its effects can and do seep

through into consciousness as immature needs,
fears, loves and hates. In the hysteric, the

Central Ego is much influenced by the suffering

Libidinal Ego. In depressed and obsessional
persons the central ego may be all but captured

by the Antilibidinal Ego. In these patients hostile

self-attack and punishing self-mastery are quite
visible. All sado-masochistic phenomena are

expressions of the deep-down persecution of the

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 Libidinal Ego by the Antilibidinal Ego. I have

adopted Fairbairn’s structural terminology

because, so far as I can see, it gives a much more
accurate analysis and description of the facts
than do Freud’s terms, id, ego and super-ego.

But just as we have seen that the weak infantile

Libidinal Ego covers in part what Freud referred
to as the id, so now we note that the harsh and

persecuting Antilibidinal Ego covers what Freud

meant by the sadistic part of the Super-ego. I can
see no good reason now for continuing to use the
terms id and super-ego in view of their lack of
precise obvious meaning, the unpsychological
nature of the term id, and the confusing mixture

of primitive sadistic self-persecution and moral

conscience in the term super-ego. We have now
an accurate analysis of the fact that Freud made

quite explicit, namely that very early in life a

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 human being tends to become cruelly divided
against himself and becomes a self-frustrating
and even at times a self-destroying creature.

Such an individual falls ill eventually because

his secret, sadistic attack upon himself, his
despising of his immaturity, his hating of his
weakness, and his attempts to crush out his
unsatisfied libidinal needs, become a much
greater danger and menace to him than the outer

world normally and usually is. The Libidinal

Ego’s fear of the Antilibidinal Ego comes to be
even greater than the fear of the external world
which often reflects it. Difficulties in real life
that could actually be met and coped with are
repeatedly felt to be intolerable because of the

weakening effect of the self-persecution and the

incessant fear and hate kept going inside: the
basis on which later morbid guilt is developed.

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 The hard core of personality illness then is

this persisting structuralized version of

intolerance and rejection, through fear and later
on guilt, of the originally disturbed child, now

existing as the deepest repressed, immature level

of the personality, a source of internal weakness;
a situation compensated for by the forcing of a

pseudo-patterned adult ego on the level of

everyday consciousness, an artifact not a natural
growth from the depths of the primary nature.

The degree of self-hate and self-persecution

going on in the unconscious determines the
degree of the illness, and in severe cases a

person can become panic-stricken and go to

pieces under the virulence of this internal self-
attack on the primary child self. An accurate

estimate of the nature and intensity of this can

usually be got from a patient’s reactions to

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 actual difficult children or to immaturity in
grown-ups, and also from their sado-masochistic
fantasies or dreams, and the painfulness of their
physical psychogenic symptoms. The Central
Ego is partly a struggle to cope with the outer
world and partly a defensive system against the

dangers of the inner world. It deserves a better

label than Winnicott’s ‘false self’ though there is
truth in that. It is not really the patient’s full and

proper self, but it does contain very much that

can and should be taken up into his true self as

integration proceeds. ‘False Self’ would more

truly describe the Antilibidinal Ego. The sado-
masochistic deadlock between the cruel
Antilibidinal Ego attacking the weak and

suffering Libidinal Ego in the deep unconscious

is the hard core of the illness against which the
Central Ego is the defence. That Ego-weakness

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 is not due to lack of energy is evident from the

tremendous energy shown by the Antilibidinal

Ego in psychic self-attack. The Libidinal Ego
feels weak because energy is made over to its

persecutor. Ego-weakness can exist along with

psychic strength.

One patient, a single woman in the late

thirties, in whom ‘the illness’ so seriously

sabotaged her capacity to carry on normal

relationships with people that it was with great
difficulty that she was able to keep a job,

revealed this internal self-persecutory situation

naively and without disguise. She would rave

against girl children and in fantasy describe how

she would crush a girl child if she had one, and

would then fall to punching herself (which

perpetuated the beatings her mother gave her.)

One day I said to her: ‘You must feel terrified

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 being hit like that’. She said: ‘I’m not being hit.
I’m the one that’s doing the hitting.’ Another

patient, much older, exhibited the same self-

persecutory set-up verbally. Whenever she made
any slight mistake, she would begin shouting at

herself at the top of her voice: ‘You stupid thing,

why don’t you think, you ought to have known
better’ and so on, which were in fact the very
words her mother used against her in daily

nagging. We can see here in an unmistakable

way the Antilibidinal Ego identified with the

angry parent in a vicious attack on the Libidinal

Ego which is treated as a bad selfish child, but
even more deeply feared and hated as a weak
child. The first of these patients says she was

always crying as a child, and despised herself for

it. Ultimately she managed to suppress this

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 symptom of childhood depression and its place

was taken by these furious outbursts of self-hate.

In these two examples, the Central Ego has

been captured by the Antilibidinal Ego, which is

openly and undisguisedly a self-hater. In the

following example the whole pattern of
threefold splitting is revealed, though the

Antilibidinal Ego is kept under strong,

controlling repression. The patient, a male in the
forties, had a most unhappy early home life and
was a badly depressed child. He grew to despise
himself as a ‘cry-baby’ and a ‘little worm’; he
repressed this tearful little boy and built up a

rigidly controlled, capable, unemotional and

aloof Central Ego to deal with the outer world.
But he suffered from recurring bouts of
depression and his emotional life in the inner

world was expressed in violent sado-masochistic

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 fantasies and dreams. After a long analysis

during which his depressed childhood self was

drawn nearer to consciousness in recognizable
form, he came to session one day saying: ‘Just

before I set out I felt apprehensive and as if I

could burst into tears; a reaction I suppose to
coming here.’ I asked him why he should feel

depressed on coming to see me.

He replied: ‘I see a picture of a little boy

shut up alone in a room crying. If one were in a
house where there was such a child, it would
depend on how interesting one’s work was
whether you were aware of him. Sometimes I
become aware of him and at other times when

very busy I can forget him.’ I said: ‘Your fantasy

is really that you as a grown-up person are
working in one room and wanting to forget a
crying little boy shut up in another room. What

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 about that?’ He answered: ‘The obvious thing is
to go to the child and find out why he’s crying
and comfort him. Why didn’t I think of that at

first? That strikes me as very odd.’ My reply was

to ask who shut the little boy in that room and
why, and he said: ‘He’s a nuisance. You can’t get
on with your work with a crying child around.’
That answered his question. He did not think of
going to help the child because he regarded him

as a nuisance, and he was the person who had

shut him away there so as to forget him, or some

part of him that did not appear in the fantasy had

shut the child away. I suggested that a part of
him that aggressively hated the child was being
kept hidden, itself repressed, but that it guarded

the door and tried not to let the child out or let
me in to help. He replied that he saw that that
must be true but that he was not conscious of

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 feeling any such self-hate. I was able to remind
him that in the previous session he had said: ‘I
like to think that I can be tolerant to a problem
child and to the problem child in myself, but I

can’t. I am intolerant and aggressive to myself,

and though I disagree with the way my parents
brought me up, I operate en bloc all their

standards against myself.’ (Transference

implications in this material have not been
touched on, as it is used specifically to cast light

on endopsychic structure.)

Here is a clear picture of the threefold

differentiation of the ego; the Central Ego of

everyday life working in one room and wanting

to forget what is going on elsewhere, the

distressed, weak and helpless child shut away in
the unconscious as a disowned and hated
Libidinal Ego in an immature state, and the

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 implied if repressed Antilibidinal Ego hating the
child and regarding him as a nuisance to be got

rid of. It is as if once the child is badly disturbed

and realizes he is too weak to alter his
environment, he feels driven to attempt the only

other thing possible, namely to alter himself in

such a way that he no longer feels so frightened
and weak, or at least seeks to prevent himself

being conscious of it. He develops an intense

dislike of himself in the state he is in and, so to
speak, detaches this hostile part of himself and
sends it on a mission to crush out the frightened,
needy and therefore dependent child, so as to
leave the rest of himself free to cope with the

outer world with something more of the feeling

of being a personality. It is the struggle for an

ego all the time. The more successful this trick is

(and parents so often help and educate the child

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 to perform it) the more self-destructive it

becomes, because the crushed child is the

primary self and its repression progressively
leads to self-exhaustion. We have to think of this

threefold splitting of the ego as the pattern of a

total strategy for facing life in an attempt to
‘negotiate from strength, not weakness’. The one

thing that the child cannot do for himself is to

give himself a basic sense of security since that
is a function of object-relationship. All that can

be done is for the Central Ego to seek to become

independent of needs for other people. The
patient can become self-blinded, deluded, into
believing that hate is the only way to carry on,

including hate of himself in so far as he wants

something different; and some aspects of the
outer world support his view. In fact, justice

must be done to the Antilibidinal Ego because it

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 is the child’s struggle to keep himself going
when he feels afraid and has no real help.

We may now refer back to Freud’s statement

about psychotherapy as aiming to ‘strengthen
the ego and make it more independent of the

super-ego’. This statement embodied prophetic

insight and gives us a basic truth about
psychotherapy, but the terms now need

reinterpretation. The ego that needs to be

strengthened is not just the Central Ego or
‘outer-reality ego’ of everyday consciousness,

but the patient’s primary nature which is

repressed and arrested in development in a state
of frustrated, weak, frightened and suffering

immaturity. We can hardly call this without

qualification the ‘true self’ as Winnicott does
(1954, 1955) but it does contain all the
individual’s true potentialities. If it can be

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 reached, protected, supported and freed from the
internal persecutor, it is capable of rapid
development and integration with all that is
valuable and realistic in the Central Ego.
Psychotherapy must aim at the maturing of the
infantile Libidinal Ego (which represents in

however limited a way the primary nature) and

its integration with the Central Ego to which it
will restore full emotional capacity, spontaneity
and creativeness. This aim is bitterly opposed by

another part of the personality, the Antilibidinal

Ego, which has long dedicated all the patient’s
anger, hate and aggression to crushing his needs

and fears. The Antilibidinal Ego is not re-

integrated qua antilibidinal. Its aggression is
taken back into the service of the Libidinal Ego

and matured. The patient, in the Antilibidinal

Ego, to quote Fairbairn, uses ‘a maximum of his

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 aggression to subdue a maximum of his libidinal

need’ (1952). The reason apparently is that

libidinal need is held to be the main
characteristic of the dependent infant, and all

dependence is hated as weakness. It seeks to

maintain a ‘personality without needs for other
people’, self-sufficient, ultra-independent, hard
and rejective. It always fails to recognize that its

patterning by identification with the rejective

parent and its ‘power cult’ in relationships of
domination over others are actually but thinly

disguised dependence. That is why persons of

this type of conscious personality so usually
break down when they lose those they have

tyrannized over.

The hostility, however, of the Antilibidinal

Ego to direct dependence on anyone for help,

and its hatred of the admission of needs, is the

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 real source of all ‘resistance’ to psychotherapy,
and of resistance to the psychotherapist. It hates

the needy child inside and it hates the therapist

to whom he desires to turn for help. Its
opposition is so unyielding that there can be no

doubt that this is the very centre of the problem

of psychotherapy. It is the Antilibidinal Ego that
keeps the basic self weak by active persecution

and by denying it any relationship in which it

could grow strong, and thus makes ‘cure’ such a
slow and difficult process. This is the field of
detailed psychopathology where close
psychodynamic analysis is so necessary if one is
to find out exactly what is happening in the

patient. I have had a number of dreams from a

variety of patients in which one or other of their
parents sought to interfere with and stop the

analysis. One woman dreamed that her mother

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 followed her to my room and tried to shoot her
as she was entering. Another woman patient felt
that her mother was hovering outside the

window trying to get in and break up the

session. A male patient dreamed that his mother
burst into the room during a session and planted
herself between him and me, saying to him
‘What have you been saying about me?’ and to
me ‘What ideas have you been putting into my

son’s head?’ Such dreams and fantasies

represent a process of opposition that is
developing in the patient’s mind against the
analyst and hostile to treatment, and the process
belongs to the Antilibidinal Ego with its
identifications with rejective parents. The

identification is not usually so obvious and

undisguised as in these instances.

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 Moreover, it is not by any means clear to the
patient that rejection and hate of the analyst and

of his own infantile libidinal self go together. He

may voice one or the other, but only rarely both
together. One patient expressed a serious degree

of ego-weakness followed by equally virulent

self-rejection, thus: ‘I feel inferior, I’m not sure
of my identity, I’ve made a mess of life, I’m

feeble, poor and don’t feel worth anything.

Away from mother it all feels messy inside me,
not solid, like a jelly fish. I’m nothing definite
and substantial, only frightened, woffling and
clinging to anything for safety, it’s an
indescribable feeling.’ Then she goes on: ‘I hate

myself, I wish I wasn’t me, I’d like to get rid of

myself.’ Here is her self-rejection, her
antilibidinal concentration on running herself

down, but on another occasion her antilibidinal

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 reaction turns to rob her of my help. She says:
‘I’ve felt very small all this week and dependent
on you. Then I felt I ought to be more
independent of you and stop coming to you.
Mother thinks I ought to be able to do without
treatment now. I feel guilty about it. But I’m not

strong enough yet not to have your support’.

Often the antilibidinal reaction against the
analyst is more serious. One patient, at a time of
great strain over an event which profoundly

disturbed her, oscillated between an intensified

sense of need for my help, and, on one occasion,
an outburst, motivated by very serious fear of
her panicky feelings of weakness, in which she
said with great tension ‘You want me to come

creeping and crawling to you but I’ll show you.’

Nevertheless, the more difficult antilibidinal
reactions of resistance to treatment are those

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 which are subtly disguised, and only develop

slowly in the unconscious. It is certain that

whenever a patient begins to turn to the analyst
with any deeper and more genuine measure of

trust and dependence and acceptance of help, at

once a hidden process of opposition starts up
and will sooner or later gather strength and lead

to a subtle change of mood that makes the

patient no longer able to co-operate as fully as
he consciously wishes to do. These antilibidinal
reactions to anyone from whom help or affection

is needed and sought are not confined to

analysis, and they conspicuously sabotage
marital and sexual relationships. In fact, the

patient’s mood can change and turn against

anything and everything that is proving good
and valuable and helpful in life, as if in secret he

were playing to himself the part of the mother in

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 the dream of that patient who was eating her

favourite meal: the mother snatched it away and

said ‘Don’t be a baby.’ The Antilibidinal Ego
will snatch everything away if it can, not only

analysis but friends, religious comforts, creative

activities, marriage, and we need to be able to
determine the exact source of its power as

carefully as we are able, remembering that it is

not an entity per se, but one aspect of the
patient’s total, if divided self; and, withal, to be
respected as his genuine struggle to keep his ego

in being.

THE STATIC INTERNAL CLOSED SYSTEM

We may now recognize the antilibidinal

factor in the personality, which is the source of

resistance to psychotherapy, as the same factor

that has all along obstructed any natural basic
maturing of the ego, once it had become

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 disturbed. This antilibidinal factor arises out of
the child’s necessity, as it seems to him, to make
himself independent of all help since the kind of
help he requires does not seem obtainable. He
must make his own internal arrangements to
maintain his personality and stand by them.

These arrangements consist of his own version

of an Antilibidinal Ego sadistically mastering
the frightened and weak infantile Libidinal Ego.

Bound up with this is the world of internal

objects which Kleinian analysis has laid bare.
With regard to this set-up in its entirety,
Fairbairn has recently spoken of: ‘A further

defensive aim which I have now come to regard

as the greatest of all sources of resistance—viz.
the maintenance of the patient’s internal world

as a closed system’ (1958). He describes the

dreams of one patient as reflecting: ‘A

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 movement in the direction of maintaining

relationships with objects in the inner world at

the expense of a realistic and therapeutic
relationship with the analyst, viz. a movement

having the aim of preserving inner reality as a

closed system. Such an aim on the patient’s part
seems to me to constitute the most formidable
resistance encountered in psychoanalytical

treatment’ (1958). He also regards this ‘closed

system’ as a ‘static internal situation’ (1958).
Thus one of my patients, writing to me from a

residential Conference, explained why she had

not written earlier although she had felt
extremely anxious, saying: ‘It was important to

me to be able at least to contain it without

having to come flying to you for help. I would
just be too humiliated.’ The same patient once

said: ‘Sometimes I feel I can only keep myself

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 going by hating. I can’t stop fighting. I won’t

give it up, I can’t give in. I feel I’ll lose

everything if I do’: a desperate antilibidinal
struggle for an ego by means of independence.
This desperate state of mind had come into

being because she had had to fight all through

her childhood to maintain a personality of her
own in face of an over-powering father who

frightened her. But to resist his domination she

had to fight not only against him but against her
fear of him. The frightened child had to force
herself to defy the angry father even though that
could only mean increasing fear and emotional
exhaustion. In having to fight father with his

own weapons, she reproduced some of his

attitudes, such as the view that all human beings
are selfish and only fight for their own ends, and

that love is weakness, a truly ‘antilibidinal’

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 attitude embodied in a cynical view of life. This
cynical Antilibidinal Ego was a mental
reproduction of her father set up inside her, so

far as her attitude to her needy and frightened

child-self was concerned. That had to be crushed
out for the purposes of ‘the fight’, so that her
Libidinal Ego was in the terrifying position of
being faced with an internal version of the
intolerant father as another part of herself from

which, therefore, there was no escape. This

situation can drive a personality to a state of

terror.

The Antilibidinal Ego, being considerably

based on identification with the external bad

object, involves resisting that bad object by a

method that opens the gates of the fortress and
lets him inside. By the time this patient had left
home, she was more persecuted by her paternal

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 Antilibidinal Ego inside than by her actual

difficult father outside. Yet in this predicament,

every patient agrees in saying: ‘I can’t change, I
feel hopeless.’ Whatever his more realistic

Central Ego desires, the closed self-persecutory

system of his inner world will only admit the
analyst if it can fit him into its own pattern. It

will not admit him as someone seeking to

change the state of affairs and rescue the
suffering Libidinal Ego from its plight. This

‘closed system’ situation is illustrated by a

painting of the above quoted patient. It was a
closed picture frame, the inside edge of which

was an unbroken array of sharp teeth all pointing

in at the patient. She lay as a helpless,
masochistic figure in the bottom right-hand

corner, faced with two menacing swords and a

great hammer crashing down on her. Detached,

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 but also inside the frame, were two praying
hands stretched out appealing for help, but in
vain because there was no one inside that set-up

who represented a helper; the hands could not

get outside to make their appeal, and no one
could get in to bring aid. This is how the
unconscious inner sado-masochistic world,

inside which the distressed child is imprisoned,

is felt by the patient, and it will not surprise us
that this patient had suffered a paranoid-

schizophrenic breakdown. I have found this

inner prison often dreamed of under the symbol
of the Concentration Camp. So the patient feels
it is hopeless to change and he will never get

better. The Antilibidinal Ego stands across the

path of psychotherapy and blocks it, shutting the

Libidinal Ego in the torture house and shutting
the helpful analyst out.

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 The problem of the analyst is, on the one

hand, how to prevent himself from being merely

fitted into the pattern of this inner world as either
the persecutor or the libidinal object who is

hated in company with the Libidinal Ego

(negative transference) and, on the other hand,
how to break into this closed system as a helper

able to initiate change. The Antilibidinal Ego

will resist such a development to the bitter end.
The system cannot be absolutely closed or no

progress would ever be made at all, but every

little breach that is made in it, at once evokes a
powerful antilibidinal reaction aimed at closing
it up again. Every time the patient seeks help

and protection through reliance on the analyst in

a positive transference, a negative transference
immediately begins to develop unconsciously

and will assuredly presently break out. Thus a

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 naive enthusiasm on the part of the analyst in

taking sides with the Libidinal Ego, and an over-

anxious pressing desire to ‘save’ the patient can
only provoke sooner or later a fierce antilibidinal
reaction and is self-defeating.

Freud (1923) wrote concerning the ‘negative

therapeutic reaction’:

There is something in these people that sets

itself against their recovery and dreads its
approach as though it were a danger. ... In
the end we come to see that we are dealing
with what may be called a ‘moral’ factor, a
sense of guilt, which is finding atonement
in the illness and is refusing to give up the
penalty of suffering. We are justified in
regarding this rather disheartening
explanation as conclusive. But as far as the
patient is concerned this sense of guilt is
dumb; it does not tell him he is guilty; he
does not feel guilty, he simply feels ill.
This sense of guilt expresses itself only as a
resistance to recovery which it is extremely

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 difficult to overcome. It is also particularly
difficult to convince the patient that this
motive lies behind his continuing to be ill;
he holds fast to the more obvious
explanation that treatment by analysis is
not the right remedy for his case.

This fundamental resistance to treatment which

Freud ascribes to unconscious guilt may now be

explained in a broader way. It is the antilibidinal

refusal to admit any need in the patient or allow
any help from anyone. Pathological guilt is only

one of the various aspects of a complex effort to

crush out the weak and needy child. Moreover,
maintaining a guilt-relation to an internalized

harsh parent is itself a defence against more

primitive terrors. Freud added a footnote to this
passage in which he says:

The battle with the obstacle of an

unconscious sense of guilt is not made easy
for the analyst. Nothing can be done
against it directly, and nothing indirectly

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 but the slow procedure of unmasking its
unconscious repressed roots, and of thus
gradually changing it into a conscious
sense of guilt.

He is here calling us to the need for more

rigorous analysis and the making conscious of
all the motives that sustain what we must now

see as the closed system of the inner world of

internal bad objects and the Antilibidinal Ego, in
which is concentrated all the patient’s secret and

repressed hatred of his infantile dependent

Libidinal Ego, the source of his basic weakness.

If direct assault on this inner redoubt only

intensifies resistance, perhaps an analysis that
goes deep enough can get behind it.

ANALYSIS OF MOTIVES SUSTAINING THE

ANTILIBIDINAL EGO

We seek to know how a patient can escape

from his destructive relationship to internalized

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 bad objects so as to enter into a constructive
therapeutic relationship with the analyst. The
closed system itself must have constructive
implications or the patient would not maintain it
with such desperate determination. The factors
that sustain it are certainly complex.

The Antilibidinal Ego Represents an Object-

Relationship to Parents

Whether we view the Libidinal Ego as in the

bondage of fear or guilt, that is imposed by an
Antilibidinal Ego which in part represents the
frightening or accusing parents. Fear and guilt

are both object-relationships, and undoubtedly in

the end human beings prefer bad relationships to

none at all. The infant in the first place was in
distress because he was unable to get a good
relationship and so his need of and attachment to

his parents had to be met by both suffering under

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 them and identifying with them as bad objects. It
is a long-standing psychoanalytical view that
identification is a substitute for a lost object-
relation. The infant comes to possess his

disturbing parents in himself, in his developing

Antilibidinal Ego, and its dissolution, therefore,
will feel to him equivalent to the loss of parents.

An inability to separate from parents with whom

the relationship is mainly bad is illustrated by a
patient sent for treatment during the war. She

stated that she knew what was the matter with

her. She had to live with her parents and they
hated her and she hated them, but she could not

get away. It was wartime and she could not get

another job with as good a wage, and digs were
hard to get. But it emerged that a few weeks

before coming to me she had been offered

promotion with an increased wage and with

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 accommodation provided in another town, and
she had refused it. She was too insecure to
venture and therefore too attached to break

away. The same kind of emotional relationship

exists in the inner world. Though the internal
bad-object relationship is felt to be persecution
and a prison, the infantile Libidinal Ego is afraid
to leave it. Thus a male patient dreamed of
wondering why he did not try to escape from a

Concentration Camp; but thought that though it

was a bad place to be in, yet it was probably
worse outside, and he was used to the camp,
familiar with its life, and knew how to ‘get by’,
and he decided to stay in.

This clinging to the closed inner world

seems from this point of view to be based on the
fear that, since one must have parents at all
costs, bad parents are better than none, and if

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 you break away you will only be out of the
frying pan into the fire. But that attachment is
also at work is shown in the patient who
operated all his parents standards against himself
even though he disagreed with them. There is
deep loyalty to the parental mores. The

Antilibidinal Ego goes on ‘bringing the patient

up’ in the same way as did the parents.
Furthermore, the disturbed child feels a need to
be controlled, even though it be by the very

parents who upset him.

Out of this, a clash in the patient’s mind

often becomes visible in dreams between parents

and analyst. Thus a female patient who had had

actually cruel treatment as a child, dreamed that
she was being hurried along a road by her father
who was cross and nagging her, when she saw
me on the other side of the street, pulled her

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 hand out of his and dashed across to me,

refusing to return when he shouted at her. On

another occasion she reported a dream that her
mother had been beating her when I arrived and

drove the mother away. Then later I had to go

off on business (i.e. the end of a session) and she
burst in tears and ran after her mother who

began beating her again. A bad object is better

than none, she could not be alone and her
relation to a cruel mother was her most deeply

rooted object-relationship. A striking dream of a

female patient was to the effect that she met a
terrifying lion and lioness and fled up a nearby

tree for safety. But the tree was a young one and
bent under her weight, putting her nearly but not
quite back within reach of the animals. She said:

‘Of course, the lion and lioness are my parents,

and I think you are the young tree. I’ve known

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 them all my life but I’ve only known you a year
or two, and that’s too young a relationship to
protect me from their influence. When I’m here
I’m sure you know best but when I’m at home I
feel they must be right.’ One sees here the little-
developed Libidinal Ego which has no

convictions of its own.

Patients, however, easily escape from seeing

the real implication of these dreams, and discuss

them as if it were now still a question of

relationships with their actual parents. They do
not easily grasp the fact that the parents in their

dreams are parts of themselves, processes going

on in their own minds, and represent now not so
much their real parents as their own parent-

influenced self, the Antilibidinal Ego in which

they possess their parents by identifying
themselves with them. It is necessary to make

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 this clear, not only in the interests of solving
their internal problems, but also in the interests
of allowing for improved realistic relations with
the actual parents where they are still alive.

The Antilibidinal Ego Further Represents the

Struggle to Possess an Ego

The more ill a patient is, the more certain it

is that deep analysis will in the end bring to light

extremely frightening feelings that he has no

proper or satisfactory ego of his own. Here is the
basic ego-weakness of which we have spoken.

We have seen how, in the struggle to achieve an

ego strong enough to live by, the child turns
against his own actual ego as infantile, weak,

and all too prone to betray him into the power of

the adults through his dependent needs. The
ferocity with which this internal ‘turning against
the self’ can persist for years into subsequent

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 adult life is seen in this dream of a man of forty.
‘I dreamed that I saw a small dog in the house. It
looked weak and was falling over on its side and
lay there as if injured. I tried to shoo it away but
it did not move. I suddenly felt an intense fury
against it and wanted to kick it out. I felt I

shouldn’t treat it like that, but if I pushed it with

my hands even that little dog might bite. Then it
wasn’t there, then it was there again.’ The little

dog, like the fantasy of the crying little boy

quoted earlier, was the infantile Libidinal Ego,
the small hurt little child of years ago still alive
within, hated, ignored but thrusting itself again
into notice. In proportion as this repression of
the original libidinally needy self is successful, it

leaves the child with little ego of his own; or,

perhaps we should say that in order to achieve
this repression of his original self, the child must

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 borrow an ego from elsewhere to do it with.
However we put it, an identification is made
with parents and this comes to take the place of

any further natural development in the child of

an ego that is genuinely his own. The
identification with bad objects serves as a
substitute for proper ego-growth. Thus the
dissolving of this identification is likely to be
felt by the patient as the loss of his own

personality. Since he has not been able to grow a

mature ego of his own with deep roots in his
primary nature, if he gives up the Antilibidinal
Ego he has nothing to fall back on but his
infantile dependent self, and he feels threatened
with a regression the extent of which he cannot

foresee. We must remind ourselves that the

Antilibidinal Ego represents the patient’s
struggle to retain an active ego to live by in spite

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 of his fears. Thus, since it represents both an
object-relationship and an ego, in a situation

where the patient does not possess either in a

satisfactory form, it is apparent that he will have
the greatest difficulty in growing out of this
unnatural growth in his personality structure.

The Antilibidinal Ego Confers a Sense of Power,

Even If Only over the Self

This is involved in the two previous

situations. The child feels weak because he

cannot master his environment to better his

position. If he identifies with the persecutory

adults in order to repress his infantile self, he is

taking on the personality of those who appear as

the powerful figures in his little world.

Undoubtedly, patients experience a sinister sense

of power and satisfaction in exercising a cruel

and destructive repression on their own anxious

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 child self. This is apparent when a patient will
fantasy scenes of angry and aggressive treatment
of a child. ‘Wouldn’t I love to make it squirm’ or
‘I’d break every bone in its vile little body, I’d
crush it.’ This cruelty to the child within is the
root of all cruel treatment of real children, and

one regularly finds patients who are parents

dreaming of their inward treatment of their own
immature ego under the symbol of similar

treatment of their own children. One such dream

is particularly clear. The patient, a male, says: ‘I

dreamed that I and my father and my little boy

were walking in the park by the lake, and
suddenly my son broke away, dashed to the
rowing boats, jumped into one and pulled off.

He wanted to do things on his own. My father

and I looked at each other. The lad had to be
taught a lesson and I got in a boat and rowed

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 after him, tipped him into the water to teach him

and then pulled him out and brought him back to

where my father was.’ Here is the original
father-son relationship repeating itself, by means

of an obvious identification, in the next

generation. But the sense of power over the child
is itself an ego-booster. The child whose self-

confidence has been undermined seeks to restore

it by the exercise of power over himself, a
dangerous antilibidinal situation that effectively

puts an end to all normal development,

especially of the power to love. Enjoying a
feeling of power in self-hate easily alternates

with feeling a sense of power over others by

hating them. The cultivation of a fictitious sense
of strength in the hating, Antilibidinal Ego, i.e.

an embittered personality, has to substitute for

genuine ego-strength.

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 Thus, in and through his Antilibidinal Ego
the patient enjoys a feeling of object-relationship

and the security of being under control, the sense

of the possession of an ego, and the sense of
power, even though it is all in a fundamentally

self-destructive way. He is not likely to be able

to sacrifice all this easily unless he feels very
sure of getting something far better in exchange.
His problem is that he must risk dropping all

pretences with himself that he is more adult and

tough than he really feels to be deep down, in

order that he may come back to the anxious

child that he once was and still feels to be inside;
and begin again from there to treat this injured
part of himself in a more constructive manner

that promotes genuine growth instead of an

artificial toughness as a mask for hidden fear.

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 ANALYTICAL OUTFLANKING OF THE
INTERNAL CLOSED SYSTEM

We have seen that Freud, faced with the

‘negative therapeutic reaction’ came to the

conclusion that nothing could be done against it
directly. In fact, the analysis of the antilibidinal

resistance to psychotherapy in terms of the

motives described in the last section, true though
they no doubt are, does not by any means
dissolve this resistance away. If it did, analytical

psychotherapy would be a speedier process.

Dissatisfaction with therapeutic results ought to

act as a spur to deeper investigation. My

impression is that unless we can go deeper still
at this point, continued analysis of the internal
bad-objects world in terms of its contents only,

perpetuates anxiety and confirms the patient in

its maintenance. He can become bogged down in
an ‘interminable analysis’ of what is actually a

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 ‘security system’ in spite of its

psychopathological effects. If we cannot break

up the closed system by a direct attack, perhaps
we can outflank it by discovering what it is a

defence against. If laying bare its motivations

piece-meal, motivations of both object-relations
and ego-maintenance, does not break it up, then

we must take it as a whole and seek to discover

what lies behind its existence as a total structure.
Why do human beings maintain an internal

object-relations world at all, especially when it

is necessarily predominantly an internal bad-
objects world. What greater danger is being
avoided in electing to face the dangers of the

internal bad-object world, which in the extreme

go as far as schizophrenic terror of disintegration
and depressive paralysis.

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 The answer to this question would provide a

still deeper analysis of the basic ego-weakness

that is the tap-root of all later problems. So far
we have only considered the repression of the
weak though still active Libidinal Ego in the

interests of the Central Ego of outer-world life.

There is another range of phenomena of a quite
different kind consisting of withdrawal. What is

repressed is thrust down into unconsciousness

because it is felt to be a danger to our conscious
life and activity in the social world. But
withdrawal is a retreat from dangers which in
the first place come from the outer world. The
schizoid retreat from the outer to the inner world

has of recent years attracted increasing attention.

Fairbairn in 1941 regarded it as due to the fear
that the outer world will arouse needs of

destructive intensity, so that the fear of

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 destroying love-objects precipitates a breaking
off of object-relationships (1952). Winnicott

stresses impingement (1954) or pressure of an

intolerable kind by external reality on the tender
infantile psyche, causing it to shrink back into

itself out of reach of harm. In both cases fear is

the motivating force behind withdrawal of an
essential part of the whole self from object-

relations in real life.

Both repression of, and withdrawal by, the

infantile Libidinal Ego prevent further normal

development of the basic natural self. But

schizoid withdrawal into an inner world seems
ultimately a more important cause of ego-

weakness than repression, especially when we

consider how far it may go. It is a more radical
process than repression, which I suggest is a
secondary phenomenon arising when attempts to

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 counteract withdrawal lead to the generation of

dangerous anti-social impulses. These arise out

of the maintenance of an internal world of bad-
object relations which suggests that the function
of this world as a whole is to prevent a too

drastic schizoid withdrawal from the condition

of an active ego in object-relationships. It halts
the retreat from reality half-way and saves the

ego from total breaking off of object-relations.

The destructive love-needs which Fairbairn
describes call for both repression of antisocial
impulse (oral sadism) and the withdrawal of the
oral-sadistic Libidinal Ego from the outer world
to operate only in an internal fantasy world. The

fear-dictated retreat from impingement of which

Winnicott speaks involves escape even from
internal bad objects, withdrawal of a more

radical kind such as constitutes regression. Much

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 clinical material seems to me to demonstrate that
we are here dealing with two different levels of

inner reality. Only when we reach and deal with

the patient’s deepest withdrawnness, are we
getting at the real root of his troubles. Here all

the difficult problems of regression will be

encountered, the most difficult problems of all
for psychotherapy. Regression has never yet

been fully conceptualized and fitted into its place

in the general scheme.

Some degree of ‘withdrawnness’ from full

contact with outer reality can be found in the

background of all psychopathological

phenomena and it is the result of fear. Thus a
patient in the forties recovered sufficiently under

psychoanalytic treatment to be able not only to

resume work, but to pass some accountancy

examinations he had never before been able to

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 study for effectively. At that stage he said: ‘I find

I don’t take much notice of the weather. I’m too

busy inside watching myself and I don’t take a
lot of notice of what goes on outside me. Mother
said I used to “swoon” and I’m afraid of

fainting. It’s like losing myself, it feels like

going down inside myself and losing
consciousness. At times I’ve been afraid to go to

sleep. As a boy I was afraid to lie down in bed in

case I got smothered, and could only sleep
propped up on pillows. I remember when small
thinking “I wonder who I am? Why am I here?”
I suspected I didn’t belong to the family and
would feel thousands of miles away.’ Here are

the marks of an early schizoid withdrawal into

himself, carrying with it the threat of
depersonalization of the conscious self. He then

dreamed ‘I suddenly found I still had the little

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 dog I possessed as a boy. I’d had it shut up in a

box and forgotten all these years and thought

“Why is it in there? Its time I let it out.” To my
surprise it wasn’t angry at being shut in but

pleased now to be let out.’ The dog represented

a specifically withdrawn ‘ego of childhood’
recognizable as structurally distinct. Only now
could he feel that it might come out again. This

appears to be what Winnicott means by a ‘true

self’ put in cold storage and awaiting a chance
of rebirth.

The difference between repression and

withdrawal was brought home to me forcibly by
a patient who worked through an hysteric phase

to reveal a basic schizoid condition. In the

hysteric phase she dreamed of being undermined
in her adult life by a hungry baby whom she
kept under her apron hidden, and who needed

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 feeding though she could not attend to it. Here is
her needy, demanding, internally active oral

Libidinal Ego, and energy has to be drawn off

from her outer world life to keep it repressed.
Gradually she worked through the hysteric phase
and lost her physical symptoms, only to find

herself frighteningly detached and out of touch

with everything, living in a mechanical way and
markedly schizoid. Her hysteria had proved to

be what Fairbairn calls a psychoneurotic defence

against a primary psychic danger. She would
begin every session with the quiet remark,
‘You’re miles away, you’ve gone away from

me’, thus projecting on to me her own

withdrawnness. She then reported a lump in her

tummy. She was sure it was in her womb and

was terrified that if she told the doctor he would

‘take it away’ and that would be the end of her;

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 she would be only an empty shell. She thought
of it as a baby but never as an active hungry

baby, only as a dead baby, or buried alive, lying

still, never moving, growing bigger perhaps but
it could never come out. She would say ‘I can’t

come out. I’ll only be rejected.’ She had been an

unwanted baby, parked out on her mother’s
sister who did not want to be burdened with her.

Faced with her frightening withdrawnness, she

had reverted again to the defence of an hysteric
conversion symptom, but now the bodily

substitute represented not a hungry oral ego but

a withdrawn frightened ego regressed into the
womb of the Unconscious. In this part of the
personality one finds that the important thing is

not sex or aggression but simply fear. Thus an

elderly spinster lost by death a valued friend,
and felt empty, lifeless, and would wake at night

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 with ‘airy fairy feelings, like a little nothing
floating in the void’. This depersonalization by

loss of a good object she began to counteract by

taking refuge in bad-object relations, in the form
of quarrelling with neighbours. Then insomnia
developed as a defence against losing herself in

sleep and she lay awake ‘thinking’. She said ‘It

doesn’t matter what I think about so long as I
keep thinking about something or somebody’, a

struggle to keep her adult ego in being. One is

reminded of Descartes dictum ‘Cogito, ergo
sum’ [‘I think, therefore I am’]. She became
exhausted and could hardly drag herself out of

bed in the morning. I suggested to her that she

was afraid of facing the world without her

friend, and felt an intense need to withdraw and

bury herself in bed for safety, and yet she was

fighting against that. She replied ‘I’ve got a

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 peculiar thought. When you said that, I
associated myself with an egg-cell in a womb.

Yesterday I listened to a wireless talk on that and

it fascinated me. The man said the fertilized egg
finds a soft place in the lining of the uterus and

hides away there and grows. I got a mental

picture of it and its come back now.’ Then after
a pause she became tense and said ‘Oh! a terror
of adults has suddenly welled up in me. I feel

overwhelmed by the feeling of grown-up people

who are so masterful and overbearing. It’s awful,

they grip the life out of me. (That was an

accurate picture of both her parents.) I couldn’t
tell this fear to neighbours or friends, only you
would understand.’ The bereavement had laid

bare her withdrawn Libidinal Ego of an infancy

in a hard home. It was no longer either sexual or
aggressive, but afraid and longing to remain shut

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 in. Its exposure rearoused her old intense fear of
the adult world, and she was only reassured by

feeling safe with me.

The deepest root of psychopathological

phenomena, then, is not a sexual instinct or an
aggressive instinct. These instinctive impulses
belong to the struggle to stay in object-
relationships, and are mobilized in an attempt to
counteract a too drastic retreat from reality. They

flourish most of all in the inner world of dreams

and fantasies, where internal object-relations are
maintained to serve a double purpose. They

satisfy the need to remain withdrawn from the

outer world, while they halt the headlong retreat
inside, short of complete regression to a womb-

like state. For regressive trends always tend to

fantasies of a return to the womb, intensified
needs for bed and sleep, inability to get up in the

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 morning, longings to escape from responsibility
and activity, to retire and to feel exhausted,
rather than to feel impulse-tension except in the
form of flight to some ‘safe inside’ position.

The more specific is the regressed ego in the

personality, the more deep dreamless sleep
seems to be equated with re-entry into the safety
of the womb, or, from the Central Ego point of
view, profound regression, and the dream world

is a defence against it. It is intensely desired by

one part of the personality and intensely feared
by another. The dream world is half-way

between the womb and the outer world. Dreams

allow of the simultaneous withdrawal from outer
reality and maintenance of an active ego.

Daydreams show the withdrawnness from

external reality. Nightdreams show as resistance
to passive dependence in deep sleep. Insomnia,

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 or refusal to quit the Central Ego level, is an
even more drastic attempted defence against
regression. All this is part of the struggle to

maintain an active ego in face of a powerful,

fear-driven urge to withdraw, the struggle to
counter-act the ‘shut in’ self. When this state of
being ‘locked up inside’ is converted into
physical symptoms, we are then confronted with
constipation, retention of urine, sexual

impotence, sinus blocking, the tight band round

the head, and the patient’s secondary fears of not

being able to escape from this self-

imprisonment, a claustrophobic reaction, lead to
the use of ‘opening medicine’, nasal inhalers and
sprays, and the development of diarrhoea and

frequency of micturition. The real trouble is that

the patient cannot respond to the outer world
with any true feeling except fear. One male

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 patient who gave all the signs of being a hearty
extravert, a successful, energetic business man,
complained of being ‘stopped up’ physically and
reported all the above symptoms. In fact he was
a bad relaxer, and hard-driven activity betrayed a
characteristic drive to maintain perpetual

motion. He had to ‘keep going’. At his second

session he reported a simple vivid dream which
had startled him. ‘I walked out of my business

and left my home, wife and family. I just went

away, I don’t know where’, a revelation of the
regression and withdrawnness against which he
was putting up such a fight. In the deepest

withdrawn Regressed Libidinal Ego we do not

find active sexual and aggressive impulses, but
fear and the desperate need to be quiet, still,

warm, safe, and protected while recovery takes

place. If we are to speak of instincts, then the

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 deepest cause of psychopathological phenomena
is not sex or aggression but fear and the
instinctive reaction of flight from the outer world

of real bad objects in infancy. Everything else is

defence and the struggle to counteract and over-
compensate the retreat of the withdrawn
Regressed Ego.

It will be seen that I have come to draw a

sharp distinction between the Oral active

Libidinal Ego and the passive Regressed

Libidinal Ego. In fact, to carry the analysis of

ego-weakness to the deepest level, I believe we

must recognize one further step in the process of

ego-splitting as analysed by Fairbairn, namely a

split in the Libidinal Ego itself. His scheme of

endopsychic structure conceptualizes the first
stage of the schizoid withdrawal from the outer
world by the differentiation between the Central

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 Ego of outer reality and the repressed partial
egos operating in the world of internal object
relations. The splitting of the ego in the inner
world into a Libidinal Ego and an Antilibidinal
Ego conceptualizes the struggle carried on by
the child to master and subdue his weakness by

turning his aggression against his own libidinal

needs. This forms the ‘closed system’ of mostly
bad internal object-relationships, the sado-

masochistic inner world of psychoneurosis and

psychosis, in which we find our patients so fast
imprisoned. I believe that a further split must be
admitted. The persecuted Libidinal Ego finds

itself in no better case in this world of internal

bad objects than it was originally in outer reality,
and it repeats the same manoeuvre again. It

leaves part of itself as it were to carry on the

struggle with bad objects in this world of dream

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 and symptom-formation, while in part it
withdraws still deeper into the unconscious,
breaking off all object-relations except the most

elementary one of a return to the womb and a

revival of identification. This represents the
deepest split of all, of the Libidinal Ego into an
active, masochistic, oral (anal and immature
genital) Libidinal Ego and a passive Regressed
Libidinal Ego. The masochistic Libidinal Ego is

the ego of psychosis and psychoneurosis, the

Regressed Libidinal Ego is the ego of profound
schizoid, fear-driven retreat from life with its
threats of depersonalization.

We may now see why the ‘closed system’ of

internal bad-object relations and of antilibidinal
self-persecution is such a ‘static internal
situation’ and so hard to change. In its entirety it
represents a desperate attempt to fend off

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 regression and depersonalization in any degree.
Its method for the most part is to use fantasies
and at times ‘acted-out’ bad-object relationships
to keep the distinct and separate identity of the
ego in being. Bad relationships are often better
than good relationships in the short run for that

purpose, since good relationships are so often

felt to be smothering, especially when there is
present a still deeper flight back into the womb.
Psychotherapy and the internal bad-object

world represent rival policies for the saving of

the ego. The antilibidinal policy is to maintain
unchanged the internal closed system of self-

persecution of the traumatized child within, in

an attempt to force an adult ego in
consciousness. Psychotherapy by the

psychoanalytical method is really an invitation

into an open system in touch with outer reality,

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 an opportunity to grow out of deep-down fears
in a good-object relationship with the therapist.
But this will only succeed in a radical way if the

therapist can reach the profoundly withdrawn

Regressed Ego, relieve its fears and start it on
the road to regrowth and rebirth and the
discovery and development of all its latent
potentialities. This is what Winnicott speaks of
as ‘therapeutic regression’ (1955). Whether the

recognition of this makes psychotherapy any

easier is quite another matter. Here lies our
greatest need for research, but at least it is better
to know what we have to deal with, and to deal
with the primary factor in illness rather than
treat secondary and defensive factors as the

causes.

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 REFERENCES

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psycho-analytical Studies

of the Personality. London: Tavistock
Publications.

_____ (1958). On the nature and aims of psycho-

analytical treatment. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 39:374.

Freud, A. (1936). The Ego and the Mechanisms of

Defence. London: Hogarth.

Freud, S. (1908). ‘Civilized’ sexual morality and

modern nervousness. In Collected Papers, 2.
London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1950).

_____ (1913). Further recommendations in the

technique of psychoanalysis. In Collected
Papers, 2. London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1950).

_____ (1923). The Ego and the Id. London: Hogarth.

1949.

_____ (1933). New Introductory Lectures. London:

Hogarth. 1946.

_____ (1937). Analysis, terminable and interminable.

In Collected Papers, 5. London: Hogarth Press
(rep. 1950).

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 Winnicott, D. W. (1954). Mind and its relation to the
psyche-soma. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 27:201.

____ (1955). Metapsychological and clinical aspects

of regression within the psycho-analytical set-
up. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis
36:16.

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 6

THE APPALLING RISK OF THE LOSS

OF DEFINITE SELFHOOD AND THE
STRUGGLE TO RETAIN A
“FAMILIAR SELF”

REGRESSIVE PHENOMENA

A number of years ago I had a patient, a

professional man in the forties, who in his own

view presented only one symptom. He was
embarrassingly preoccupied with breasts and felt
compelled to look at every woman he passed. He

regarded his shy and introverted make-up as

simply natural. ‘I’m not naturally a good mixer,

not one of the sociable sort.’ He felt that his

preoccupation had something to do with the fact

that his wife was an extremely cold and
unresponsive woman, as also had been his

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 mother, whom he always thought of as ‘buttoned
up tight to the neck’. This preoccupation with

breasts appeared to be a regressive symptom and

went along with a number of childish feelings
which he intensely disliked admitting. As

analysis proceeded his dwelling on breasts

diminished markedly, but its place was taken by
a spate of phantasies, all of the same type, in

which his interest was intense. They went on for

a number of weeks, gathering force and
competing seriously with his professional work
in the daytime. The general theme, embroidered
by endless variations, was that he would retire to
an isolated part of the country on the sea coast,

and there build a strong house and wall it off

from the busy inland life. No one was allowed to
enter his domain and those who tried to break in

by force were miraculously kept at bay. As

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 contrasted with his professional and social life,
his inner mental life constituted a house of that

kind inside which he lived apart, and into which

no one from the outside was ever genuinely
admitted.

The series came to a head with a tremendous

phantasy of building an impregnable castle on
top of a breast-shaped mountain, walling it

round with impassable defences, and taking up

residence inside. The authorities camped round
about and tried to storm his citadel but were
quite unable to break in. He clearly felt some

uneasiness about this ‘safe inside’ position, did

not wish to be a totally self-made prisoner, and

arranged to emerge at times in disguise to

inspect the outer world, but no one could get in

to contact him. Finally he saw me coming up the

mountain side, hurled great boulders at me and

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 drove me off. The phantasy shows some
evidence of a wish for a position of security at

the breast, in conformity with his symptom, but,

like the phantasies that preceded it, the real
theme is retreat to a ‘safe inside’ situation. In

this phantasy he oscillates between a breast he

can leave and return to, and a womb he can get
safe inside. A week or two later he suddenly

broke off analysis, using a passing illness of his

wife as a reason. The phantasies and the analysis
had revealed the powerful regressive drive that
underlay his general character of schizoid
detachment and withdrawal from real personal
relationships. At that time I regarded the

phantasies as all of a piece with the interest in

breasts, and as a further extension of regression

into the depths of infantile experience, beyond

the breast into the womb where he would be

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 ‘safe inside’. I have now come to regard that as
an incomplete interpretation.

I am inclined to think that interpreting his

preoccupation with breasts simply as regression
broke down what was in fact a defence against

the final regression, and led him back into the

ultimate regressive impulse to return to the
safety of the womb. Breasts are the concern of
the baby who has been born and is staying in

and reacting to the world outside the womb. His

compulsion to cling desperately to breasts and
not give them up, was a constructive and

forward-looking struggle to defeat his powerful

longing to take flight from the post-natal world,
return to the womb and be safe inside. Perhaps

if, at that time, I had credited his presenting

symptom with this constructive motivation, we
might both have uncovered his deep regressive

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 drive back to a protected passive state, and also
supported in the analysis his struggle to preserve

an active, even if on that deep level, as yet only

an infantile, breast-seeking ego. Perhaps he
withdrew from analysis through fear that it was

betraying him into the power of his regressive

flight from active living.

I did not at that time recognize the element

of determined defence against schizoid

withdrawal and regression which I now feel to

be the essential purpose of a good many
reactions which, considered from the adult point

of view only, present the appearance of merely

infantile phenomena. All post-natal phenomena,
however infantile in themselves, as oral, anal

and some genital phenomena are, belong to the

sphere of active ‘object-relations’ of a
differentiated kind, and so can serve as a defence

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 against the impulse to withdraw into passive
ante-natal security. This is a clue of far-reaching

importance for the understanding of the whole

range of psychopathological experiences. The
facts about regression and phantasies of a return

to the womb have long been familiar to analysts.

Nevertheless, they have never been securely
placed in the theoretical structure of psycho-

analysis. Schizophrenic and depressive states

were linked by Abraham to the oral-sucking and
oral-biting phases of infancy, but phantasies of a
return to the womb have simply been taken as
part of the phantasy material of regression in
general. The withdrawn schizoid states have

been loosely linked with schizophrenia in much

the same way as the ‘depressive character’ is

related to ‘depressive psychosis’. Much clinical

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 material makes me feel that they have a more
definite significance.

EXISTING THEORETICAL CONCEPTS

The history of psychoanalysis records one

major attempt to take account of ante-natal life

in a psychologically meaningful way, namely
Otto Rank’s ‘Birth Trauma’ theory of neurosis.
This misfired because he founded it on the
assumption that a physical trauma at birth was
the origin of all anxiety. He sought a

psychoanalytic means of securing a quick

unmasking and reliving of this birth-trauma in

the fond hope that neurosis would then prove

amenable to rapid cure. Treatment and cure

appeared as a process of ‘rebirth’, implying that
in some sense the neurotic personality was still
‘in the womb’. Freud exposed the fallacy of this

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 theory as a whole. In a letter to Abraham in
February 1924, he wrote:

I do not hesitate to say that I regard this

work [of Rank] as highly significant, that it
has given me much to think about, and that
I have not yet come to a definite judgement
about it. … We have long been familiar
with womb phantasies and recognized their
importance, but in the prominence which
Rank has given them they achieve a far
higher significance and reveal in a flash the
biological background of the Oedipus
complex. To repeat it in my own language:
some instinct must be associated with the
birth trauma which aims at restoring the
previous existence, one might call it the
urge for happiness, understanding there
that the concept ‘happiness’ is mostly used
in an erotic meaning. Rank now goes
further than psychopathology, and shows
how men alter the outer world in the
service of this instinct, whereas neurotics
save themselves this trouble by taking the
short cut of phantasying a return to the
womb. [Jones 1957]

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 Freud regarded this phantasy of a return to

the womb as an erotic wish all of a piece with

the Oedipal incestuous desire for the mother, and
as opposed by the father’s prohibition arousing

guilt. In March 1924 he wrote again to

Abraham:

Let us take the most extreme case, that

Ferenczi and Rank make a direct assertion
that we have been wrong in pausing at the
Oedipus complex. The real decision is to
be found in the birth trauma, and whoever
had not overcome that would come to
shipwreck in the Oedipus situation. Then,
instead of our actual aetiology of the
neuroses, we should have one conditioned
by physiological accidents, since those who
became neurotic would be either the
children who had suffered a specially
severe birth trauma or had brought to the
world an organization specially sensitive to
trauma. [Jones 1957]

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 Freud rejected Rank’s views on two grounds
principally, that he found the cause of neurosis
in a physical accident (thus failing to give a true
psychodynamic aetiology) and even then there
was no evidence that a quick unmasking of a
birth trauma could produce a rapid cure. Freud’s

criticism was decisive and yet we are no nearer

to seeing the true significance of these womb
phantasies and of regressive phenomena in

general. After the publication in 1926 of Freud’s

Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Jones wrote

to him: ‘You were wise enough to do what none

of us others could do: namely to learn something
from it all by allowing Rank’s views to work on
you in a stimulating and fruitful way’ Qones

1957). We must continue to do that ourselves for

the solution of the problem has not yet been
arrived at.

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 Freud regarded phantasies of a return to the
womb as having the same basic significance as

the Oedipal desire for the mother. The maternal

genital, breast and womb were all to be held as
alike objects of the incest wish. Wishes for them,

when activated in adult life, constitute a

progressive return to ever earlier stages of the
positive, active, infantile sexual drive. This, I

now feel, overlooks an important fact. Further,

Freud regards the ‘instinctive drive’ active in
these regressions to ‘restore the previous
existence’ as ‘the urge for (erotic) happiness’.
This also, I believe, misses the real point, and in
such a way as to hide the motivational difference

between phantasies of a return to the womb, and

breast and incest phantasies. Womb phantasies
cancel post-natal object-relations, breast and

incest phantasies do not. This fact makes an

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 enormous difference to the ego, which is quite
peculiarly dependent on object-relationships for
its strength and its sense of its own reality.

The situation revealed by the case material

with which I began shows that the patient felt
quite simply that the entire external world into
which he had emerged at birth was hostile and
dangerous and he was afraid of it. If we are to
use ‘instinct’ terminology, then his regressive
longing to get back inside the safe place was

caused, not by incestuous longing for erotic

happiness with the mother, but by fear. It is true
fear dictates a return to the mother, but for safety

rather than for pleasure. He felt he had been

born into a menacing outer world and fear
stimulated the instinctive reaction of flight,
escape, withdrawal back into the secure fortress
from which he had emerged. From this point of

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 view it would appear that phantasies of the
breast, and of anal and incestuous genital

relations with the mother of post-natal existence,

are expressions of a struggle by a different part
of the personality to ‘stay born’ and function in

the world of differentiated object-relations as a

separate ego. They are a defence against the
danger of being drawn down into another part of

the personality which has ‘gone back inside’ to

save itself from being overwhelmed; for this
‘going back inside’ does very peculiar and
frightening things to the ego. What seems to
promise security in one sense is feared as
annihilating in another. That was why my patient

provided for his emergence in disguise, at least

to inspect, to keep up some contact with, the
outer world. Rank was close to the ultimate

problem in psychodynamics but hit on the wrong

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 solution, in repudiating which Freud, in turn,
failed to hit on the right one. The point of view

from which the problem could be solved, a point

of view arising out of the study of schizoid
phenomena, had not then emerged.

Since 1924 much work has been done on the

early years of infancy. Melanie Klein has carried
intensive analytical investigations back into
Freud’s pre-Oedipal period. She showed that

‘persecutory anxiety’ antedates ‘depressive

anxiety’, and that the infant of the first few
months is capable of fear so intense that it can

amount to fear of death in the absolute sense of

annihilation. It is true that Mrs Klein regarded
this fear of destruction as due ultimately to fear

of the internal working of the hypothetical death

instinct and therefore as an almost wholly
endopsychic phenomenon. However, Freud’s

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 speculative theory of a death instinct met with
little acceptance among analysts, and was
rendered unnecessary by the genuinely new
development of Mrs Klein’s ‘internal objects

theory’. This, and her view of the intense fear

that can dominate the infant in the earliest period
are indispensable for solving the problem of the

profoundest regression underlying schizoid

states.

Three other contributions bear vitally on our

problem, those of Winnicott and Balint from the

clinical, and Fairbairn from the theoretical point

of view. In this section we are concerned with

theory and Fairbairn’s revision of

psychoanalytical theory appears to me to be the

necessary framework within which this problem
can be understood. He transferred emphasis
from instincts to the self or ego which owns

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 them, and from impulses to the object-
relationships within which they become active.

He did this under pressure from his clinical work

with schizoid patients, and was led beyond
Depression to the Schizoid state as the basis of

all psychopathological developments. A

‘personal’ rather than a ‘psychobiological’
theory eventuated. Freud’s analysis of the ego is

a conceptualization of depression— a theory of

endopsychic structure as essentially a matter of
ego and super-ego control and/or repression of
raw id-impulses of an anti-social order. Guilt,
ultimately in an unconscious form, is the
dynamic of the process and the real source of

resistance to psychotherapy (Freud 1923). By

contrast, Fairbairn’s analysis of the ego is a

conceptualization of the schizoid process, and

meets the demand that process makes for a

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 theory of endopsychic structure which makes

intelligible the ‘ego-splitting’ that schizoid

withdrawal involves. Here the dynamic is not
guilt but simple fear. Since schizoid withdrawal

is, in the first place, from a bad frightening outer

world, Fairbairn does not regard the infant’s
psychic life as almost wholly endopsychically

determined in the way Mrs Klein did.

He regards the infant as from the start a

whole, unitary, dynamic ego, however primitive,
reacting to his object-world, development being

determined by the kind of reception he meets.

External object-relations determine the start and
future course of endopsychic development in the

structural sense. The pristine psyche of the

infant is not an unintegrated collection of ego-
nuclei, nor is it objectless and purely autoerotic.
The work of Mrs Klein in fact outmoded both

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 those elements of the original psychoanalytic
theory, though she wavered on the first point.
Fairbairn is explicit that the infant from the start

is a whole, if primitive, dynamic ego with a

unitary striving, at first dim and blind, towards
the object-relationships he needs for further ego-
development. It is an infantile ego of this kind,
already a ‘person’ in essence in however
elementary a way, that we must conceive of as

capable of experiencing the intense ‘persecutory

anxiety’, the sheer fear, that Mrs Klein found

could characterize the very first few months of

life. E. Jones wrote: ‘Dr Fairbairn starts at the
centre of the personality, the ego, and depicts its
strivings and difficulties in its endeavour to

reach an object where it may find support... a

fresh approach in psycho-analysis’ (Fairbairn
1952).

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 Fairbairn’s theory of endopsychic structure

enables us to conceptualize regression as

withdrawal from a bad external world, in search
of security in an inner world. His conviction that

the schizoid problem is the ultimate basis of all

psychopathological developments is of major
importance. He points out that the problem of

the schizoid individual is that his withdrawal in

fear results in an inability to effect genuine
relationships with personal objects; a fear which

is so great, and which leads to a consequent

isolation which tends to become so absolute, that
in the end he risks the total loss of all objects

and therewith the loss of his own ego as well.

His attempt to save his ego from persecution by
a flight inside to safety creates an even more

serious danger of losing it in another way. This

is the indispensable starting-point for the study

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 of regression. It is illustrated with startling
clarity by the dream of a University lecturer of a
marked schizoid intellectual type. He reported ‘I
dreamed that I took off from the earth in a space
ship. Floating about in empty space I at first
thought it was marvellous. I thought “There’s

not a single person here to interfere with me”.

Then suddenly I panicked at the thought
“Suppose I can’t get back”.’

The schizoid person can withdraw so

thoroughly into himself that he fears losing

touch altogether with his external object world.

A young wife, who had become deeply schizoid

in early childhood through sheer maternal

neglect, was faced with the coming into the
home of a loud voiced and domineering mother-
in-law. She said simply: ‘She scares me. I feel I
am just going miles away. It’s frightening. I fear

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 I’ll get so far away I can’t get back. I fear I’ll go

insane.’ She had to ring me several nights in

succession to keep touch and allay fear.

It is at that point that the schizoid person

begins to face the danger of the

depersonalization of his ego-of-everyday-life,
along with the de-realization of his environment,

and he faces the appalling risk of the loss of

definite self-hood. The patient first cited had
good reason to provide for his emergence in

disguise to contact reality outside his castle. Yet

this was not ‘contact’ but only ‘observing from a
detached standpoint’. He had no real relationship

because he was afraid to let the outer world get

in, to contact him. Regression and schizoid
withdrawal are one and the same thing. Mrs
Klein was influenced by Fairbairn’s work on the

schizoid problem and adopted his term

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 ‘schizoid’ as an addition to her own term
‘paranoid’ to describe the earliest developmental
‘position’, antedating the later ‘depressive’

position. The combined term ‘paranoid-schizoid’

position is not, however, strictly accurate. Just as
the ‘depressive position’ is guilt-burdened, so
the ‘paranoid position’ is fear-ridden. The
‘schizoid position’ is still deeper, for an infantile
ego has withdrawn to safety inside away from

persecution, or is resolutely seeking to do so.

‘Paranoid’ and ‘schizoid’ represent ‘danger’

and ‘flight’ respectively. Mrs Klein holds that
failure to work through this total situation

renders the child unable later to solve the

problems of the depressive position, so that he
may regress to and reactivate the earlier
problems, as a defence against the pain of
unresolvable depression. Mrs Klein regarded the

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 ‘depressive position’ as the central one for
development, the stage at which what Winnicott

(1955b) calls ‘ruth’ or ‘concern’ for others

arises, and the development of moral feeling in
the civilized person. The earlier paranoid and

schizoid or persecuted and withdrawn positions

are pre-moral and allow of no concern for
others. The question of defence, however, can

work the other way round. The paranoid

individual faces physical persecution (as in
terrors of being torn to pieces) and the depressed
individual faces moral persecution (as, for
example, in feeling surrounded by accusing eyes
and pointing fingers), so that Mrs Klein regards

both positions as setting up a primary form of

anxiety. In fact, most individuals prefer to face
either depressive anxiety (guilt) or persecutory

anxiety, or an oscillation between them, rather

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 than face the extreme schizoid loss of
everything, both objects and ego. Both
persecutory anxiety and depressive anxiety are
object-relations experiences, while the schizoid
position cancels object-relations in the attempt
to escape from anxiety of all kinds.

Though schizoid withdrawal and regression

are fundamentally the same phenomenon, they
have different meanings for different parts of the

total self. From the point of view of the Central

Ego, i.e. the conscious self of everyday living,

withdrawal means total loss. From the point of

view of the part of the self that has withdrawn, it

is not ‘loss’ but ‘regression’ or retreat backwards

inside the small safe place, as represented in the
extreme by the phantasy of a return to the
womb. We must therefore allow for three basic
developmental positions, schizoid (or regressed),

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 paranoid (or persecuted) and depressed (or guilt-

burdened); and the paranoid and depressed

positions can both be used as a defence against
the schizoid position. When an individual is

inwardly menaced by an involuntary schizoid

flight from reality and depersonalization (as
when too deep fear is too intensely aroused) he

will fight to preserve his ego by taking refuge in

internal bad-object phantasies of a persecutory
or accusatory kind. Then, unwittingly projecting
these on to outer reality he maintains touch with

the world by feeling that people are either

plotting his ruin or criticizing and blaming him
for everything he does. Fairbairn classes the

paranoid reaction with the psychoneurotic

reactions as techniques for the manipulation of
internal objects as a defence against the primary

dangers of schizoid apathy and depressions, and

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 places the main emphasis on the underlying
‘schizoid position’ as determinative of all
subsequent development. We may agree that the
‘depressive position’ is decisive for the moral,

social and civilized development of the infant,

but the clinical material I present appears to me
to confirm Fairbairn’s view that schizoid

phenomena, and the flight from object-relations,

are more widespread than depression, are more
frequently presented clinically, and that the

schizoid position is the vital one for

development and for psychopathology.

CLINICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE

SCHIZOID PERSONALITY

Womb phantasies represent the extreme

schizoid reaction, the ultimate regression, and

we shall begin with the more common, mild

characteristics which show the extraordinary

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 prevalence of schizoid, i.e. detached or
withdrawn, states of mind. In an earlier study of

schizoid states (1952) I used the term ‘the In and

Out Programme’ to describe the dilemma in
which schizoid people find themselves with

respect to object-relationships. They are caught

in a conflict between equally strong needs for
and fears of close good personal contacts, and in

practice often find themselves alternatively

driven into a relationship by their needs and then
driven out again by their fears. The schizoid
person, because of his fears, cannot give himself
fully or permanently to anyone or anything with
feeling. His most persisting object-relationships

are emotionally neutral, often simply

intellectual. This plays havoc with consistency

in living. He tends to be unreliable and

changeable. He wants what he hasn’t got, and

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 begins to lose interest and want to get away from
it when he has it. This particularly undermines
friendships and love relationships but can
become a general discontent with most things.
‘Absence makes the heart grow fonder’ is true of
schizoid people unless too much fear is roused,

and then it turns love to hate. The schizoid

individual can often feel strong longings for
another person so long as he or she is not there,
but the actual presence of the other person

causes an emotional withdrawal which may

range from coldness, loss of interest and
inability to find anything to say, to hostility and
revulsion. ‘Presence makes the heart grow less
fond.’ Many a patient complains that he carries

on long conversations with the therapist ‘in his

head’ but his mind goes blank when in session.

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 So the schizoid person is liable to be constantly
‘in and out’ of any and every kind of situation.

He usually has a rich and active phantasy

life, but in real life is often tepid and weak in
enthusiasm, is apt to suffer from inexplicable

losses of interest and feels little zest in living.

Yet deep inside he has particularly intense needs.
He can live in imagination but not in the world

of material reality from which he is primarily

withdrawn into himself. He wants to realize his
dreams in real life but if he finds a dream

coming true externally he seems to be

unaccountably unable to accept and enjoy it,
especially if it concerns a personal relationship.

One spinster patient had longed for years to

marry and at the age of forty was able to develop
her first serious friendship with a male. He was
an excellent man in general but a rather reserved

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 bachelor and not very forthcoming as a lover. As

long as she was not sure how much he cared for

her, she impatiently and often angrily desired
him to be more demonstrative. In fact she did

draw him out and then it suddenly dawned on

her that he really did want her, and she at once
took fright, lost interest, and became critical and

off-putting. A crisis developed in her which

exploded in one session the moment she entered
the consulting room. She stood in the middle of

the floor and said in a tense voice: ‘I can’t come

near you. Don’t come near me. I’ll have to go
away, miles away, and live all alone.’ I asked her

what she was afraid of and she replied: ‘If you

get close to people, you get swallowed up, you
go inside.’

Here was a striking expression of the

claustrophobic reaction to close relations that the

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 schizoid person experiences, and which had kept
her lonely all her life. She had earlier speculated

as to which of two male acquaintances she

would like to marry if she had the chance, and
said: ‘Whichever one I chose, I would

immediately feel it ought to be the other one.’

The schizoid person dreads that a close
relationship will involve loss of freedom and

independence. This predicament leads to many

variations of reaction. To be ‘in’ with one
person, it may be necessary to have someone
else to keep at a distance. To remain ‘in’ with
the marriage partner, may necessitate being ‘out’
with the children or parents; or to be ‘in’ with

one child may involve being ‘out’ with another

one. Sometimes it leads to deep-seated

fluctuations of moods with the same person,

varying from periods of warm emotion to other

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 periods of coldness and distance. No consistent

full free warmth of affection can be achieved.

This claustrophobic reaction to any genuine

close relationship is seen in the dream of a

female patient that her sister was being very

loving and affectionate to her and she was
enjoying it; then suddenly she felt panicky and

thought ‘We’re getting too close, its dangerous,

something dreadful will happen’, and she broke
away. This ‘in and out’ policy, alternately

dictated by needs and fears, has serious effects

on sexual relationships in marriage so that a man
may only be able to risk sexual relationships

with a woman he is not ‘tied’ to and does not

really love, while he is unconsciously inhibited
by deep fears of too close a bodily relationship
to the woman he does love. He splits himself

into a mental self and a bodily self, and if he is

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 ‘in’ with the mind he must be ‘out’ with the
body and vice versa. He cannot commit the

whole of himself to one person.

Schizoid persons are extremely liable to fear

good and loving relationships more than bad and

hostile ones, the reason why they face such

exceptional difficulties in personal relationships.
As soon as they feel they are getting close to
someone they experience an automatic and

sometimes catastrophically uncontrollable

withdrawal of all positive feeling accompanied

by great fear. This more commonly appears in

the milder form of unaccountable loss of

interest. Thus two male patients revealed a

history of broken engagements. The

engagements were made on the crest of a wave
of strong emotion and almost immediately a
state of panic and alarm supervened to make

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 them rush to break it off. Their reaction was: ‘I
feel trapped, doomed.’

This fundamental schizoid fear, which is

expressed by patients with monotonous
regularity by the use of the words: dread of

being smothered, stifled, suffocated, possessed,

tied, imprisoned, swallowed up, dominated,
absorbed, if a close relationship is risked, is

often experienced in vaguer general forms. Thus

the safeguarding of independence, even to being
unable to accept any suggestion or tolerate any
advice, becomes quite an obsession. It begets a

fear of committing oneself to anyone or anything

in any way. People will change clothes, houses,

jobs, interests, as well as chopping and changing

in friendships and marriage. Indecision is a

typical result. Sudden enthusiasms are followed

by loss of interest. One patient reported what is

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 in fact quite a common symptom. He said ‘I
can’t really settle myself to read a book. I think

“I’d like to read that” and I start it and just when

I begin to enjoy it I lose interest and think “Oh! I
don’t want to go on with this. I’d rather read that

other book.” I’ve got six books all on the go

together just now, and can’t give myself properly
to any one of them to finish it.’ The bibliophilic

Don Juan is likely to collect and possess books

without reading them. This schizoid fear of full
self-committal accounts for much inability to

concentrate attention in study.

This ‘in and out’ policy makes life extremely

difficult, so we find that a marked schizoid

tendency is to effect a compromise in a half-way

house position, neither in nor out. The famous
Schopenhauer parable, adopted by Freud, of the
porcupines, illustrates the position accurately

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 even if its account of the motivation is too
limited. A number of porcupines huddled

together because they were cold, but found that

they pricked each other with their quills and so
drew apart again. They went on in this ‘in and

out’ fashion till ultimately they established a

mean distance where they were not quite so cold
but also did not prick each other. One patient

says: ‘I live on the edge of life all the time, in a

state of muted feelings, neither very miserable
nor really happy. I don’t enter into anything
enough to enjoy it.’ Another patient says: ‘I’m a
chronic non-joiner. I go to the meetings or
lectures of some society and quite like them up

to a point, but as soon as someone asks me to

join I never go again.’ A third patient, of
extensive philosophical interests, says: ‘I’m an

adept at the art of brinkmanship. In group

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 discussion I don’t put forward a view of my
own. I wait to hear what someone else will say
and then I remark “Yes, I rather think something
like that” but I’m thinking “I don’t really agree

with him”. I won’t belong to a recognized school

of thought yet I have a dread of going out into
the wilderness and standing alone on some

definite views of my own. I hover half way. It

has stopped me doing any creative work.’

Thus, the schizoid person’s needs plus fears

of good relationships drive him to ring the

changes on being in and out with the same

person or thing, being in with one and out with

another, or compromising in a half-way position,

neither in nor out. Unless skilled help is

available to enable the person to grow out of his
fears of good relationships, the compromise
position is often the best remedy for it is more

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 practically workable than disruptive oscillations.
During the course of treatment the patient may

have to fall back on this compromise, as it were

for a breathing space, from time to time while
the anxieties of close relationships are being

faced. Yet in this compromise position people

live far below their real potentialities and life
seems dull and unsatisfying. If we could pursue

this problem into a mass study of human beings

in their everyday existence, we would probably
be shocked at the enormous number of people
who cannot live life to the full, and not through
any lack of means or opportunity, but through
lack of emotional capacity to give themselves to

anything fully. Here is a cause of boredoms,

discontents, dissatisfactions, which are often
disguised as economic and social but which no

economic or political means can cure. The

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 person with schizoid tendencies so usually feels
that he is ‘missing the bus’ and life is passing

him by, and it eases his mind superficially if he

can find a scapegoat. One patient who lived an
unnecessarily restricted life, partly because his

withdrawnness involved him in travel phobias,

phantasied that he was living at a small wayside
country station on the moors, on the side of a

main railway line, and all the mainline traffic

rushed through and past but never stopped there.

It is far more common to find people

exhibiting mild traits of introversion, and poor

affective contact with their outer world, than

exhibiting signs of true depression, and as
Fairbairn has pointed out (1952) most people,

when they say they are depressed, really mean

that they are apathetic and feel life to be futile,
the schizoid state. The poor mixer, the poor

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 conversationalist, the strong silent man, people
who live in a narrow world of their own and fear
all new ideas and ways, the diffident and
shrinking and shy folk, the mildly apathetic who
are not particularly interested in anything, the
person of dull mechanical routine and robot-like

activity into which little feeling enters, who

never ventures on anything unfamiliar, are all in
various degrees withdrawn and out of the full
main stream of living. One patient dreamed that

he was in a small boat in a backwater off a main

rushing river. It was choked with weeds and he
was struggling to get his boat out into the current
and could not. Such people have but little
effective emotional rapport with their world.

They are in the grip of fear deep down and

remain drawn back out of reach of being hurt.

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 On the other hand, this fundamental
detachment is often masked and hidden under a

facade of compulsive sociability, incessant

talking, and hectic activity. One gets the feeling
that such people are acting a somewhat

exhausting part. Patients will say ‘I feel vaguely

that I’m play-acting and that my life isn’t real’.
The jester or comedian or the person who is ‘the

life and soul of the party’ in public is often

‘depressed’ in private. Schizoid shallowness of
feeling in the part of the personality that deals

with the outer world in everyday life is the cause

of inability to find much real satisfaction in

living. The emotional core of the personality is

withdrawn from the self that lives in the external

world. The outer self, like a skilled actor, can act

even an emotional part mechanically while
thinking of other things. A middle-aged woman

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 patient discovered in the course of analysis that
she did not need the spectacles she was wearing
and discarded them. She said: ‘I realize I’ve only
worn them because I felt safer behind that
screen. I could look through it at the world.’ A
somewhat common schizoid symptom is the

feeling of a plateglass wall between the patient

and the world. Another patient says: ‘I feel I’m
safe inside my body looking out at the world

through my eyes.’ One is reminded of the Greek

idea of the body as the prisonhouse of the soul,
one of many marks of a schizoid mentality in the
Greek intellectualist view of life. Winnicott’s

account of the split between the psyche and the

soma throws much light on this. The healthy
personality does not feel to be in two parts, one

hiding from the world within the other, but

whole and all of a piece and active as a unity.

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 Both the part of the personality which is

deeply withdrawn and out of touch, and the part

of the personality left to maintain some shallow
and precarious contact with the outer world,

depleted of emotional vitality, are withdrawn,

but the former more profoundly so. The deeply
withdrawn part of the whole self is profoundly
‘schizoid’, extensively ‘cut off’. The ego of

everyday life is not so fully cut off. It maintains

a mechanical rather than an emotional contact,
and tends to feel affectively devitalized, emptied

even to the risk of depersonalization. Dreams in

which the patient is only an observer of the
activities of others are fairly common. An

unmarried woman in the thirties dreamed that

she stood at a little distance and watched a man
and woman kiss, became terrified, and ran away

and hid. In her first position she was

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 considerably withdrawn but not entirely out of

touch. In her second position she was

completely cut off. In fact, patients maintain
both positions at the same time in different parts
of their total self, and the process of withdrawal

in successive stages through fear emerges as a

major cause of what we have come to call ‘ego-
splitting’, the loss of unity of the self.

This state of affairs creates two problems.

The part of the self that struggles to keep touch
with life feels intense fear of the deeper and
more secret, withdrawn self, which appears to be

endowed with a great capacity to attract and

draw down more and more of the rest of the

personality into itself. Hence extensive defences

are operated against it. If those defences fail, the

ego of everyday consciousness experiences a

progressively terrifying loss of interest, energy,

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 zest, verging towards exhaustion, apathy,
derealization of the environment and
depersonalization of the conscious ego. It

becomes like an empty shell out of which the

living individual has departed to some safer
retreat. If that goes too far, the Central Ego, the
ordinary outer world self, becomes incapable of
carrying on its normal life, and the whole
personality succumbs to a full scale ‘regressive

breakdown’.

Fortunately, there are several ways in which

life in the outer world can be kept going in spite
of a considerable measure of withdrawal of the

vital feeling-self. Ways of living can be devised

which do not depend on immediate vitality of
‘feeling for’ the object-world. Three such ways
are common. The schizoid intellectual lives on
the basis of ‘thinking’, the obsessional moralist

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 on the basis of ‘duty’ and the ‘organization-man’

on the basis of carrying on automatically in a

fixed routine. If the emotionally withdrawn
person can by such means ward off a great deal

of the impact of real life, and prevent its

pressures from playing on the secret inner fear-
ridden feeling-life, then a relatively stabilized

schizoid character may result; a human being

who functions as an efficient robot within a
restricted and safe conception of how life is to

be lived. Life is the pursuit of truth, not love; the

thinking out of an ideology, and ideas become
more important than people. It tends to the

Greek rather than the Christian view of life, and

the scientific rather than the religious view. In
religion it exalts theology above love of one’s

neighbour. In politics, it exalts a party creed

above humane feeling, so that people have to be

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 ‘done good to’ and forced to accept the right
kind of social order for their own interest even if
you have to kill many of them in cold blood to
make the rest accept this nostrum.

This outlook can easily slip over into the

unswerving performance of ‘duty’ in a rigidly
conceived way, doing the ‘right thing’ according
to one’s own fixed conception without regard to
human realities, or concern for the feelings of

others; much as Graham Greene’s ‘Quiet

American’ created havoc everywhere by the way

he ‘acted on principle’. Or again life may be

reduced to simply carrying on the usual routine,

doing the obvious thing, in a mechanical

manner, seeking not even to think, in a cold
neutral state of mind that freezes everyone
around but is safe for the person concerned. All
degrees of this kind of stabilization of the

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 schizoid personality occur, from mild tendency

to fixed type.

The schizoid intellectual is a particularly

important type, for he can become a serious

social menace especially if he comes to political

power. Highly abstract philosophy seems
unwittingly designed to prove Descartes’
dictum, ‘Cogito, ergo sum’, ‘I think, therefore I

am’, the perfect formula for the schizoid

intellectual’s struggle to possess an ego. A
natural human being would be more likely to

start from ‘I feel, therefore I am’. Even the

schizoid person can become rapidly convinced

of his own reality for the time being by feeling

angry, whereas his thinking is usually a not very

convincing struggle to hold on to a somewhat

desiccated personal reality. This happens when a

person cannot go to sleep but lies awake

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 ‘thinking’. Thus a patient suffering from a very
traumatic bereavement felt ‘emptied’ and would

ward off attacks of depersonalization in the night

by lying awake for hours just thinking. She said
it did not seem to matter what she thought about

so long as she continued to think. When an

elaborate ideology is fanatically defended it is
usually a substitute for a true self.

Behind all these methods by which the

schizoid person struggles to save himself from

too far-reaching a withdrawal from outer reality

with its consequences of loss of the ego, lies the

hidden danger of a secret part of the personality

which is devoted to a fixed attitude of retreat

from life in the outer world. It is the part of the

total self that most needs help and healing. Its
two most extreme expressions are regressive
breakdown and phantasies of a return to the

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 womb. In face of this internal threat, the

business of maintaining an ego is fraught with

unceasing anxiety. The schizoid problem is an
‘Ego’ problem. Like the British Army at

Dunkirk, the too hard-pressed child retreats to

save himself from annihilating defeat, so that
back in a protected security he may recover

strength; an analogy which suggests that the

schizoid withdrawal, if we understand it aright,
is a healthy phenomenon in the circumstances

which initiate it. By retreating back ‘inside the

safe place’, the British Army gained the chance
to recover and lived to fight another day.
Winnicott holds that under stress the infant

withdraws his real self from the fray to await a

better chance of rebirth later on (1955a). Yet this
retreat to save a ‘hidden ego’ also goes a long

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 way to undermine the ‘manifest ego’. This is the
problem presented for solution by schizoid data.

CAUSES AND STAGES OF SCHIZOID

C
WITHDRAWAL

Fear and Flight from External Reality

The most pathological schizoid withdrawal

takes place astonishingly early, in the first year

of life. It can, of course, occur at any time of life

as a generalized reaction, but the more it is

found to be structurally embedded in the

personality the earlier it originally occurred. It

can then, certainly, be intensified and

consolidated all through later childhood and

evoked by pressures in real life at any time, but

there is little doubt that in the beginning it is

associated with what Melanie Klein called

‘persecutory anxiety’ and ‘the infantile anxiety

situations’. It is a ‘fear and flight’ reaction in the

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 face of danger. The view of the later Freud and
of Mrs Klein that the ultimate source of the
danger is wholly internal, a ‘Death Instinct’,

innate active aggression working inwardly,

threatening destruction against the primary
psyche, has found no general acceptance. It
would be unscientific to fall back on such a
speculative idea when satisfactory clinical
analysis is available. The view of the earlier

Freud that psychopathological development

began, not with innate aggression but with the

libidinal drives of the sexual instinct aiming at

erotic pleasure and proving to be incompatible
with social reality, at least implied that the
source of the trouble was more in the

environment than in the infant. The world into

which the infant was born could not tolerate his
nature and his needs and he came up against

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 painful frustrations. However, this view does not
cover all the facts.

Fairbairn takes a wider view of libidinal

need as not limited to the sexual but embracing

all that is involved in the need for personal

relationships, on however simple and primitive a
level at the beginning: the goal of libidinal need

is not pleasure but the object (at first the breast

and the mother). The frustration of libidinal need
for good object-relations both arouses

aggression and intensifies libidinal needs till the

infant fears his love-needs as destructive

towards his objects. In the later ‘depressive

position’ which Winnicott calls the stage of

‘ruth’ or ‘concern for the object’ this would lead

to guilt. But at this earliest stage it leads to the
schizoid withdrawal, a simple fear reaction,
away from the danger of devouring and

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 therefore losing the love-object. Schizoid
persons have given up the outward expression of

needs, while also being haunted by the fear of

losing love-objects. One patient says: ‘I can’t
make moderate demands so I don’t make any at

all’, and another insists ‘I lose everyone I love’.

Yet the schizoid fear is not so much on behalf of
the object as on behalf of the ego and the

consequences to it of losing the object. Here lies

the difference between the moral and the pre-
moral level of development. The schizoid
personality is basically on a pre-moral level;
hence the horrifying callousness schizoid people
can manifest. It is not in accordance with

Fairbairn’s psychodynamic outlook to treat these

libidinal needs as discrete entities demanding

satisfaction in and for themselves. They are the

needs of an ego. Since the need for an object

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 arises from the fact that without object-relations

no strong ego-development is possible, we must

conclude that the satisfaction of libidinal needs
is not an end in itself but is an experience of

good-object relationships in which the infant

discovers himself as a person, and his ego-
development proceeds firmly and self-

confidently. Fairbairn’s view brings out the

question of ego-growth in weakness or in
strength as the background of all problems

arising out of fears, conflicts and withdrawals

over frustrated needs.

Deprivation of needs is, however, not the

only cause of schizoid withdrawal, and

Winnicott emphasizes what seems to be an even
more primitive situation. Not only must the
mother meet the infant’s needs when he feels

them, but she must not force herself on him in

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 ways and at times that he does not want. That
constitutes ‘impingement’ on the as yet weak,

immature and sensitive ego of the infant. He

cannot stand this and shrinks away into himself.
There are many other sources of ‘impingement’

in loveless, authoritarian and quarrelsome

families and often sheer fear is aroused in the
tiny child. Fairbairn has also recently stressed in

private conversation that trouble arises not only

over the child’s needs for the parents, but also
over the parents’ pressures on the child who is

often exploited in the interests of the parents’

needs, not the baby’s. The startle-reaction to

sudden loud noise is perhaps the simplest case of

fear at impingement, and such impingement

experiences, particularly at the hands of parents,

begin the building up of basic impressions that

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 the whole outer world is not supporting but
hostile.

Judging by the reflexion of these early events

in the psychopathology of adults, this factor of

impingement and pressure of a hostile
environment, bearing to an intolerable degree on
the tender infant mind, is the true source of

‘persecutory anxiety’, of fear of annihilation,

and of flight back inside, of withdrawal of the
emotionally traumatized infant Libidinal Ego

into itself out of reach of the dangerous outer

world. What an adult may do consciously, as in

the case of a wife who felt that her husband was

inconsiderate and said ‘I built a wall round

myself so that I should not be hurt’, the infant

does instinctively. He takes flight inwards from

the outer world. Fear of deprived and therefore
dangerous active oral-sadistic libidinal needs

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 belongs to a higher level, that of the struggle to

remain in object-relationships. It precipitates

withdrawal in two ways, however, through fear
of devouring and losing the object, and through

fear of retaliation and of being devoured by the

object. This latter fear may develop into guilt
and the fear of punishment. Withdrawal from
direct frightening impingement by the object in

the first place is more primitive. Deep fear-

enforced withdrawal from object-relations is
then to a regressed passive level of a womb-like

state inside. Severe schizoid states disclose a

total fear of the entire outer world, and
deprivation and impingement combine. The

world is a frightening emptiness when it does

not respond and meet the infant’s needs, and a
frightening persecutor when it actively and

hurtfully impinges. The infant cannot develop a

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 secure and strong ego-sense either in a vacuum
or under intolerable pressure and he seeks to

return to a vaguely remembered earlier safe

place, even though in fact he can only withdraw
into isolation within himself.

With one patient, a doctor, suffering from

apparent ‘depression’ which was really apathy,
indifference, and loss of zest for work, the

analytical uncovering of a clear-cut castration

fear, led to an outbreak of apathy, loss of interest
and energy so serious that for a time he could
hardly carry on his daily work. It was a

herculean effort to get himself out of bed and

one day he was quite unable to get up. He lay in
bed all day, curled up and covered over with

bed-clothes, refusing food and conversation and

requiring only to be left alone in absolute peace.

That night he dreamed that he went to a

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 confinement case and found the baby sitting on
the edge of the vagina wondering whether to
come out or go back in, and could not decide

whether to bring it out or put it back. He was

experiencing the most deeply regressed part of
his personality where he felt and phantasied a
return to the womb, an escape from sheer fear of
castration, not by father but by mother and aunt.
The whole family life had been one of anxiety, a

nagging mother, a drinking father, quarrelling

parents, pressure on the child to be ‘no trouble’
from babyhood, and then as he grew older a
mother and aunt who made actual and literal
castration threats, sometimes as a joke,
sometimes semi-seriously. ‘If you’re not a good

boy I’ll cut it off’, accompanied by half gestures

towards the little boy with knife or scissors
which terrified him. But that well-founded

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 castration complex, which brought back a wealth
of detailed memories, was but the end-product

of all the child’s memories of a mother whose

basic hostility to him he had always sensed. His
serious schizoid-regressive illness was the result

of a withdrawal into himself which must have

taken place first at an extremely early age to
escape intolerable impingement by his family

life.

Deprivation of libidinal needs and separation

anxiety play their part along with impingement
in provoking withdrawal, not only by

intensifying needs till they seem too dangerous

to express, but also by the threat of emptying the

ego. One very schizoid agoraphobic patient

reacted primarily to gross neglect and rejection

by her mother in the first year. Outwardly the

position improved at about 1 year when a

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 neighbour said ‘Excuse me Mrs X but you only
take notice of your older child, you never take
any notice of the baby’. The mother’s guilt then
made her subject the baby to oppressive
attention but the damage was done. Before the
vacuum changed into a smothering environment

the mother’s emotional withdrawal from the

child had been met by the child’s emotional
withdrawal from the mother. She developed so-
called epileptic fits in the first year, which faded

out into ‘dizzy turns’. They must have

represented the collapse of her conscious ego as
what Winnicott would call her ‘real self’ took
flight from a world in which she could find
nothing by which she could live. In after years,

when the patient’s husband was called up for

military service, this represented at bottom her
mother’s desertion of her and she broke down in

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 acute anxiety, could not be left alone, and

remained house-bound, withdrawn from life and

‘safe inside’. Late in analysis, when she felt she
had got back to the very beginning, she reported

a dream. ‘I was small and I pointed a brush at

mother like a magnet to draw her to me. She
came but said “I can’t be bothered with you, I’m

going to help Mrs So-and-So”. I felt a terrible

shock, like an electric shock, inside— “So you
didn’t want me”—as if the bottom dropped out
of me, life seeped away and I felt emptied.’ Did

that ‘shock’ represent her original ‘epileptic

fits’? During that same night she dreamed that
she ‘just fell, collapsed’, and in fact she did do

that next day. The importance of an object-

relationship for the maintenance of the ego, both
in real life and in psychotherapy, is clear from

the dream in which this patient fell. She dreamed

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 that she met a woman and asked her the way;

when the woman did not answer she ‘just fell’.

Then she was with me and I took her hand ‘to
warm her up’, i.e. bring her back to life. One

seriously schizoid male patient who had to sit

during sessions so that he could see me, at times
would begin to fade away into unconsciousness,

a process which was only arrested if I held his

hand till he felt securely in touch again.

Impingement and rejection or deprivation of

needs for object-relationships must be bracketed

together as defining the traumatic situation

which drives the infant into a retreat within

himself in search of a return to the womb.

Probably deprivation in the sense of ‘tantalizing

refusal’ leads to active oral phenomena while

impingement and deprivation as ‘desertion’ lead

to shrinking away inside into a passive state.

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 A Two-Stage Withdrawal from External and
Internal Bad Objects

The previous section describes the origins of

the first stage of what appears to be a two-stage
retreat from bad-object relationships. This initial

escape is from the outer material world into an

inner mental one. But contact with the object-
world cannot be given up, especially at this early

age, without threatening to lead to loss or

emptying of the ego. Thus part of the total self
must be left to function on the conscious level
and keep touch with the world of real external

objects. If that were not done, and relationship

with outer reality were wholly given up, the
infant would presumably die. Thus a ‘splitting’

of the hitherto unitary, pristine ego occurs, into a

part dealing with the outer world (Freud’s
‘reality-ego’ and Fairbairn’s ‘Central Ego’) and

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 a part that has withdrawn into the inner mental

world.

The withdrawn part of the total self must

also, however, keep in object-relationships if it

is to maintain its experience of itself as a definite

ego. The ‘mind’, instead of being simply an
active function dealing with the outer world,
becomes a place to live in. As Melanie Klein has

shown, the infant internalizes his objects and

builds up an inner world of object-relations.
Fairbairn regards the infant as internalizing his
unsatisfying objects in an effort to master them

in inner reality because he cannot master them in

the outer world. In the result, however, they are

felt to be as powerful and terrifying in inner

reality as in outer, a ‘fifth column’ of internal

persecutors or saboteurs who have infiltrated

into the inner world where the infant has sought

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 relief inside himself from pressure. A serious

predicament has arisen. On the face of it no

further retreat seems possible and a series of
fresh manoeuvres are made. Fairbairn has
described these in terms of ‘object-splitting’ and

‘ego-splitting’ processes, which build up the

structure of the inner world in terms of
endopsychic object-relations. The internal

unsatisfying object is split into its three main

aspects, libidinally exciting, libidinally rejective,
and emotionally neutral or good and
undisturbing. The last or Ideal Object is
projected back into the real object and what has
all the appearance of an external object-

relationship is maintained with it by the Central

Ego, the ordinary ego of everyday living.
Nevertheless, this is not a properly objective

relation, for the object is not fully realistically

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 perceived but only experienced in the light of a
partial image projected from inner reality. Thus,
once some measure of schizoid withdrawal has

been set up, such contact with the outer world as

is maintained is defective and governed by the
projection of partial and over-simplified images
of the object: a fact constantly demonstrated by
the poor judgement of others, the over- or under-
estimation of either good or bad qualities,

commonly displayed by people.

Then, while the real object (the actual

parent) is unrealistically idealized, his or her

exciting and rejective aspects remain as

distinguishable and separated phantasied objects

of the infant’s need for relationships in the inner

world. Thus, the unity of that part of the ego
which has withdrawn inside away from outer
reality becomes split into an ego attached to the

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 Exciting Object and an ego attached to the

Rejective Object. Just as the Exciting Object

arouses libidinal needs while the Rejective
Object denies them, so the attachment to the

Exciting Object results in a Libidinal Ego

characterized by ever-active and unsatisfied
desires which come to be felt in angry and

sadistic ways; and the attachment to the

Rejective Object results in an Antilibidinal Ego
based on an identification which reproduces the

hostility of the Rejecting Object to libidinal

needs. Inevitably the Libidinal Ego is hated and
persecuted by the Antilibidinal Ego as well as by

the Rejective Object, so that the infant has now

become divided against himself. This is easy to
recognize in the contempt and scorn shown by

many patients of their own needs to depend for

help on other people or on the analyst. It is seen

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 also in the fear and hate of weakness that is
embedded in our cultural attitudes. The internal
persecution of the Libidinal Ego by the

Antilibidinal Ego is vividly seen in the dream of

a male patient. He was sitting in an armchair in
my room wanting to relax, but at the same time
he was also standing behind the chair looking

down on the ‘him’ that was sitting in the chair,

with an expression of hate and hostility and
raising a dagger to kill the needy weak self.

At this stage, the part of the ego which has

withdrawn from outer reality has now created
for itself a complex inner world of objects both

exciting and persecuting. The existence of these

internal objects enables the parts of the ego
which maintain relations with them to retain
ego-sense. It seems evident that the real need

which dictates the creation of Melanie Klein’s

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 world of internal objects, good and bad, and the

processes of ego-splitting described by

Fairbairn, is not simply the urge to master the
object but the vital need of the psyche to retain

an ego-sense. This can only be done by

maintaining object-relations at least in the inner
mental world, after withdrawing in that part of

one’s personal life from the outer material one.

So long as a continuing phantasy life can be kept
going by the Libidinal and Antilibidinal Egos,

the ego is kept in being though cut off from

outer reality. At one time the Libidinal Ego is
sadistically phantasying the incorporation of its
Exciting Object in inner reality, at another the

Antilibidinal Ego has possessed itself of the

sadism and along with the Rejective Object
phantasies crushing or slave-driving the

masochistically suffering Libidinal Ego.

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 (According to Fairbairn, internal objects are

psychic structures just as much as partial egos

are. The total psychic self ‘impersonates’ objects
to itself in the inner world so as to retain ego-
sense in phantasied relations.) Though this kind

of inner life results in states of acute

‘persecutory anxiety’, the ego is still in being; it
has not succumbed to depersonalization after

breaking off emotional rapport with objects in

real life. This is indeed the rationale of the
creation and maintenance of the Kleinian
Internal Objects world: it is a defence against
ego-loss, which shows why it is so hard for the
patient to give it up.

Yet the position of the withdrawn ego is little

bettered, for its enemies have infiltrated into its

safe retreat where they are even harder to get

away from than before. Freud realized that

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 when, in the early days of psychoanalysis, the
sources of internal dangers were thought to be
‘instinct-derivatives’. He stressed that the ego
cannot escape from what is actually a part of
internal reality. This, however, turns out not to
be entirely true; or at least it is indubitably true

that the ego makes one further attempt to escape

from the intolerable internal pressures put upon
it by its post-natal world of bad objects. It is the
Libidinal Ego which is the part of the originally

whole and now split ego in which the

persecutory pressure is felt; and clinical facts
have suggested to me that it repeats, in face of

the internal bad-object world, the same

manoeuvre that was made by the whole ego
when it sought to withdraw from the external

bad-object world. It leaves parts of itself to carry

on such relations as are possible, in sado-

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 masochistic terms, with the Exciting and

Rejecting Objects of the internal phantasy world,

while the traumatized, sensitive and exhausted
heart of it withdraws deeper still. The evidence

provided by regressive behaviour, regressive

symptoms and regressive dreams and phantasies,
shows that this most deeply withdrawn ego feels

and phantasies a return to the womb, safe inside

the ‘fortress’ from which it probably still has
some dim memory of having emerged. Only thus

can the clinical facts be conceptualized, facts of

the distinct and separate functioning of an active
oral infantile Libidinal Ego tied to a terrifying

world of internal bad-object relations, and of a

passive regressed Libidinal Ego concerned only
with an imperative need to escape and be ‘safe

inside’ and giving up all definite object-relations

in favour of an enclosing protective

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 environment. It is the irresistible pull of this
Regressed Ego under certain circumstances that
precipitates the schizoid breakdown in the most
extreme cases, but its powerful pull manifested
in the teeth of stubborn resistance and defence
accounts for all the tensions and illnesses that
arise out of this desperate struggle to possess

and to retain an ego.

I first made this suggestion of a final split in

the Libidinal Ego itself, in an article on ‘Ego

Weakness and the Hard Core of the Problem of

Psychotherapy’ (1960) and traced out some of
its consequences in the closing section of a book

‘Personality Structure and Human Interaction’

(1961). Here I have sought to give fuller clinical
evidence for this view. In addition to the two
levels of ego-splitting which Fairbairn describes,
namely, first that between the Central Ego in

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 touch with the outer world and a withdrawn ego
in the inner world, and second the further
splitting of this withdrawn ego into the Libidinal
Ego and the Antilibidinal Ego, there is a third

and ultimate split in the Libidinal Ego itself. It

divides into an active sado-masochistic Oral ego
which continues to maintain internal bad-object

relations, and a passive Regressed Ego which

seeks to return to the antenatal state of absolute
passive dependent security; here in quietude,

repose and immobility it may find the

opportunity to recuperate and grow to a rebirth,
as Winnicott holds (1955a.) I suggest that this

Regressed Ego is identical with what Winnicott

calls the ‘true self’ put into cold storage to await
the chance of rebirth in better conditions. I do

not, however, feel sure whether the Regressed

Ego feels itself to be ‘frozen in cold storage’

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 (frozen in fear probably) or whether it feels
hidden in the deepest unconscious in the warmth
of an hallucinated intra-uterine condition. Some

patients appear to feel one way and others the

other.

The dream of a University Lecturer which

shows how little his academic life had touched

his deeper mentality, illustrates this two-stage
retreat: ‘I was on a tropical South Seas island

and thought I was all alone. Then I found it was

full of white people who were very hostile to me
and surged at me. I found a little hut on the shore
and rushed into it and barred the door and

windows and got into bed.’ He has retreated

from civilization to his lonely island (his internal
world) only to find that his bad objects, white
people, are still with him. So he makes a second
retreat which is a complete regression. In

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 defence against this he had twice succumbed to
a manic psychosis followed by a depressed,
apathetic state. The fact that this manoeuvre
involves a splitting of the withdrawn Libidinal
Ego into two is seen in another dream in which
the patient was in the consulting room of the

analyst. There were two little boys in the room

whom he wanted to send out, but the analyst was
looking after them and wished them to remain.
They sat together on chairs; one was unnaturally

alert and watchful, keeping in touch with

everything that went on, while the other had a
dull expressionless face and took no notice of
anything at all, but was completely withdrawn.
Here are the active Oral Ego and the passive

Regressed Ego, along with the Central Ego, i.e.

the patient in his familiar everyday self, sitting
apart in an armchair. But his Antilibidinal Ego

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 was in concealed partnership with the Central

Ego and hostile to the children.

Regression to a Symbolic Womb

Since this Regressed Ego is the basis of the

most dangerous and undermining

psychopathological developments, it is as well to

reflect on the fact that it is in itself a necessary,
reasonable and healthy reaction to danger.

Something is wrong primarily not with the infant

but with the environment. The problems arise
from the fact, not that what the frightened and
regressed infant seeks is psychopathological in

itself, but that it is something that, however

realistically needed, it ought not to be driven to

want, and in any case is exceedingly difficult to

obtain in any substitute form once the actual

womb has been left. The primitive wholeness of
the ego is now lost in a fourfold split, a depleted

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 Central Ego coping with the outer world; a
demanding Libidinal Ego inside persecuted by
an angry Antilibidinal Ego (the Kleinian internal
world); and finally a Regressed Ego which
knows and accepts the fact that it is
overwhelmed by fear and in a state of

exhaustion, and that it will never be in any fit

state to live unless it can, so to speak, escape
into a mental convalescence where it can lie

quiet, protected, and be given a chance to

recuperate.

I have heard Fairbairn’s scheme of

endopsychic structure criticized as too

complicated (though we do not criticize physics
on such grounds). The criticism is not valid. Of

Freud’s scheme Colby (1955) writes:

There are … theoretical disadvantages to

the id-ego-superego model. Today its

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 simplicity makes it insufficient to
conceptualize specifically enough the
manifold functions of psychic activity. ... In
psychoanalysis our knowledge has
increased in such a way that to subsume the
complexities of psychic activity under
three undivided categories is to stretch
generalizations perhaps too far.

The complexity describes the terrible

disintegration that can be forced on the tender

and weak infantile ego if it is subjected to

pressures it is too immature to bear. Freud
(1938) wrote in his last book: ‘The weak and

immature ego of the first phase of childhood is

permanently damaged by the strain put upon it
in the effort to ward off the dangers that are

peculiar to that period of life.’ He further states:

‘The view which postulates that in all psychoses
there is a split in the ego could not demand so
much notice, if it were not for the fact that it

turns out to apply also to other conditions more

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 like the neuroses and, finally, to the neuroses
themselves.’ Fairbairn’s scheme reduces to order
the tangled mass of self-contradictory reactions
presented to us as clinical material, and reveals
this permanent damage to the immature ego in
the form of the ‘ego-splitting’ of which Freud

speaks. The additional structural complexity that

I have added is called for by clinical data that we
have long failed to include properly in any

structural scheme. It conceptualizes the ultimate

desperate bid made by the overtaxed infant to
save himself, a move which perpetuates
thereafter what we may call a ‘structural
headquarters of fear’ in the personality as a basis
for the danger of regressive breakdown in later

life.

The Regressed Ego denotes, not a freely

available generalized ‘fear and flight’ reaction

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 but the deepest structurally specific part of the
complex personality, existing in a settled attitude
of fear, weakness, withdrawal and absolute

dependence not in the active post-natal infantile

sense but in a passive ante-natal sense. It
represents the most profoundly traumatized part
of the personality and is the hidden cause of all
regressive phenomena from conscious escapist
phantasies to complete schizoid apathy, unless

its need is understood and met; but there lies the

greatest difficulty and challenge to therapy. In a
letter to the writer dated 1 January 1960,
Fairbairn accepted this extension of his
structural theory. He wrote: ‘I consider your
concept of the splitting of the Libidinal Ego into

two parts —an oral needy Libidinal Ego and a

Regressed Libidinal Ego — as an original
contribution of considerable explanatory value.

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 It solves a problem which I had not hitherto
succeeded in solving.’ Winnicott wrote on 31

October, 1960: ‘Your split in the Libidinal Ego

seems to have a lot in common with my “hidden
true self” and the “false self built upon a
compliance basis” (a defence in illness, and in

health simply the polite self that does not wear

its heart on its sleeve). I do think that research
can usefully be based on these ideas that are in

the air and which you are developing in your

own way.’ It is a pleasure to quote these two
writers to whose pioneering work in theory and
therapy I owe most for stimulus. I would,

however, think that Winnicott’s ‘false compliant

self in health’ corresponds to the Central Ego of

Fairbairn and his ‘False compliant self as a

defence in illness’ corresponds to Fairbairn’s

Antilibidinal Ego, especially in its function of

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 hating weakness. This to me especially seems to
warrant the term ‘false self’.

How can the need of the exhausted

Regressed Ego for recuperation in and rebirth

from a reproduction of the womb-state be met at
all, and how can it be met without the risk of
undermining the Central Ego of everyday
living? That seems to be the ultimate problem
for psychotherapy. There is evidence that in

some cases it can be done, though we have

almost everything to learn about this process. At

least it is safe to say that it cannot be done

without the aid of a psychotherapist, i.e. the

setting up of a therapeutic object-relationship.

This is the significance of Winnicott’s work on
‘therapeutic regression’. The unsatisfactory
results of psychotherapy hitherto must be the
result of this problem not having been

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 recognized earlier. When the individual is left to

himself, he can only do what he was driven to do

as a child, struggle to repress his regressive
trends by developing a hard and hostile attitude

to any ‘weakness’ in himself, i.e. develop an

Antilibidinal Ego which is really the child’s
determined effort to keep himself going by being

independent (Guntrip 1960). If his Regressed

Ego becomes irresistible he can only provide for
it by a regressive illness. Perhaps, if he did not

give in to that in time and compel his

environment to take responsibility for him, he
would die of psychic self-exhaustion. The

psychotherapist must help the patient to find a

way of substituting a controlled and constructive
regression for an uncontrolled and involuntary

one in the form of an illness that might be an

irretrievable disaster for the patient’s real-life

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 status. But I believe that this also cannot be
done, not only without the aid of a

psychotherapist, but of a psychoanalytical

psychotherapist; for the main obstacle to the
patient’s accepting a constructive regression in

treatment is his own Antilibidinal Ego which

needs the closest analytical uncovering. The
final aim of this therapy is to convert regression
into rebirth and regrowth. This must result from

the Regressed Ego finding for the first time an

object-relationship of understanding acceptance

and safeguarding of its rights, with a therapist

who does not seek to force on the patient his
pre-conceived views of what must be done; but
who realizes that deep down the patient knows

his own business best, if we can understand his

language. But before the problem of therapy can
be solved we must understand how the patient’s

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 struggles to save himself form a resistance to the
true therapy.

THE FIGHT AGAINST REGRESSION

The Determined Drive Backwards

We have stated that, left to himself, the

individual can only either provide for his

Regressed Ego in the extreme case by illness,
owing to the practical difficulties of providing
for it in any other way, or else seek to suppress it
as an internal danger threatening to undermine

his adjustment to real life in the outer world. The

vague influence of a regressed part of the total

self is easy to recognize in many people as an

attitude of getting through life with as little
trouble as possible, getting out of things if they
can, and having to push themselves to do what
they must. Generally a sustained if automatic

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 effort is made over the years to stave off

regression in any more definite sense, though

many people have a history of periodic
breakdowns say every four or five years, with

minor signs of nervous strain and tension in

between. In many cases, however, very vigorous
defences of an antilibidinal nature (antilibidinal

towards others) are built into the personality and

direct very energetic if over-tense drives into
real life.

The individual from the beginning has had to

cope with the problem himself. No one has
really known or understood what was going on

in the child, and so far as his deeper life was

concerned he had to bring himself up and
manage himself in secret. Hence the self-
centredness and introversion of schizoid

persons. Life becomes a long, hidden, tension-

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 filled struggle against regressive trends.

Tremendous tension can be masked by a calm

exterior, but is often not masked, breaking out
physically if not in other ways. Melanie Klein
and Fairbairn treat the psychoneurotic states as

defences against the psychotic dangers of

schizoid apathy and depression. If, however, the
deepest danger is regression to passivity, we

must regard all states, psychotic as well as

neurotic, in which an ‘active’ ego struggles and
suffers, as defences.

The ultimate characteristic of the Regressed

Ego is dependent passivity, the vegetative

passivity of the intra-uterine state which fostered

original growth and can foster recuperation.

Nature heals in a state of rest. That is the goal.

Nevertheless, the Regressed Ego shows great

energy and activity in pursuit of its goal, an

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 activity in reverse that carries it not into life but
out of it. There is a great deal of research to be

done on various aspects of regression for,

clinically, the picture presented is confusing.
One comes across states which suggest that there

is a Regressed Ego which feels to be already ‘in

the womb’ and oblivious to all else, or if not in a
warm safe hiding place then completely

withdrawn, immobilized in fear, and having

never emerged since the first drastic schizoid
retreat in infancy. Some patients, after long

analysis, can find themselves suddenly totally

‘cut off’ and living in the deepest, most hidden

schizoid part of their total self which they have

at last contacted and must live in and with till

they regain emotional rapport with the outer

world at that deep level. Again, a Regressed
Ego, which in itself seems quite dissociated,

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 exerts a powerful pull on the rest of the

personality, drawing it down while it resists

frantically. Yet again, at times the whole self
seems to have become a Regressing Ego
showing great energy in a drive backwards

towards the goal not as yet reached; and

sometimes the Regressed Ego is phantasied as in
the womb and resisting every effort to force it to

a premature rebirth.

Thus a male patient in the thirties dreamed

that he was working, doing business
correspondence at a table, when he suddenly felt

an invisible and irresistible pull emanating from

a pale passive invalid in the bedroom. Only after

a tremendous struggle was he able to break the

spell and save himself from being drawn in

there. Here the Regressed Ego is ‘pulling’ the

Central Ego down into itself and success would

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 mean breakdown into illness such as this patient
had already experienced once. But the other

aspect of the situation was revealed in a dream

of the same patient during his earlier illness. He
dreamed that he was driving a peculiar car,

which was closed in with no proper outlook on

his side. In the passenger seat was another man
with a definite personality who could see out

more clearly. The dreamer who was ‘driving

blind’ felt that they ought to have been
somewhere else taking part in some activity that
involved duties and responsibilities but he was
gleeful that they were not and he was driving
away taking the other man with him. Here the

Regressing Ego is sweeping the Central Ego

away out of the pressures of active life in a
determined but blind drive into oblivion and

passivity, i.e. breakdown. Just as the first dream

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 represents a successful later effort to resist

another breakdown into illness, the second one

represents the original breakdown in full career.

Once the Regressed Ego feels to have

reached its goal of retreat deep inside the hidden,

womb-like state of the deepest unconscious, the

Central Ego seems to have little success in
drawing it out again. Thus an unmarried woman

in middle life dreamed that she was watching a

child-birth, but the baby could not be got out. Its
head emerged but then it stuck fast, and even
ropes tied on to it and passed through the

window and fastened to horses who were driven

to pull failed to drag it out. This patient was

telling herself that she could not force her

Regressed Ego to a rebirth. In this state some

patients manage to carry on routine living in a

de-emotionalized, cold, mechanical way. This

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 patient felt exhausted with the fight to keep her

Central Ego functioning. Some patients exhibit

more the determined drive backwards into
regression or the pull of their Regressed Ego on

the rest of their personality, others give the

impression that a part of their personality has for
long been inaccessible and hidden away quite
out of touch with outer life. I am inclined to feel

that in every case there is a deepest part of the

original ego split off and hidden in a state of
regression, corresponding to what Winnicott

calls the ‘true self’ hidden away in safe storage

to await a favourable chance of rebirth. The

more active phenomena of the ‘pull and drive’ to

regression may represent the conflicts set up in

the psyche over the effects on the whole, of the

existence of a profound Regressed Ego

originating in very early life. This creates, from

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 the point of view of external living, a struggle
between longings for, fears of, and resistances

against breakdown. The ‘struggle to preserve an

ego’ has two aspects: the struggle to preserve the
Central Ego of everyday life from being
undermined by regression, and the struggle to

preserve the basic Libidinal Ego, the core of the

personality, from being crushed by
overpowering outer reality or lost irretrievably

when it withdraws deep within out of reach of

being hurt.

This latter aspect of the problem emerges in

tragic self-contradictoriness in the problem of

schizoid suicide. The longing to die represents
the schizoid need to withdraw the ego from a

world that is too much for it to cope with.

Whereas depressive suicide is the result of an
angry destructive impulse, schizoid suicide is the

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 result of apathy towards real life which cannot
be accepted any longer. All available energy

goes into a quiet but tenacious determination to

fade out into oblivion, by means of gas, hypnotic
pills or drowning. One patient expressed the

longing to die at a time of great stress and I

suggested that what she wanted was not
destruction, non-existence, but escape into

warmth, comfort and being almost but not quite

unconscious. She said ‘That’s it; just conscious
enough to be aware of being warm and safe’,

like having gas at the dentist’s to escape pain,

which appeared to her ‘like a very pleasant way
of dying’. Unfortunately, in practice, more is
achieved than is intended and the patient may

die.

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 The Need to Save the Ego by Internal Object-
Relations

Once the fear-dictated retreat from outer

reality has been set up, the schizoid individual

has two opposed needs both of which must be
met unless death is to supervene; the need to
withdraw from intolerable reality and the need to

remain in touch with it, to save the ego in both

cases. This is what enforces the final ego-split
into an active suffering and a passive regressed

Libidinal Ego. The flight into regression begets a

counter-flight back into object-relations again.

But this return to objects must still compromise

with fear and the need to remain withdrawn, and
this leads to the creation of an object-world that
enables the ego to be both withdrawn, yet not ‘in
the womb’, the Kleinian world of ‘internal

objects,’ dream and phantasy, a world of object-

relationships which is also withdrawn ‘inside’
out of the external world. This par excellence is

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 the world of psychoneurotic and psychotic
experience. Sometimes the flight back from deep

regression to objects in the sense of ‘internal

objects’ appears to go further and become a
return to the external world itself. But close

inspection shows this to be illusory. It is not a

return to the actual reality of external objects as
such in their own right, but a projection on to
them of the internal world of phantasy objects,

which accounts for the unrealistic reactions of

psychotic and psychoneurotic patients to real

people. Living in the internal phantasy world

and the projected phantasy world both constitute
a defence against loss of the ego by too complete
regression and depersonalization, while

remaining in varying degrees withdrawn from

external reality which is still felt to be hostile.

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 This type of defence, however, has its own
dangers. Over and above the ultimate danger of

ego-loss by schizoid depersonalization, there are

three further dangers of ego-loss that arise in this
mid-region of defensive activities. The flight
back to objects is at first a return to the bad

objects from whom escape was originally

sought. Bad object-relations at first safeguard the
separate identity of the ego by setting it in clear

opposition to its object, a defence much used.

The frightened person becomes quarrelsome, but
this may go too far and get out of control,
mounting up to persecutory anxiety in the inner

world and the schizophrenic fear of being torn to

pieces. There appear to be two ways of escape

from this schizophrenic terror of disintegration

of the ego under persecution by internal bad

objects or under the pressures of real life

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 experienced in the internal persecutory set-up.
The flight to good objects gives rise to another
perilous situation for the ego. The basic attitude
to good objects is already fixed as a panic-
stricken flight inside for safety. Even short of
that, the relation to a good object is so much one

of fear-enforced infantile dependence that it

feels smothering, as already noted. Thus
claustrophobic anxiety arises, to be

distinguished from the schizoid fear of ego-loss

by depersonalization, the typical state to which
the Central Ego in touch with the outer world is
reduced when all vitality has been drained out of

it by too complete regression. This could lead to

death and total ego-loss. The claustrophobic fear
of being stifled by being shut in is the price to be

paid for seeking safety through flight back

inside. The active ego is in danger of being lost

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 by reduction to a state of passivity in which no
self-expression is now possible.

Thus no objects involve the fear of ego-loss

by depersonalization, bad objects involve the

fear of ego-loss by disintegration under
destructive persecution, good objects involve the

fear of the loss of the active ego by

imprisonment in smothering passivity. One
further possibility remains, a compromise

between bad and good objects. If one hates good

objects instead of bad ones, there will not be the

same danger of retaliation by the object and also

smothering is avoided. But now a fourth danger

appears. If one hates a good object the ego feels

fear, not primarily for itself but for the object.

Guilt will arise and with it Mrs Klein’s
‘depressive anxiety’ in place of the more
primitive ‘persecutory anxiety’. Ambivalent

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 object-relations involve fear of loss of the ego
for all practical purposes through the paralysis of
depression, in which state the ego dare not do
anything at all for fear of doing wrong. The
good object becomes an accusatory object and
the ego feels morally persecuted. We may thus

grade the dangers to which the ego feels

exposed. The ultimate and worst danger is that
of total ego-loss, represented in consciousness

by depersonalization, and by such profound

apathy through schizoid withdrawal and
regression that death would ensue. Against this
danger the defence of resort to bad object-

relations tends to over-develop, and leads either

to schizophrenic terror of disintegration under
violent persecution, or depressive paralysis

under merciless accusation and pathological

guilt. Nevertheless these two psychotic dangers

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 arise out of the operation of the defence of bad
object-relations against the ultimate schizoid
danger.

With the claustrophobic anxiety of being

shut in and stifled in good object-relations we
ascend to the level of what Melanie Klein and

Fairbairn agree to regard as the defence of

psychoneurosis against psychosis. Thus the
claustrophobic fear of being stifled is the least

virulent danger to which the ego is exposed. Its

overcoming, so that good object-relations can be

accepted without fear, even when in order to

secure the rebirth of the deepest Regressed Ego

they must involve a measure of passive

dependence at first, is the obvious line of

advance to the psychotherapeutic goal. This
complex situation in its entirety is illustrated in
the early sessions of a patient who, prior to

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 analysis, had suffered a paranoid-schizophrenic
illness. During the opening sessions she
oscillated violently between hopes and fears
concerning myself. ‘You’ll let me down, you’ll
walk out on me, you don’t feel any real concern
about me, you’ll tell me my attitudes are all

wrong’; or else, in defence against her fears, ‘I

hate you, I feel furious with you, I could murder
you’, and then at other times ‘When I come here

I’m numb, I can’t feel anything’. It was a sign of

progress when, after two months, she could say:
‘The other night I felt you did care about me and
I was near to tears.’ This was soon followed by

‘I feel I hate you and myself when I think I creep

and crawl to you and depend on you’. Here are
the serious difficulties of an utterly insecure ego

rushing from one kind of relationship (in the

transference situation) to another more in the

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 hope of escaping dangers than of finding
security. The inner situation is brought out
plainly in her dreams at this time.

Dream 1. ‘People were pushing into my

room and I was trying to keep them out. Then I
rushed out into a church, flung myself at the feet

of the Mother Superior and asked to enter a

convent.’ Here is a powerful regressive flight
from bad objects (especially a persecuting
father) into the maternal womb and the practical
danger of an undermining flight from life. To
counteract this she turns the good mother, who
in being a refuge might swallow up her

personality, into a bad object with whom, by

antagonism, she can maintain her separateness.
Thus in Dream 2: ‘I was with mother in the
bedroom and got furious. She said “You can go
to bed”. I said “I can do that any time”. Then she

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 was on a bike coming at me. I pulled her on the
ground and said “There, enjoy your masochistic
pleasures”.’ But this hate of her good object
frightened her, for in Dream 3 she excluded
herself altogether from the good protective
situation. ‘There was a party at my Minister’s

house. I wanted to go but was not invited. I

rushed in hoping not to be noticed but his wife
saw me and said “You’ve not been invited. You
can’t stay.” I was in despair.’ But rather than

have no objects at all, and having run into

difficulties with both good and bad ones, she
turned in Dreams 4 and 5 to ambivalent morally

persecutory situations. ‘I was bending over

waiting to be caned’, and more explicitly
‘Mother and father were smiling and arranging

for me to be beaten. I felt “Oh! well, it’s

belonging to home anyway”.’ She mentioned

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 that in a previous treatment with a psychiatrist
she had attacked him to make him control her
forcibly, ‘like Daddy did’. This patient would

say at various times: ‘Whichever way I turn, I

feel there’s no way out.’

THE PSYCHOTHERAPY OF THE

REGRESSED EGO

This article deals with diagnosis, not

treatment, and only a brief word can be said

about psychotherapy. Usually, it is a very long

time before the patient can consistently accept
and bring to the analyst the regressed, passively
dependent ego. The analysis of antilibidinal

reactions against not so much active as passive

libidinal needs, constitutes, I believe, the most
important part of ‘analysing’. I have seen real

improvements appear and be retained when what

Winnicott calls ‘therapeutic regression’ at last

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 comes to be understood and accepted. I sought

to explore the difficulties of arriving at that

constructive stage in my paper Ego-Weakness
and the Hard Core of the Problem of

Psychotherapy (1960). This approach to

therapeutic analysis shows that the cause of
trouble is not to be found in the vicissitudes of

separate instinctive drives which operate in

antisocial ways, but in the basic weakness of the
infantile ego perpetuated in a fear-ridden state.

Infantile fear, regressive flight from reality and

resulting ego-weakness in the face of the real
outer world are at the bottom of all personality
disorders. Our natural impulse-life is not

normally antisocial but becomes such through

the forced self-assertion and even violence of an

antilibidinal attempt to over-compensate

weakness. Our greatest need is to understand

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 more about the earliest stages of strong ego-
development and of the ways in which it can be
prevented, or promoted.

The hope and possibility of the rebirth of the

regressed ego is the obvious final problem raised
in the interests of psychotherapy. I cannot see

that we know very much about it as yet.

Winnicott has opened a pathway that many
research workers will tread before the problem is
mastered. I hope to be able to report clinical data
on this matter. At this stage I feel only able to
say that I have found encouraging results with
several patients who each in his or her own

different way, have been able to find security for

their Regressed Ego in the psychotherapeutic
relationship. There appear to be two aspects of
the problem. The first is the slow growth out of
their antilibidinal (Freudian sadistic super-ego)

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 persecution of themselves; they need to unlearn
their ruthless driving of themselves by ceaseless
inner mental pressure to keep going as ‘forced
pseudo-adults’ and to acquire the courage to
adopt more of the understanding attitude of the
therapist to the hardpressed and frightened child
within. Simultaneously with this there goes on a

second process, the growth of a constructive

faith that if the needs of the Regressed Ego are
met, first in the relation to the therapist who

protects it in its need for an initial passive

dependence, this will mean not collapse and loss
of active powers for good and all, but a steady

recuperation from deep strain, diminishing of

deep fears, revitalization of the personality, and
rebirth of an active ego that is spontaneous and

does not have to be forced and driven; what

Balint calls ‘the new beginning’.

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 REFERENCES

Colby, K. M. (1955). Energy and Structure in

Psychoanalysis. New York: Ronald Press.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Tavistock
Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The Ego and the Id. London:

Hogarth Press (rep. 1949).

_____ (1926). Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety.

Standard Edition 20. London: Hogarth Press
(rep. 1959).

_____ (1938). An Outline of Psycho-Analysis.

London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1949).

Guntrip, H. (1952). A study of Fairbairn’s theory of

schizoid reactions. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 25:86.

_____ (1960). Ego-weakness and the hard core of the

problem of psychotherapy. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 33:163.

_____ (1961). Personality Structure and Human

Interaction. London: Hogarth Press.

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 Jones, E. (1957). Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, vol.
3. London: Hogarth Press.

Winnicott, D. W. (1954). Mind and its relation to the

psyche-soma. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 27:201.

_____ (1955a). Metapsychological and clinical

aspects of regression within the
psychoanalytical set-up. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis 36:16.

_____ (1955b). The depressive position in normal

emotional development. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 28:89.

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 7

DEVITALISATION AND THE MANIC

DEFENCE

THE REORIENTATION OF
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

The increasing emphasis of recent years on

the schizoid problem represents the emergence

of a distinct point of view in psychodynamic
studies; a point of view, moreover, which

diverges markedly from the traditional centuries-

old approach to human problems. Like all other
phenomena, psychopathological phenomena

disclose hitherto unrecognized aspects when

looked at from a different viewpoint. Psycho-
analysis began when Freud, after a prolonged

struggle, changed his line of approach to

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 psychoneurosis from the neuropathology in
which he was trained to the psychopathology in

which he was to prove the greatest of all pioneer

investigators. For a long time, the priority was
hardly the evolving of a theory but rather the

‘seeing of what was there to be seen’ and

theorized about. So long as advance at first
depended mainly on the accumulation of data,

Freud could adopt and use the traditional theory

of human problems as a sufficient basis or
framework for his thinking: i.e. the theory of
conflicts arising from the need to control bad
impulses rooted in ‘the flesh’. He could get on
with the pressing task of observation and

description of psychopathological phenomena,

not so much from the outside like Kraepelin and
Bleuler and psychiatrists in general, but from the

inside as suggested by the work of Charcot on

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 hypnotic experiences and the unconscious. From
1880 to somewhere between 1910 and 1920 that

was his main work, and those who only read

Freud’s monographs on theory and not his
clinical papers hardly know the real Freud.

So far as his results were conceptualized in

theory in this first period, this did not affect the
simple traditional framework or scheme, of

natural instincts versus social controls. His great

theoretical concepts evolved in this first stage
were those of repression, resistance, the censor,
transference, the meaning of dreams and

symbolism, infantile sexuality, the ‘family’ or

‘Oedipus complex’, and so on. This work has

gone on with the fuller investigation of schizoid

data in the last twenty or so years, and the work

of collecting data has become fairly complete.

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 By 1920, however, it was already apparent
that the increasing range of facts pressing on

Freud’s notice was calling for examination from

other points of view than that of the traditional
theory of bad impulses rooted in the flesh and

calling for drastic control. This was the view of

the pre-scientific philosophical and religious
psychology of Greece and Palestine, and had

always been the universal common-sense view

as indeed it is today. The ancient Persian
Zoroastrians thought of a warfare between
matter as evil and mind as good. Plato’s famous
picture of human nature as a chariot with two
horses and a charioteer is described by Sir R.

Livingstone (1935) thus:

He describes human nature by a simile. On

the outside men look like human beings,
but under their skin three creatures are
concealed: a monster with many heads,

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 some wild, some tame, … the desires and
passions: a lion—the spirited quality which
will fight … ; and a human being—the
rational element. … Plato urges us to make
the man supreme and see that, helped by
the lion, he controls the many-headed
beast, [pp. 140-141]

St Paul’s doctrine of unceasing warfare between

the flesh and the spirit, the law of the members

and the law of the mind, and the traditional
trichotomy of body, mind, and spirit represent
the same diagnosis of the human predicament.
As a first hypothetical basis for his

investigations Freud had adopted this ‘theory’

and given it a scientific dress. The ‘many-headed

beast of the desires and passions’ and the ‘law of

the members’ became the instincts of sex and

aggression functioning anti-socially according to
a ‘pleasure principle’ and leading to a Hobbesian
world in which life would be ‘nasty, brutish and

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 short’ (cp. The Future of an Illusion). The ‘lion’
becomes aggression taken up by the sadistic

superego and turned against the id instinct-

derivatives. The ‘law of the mind’ and the
‘charioteer of reason’ (on whom Freud, like

Plato, pinned all his hopes, as he makes clear in

the last chapter of New Introductory Lectures),
becomes the ego seeking to operate by a ‘reality

principle’.

This basic way of looking at things Freud

never changed, and indeed the kind of change
called for is only slowly becoming apparent. But

the terms id, ego, and superego in which he

came to embody it stand also for something that
was to prove of far greater importance than this

traditional scheme. They represent the fact that

Freud made a second reorientation in his
thinking, from the psychobiological to the endo-

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 psychic-structural point of view. Hartmann
(1960) has stressed the tremendous importance

of Freud’s importation into psychodynamic

science of the structural viewpoint. He has
recently written: ‘It was above all Freud’s

introduction of the structural point of view that

made the psycho-analytic approach … more
subtle and more conclusive’ (p. 245, and

elsewhere). In fact it gave ego-analysis priority

over instincts in psycho-analytic thinking. Ego-
splitting, a concept which Freud presents quite
explicitly as fundamental in the last section of
his unfinished, posthumous Outline of Psycho-
Analysis, begins to take the place of impulse-

control as the centre of interest. It is possible

now to see that this actually implies a shift of

emphasis from a psychology of depression to a

psychology of the schizoid process. All

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 psychopathological phenomena look different
when viewed from the schizoid rather than the

depressive point of view.

THE ‘DEPRESSIVE’ AND THE ‘SCHIZOID’

STANDPOINTS

In a paper in 1961 I compared Freud’s

structural analysis of the personality, the id-ego-
superego scheme, as a conceptualization of
depression, with Fairbairn’s revised theory of
endopsychic structure as a conceptualization of
the schizoid process. This difference in fact
registers and consolidates the shift of viewpoint

already referred to, and it enforces a

reassessment of all phenomena. Fairbairn was
the first, and is as yet the only analyst to attempt

the systematic revision of theory on this basis.

At the outset, after a searching study of
‘Schizoid Factors in the Personality’ in 1940

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 (Fairbairn 1952) (Ch. 1), he introduced his
‘Revised Psychopathology of the Psychoses and

Psychoneuroses’ in 1941 with these words:

Within recent years I have become

increasingly interested in the problems
presented by patients displaying schizoid
tendencies. … The result has been the
emergence of a point of view which, if it
proves to be well-founded, must
necessarily have far-reaching implications
both for psychiatry in general and for
psycho-analysis in particular. My various
findings and the conclusions to which they
lead involve not only a considerable
revision of prevailing ideas regarding the
nature and aetiology of schizoid conditions,
but also a considerable revision of ideas
regarding the prevalence of schizoid
processes and a corresponding change in
current clinical conceptions of the various
psychoneuroses and psychoses ... a
recasting and reorientation of the libido
theory together with a modification of
various classical psychoanalytical
concepts. [Fairbairn 1952, p. 28]

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 It seems now, looking back over the twenty

years since those words were written, a matter of

considerable surprise that this prophecy has not
stimulated a more explicit theoretical response, a

realization that some fundamental change was in

process of developing, and specific attempts to
think it out in detail. What has happened is that

schizoid phenomena have been investigated

while in the main a psychology of depression has
been adhered to. In truth, I believe that this

change of standpoint from the depressive to the

schizoid position in viewing human problems
involves some quite special difficulties. It is so

radical and ultimate that it encounters our

deepest and most powerful resistances; and that
here the patient’s resistance against consciously

experiencing what it is that needs to be cured, is

supported by an unrealized resistance in the

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 analyst against having to see it. I have been
driven to conclude that the age-old ‘depressive
diagnosis’ involves man’s greatest and most
consistent self-deception. We have all been in
unconscious collusion, suffering individuals,
religious philosophical and eductional thinkers,

and now psychodynamic researchers, to keep

attention diverted from the deepest and ultimate
causal factors and concentrated on a middle

region of defensive endopsychic activity

mistakenly regarded as causal and ultimate.

This, I believe, is the conclusion to which the

investigation of schizoid phenomena is pushing
us. It will suffice at this point to say that this
tremendous resistance to the truth is based on

mankind’s universal preference for feeling bad

but strong, rather than feeling weak and afraid.
The ‘depressive’ diagnosis fixes our attention on

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 our badness, the ‘schizoid’ diagnosis fixes it on
our weakness; a frightening change of emphasis,

and the more we explore it, the more far-

reaching it appears to be.

Freud’s id-ego-superego theory, we have

seen, had two aspects; it was the first great step

in the adoption of the structural viewpoint, but it
was also an embodiment of the traditional

theory, an analysis of human personality on the

basis of depressive phenomena. The id was the
psycho-biological source of innate and in the last
analysis unsocializable instincts of sex and

aggression. Culture has to be defended against

nature. If the defence fails we get criminality, if

it succeeds too drastically we get neurosis. As

Freud (1937) stated in his essay ‘Analysis,

Terminable and Interminable’ psychotherapy is

helping the ego in its struggle against powerful

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 antisocial instincts. The only way of avoiding
either criminality or illness is to achieve
maturity, not in the sense of basic socialization
but in the sense of sublimation, a hypothetical
process of detaching enough energy from the
original instinctive aims to be redirected to

valuable cultural goals. The original instinctive

aims can, however, always be found still being
energetically pursued under repression in the
unconscious. I do not think there is any real

difference in principle here between Plato, St.

Paul, and Freud. For all three, human nature is
the scene of an unending internal strife, and
there is no real possibility of ‘cure’, only of
‘compromise and relative stability’ so long as

man remains ‘in the flesh’.

The classical psycho-analytical theory is that

antisocial impulses, biologically determined,

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 which certainly might be better tolerated socially
than they usually are, must be controlled and in

the process such intense guilt and repression are

developed that the whole psyche is liable to fall
into a state of illness and depressive paralysis.

Unconscious guilt was for Freud (1923) the

great source of resistance to psychotherapy (p.
72, note). The patient feels that he is bad and

ought to accept the punishment of going on

being ill. Official Christianity took the side of
repression (though the Gospels, the later St Paul,
and the Johannine tradition had wiser insights).
Freud took the side of easing repression and
showing more toleration of instincts while

strengthening the ego for rational control. But

both agree as to the basic nature of the problem.

This depressive pattern has always been the

favoured diagnosis. It is expressed in psycho-

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 analytical terms as the alliance of the superego
and the ego to control the id, while

psychotherapy seeks to moderate the harshness

of the superego control and to strengthen the
ego. The theory is simple, precise,

understandable, and it implies the possibility of

practical measures on the social level to deal
with the situation. Police control, legal

punishment, denunciatory public opinion, moral

disapproval, religious preaching of ‘sin’, all
conspire to discipline recalcitrant instincts. In
The Future of an Illusion Freud (1927) wrote:

Every individual is virtually an enemy of

civilization, though civilization is supposed
to be an object of universal human interest.
It is remarkable that, little as men are able
to exist in isolation, they should
nevertheless feel as a heavy burden the
sacrifices which civilization expects of
them in order to make a communal life

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 possible. Thus civilization has to be
defended against the individual.

One thus gets an impression that

civilization is something which was
imposed on a resisting majority by a
minority which understood how to obtain
possession of the means to power and
coercion, [p. 6] It seems rather that every
civilization must be built up on coercion
and renunciation of instinct. … One has, I
think, to reckon with the fact that there are
present in all men destructive, and
therefore anti-social and anti-cultural
trends.

It is just as impossible to do without

control of the mass by a minority as it is to
dispense with coercion in the work of
civilization. For masses are lazy and
unintelligent; they have no love for
instinctual renunciation, and they are not to
be convinced by argument of its
inevitability; and the individuals
composing them support one another in
giving free rein to their indiscipline, [p. 7]

The only way to better this situation is

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 to lessen the burden of the instinctual
sacrifices imposed on men, to reconcile
men to those which must necessarily
remain and to provide a compensation for
them’ [p. 7]

The fact that psycho-analytical therapy, and

every other kind of therapy, has always found

this result so extremely difficult to secure with
the individual is surely all of a piece with the

catastrophic failures of practically all

civilizations to maintain peace, security, and
reasonable human happiness for more than short
periods.

Nevertheless, though it seems to be proved

beyond all doubt that we are very bad, since who
dare gainsay such a trio as Plato, St Paul, and

Freud, yet thank God we are not weak. We have

a mighty sexual instinct and a powerful

destructive and aggressive instinct, and if we are

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 incapable of living together peaceably for long

except as controlled subordinates (and always

supposing that our powerful coercive controllers
do not fall out among themselves and drag us

into the fray), at least we can glorify aggression

as heroism, and live like Sir Tristram and Sir
Palomides and others of King Arthur’s knights

who idealized the role of picking quarrels with

all and sundry to prove what ‘mighty men of
valour’ they were (Malory 1470). The

incompleteness of the ‘depressive’ diagnosis is

seen the moment we realize that human beings
always prefer to feel bad and strong rather than

weak. The diagnosis of 'antisocial instincts’ has

always been man’s most convincing
rationalization of his plight, a subtle defence

against the alarming truth that the real trouble

is fear, flight from life at deep levels, and the

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 failure of basic strong ego-formation, resulting
in consequent inadequacy, both felt and factual,
in coping with life.

The fact that human beings prefer feeling

‘bad somebodies’ rather than ‘weak nonentities’
emerges historically and socially. There is the

story of the ancient Greek who burned down a

temple because he could not gain recognition in
any other way, and much crime and delinquency

must be motivated by the quest for a sense of

power and for notoriety for destructive

behaviour, to cover the felt inability to achieve

true value by constructive work. This comes out

clearly in the following examples of clinical

work.

One patient, a married woman in the

thirties who had been actually cruelly
brought up and felt utterly useless and

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 worthless, described how at her first school
she felt a terrible need to be noticed by the
teachers, and bent all her energies to
pleasing them by good work and good
behaviour. As a result she was simply taken
for granted as a girl who would not cause
any trouble. Being already a very schizoid
personality, this made her feel
depersonalized. She could not stand this,
and when she changed schools she felt she
must compel the teachers to take notice of
her or she would feel just worth nothing at
all. So she became a ‘bad’ girl and a
ringleader in mischief. She got plenty of
notice then and felt much safer and stronger
that way.

Another married woman, also in the

thirties, had grown up to feel that she was
regarded by her family as inferior. She
hadn’t got the good looks or lively talk of
her sisters, was shy, and in fact experienced
transient states of depersonalization at a
very early age. She was ignored by a busy
father and was the perpetual butt of the

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 criticisms of a very unstable mother. She
would sit away in a corner when visitors
came, feeling that it was hopeless for her to
make any mark by good qualities. But in her
late teens she suddenly developed a serious
mental breakdown and her parents were
alarmed. Her father became sympathetic
and devoted to her, her mother said she was
mad. She would say ‘No, I’m not mad, I’m
bad’, because her most obvious symptom
was a compulsion to curse God, her parents
and sisters, and ‘bad words and bad
thoughts’, aggressive, murderous and sexual
(with a strong anal colouring) would be
‘running in my head’. She insisted on telling
her parents all these curses and bad
thoughts, and quite consciously knew she
was shocking them. She felt proud of
herself for being so daring, though she felt
she could not stop it. The reason was clear
when she said: ‘I felt strong, powerful,
when I was cursing and swearing. If I
wasn’t being bad, I could only shrink away
into a corner and feel I was nobody.’

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 A male patient, a large employer of
labour, came to analysis because he was so
aggressive with employees that he was
always having labour troubles. He had been
brought up on a regime of demand that he
should not be a nuisance to his parents, and
felt quite unwanted, unappreciated, and no
good. If he was anything at all, he was ‘just
a rotter’. He began every session for a very
long time by saying ‘I’m cross as usual’.
When gradually he arrived at some insight
into this, he said: ‘I know why I’m so
aggressive with employees. I must get angry
or I’m just scared stiff of them. When I can
get angry I feel plenty of energy and I can
do things; otherwise I’m nervous and
always tired and feel I’m no good.’

Historically in ideology, and psychologically

in the individual, the area of bad impulses,

control, guilt, and depression lay right across the

path of psychodynamic investigation and

blocked the way backwards, as it was intended

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 to do. Freud’s great task was to analyse this area.
That is the significance of his shift of interest
from hysteria to obsessional neurosis, depression

and ‘superego’ phenomena. So successful was

his analysis that he opened the way to what lay
deeper, and made a start with the structural
analysis of the ego. Here lies the significance of
Fairbairn’s call ‘Back to Hysteria’ and his
radical development of structural ego-analysis.

Until the ‘depressive’ area was analysed, the

‘schizoid’ area could not properly be
investigated. But it begins now to appear that
only if the schizoid background is taken into
account can the depressive foreground be
thoroughly understood. The ‘depressive’ area of

conflict over bad impulses comes into being

when the individual exploits his active impulses
in anti-social ways to counteract a deep

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 compulsion to withdraw, break off object-
relations and risk losing the ego. Moreover, it

becomes clear that the deeper schizoid problem

was always thrusting through the more obvious
depressive one. This we must now examine.

THE MANIC-DEPRESSIVE CONDITION

AND ITS COMPLEXITY

Clinical depression needs now to be

examined specifically from the point of view of
the schizoid problem. Fairbairn states that in his
experience true depression is more rare in the
consulting room than schizoid phenomena, and

that is also my experience. I do not know

whether this may be due to the general decline in

guilt-inducing forms of religion. We do not now

have the ‘Hell-fire’ preaching and the violent

denunciatory ‘sin and repentance’ sermons of an
earlier age. The patients in whom I have most

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 clearly found classic depression were all
religious people who were driven to use and
distort their religious beliefs as a defence in
terms of guilt-inducement against a basic
schizoid problem. It is perhaps more
characteristic of this generation to adopt a

superior attitude to morality and to reject guilt

and depression in favour of the ‘couldn’t care
less’ attitude; a quite definite schizoid

phenomenon in its detachment and

irresponsibility towards other people.

The manic-depressive condition is, in all its

varying degrees of severity, a mixed condition,

and denotes a very complex state of mind in

which a basic problem is countered by defences
which in turn call for further defences. This
becomes apparent in papers in the recent
‘Symposium on “Depressive Illness” ’ (Klein

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 1960,16-19) where the guilt factor seems to drop

more and more into second place and the factor

of regression comes more and more to the front.
Guilt is the heart of the depressive problem

proper in the classical usage in which this term

came to be technically defined, whereas
regression is a schizoid phenomenon (see

Guntrip 1960, 1961a, 1961b). It seems that one

can see the schizoid problem always pushing
through the depressive mask. This would explain
why patients say they are ‘depressed’ when they

mean apathetic merely, irrespective of whether

the apathy is associated with guilt feelings,
conscious or unconscious.

The Mixed Condition

In the Symposium referred to, the

contribution of Nacht and Racamier presents the

classic conception, while the developing change

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 in the basic theoretical conception of this illness
is most apparent in the contributions of Zetzel
and Rosenfeld. But the earlier classic concept
and the newly developing concepts are not yet

clearly demarcated and related, so that the

question ‘What is the manic-depressive illness?’
has a somewhat confused answer. Both Zetzel

and Rosenfeld present clearly enough the

change of emphasis from guilt and repression of
sadistic instincts to the problems of frustrated

ego-development, resultant ego-splitting and

ego-weakness, and the dangers of regression
and ego loss. Yet these two quite different groups

of psychopathological phenomena are still

confusingly held together under the term
‘depression’.

Rosenfeld (1960) states the classic diagnosis

of depressive illness as ‘precipitated by an

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 object-loss’ (pp. 512-13) in which ‘the patients
unconsciously believed that their aggression had

omnipotently produced the death or illness of the

object’. To clarify the complexity of this illness
as it presents itself clinically, we must at this

stage limit the term ‘depression’ to this quite

definite psychic state. Depression is then, as it
has been classically treated, a guilt illness,

pathological mourning, the paralysing effects of

which are due to the repression of sadism and
aggression. This distinction is preserved when
Scott (1960) writes: ‘Our literature contains less
about the relationship of pathological mourning
to more regressed states … than one might

expect with such a crucial metapsychological

problem which stands midway between the

schizophrenias and the neuroses’ (p. 497).

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 Thus Zetzel (1960) says: ‘Abraham’s
original formulations with regard to depressive
illness appear to have become more rather than
less compatible with the general body of psycho-
analytical knowledge over the passage of time.
In particular, the importance he attached to

object-relations, aggression, and the mastery of

ambivalence have been confirmed by psycho-
analysts of every school of thought.’ Of
depression in this sense it is particularly true that

there are ‘infantile precursors’ of the illness in

adult life. She points out that the work of
Abraham, Jacobson, Rado, Spitz, and
particularly Klein are an ‘attempt to understand
adult depression by reconstruction of its infantile

prototypes’. ‘The most far-reaching analogies

between adult depressive illness and early
developmental phases have been proposed by

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 Mrs Klein and the English school. A universal,
infantile depressive position has been postulated,

the general characteristic of which determines

depressive responses in adult life.’ In this
connexion Zetzel mentions the ‘primary

importance attached to early object-relations’,

and Rosenfeld writes: ‘It is characteristic of such
situations (i.e. object-loss) that all earlier

experiences of object-loss are mobilized leading

back to the earliest anxieties of the infant mother
relationship, a factor which might be regarded as

a confirmation of the central importance of the

depressive position as outlined by Melanie

Klein.’ This conception links depression

particularly closely with the Oedipus stage, as

Klein stresses, with its ambivalence of love and

hate and its guilt. We must return presently to
this question. This is the classic concept of

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 depression and it makes depression clear,

specific and identifiable. It is of depression in

this sense that Fairbairn said that it is not
presented clinically anything like as frequently

as schizoid problems. Moreover it becomes ever

more clear that it does not by any means cover
the whole clinical picture of what has, evidently

too loosely, been termed depression.

There is another group of phenomena which,

as clinically presented, is commonly to be found
mixed up with depression as above defined

whenever that is present. These phenomena are

not illuminated by the concepts of ambivalence,
repression, and guilt. These are the phenomena

that led to increasing concentration on ego-

psychology and the facts concerning ego-
splitting and regression, i.e. the schizoid
problem. The two sets of facts, depressive and

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 regressive, come face to face with competing
claims to priority when Rosenfeld writes: ‘the

psycho-analysis of ego disturbances, like the

splitting of the ego, has an important
contribution to make to the understanding of the

depressive illness,’ but then goes on to say that:

‘The importance of the internal object-relations
in depression has, however, still to be regarded

as the most important aspect of the depressive

illness.’ Rosenfeld shows that, clinically, the
classic view of depression does not cover all the
facts presented in a very complicated illness and
recognizes the different nature of the phenomena
now more and more attracting attention, but he

cannot say outright that the classic view of

depression, if applied to the total illness, is

inadequate. While it is no doubt true that

ambivalent and guilt-burdened object-relations

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 are the important element in classic depression,

nevertheless depression proper in that narrowly

defined sense is not the most important element
in the actual total illness as we meet with it in

the patient. I shall hope to show that depression

in the classic sense is set up by the failure of a
certain type of defence against a powerful

underlying compulsion to seek safety in a

regressive withdrawal from object-relations. We
have to turn our attention to ego-loss, ego-

splitting, and regression.

Rosenfeld puts alongside the classic concept

of ‘object-loss’, as the precipitating factor in the

depressive illness, the parallel concept of ‘ego-

loss’. He writes: ‘We might ask if it is only a
disturbance in an object-relation which may
mobilize depression. Freud had raised the

question early on whether an injury to the ego or

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 to narcissism may alone precipitate depression. I
found in some of the patients breaking down

with acute depression that they were confronted

with a situation which made them aware that
they themselves or their lives had been

incomplete in certain ways. The patients were

overcome by an acute sense of failure. They felt
they had not fulfilled the promise of their gifts or
had not developed their personality sufficiently.

They were suddenly overwhelmed by a

conviction that it might now be too late for them

to find themselves and their purpose in life. …

This depression may be regarded as an
awareness that certain parts of the patient’s
personality had been split off and denied. …

These parts include not only aggressive features

but are related to a capacity of the ego to bear
depression, pain, and suffering.’ Rosenfeld goes

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 on to say that the problem of depression ‘has to
be understood not only from the point of view of

object-relations but in terms of ego psychology.’

I would suggest that this fails to distinguish

and properly to relate together two different

levels of the complex whole of the illness, unless

it is recognized that the importance of object-
relations lies in the fact that without them the

ego cannot maintain itself. It is not a question of

object-loss and ego-loss being alternative
precipitating factors, nor of the split-off and
denied parts of the personality being either or

both aggressive features and ego-capacity to

bear pain. The situation I have found in patients

is that in order to escape the terrors of ego-loss

through schizoid withdrawal from object-

relations (depersonalization) they have fled back

into ambivalent object-relations only to find that

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 their hate threatens them with object-loss and
guilt and depression. The depression arises out

of the failure of a defence against an underlying

regression. I would rather say, therefore, that
‘depression has to be understood … from the

point of view of object relations’, i.e. the need

and struggle to retain object-relations, but that
the deeper problem of regression which it masks

has to be understood ‘in terms of ego

psychology’. In the long run it is only ego
psychology that can supply the key to any and

all psychological problems. Rosenfeld himself

says: ‘In such depressions there is a regression
to the phase of infancy where the original
splitting of the ego has taken place’. This is on a

much deeper level than that of the repression of

‘aggressive features’ which plays so vital a part
in depression proper. The repression of sadism is

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 a relatively superficial ‘splitting off or denial’ of
a part of the personality. I have suggested

elsewhere (see Guntrip 1960, 1961a, 1961b) that

the deepest ego-split is that which occurs under
persecutory anxiety in what Fairbairn calls the

infantile libidinal ego, a split into an active oral

ego which remains in a sadomasochistic inner
world, and a passive regressed ego which seeks

a return to the womb for security away from all

terrifying bad object relations. Winnicott agrees
that this corresponds to what he calls the ‘hidden
true self’ awaiting a chance of rebirth. I regard
this as the basis of all schizoid characteristics,
the deep secret flight from life, in seeking a

defence against which the rest of the personality

lands itself in a variety of psychotic and
psychoneurotic states, among which one of the

most important is depression. It would clear up

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 much confusion to restrict the term depression to
its narrow and classical definition and correlate
depression with ambivalent and guilt-burdened
object-loss, and to regard it as arising through

the failure of one type of defence against the

dangers of regression with ego-loss. We must
then recognize two strata of the complex illness

that has hitherto gone by the name of depression.

Rosenfeld speaks of ‘a progressive and
reparative drive, namely an attempt to regain

these lost parts of the self’. This will be the

swing back from schizoid withdrawal to a
recovery of object-relations, good, bad, or

ambivalent according to the chosen strategy of

the patient. Among other things, this will lead to
the manic defence, which presumably can

operate, if with different characteristics, against

both the depressive and the schizoid regressive

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 dangers. Against depression it will take the form
of a repudiation of all moral feeling and guilt;

against the dangers of regression to passivity and

ego-breakdown of the type of basic withdrawal
it will take the form of compulsive activity. This

latter is in my experience much the commonest

form of manic state, and exists more often than
not in particularly secret and hidden mental

forms as an inability to relax and stop thinking,

and especially to sleep. The total illness is very
inadequately called manic-depressive, and
should at least be called manic-depressive-
regressive, recognizing that the schizoid
component is more dangerous and deeper than

the depressive one.

We may here refer to the brief contribution

to the symposium by Klein (1960) entitled ‘A

Note on Depression in the Schizophrenic’. She

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 writes: ‘The often-observed connection between
the groups of schizophrenic and manic-

depressive illnesses can in my view be explained

by the developmental link existing in infancy
between the paranoid-schizoid and depressive

positions. The persecutory anxieties and splitting

processes characteristic of the paranoid-schizoid
position continue, though changed in strength

and form, into the depressive position. … The

link between these two positions—with all the
changes in the ego which they imply—is that
they are both the outcome of the struggle
between the life and death instincts. In the
earlier stage (extending over the first three or

four months of life) the anxieties arising from

this struggle take on a paranoid form and the still

incoherent ego is driven to reinforce splitting

processes. With the growing strength of the ego,

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 the depressive position arises. During this stage
paranoid anxieties and schizoid mechanisms
diminish and depressive anxiety gains in
strength. Here too, we can see the working of the
conflict between life and death instincts. The
changes which have taken place are the result of

alterations in the states of fusion between the

two instincts’ (p. 509).

I take it that the statement ‘The persecutory

anxieties and splitting processes characteristic of

the paranoid-schizoid position continue … into

the depressive position’ confirms my view that
depression rests on a schizoid basis and that the

schizoid trends can always be seen pushing

through the depressive overlay. But I do not find
that clinical evidence supports Klein’s
contention that ‘paranoid anxieties and schizoid
mechanisms diminish and depressive anxiety

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 gains in strength’. I believe that to be a very
deceptive appearance. Whenever I have treated

depression as a struggle to keep in object-

relationships, employing bad-object relations of
an accusatory or morally persecutory form, as a

defence against the dangers of schizoid

withdrawal from all object relations, I have
always found that with surprising rapidity the

depressive reaction was pushed aside by a

striking outbreak of markedly schizoid
symptoms. These showed no sign of having

been diminished by depression; rather it was

clear that it was the hidden power of the schizoid

flight from outer reality that was being

counteracted by seeking refuge in ambivalent

object-relations, only to find that these in turn

led to depression.

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 The source of Klein’s views on this matter
seems to derive from the confusing use of the
unscientific and unverified hypothesis, one ought
perhaps to say the mythology, of life and death
instincts, instead of abiding by purely factual
clinical analysis. This hypothetical death

instinct, of the reality of which hardly any

analysts have ever been convinced, was assumed
to be an innate destructive drive aimed primarily

against the organism itself, and regarded by

Klein as projected by the infant on to his
environment. Persecutory anxiety is therefore
self-manufactured and unrealistic in the last

resort. So far as I can see clinical evidence

establishes the exact opposite of this view. Fear,
persecutory anxiety, arises in the first place as a

result of an actually bad, persecutory

environment. Anger and aggression arise as an

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 attempt to master fear by removing its cause, but

in the infant they only lead to the discovery of

helplessness and therewith the inturning of
aggression against his own weak ego. This

powerfully reinforces the splitting process

already set up by fear and flight from a bad outer
world. This inturning of aggression does not,
however, necessarily lead to fear of death, but

more often to masochistic suffering in the inner

world which the patient cannot easily be helped
to give up. It is true that under certain

circumstances this can mount up to

schizophrenic terror of being torn to bits, but I
have usually found that the fear of death related

ultimately to an unconscious inner knowledge of

the existence of an ego-undermining and
powerful drive to a flight from life and reality,

the dread of collapse into a depersonalized state

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 of combined object-loss and ego-loss. If there is

any meaning, then, to be found in the terms ‘life

and death instincts’ it will refer to the conflict
between active and passive trends, progressive
and regressive drives, in the personality. This

can mount in intensity to a veritable struggle

between living and dying, but such imaginative
and inexact terms are better not used.

To return to Zetzel, her position is the same

as that of Rosenfeld. She observes that ‘our
concepts of anxiety and depression … have
changed with the development of ego-

psychology’. She quotes Bibring (1953) as

saying: ‘Anxiety and depression represent

diametrically opposed basic ego responses.

Anxiety as a reaction to danger indicates the

ego’s desire to survive. The ego challenged by

the danger mobilizes the signal of anxiety and

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 prepares for fight or flight. In depression the
opposite takes place; the ego is paralysed
because it finds itself incapable to meet the

danger.’ Zetzel comments: ‘The key word, of

course, in this more recent formulation is “ego”.’

It seems to me, however, more useful to keep

anxiety and depression closely associated by

means of Klein’s valuable formulation of two
kinds of anxiety, persecutory and depressive. We
can then use Bibring’s reference to the fact that
the endangered ego can react in either of two
ways, by ‘fight or flight’. If it reacts by flight, the
infant ego can only fly in one way, inside itself.

It is precipitated into schizoid withdrawal and

ego-splitting. In fact, it usually does do this, and
then as the ‘outer-reality ego’ (in contrast with
the now withdrawn and passive ego)
strengthens, it seeks to ‘fight’ its way back to

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 object-relations. This it may do on two levels.

Since the return of a frightened ego must be to

bad-object relations, it is a decision to face
danger rather than withdraw; i.e. to make use of

bad-object relations to keep touch with the

object world. On a more primitive level this
leads to persecutory, paranoid anxieties which

may mount to schizophrenic terrors. On a more

developed level, it leads to guilt under moral
persecution which may amount to depressive

anxieties and even to the paralysis of severe

depression. The opposite possibilities of flight
and fight lead on the one hand to regression and

on the other to psychotic conflict-states and

further psychoneurotic defences, which are
attempts to deal with internal bad-object

relationships.

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 Zetzel confuses these different things when
she says first that: ‘Depression, like anxiety, is a
subjective experience, integral to human
development and mastery of conflict, frustration,
disappointment and loss’; but then adds ‘it is
also the main presenting symptom of a

regressive clinical syndrome’. The first

statement applies to the results of the ‘fight
reaction’, i.e. classic depression, while the

second refers to the effects of the ‘flight

reaction’, or regression. We are brought back to

the necessity for distinguishing regression as a

schizoid phenomenon, differing from and
underlying depression as a guilt paralysis in
ambivalent object-relationships. It is the

difference between fear and anger, and between

withdrawal and the repression of sadism.
Aggression is characteristic of the depressive

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 setup, but fear and flight is the key to the

regressive situation, against which the former is

employed as a defence.

Just as Rosenfeld contrasts depression as due

to object-loss with another type of depression

(really ‘regression’) involving ego-loss, so
Zetzel regards disturbed infantile prototypical
object-relations as repeated in classic depression

but evidently correlates the regressive aspect of

the illness with the propensity of early
disturbances for causing developmental failure

of the ego. In contrast with the previous group of

writers mentioned, she says that Bowlby, Rank,

Mahler, Rochlin, ‘rather emphasize the primary

importance of early experience in determining

ego-development and the capacity for genuine

object-relations’ (pp. 477-8). From the point of

view of ego-psychology we would say that

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 biological events (such as childbirth, involution)
are able to evoke ‘depression-regression’

because they play upon the basic ego-weakness

and stimulate the fight or flight reaction, i.e.
depression or regression. Zetzel says: ‘It is

essential to make a distinction between the total

helplessness implied by Freud’s definition of a
traumatic situation and the relative helplessness
implicit in Bibring’s conception of loss of self-

esteem.’ This seems to be a matter of the depth

to which any trauma penetrates in activating

basic ego-weakness and consequent flight from

life, or of the extent to which the deep down
feeling of not having a proper ego breaks
through into consciousness.

The fact is that in Zetzel’s exposition,

regression looms ever larger in the picture. ‘The
ego of the seriously depressed patient has

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 undergone qualitative regressive alterations with

associated intrapsychic changes of a widespread

nature’ (p. 479). Nevertheless she still holds fast
to ‘the significance of the aggressive instinct’

and ‘the crucial importance of unmastered

aggression in the theory of depressive illness’,
and she quotes Bibring as saying ‘The blow to

self-esteem is due to the unexpected awareness

of the existence of latent aggressive tendencies
within the self.’ This appears to be an attempt to

keep the old garment while sewing on a new

patch. Blows to self-esteem ultimately come
from discovering that one feels weak. Zetzel,
however, has to come back to ‘the whole

problem of the regressive implications. ... It is

here that current ego-analysis appears to differ
most widely from the early formulations’ (p.

480). The only way to clear up this confused

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 oscillating is to separate classic depression as the

defensive top-layer of aggression and guilt, from

regression as the bottom layer of fear and flight.

The whole illness is a complex mixture of

depression and schizoid factors. If the presenting

picture is at first one of classic depression and
guilt, it is best relieved by exposing it as a

defence against a deeper schizoid withdrawal

from any and all kinds of object relations. In my
experience it is much more common to find the
schizoid patient whose regressive trends become
unconsciously active, and who then resorts
intermittently to a flight forwards into guilt and
depression. Classic depression is then revealed

clearly as arising out of the failure of an

attempted defence against ultimate regression by
resort to ‘fight’ rather than ‘flight’. Bad object
relations are better than no objects at all, until

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 they run away with the patient in his inner
world, get out of hand, and produce their own
insoluble problems. In passing, it may be said

that unless we allow for a universal resistance to

the proper recognition of our basic fear and
weakness, it is hard to explain why an ‘instinct
of aggression’ has been given such prominence
in psycho-analytic theory, while the equally
obvious phenomena of ‘instinctive flight’ have

been so passed over. Classic psycho-analytic

theory has always treated anxiety as secondary

to the working of sexual and aggressive drives.

We now have to recognize that pathological
sexual and aggressive drives are not primary
factors but are secondary to the working of

elementary fear, anxiety, and flight.

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 Abraham’s Picture of Classical Depression

In their article on ‘Depressive States’ S.

Nacht and P. C. Racamier (1960) say, ‘We define

depression as a pathological state of conscious

psychic suffering and guilt, accompanied by a
marked reduction in the sense of personal

values, and a diminution of mental, psycho-

motor, and even organic activity, unrelated to

actual deficiency.’ It may be said that the last

half of the definition concerning the ‘marked

reduction’ is just as true of plainly regressed

states, though people suffering from guilt-
depression usually show little diminution of
mental activity so far as self-accusation is
concerned. However, Nacht and Racamier’s

definition is based on the general theory of man

that prevailed in classic psychoanalysis. They
write:

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 The study of depressive states leads the
psycho-analyst to the centre of the
fundamental drama that troubles the heart
of man, for man is possessed by two
apparently equal and contradictory powers,
pulling him in opposite directions. Yet
sometimes these forces may be intimately
blended and linked together, and even,
occasionally, replace each other. Thus man
is moved by an imperious need to love, to
create and construct, and by an opposing
and equally tyrannical desire to hate and
destroy.

In the first two sections I have already shown

reason for rejecting that view, as the psycho-

analytical equivalent of the age-old doctrine of

evil lusts and passions of the flesh opposed to
the rational mind, and the doctrine of original
sin. It appears to me that the conflict of love and

hate in human nature is secondary to the conflict

of love and fear, or the need for human
relationship versus the fear-ridden flight from all

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 relationships. This comes out clearly in

Abraham’s classic pioneer picture of depression

in 1911, at a time long before any realistic ego-
analysis had been initiated by the Freud of the

1920’s; a time when the psyche could only be

thought of in terms of an instinctive unconscious
and a regulating ego of consciousness.

The case history Abraham (1911) describes

as depressed is that of a basically schizoid
personality struggling to keep a precarious

contact with the object-relations world by means

of hostility, hatred, and aggression in sporadic
outbursts, countered by guilt. ‘He had an

indefinite feeling that his state of depression was

a punishment’ (p. 141). Certainly at that date the
priority for analysis was this problem of guilt-
depression. It was the success and thorough-

going nature of the whole psycho-analytical

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 exploration of the details and complexities of
this area of the mental life that has led on to

open up the deeper schizoid level. But we can

also see that when Abraham wrote ‘I do not wish
to discuss states of depression occurring in

dementia praecox’ (p. 139) the sound policy of

not seeking to analyse everything at once but
taking problems one by one led in this case to a

nonrecognition of the schizoid factors in the case

he did describe. The patient as a child was
depreciated in comparison with his older

brother, while a delicate younger brother got

most of the attention. He never felt satisfied at

home, and got little with which to develop a

soundly based ego. He grew up to hate both

parents and brothers and feel jealousy to a

degree that once led to a violent and injurious
attack on the younger brother. That all this,

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 bringing in its train feelings of moral
unworthiness and guilt, was part of a desperate
struggle to keep in effective relationship with his
object world, is clear from the rest of the
descriptive data.

Abraham observed that ‘every neurotic state

of depression … contains a tendency to deny

life’ (p. 138). This boy’s denial of life took the

form of a manifest schizoid withdrawal from
human relationships. He ‘never made any real

companions, kept to himself. … He had no

friends. He was quite aware of his lack of real

energy when he compared himself with others’

(p. 140). That this withdrawal from human

contacts as emotionally hurtful was adequately

motivated is clear. He had ‘no encouragement at

home. His father was contemptuous of him in
his presence’ (p. 140). His first attack of

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 depression occurred in a specific way when his

teacher once called him ‘a physical and mental

cripple’ in front of the class (p. 140). The
‘depression’, it is to be noted, was not called out

by the accusation of being ‘bad’ but of being

‘weak’. ‘Even later he made no companions. He
kept away from them intentionally too, because
he was afraid of being thought an inferior sort of

person. … His life was a solitary one. He was

positively afraid of women. … He showed little
energy in practical life; it was always difficult

for him to form a resolution or to come to a

decision in difficult situations.’ This is a picture
not of a guilt-burdened but of a devitalized

personality. Grief over the loss of a good object

is normal. Depersonalization over the loss of a
good object is schizoid. Guilt and depression

(pathological mourning) arise out of an attempt

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 to fend off depersonalization by internalization
of the lost object as an accusing object,

identification then leading to self-accusation.

The problem of devitalization is of crucial

importance. In view of the chronic fatigue and

exhaustion such patients frequently suffer, it is

as important a descriptive term for this illness as
depression and regression. Of the above-

mentioned patient Abraham wrote: ‘In every

situation he suffers from feelings of inadequacy
and stands helpless before the problems of life’
(p. 139). ‘In his depressive phase the patient’s

frame of mind was “depressed” or “apathetic” (I

reproduce his own words) according to the
severity of his condition. He was inhibited, had

to force himself to do the simplest things, and

spoke slowly and softly. He wished he was dead

and entertained thoughts of suicide.’ He would

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 often say to himself ‘I am an outcast’ or ‘I do
not belong to the world.’ ‘He felt non-existent
and would often imagine himself disappearing

from the world without leaving a trace. During

these states of mind he suffered from
exhaustion’ (p. 141). So far as my experience
goes these are the characteristic ways in which
the schizoid person describes his experience of
feeling withdrawn and cut off from outer reality,

and so losing ‘self’ also in a vacuum of

experience, while his attenuated central ego
trying to keep touch with the real world feels
utterly deprived of all energy.

The classic theory as stated by Abraham was

that this loss of energy was the result of the
repression of the sexual and aggressive instincts.
‘His sexual instinct, which at first had shown
itself so strongly, had become paralysed through

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 repression’ (p. 140). ‘He was weakened or
deprived of his energy through the repression of

his hatred or ... of the originally overstrong

sadistic component of his libido’ (p. 139). I
believe, however, that this puts the cart before

the horse. I see no reason to think that sexual

and aggressive potentialities operate in
disturbed and antisocial ways, except in the

fear-ridden person, and then they represent the

exploitation of two among other active
capacities as a method of overcoming
devitalization and passivity. Abraham says:
‘Depression sets in when (the neurotic) has
given up his sexual aim.’ It seems to me,

however, that it is because regression and

devitalization are already there that impotence
supervenes and sexual and also aggressive

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 outbursts reappear again as part of the manic
defence.

A study of the manic defence should serve to

complete the reorientation of theory concerning

this illness, and the whole field of
psychopathology. It is usually held that manic
elation is essentially a moral revolt. The
paralysing restraints of the sadistic superego are
suddenly overthrown and the person feels
omnipotently free to do as he likes. Such

tendencies do appear, but I do not believe they

are the essence of the manic defence, but
secondary characteristics. Abraham wrote of his

patient:

[At 28 years] a condition of hypomania

appeared and this now alternated with his
depressive attacks. At the commencement
of this manic phase he would be roused out
of his apathy and would become mentally

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 active and gradually even overactive. He
used to do a great deal, knew no fatigue,
woke early in the morning, and concerned
himself with plans connected with his
career. He became enterprising and
believed himself capable of performing
great things, was talkative and inclined to
laugh and joke and make puns. ... At the
height of his manic phase his euphoria
tended to pass over into irritability and
impulsive violence. ... In the periods of
depression he slept well but during the
manic phase he was very restless,
especially during the second half of the
night. Nearly every night a sexual
excitement used to overtake him with
sudden violence, [p. 142]

It is clear from this that the basic characteristic

of this state is not amoral violence but simply

over-activity. The manic state is not a defence

against the repression of active impulses, even

though that at times enters into it, but a
desperate attempt to force the whole psyche out

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 of a state of devitalized passivity and regression.

The harder the struggle to defeat the passive

regressed ego, the more incapable of relaxation
and rest the patient becomes. His mind must be

kept going non-stop, night as well as day. Deep

sleep is feared as regression and every effort is
made either to prevent its occurrence by

insomnia (which is therefore a manic symptom)

or to keep up a constant interference with it by
active dreaming, and repeated waking. When the
battle becomes a losing one it may well happen

that, as Abraham observed, euphoria turns into

aggression and violent sexuality. The
pathological forms of sexual and aggressive

impulse are aspects of the struggle to defeat

regression and flight from life on the part of a
person who, at the deepest mental level, feels he

hardly has an ego at all. But there are also other

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 ‘active capacities’ which can be used for this
purpose besides sex and aggression, such as
thinking, overworking, the hectic social round
and so on. Abraham writes: ‘The affect of
depression is as widely spread among all forms
of neuroses and psychoses as is that of anxiety’

(p. 137). That will not surprise us when we

realize that the basic psychopathological
problem is the struggle to keep active at all, with

a basic ego that is fear-ridden and undeveloped,

and a central ego that is devitalized.

A CASE OF MANIC-DEPRESSION

The foregoing conclusions may, perhaps,

best be summarized by presenting a brief
account of an actual case.

A deeply religious man in the late forties,

married, with one child, had been diagnosed
twelve years earlier by a psychiatrist as

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 constitutionally manic-depressive, and was
told that there was nothing to be done but
control the condition by means of drugs.
This ‘control’ proved in practice to be of
little use to him, and his life was a misery as
he swung between periods of profound
depression with sluggish inactivity and
acute guilt over his uselessness, and periods
of compulsive early rising and hectic
overwork. He could at such times feel acute
guilt over sexual fantasies and over
aggressive outbursts in real life which he
found hard to control, especially with his
wife and child. Apart from these extremes
in his general attitudes he was rigidly
puritan, intolerant of many things ‘on
principle’, a strict disciplinarian and
extremely independent. He said ‘I have St
Augustine’s “heart of steel towards
myself”.’

Analysis of his guilt brought out ever

more clearly that it was aimed mainly
against his feelings of weakness, and guilt
was mixed with contempt of himself. It was

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 weak to be ‘depressed’, to be inactive and
unable to work, to indulge in sexual
fantasies or to want sexual relationships. It
was weak to be unable to control his temper
and irritability, and also to need anyone’s
help. His ‘ego-ideal’ was that of the strong
and rather silent man who had iron self-
control, which he could relax at times for
the child’s amusement in nonsense talk and
joking: behind this he remained a deadly
serious person. With his University training
and gifts of leadership he was, when at his
best, a successful and valuable obsessional
personality, but this was always breaking
down into the manic-depressive mood
swing.

It emerged that he could and did

periodically use the defence of a conversion
hysteria technique against his ‘depression’,
and during one period of about eighteen
months during his five years’ analysis he
had recurring bouts of four to five weeks of
laryngitis or lumbago. Invariably as these

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 faded out under analysis he would begin to
feel consciously ‘depressed’ again.

These two physical conditions, however,

so clearly symbolized a state of withdrawal
from active life in weakness and incapacity,
in which he could hardly talk or walk about
and had to be off work, that they proved to
be a valuable means of directing his
attention away from his supposed bad
impulses, sexual and aggressive, and
towards the more unwelcome insight that he
felt weak. His life had been one long
struggle to keep going at all since he really
felt and always had felt inadequate and
apprehensive. He said: ‘It’s hell going
through life having to screw yourself up all
the time to face everything you have to do,
even though you know you can do it.’
Gradually analysis focused less and less on
guilt over sex and aggression, and more and
more on his fears, timidities, shrinking from
life and the constant tension of forcing
himself on in the teeth of these drawbacks.
His manic-depressive cycle appeared to him

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 now as an oscillation between ruthless
overdriving of his secretly frightened inner
self, leading on to collapse into physical and
mental exhaustion. He could see clearly
enough how his parents had completely
undermined or prevented the development
of any natural, spontaneous self-confidence
in him, and how seriously beset he had been
in his teens by a crippling feeling of
inadequacy and inability to ‘make good’.

For practical purposes his treatment

began to focus more and more around his
present inability to relax and rest. He was
afraid to ‘let go’ into sleep and could not
still his overactive mind. The analysis of his
hidden inner manic drive in terms of his
dread that if he once stopped he would
never get started again, enabled him to see
its real significance. It was a desperate
struggle to overcome the emotionally
crippled and fear-ridden child inside, and to
force himself to be adult; a well-intentioned
but self-defeating method of trying to
become a real ‘person’ while a weak,

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 infantile ego was hidden in the depths of his
unconscious. My interpretation of his
depressive guilt as all a part of his organized
system of self-forcing, and as a defence
against his secret and hidden ‘frightened
child’ self who was in a state of constant
retreat from life, led to the revelation of
lifelong but hitherto undisclosed schizoid
characteristics.

This occurred when, after three and a

half years of treatment, he entered on a
period of some five months which proved to
be a fundamental ‘working through’ of the
hard core of his self-frustrating personality
make-up. Since then, with diminishing and
minor ups and downs, he has shown a quiet
and steady improvement. He has been able
to feel much greater interest in his work, a
marked betterment in his relations with his
wife both emotionally and sexually, greater
patience with his child, more tolerance with
other people and with himself, much less
fear of facing people, and a marked
improvement in capacity for tactful

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 handling of people, and a more simple and
straightforward conflict-free relationship
with me. I shall summarize briefly this
critical therapeutic ‘break-through’ period.
(The numbers represent the chronological
order of the most important sessions during
those five months.)

1. ‘I get a picture of myself in the dark

behind a door, banging on it. Ah! It’s a
memory. We were shut up in a dark
cupboard when naughty ... I shut myself in
now and get panicky. I’ve got a fundamental
fear. At times it gets near to undermining
the adult and I fear collapse.’

2. His father had died a few months

earlier at an advanced age, and he said:
‘Consciously I don’t bother about father’s
death. He’s just gone. Its impersonal. But I
want to get down to my real feelings.’

3. ‘I never had a father who loved and

cared for his children. I’m sensitive to the
sufferings of children.’ I commented: ‘But
you inflict suffering on your own child-self.’

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 He replied: ‘I’m tired and would like you to
put me to sleep, and wake and find all my
troubles solved.’ That was one of the first
signs of real dependence on my help.

4. ‘It’s warm and comfortable in your

room but I feel I ought to be
uncomfortable.’ He reported a dream. ‘I saw
a coffin open and a man in it talking. I was
very concerned because the lid was to be
put on and he’d be buried alive. Then he
folded his arms and said “Maybe now I’ll be
able to relax”.’ He added: ‘I’m talking at a
terrific rate now. I used to be terrified of
being buried alive.’ I pointed out that he
was fighting against being buried alive
inside himself; that a part of him had for
long been so buried, and he feared
relaxation, sleep, and any dependence on
me or his wife because he felt it would
mean losing his active self and slipping
down into this regressed passive one. Until
he got over that fear he could not begin to
recuperate at a deep unconscious level. He
said: ‘I feel I ought not to want my wife’s

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 breast or any comfort. Sexual intercourse
ought to be purely mechanical. I’m afraid to
let go and let you help me.’

5. The basic problem, should the weak

and frightened child in him be allowed to
depend and be helped, or should he be
ruthlessly driven on in a forced pseudo-
adult way, now became focused in the
transference. He had a long series of
fantasies each week as he approached my
rooms and saw my car outside. At first he
would fantasy smashing it up, then later he
would get in and drive it off. Again, I would
be in it and he would get in and lean his
head on my shoulder and put an arm round
me but then suddenly attack me and take
over the driving. Later still he fantasied my
driving and himself being in the passenger
seat, and finally he saw himself getting into
my car, curling up on the back seat and
going fast asleep, knowing that I would
approve. His hostile resistances to me
earlier were clearly a defence against his

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 fear of helpless dependence on me, and
masked a fantasy of a return to the womb.

6. This was the most critical session. He

felt ‘in a queer mood, can’t concentrate. I
just sit and stare and can’t apply myself to
the job in hand. I lose interest. I want to
escape from all responsibility to people. I
feel I haven’t got a mind. I had to go to a
business meeting and had no feeling, no
interest, no anger, only sad. I had
intercourse with my wife and had no
particular feelings.’ Here was a schizoid,
detached, impersonal, apathetic state,
something much deeper than his earlier
depressive guilt. I interpreted this to him,
and he said: ‘I’ve always been a keen
cricketer. In 1946-7 England were touring
Australia and I was apathetic and couldn’t
understand why men should bother to play
cricket. It was when I was becoming
friendly with the girl I married. I had
months of this apathy. It was awful, empty,
nothing to live for, everything futile.’ I
suggested that he had been withdrawing in

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 deep fear from his growing disposition to
trust and depend more frankly on both his
wife and me. That session was a turning
point.

7. At the next session he felt better and

from then on he increasingly frequently
reported improvement. He mentioned a
dream. ‘I went down into a tower and then
had to go through a tunnel to get out.
Though I had come in that way I was
horrified.’ A clear fantasy of a return to the
womb, showing that he was in touch with
his lost regressed ego in the deep
unconscious, the cause of all his schizoid
reactions. He said ‘I wish you’d attack me
and give me a chance to fight. A love-
relationship is smothering. I used to have
premature ejaculation but now I go on and
on and can’t react, holding back. I’ll be
swallowed up. It’s equivalent to lying on
this couch.’ The couch had been for a few
weeks the focus of his conflict between the
dependent child and the compulsively
independent adult. From the start he had

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 compromised and never allowed the couch-
problem to be analysed till now. He did not
want to sit in the patient’s armchair; that
was exclusively adult. He did not want to lie
on the couch; that was exclusively infantile.
So he sat on the couch with his feet on the
floor, for the first three and three quarter
years of analysis. In this session for the first
time he tentatively put one foot up on the
couch, and at once began to say: ‘Should I
sit in the chair? Lying on this couch
suggests going to sleep, surrender, losing
independence of you. I’ve always been
afraid of an anaesthetic. Now I sit on the
couch with one foot on the ground, afraid to
be absolutely in your power. I had a dream
that you’d taken my penis off and I just put
it back on and it stayed there.’

8. At the next session he lay down at

once and said: ‘Now I’m lying on the couch
properly, much more comfortable. The last
two nights I’ve had satisfying intercourse
with my wife. I’ve always wanted to get
away from the real world. I had very little

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 happiness in life and marriage when I came
to see you, and now I’ve got a lot, and am
very grateful.’ Then he suddenly added:
‘Now I want to get off the couch. I’m afraid
of any close relationship.’

9. He produced another fantasy of

smashing my car and then said ‘It would be
so nice to give up the struggle and sink back
into warm human flesh, surrender, letting
go.’ I said, ‘You’re frightened of that but
you need it. If you can let your passive,
exhausted self of early life recuperate here,
you’ll become better able to be active
outside without driving yourself.’ He
replied, ‘When you said that I felt a great
sense of relief.’

10. The four sessions 6-9 seemed to be

the vital heart of the analysis. His old
manic-depressive-guilt pattern had quite
gone and did not return. It had changed into
the conflict over accepting his regressed ego
in sessions so that he could maintain an
active adult ego in his outer life without

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 forcing and exhausting himself. But the
problem was not easily solved. In this
session he was tense. He said: ‘I’ve been
wanting to come and was all for lying on
the couch and relaxing, but then I lashed
myself, accused myself of being lazy and
drove myself to work by discipline. The
only way I’ve ever known how to solve my
problems was to drive myself.’ This is, in
fact, what Fairbairn calls the antilibidinal
ego, the struggling child crushing out his
needs, and, I believe, particularly the
passive ones.

Not long after this he came in to one

session and said: ‘I’ve only two things to
say’, and he said them and added ‘Now I
want to relax’. He lay back and sank into a
deep doze for about forty minutes. At the
next session he said: ‘Last session has
changed something in me. I feel somehow
calmer, stronger.’ Following that critical
five months period he was able to make
steady progress, his variations of mood
bearing no resemblance to his original

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 cyclothymia. Fifteen months later he
reported in one session: ‘Generally I feel
very fit these days, a positive attitude to life,
things are going well. I’m more in love with
my wife and sex relations are enjoyable.
There are still some problems but life has a
different feel. It’s a breaking free and
getting out of prison.’ One must admit that
not all regressions can be contained within
the analytic situation as this one was, but
even then I believe them to be treatable by
combined support and analysis, if one is
prepared to do it.

THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX, DEPRESSION

AND REGRESSION

It remains briefly to relate this manic-

regressive illness to the oedipal situation with

which ambivalent manic-depressive illness has

always been closely linked, especially by Klein.
There are two aspects of the oedipal situation, its

infantile dependence aspect and its object-

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 relations aspect. Fairbairn regards the Oedipus
complex as an end-product of infantile
insecurity and not as the cause of
psychoneurosis per se. The cause he regards as
infantile dependence. There are, however, two
forms of infantile dependence, passive and

active. The passive form is, as we have seen, a

regressive return to a womb-like state inside, a
flight from life which cancels out object-

relations in the post-natal sense. The active form

is the struggle of the infant to hold on to object-
relations in a bad-object environment, to fight
for the satisfaction of needs, ending up usually

in having to put up with bad objects rather than

take flight and have none at all. The regressed
schizoid ego is the basis of depersonalization

states, and of what I would call the passive

neurosis. The active struggling oral ego is the

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 basis of masochistic suffering, while the
antilibidinal ego which develops over against it
is the source of sadistic phenomena. Together
these two structures form the sado-masochistic

internal world of neurotic dream-life and

symptom formation, what Fairbairn (1958) calls
the static internal closed system (p. 380) and this

constitutes the active neurosis. In its entirety I

believe it to be maintained as a defence against
regression into the passive neurosis of flight

from real life.

During the struggles of the transitional

period in which the oral infant is trying to

develop towards mature dependence and

adulthood, infantile dependence of the active

kind, which maintains object-relationship, will

find expression in the so-called pre-oedipal
stages. Oral and anal fantasies and conflicts will

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 gradually develop to the full oedipal level of
genital, incestuous, and guilt fantasies. These
express not an inevitable biologically fixed
instinctive reaction of the growing child to the
needed parents, but a continuous anxious
clinging to parents of the still infantile

dependent child. Menaced within by early fears

and a regressive drive, the child cannot develop
adequate self-confidence and self-reliance in

real-life activities, and must maintain his ego by

fantasied object-relations with parent-figures in
his inner world. They are of necessity basically
bad-object relations, though unreal, idealized
fantasied good-object relations to the exciting
object are formed as a defence against

unbearable insecurity. This is the Oedipus

complex, and it represents not biological
necessity but ego-weakness. The more

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 pathological it is, the more its active dependence
hides a deeper, rejected, passive regressed
dependence.

As an internal-object relations phenomenon

Fairbairn regards the Oedipus complex as set up
by splitting the internalized unsatisfying parental

objects into an exciting object and a rejecting

object, differentiating and fusing the relevant
aspects of both the mother and the father. In his
inner fantasy world the male child (unless driven
to develop homosexually) then takes the mother
as the exciting object and the father as the
rejecting object. His libidinal ego seeks the

mother, his antilibidinal ego forms by

identification with the father. As his libidinal ego
seeks the exciting object in his fantasy, it is
persecuted by his antilibidinal ego and rejecting
object, giving rise to oedipal guilt. The fully

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 developed Oedipus complex forms as the end-
product of the sado-masochistic static internal

closed system of the neurotic unconscious. This

shows Freud’s great insight, when he first came
upon this phenomenon, in fastening on it as of
crucial importance. It is, however, not so much

the cause of the active neurosis as the substance

of it. This internal bad-objects world comes into
being as a result of the child’s struggle to

preserve an active ego when he is in a state of

fear-dictated withdrawal from an outer reality
(the home life) which is too difficult for him to
cope with. The struggle is necessitated by the

fact that the profoundest effect of infantile ego-

weakness through fear is the longing to regress,

to take flight from a menacing world which the

infant is too small and weak to deal with.

Desperate struggles are made to check and

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 counteract this flight from life by exploiting any
available active relationship that would ward off
the attempted return to the womb-state. One
patient, suffering from obsessive breast-
fantasies, lost them under analysis only to find
them replaced by frank regression fantasies of

shutting himself away in safe strongholds. (See

Guntrip 1961b). The patient whose case was
presented in the last section, struggling at one

point against a longing to lie back on the couch

and sleep, counteracted that by fantasying

himself sitting in the patient’s arm-chair, which

then turned into himself as a child sitting on the
pot having a battle of wills with mother. It is in
this light that we must view the Oedipus

complex. It gathers up into itself earlier oral and

anal fantasies, and its incestuous wishes, hate,
and guilt are additional means of warding off

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 regressive trends and retaining an active ego. As

a highly developed form of inner world life it is

both withdrawn and active. It stands midway
between, and is a compromise between, infantile

dependence in its ultimate form of regression

and the maintenance of an active ego in real life.
As an internal activity it betrays fear of the outer

world, as a tie to parents it expresses infantile

dependence, and yet as an object-relations
phenomenon it shows the struggle to preserve an

active ego and hold to a more developed if not

genuinely adult position. Its ambivalence and
guilt are the core of classic depression, which is

the price paid for using the Oedipus complex as

a defence against regression. If the Oedipus
complex is analysed as if it were the ultimate

and causal factor in neurosis, then we help the

patient to maintain this defence and keep the

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 deeper schizoid problem hidden. If it is analysed
for what it really is, a defence against the deeper

schizoid level, then we begin to bring out the

regressed ego whose interests are not oedipal at
all, but simply a desperate need for security and

a chance to recuperate in a safe retreat until it

can gather the strength to be reborn. Arthur
Miller in the film The Misfits, I believe, makes
one character say: ‘Most of us are just looking

for a place to hide and watch it all go by.’ What

to do about this regressed infant when we have

uncovered him is the problem that holds the key

to radical psychotherapy.

Meanwhile it must be said that the existence

of a passive regressed ego or factor as the

ultimate underlying problem in the personality
does not lessen the importance of the classic
problems of the more accessible sado-

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 masochistic level already long familiar to
analysts. They are still as real as ever, and we
meet them in our patients and they require
analysis. But our analysis of them will be greatly
affected by whether we regard them as ultimate
per se, or whether we see through them as

defences against the deeper, really ultimate,

schizoid level. It is from that point of view that I
suggest we ought to speak of a manic-regressive

illness, and recognize classic depression as the

result of one important phase of the struggle
against the devitalization and depersonalization
with which regression finally threatens the ego
of our outer-world living.

REFERENCES

Abraham, K. (1911). ‘Notes on the Psycho-

Analytical Investigation and Treatment of
Manic-Depressive Insanity.’ Selected Papers.
London: Hogarth Press (rep. 1927).

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 Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of
the Personality. London: Tavistock.

_____ (1958). On the nature and aims of psycho-

analytical treatment. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 39.

Freud, S. (1908). “Civilized” sexual morality and

modern nervous illness. Standard Edition 9.

_____ (1923). The ego and the id. Standard Edition

19.

_____ (1927). The future of an illusion. Standard

Edition 21.

_____ (1933). New Introductory Lectures. London:

Hogarth Press.

_____ (1937). Analysis terminable and interminable.

Collected Papers 5.

Guntrip, H. (1960). Ego weakness and the hard core

of the problem of psychotherapy. British
Journal of Medical Psychology 33.

_____ (1961a). Personality Structure and Human

Interaction. London: Hogarth Press.

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 _____ (1961b). The schizoid problem, regression and
the struggle to preserve an ego. British Journal
of Medical Psychology 34.

Hartmann, H. (1960). Towards a concept of mental

health. British Journal of Medical Psychology
33.

Klein, M. (1960). A note on depression in the

schizophrenic. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 41.

Livingstone, Sir R. (1935). Greek Ideals and Modem

Life. London: Oxford Univ. Press.

Malory, Sir T. (1470). Morte d’Arthur.

Nacht, S., and Racamier, P. C. (1960). Depressive

states. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis
41.

Rosenfeld, H. (1960). A note on the precipitating

factor in depressive illness. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 41.

Scott, W. C. M. (1960). Depression, confusion and

multivalence. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 41.

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 Zetzel, E. (1960). Introduction on depressive illness.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 41.

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 Section III
1962-1969
THE WINNICOTT
PERIOD:
REGRESSION AND
REGROWTH

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 8

“IN TRUTH THE NEED TO REGRESS

CANNOT BE TAKEN LIGHTLY”6

THE SCHIZOID COMPROMISE

Ostensibly, every patient wants to be cured

of neurosis quickly, so that he can get on with

living. Whatever ‘resistances’ the patient

thereafter puts up, wittingly or unwittingly, to

treatment, there is no doubt that his ‘Reality-

Ego’ does want to be finished with the illness as

such, and as soon as possible. The length of time

involved in psychotherapy is a sore trial to him.

He feels that his progress is too slow and too

small, and that life will have gone by before he

is capable of living it properly. It may be that

better understanding of the problems involved

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 will shorten treatment, though in the nature of
the case a healing process which is a regrowing

process just as much when it concerns the

mental self as when it concerns the body, cannot
be artificially hurried however much we may

wish it. All that we can do is to discover the

obstacles to regrowth, provide a relationship in
which the patient can come to feel secure, and

leave ‘nature’ to prosecute her healing work at

her own pace. The time factor in psychotherapy
can never be simply in the therapist’s power to
more than a small extent, and it is much easier
for all concerned to hinder and lengthen
treatment than to shorten it.

What is usually not realized at the outset, nor

for a long time, by the patient is that he himself

will play the largest part in hindering, that he

will do so mostly unknowingly, and that this is

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 inevitable because it is bound up with the very
nature of this kind of illness. I did have one

patient who, at the outset, said ‘I’m very afraid

I’ll ruin this treatment in the end’. Most patients
do not have so much insight. This bears vitally

on the criticism often made that psychoanalysis

in fact is an interminable process. The
psychoanalytical researcher can only put aside

impatient criticism and go on pondering the

actual clinical data he meets. There is certainly
no quick and easy way of making a mature and
stable adult personality out of the legacy of an
undermined childhood. Moreover, the patient,
however ill, is still a ‘person in his own right’.

He is ill because in some way he was not treated

as one in childhood. He feels an urgent necessity
to defend his own independence and freedom of

self-determination as a person; and he feels this

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 all the more, the less of a person deep down he
feels to be. In a sense, he wants to be rid of the

illness without changing his familiar self-

identity, even when he has some insight into the
fact that this kind of illness robs him of genuine

freedom. Still, he cannot allow anything to be

put across on him, even if it is supposed to be
for his good. Because he feels menaced in the

very essence of his selfhood, he is bound to be

on the defensive against the very person whose
help he seeks. All these difficulties have their
roots in the schizoid problem, for the one thing
above all others that is so hard as to seem at
times almost impossible for the aloof schizoid

personality, is to effect a genuine relationship

with any other human being, including the

psychotherapist. In proportion as a patient is

schizoid he is afraid of people just as much as he

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 needs them. This is a dilemma in which he
cannot avoid seeking compromise solutions until

such time as his fears diminish and allow his

needs to be met. All through his treatment he
will be tossed about between his fears of

isolation and his fears of emotional proximity.

A male patient in the forties, married and

with a family, who suffered exceptionally severe
anxieties over every kind of family separation,

summed up his position thus: ‘I’m the prey of

deep terrifying fundamental fears if I’m not in
control of all our relationships with regard to

separation. If my wife is away and is late

returning or I don’t know when she’ll be back I
panic. I feel I’m in control of the situation if I

can be certain she’ll be back at the stated time,

or if I can go away and come back and know
she’ll be there. I don’t mind her being away if I

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 can get at her, and then I don’t want to. I even
feel relief at being alone, so long as I can have

them all back the moment I need them. But I

hate and fear and loathe this dependent weak
part of me, and it makes me hate those I depend

on.’ Thus, this kind of insecurity makes it

important to have an absolute guarantee of never
being deserted and left really alone; yet it also

carries with it a dread of weak over-dependence

on the needed person, the fear of being betrayed
into a subordinate, submissive clinging to one’s
protector in which one’s own individual
personality will be stifled. This patient had to
have his wife always there so that he could both

leave her and return to her at will. This kind of

relationship, the ‘in and out programme’

(Guntrip 1952, 1961b) is not only typical of

schizoid persons, but practically inevitable for

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 them. It is the only way they can maintain a
viable compromise between their equally

intense, conflicting needs and fears of personal

relationships. I naturally pointed out to this
patient that he had exactly the same problem

with me and that it was the major ‘sticking-

point’ in psychotherapy. He could feel severe
anxiety at the thought of not having me to come

to, and yet when he came he found it extremely

difficult to bring out frankly his ‘weak and
dependent self, the legacy of his insecure
childhood. His compromise often was to come
and discuss things on an intellectual level, being
present physically and intellectually but, as it

were, absent emotionally. I once had a patient

who often said ‘There’s a part of me I never

bring in here’.

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 Schizoid patients suffer from what Laing
(1959) has called ‘ontological insecurity’, using

the terminology of Existentialist philosophy.

This philosophy regards human existence as
fundamentally rooted in anxiety and insecurity,

and, if one may judge from the clear signs of a

schizoid mentality of aloofness and detachment
in the writings of Jean Paul Sartre, this

philosophy is an intellectual conceptualization of

the fundamentally schizoid plight of practically
all human beings. I have referred to ‘schizoid
patients’ but what patients are not schizoid at
bottom. As Fairbairn has pointed out, schizoid
problems are far commoner in clinical practice

than depression, and when patients say they are

‘depressed’ they nearly always mean not guilt-

burdened but apathetic, devitalized and feeling

that life is futile. ‘Ontological insecurity’ means

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 insecurity as to one’s essential being and
existence as a person, insecurity about one’s

Ego-identity, the feeling of basic inadequacy in

coping with life, and inability to maintain
oneself as in any sense an equal in relationships

with other people. It involves therefore urgent

needs for support, but at the same time a great
fear of too close relationships which feel to be a

threat to one’s own status as an individual. The

schizoid person, to whatever degree he is
schizoid, hovers between two opposite fears, the
fear of isolation in independence with loss of his
ego in a vacuum of experience, and the fear of
bondage to, of imprisonment or absorption in,

the personality of whomsoever he rushes to for

protection. A patient once said to me ‘I know

that all my active feelings about you are only

defences against the feeling of wanting to be

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 safe inside you’. Fairbairn once said to me in

conversation: ‘The person one breaks away to,

turns into the person one has to break away from
again’. That is the schizoid dilemma, equal

inability either to do with or without the needed

protector, the parent-figure whom the insecure
child inside must have, but whom the struggling

adult conscious self cannot tolerate or admit. It

clearly presents the greatest possible obstacle to
psychotherapy.

This is strikingly illustrated in the case of a

female patient who seemed, on the face of it, to

be a gentle natured person who made no secret
of her nervousness, timidity, fear of being alone

and need for constant support. Nevertheless, in a

quiet and rather secret, inward way, she revealed
a most unyielding need to keep herself going
without help, and found it exceptionally hard to

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 put any real trust in and reliance on me. She
wanted to but it ‘did not happen’. She
complained repeatedly that I was supportive
during session time but she had to live her life
when I was not there, so that I was not really of
much use to her. She knew that she was free to

ring me up when she was in a panic, but for the

most part she would rush to a drug instead. It
took her a very long time to admit that the

trouble was not really that I was not physically

present with her at her work and in her home

life, but that the moment she got out of the

consulting room she mentally dismissed me.
‘Now I’ll have to get on without help and do it
myself.’ Then she fell into the panics of

isolation, would be driven in desperation to

carry on long conversations with me in her head,
and yet when she arrived for the next session

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 would have nothing to say. Often the session
began with her not even being able to sit down.

She would stand, immobile and speechless,

aloof and uncommunicative. As usually happens
with such patients, as the end of the session

began to draw near there would be so much to

say that it was hard to get it all in. This constant
oscillation between ‘near and far’, dependence

and independence, trust and distrust, acceptance

of and resistance to treatment, the need of a
security-giving relationship and fear of all
relationships as a threat to one’s separate
existence as a proper person presents itself for
analysis under a thousand forms all the way

through the process of psychotherapy. When the

patient can establish a persistent compromise
halfway between the two extremes, the result is

‘blocked analysis’ and therapeutic stalemate.

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 This is illustrated by two dreams of the
above patient. ‘I was having a meal with a friend
alone, and suddenly my sister and her whole
family came in and just sat down and began to
eat. There wasn’t enough food to go round and
no one noticed that I was having to go without.’

It did not occur to her that she herself had made

up the dream that way and that was how she
wanted it. It was far too much of an unreserved
commitment to be alone with one friend in a

cosy tete-a-tete. This had to be broken up, yet so

as not to shut her out altogether. She was still
there but not very deeply involved in what was
happening. That was her basic attitude to
sessions. She often dreamed of coming to see me

and finding me busy with other patients, and

would often express jealousy of my other
patients and say that I ought to have only her.

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 These complaints only faded away when I

pointed out that this apparent jealousy masked

her fear of any real relationship, and in fact the
existence of my other patients reassured her.

They were like the other members of her family

she brought into the dream to dilute the personal
relationship situation, and leave her free to
maintain her ‘half in and half out’ position. She
wanted some person all to herself, yet was

secretly glad of the protection of rival claimants

to that person’s attention.

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE THEORY OF

THE SCHIZOID PROBLEM

Before we can uncover all the cleverly

hidden forms of the schizoid compromise, it is

necessary to clarify our theoretical approach. To

possess an adequate psychodynamic theory does

not automatically make us good therapists, but it

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 does help us not to misinterpret what we see,
and an inadequate theory can block the

development of insight in the analyst. Incidently,

theoretical stalemate, the congealing of theory
into a rigid orthodoxy which does not admit of

really fresh approaches, must itself be a defence,

of the nature of the schizoid compromise,
against new and disturbing truth. What we might

call a shift of the centre of gravity in

psychodynamic theory has been taking place
ever since Freud, in the 1920’s, turned his
attention from the problems of impulse-control
to the more difficult and fundamental problems
of ego-growth and distortion. This meant the

analysis, not of moral and pseudo-moral

conflicts over so-called instinctive drives, but the

analysis of the structural development of the

ego, with special reference to ‘ego-splitting’. It

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 is significant that Freud’s last, unfinished book
(1938) An Outline of Psycho-Analysis, stops
short in the uncompleted Part 3 with the subjects
of ‘ego splitting’ and ‘the internal world’. James

Strachey tells us in his Preface that Freud broke

off at that point and did not return to the subject,
turning instead to another piece of writing, itself

unfinished. Could it be that Freud knew that he

had raised the vital problem for future
theoretical developments, but that the clinical

data did not yet exist for its satisfactory

solution? In the quarter of a century that has
elapsed since Freud died, much psychoanalytical

investigation of psychotic, and particularly

schizophrenic, conditions has gone on, and the
theoretical work of Melanie Klein and Fairbairn

has pushed far ahead along the path Freud

opened up. It was the work of Fairbairn on the

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 revision of theory that in particular brought out
clearly the shift of interest from classical

depressive to schizoid problems. In Personality

Structure and Human Interaction (1961a) I
sought to trace in detail the development of this

change of viewpoint, and in the closing section

of that book, and in a series of articles (1960,
1961b, 1962) I sought to pursue its implications

for the deeper understanding and

psychotherapeutic treatment of schizoid
conditions. On close investigation the manic-
depressive problem resolves itself back into a
manic-regressive problem, the problem of the
struggles of a profoundly withdrawn and

schizoid personality to overcome powerful

underlying regressive trends and keep in

effective touch with the outer world (Guntrip

1962). Whatever clinical problem is dealt with,

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 if analysis goes far enough one finds oneself

going behind the easily accessible conflicts over

sexual and aggressive drives, to the deeper
conflicts over primary fears, and the secret flight

from life of the weak and undeveloped infantile

ego, hidden deep in the unconscious (Guntrip
1960, 1961b). In this present article it is my

purpose rather to see what light the study of

schizoid problems throws on psychotherapy. But
we shall be concerned at this stage not so much

with suggestions for psychotherapeutic

treatment as with the difficulties that stand in the
way of treatment by psychoanalytical therapy,

when neurosis is looked at from the schizoid

point of view. In other words, what light does
the schizoid process throw on ‘resistance’?

Freud made it clear that every patient resists

treatment, no matter how much he may also

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 want it, and that the resistance can be so serious
as to lead to a state of ‘blocked analysis’. In a
famous passage in The Ego and The Id (1923, p.

72 footnote) he attributed this to the operation of

an unconscious sense of guilt, which makes the
patient accept his illness as a punishment which
he must not seek to evade. At that date schizoid
processes were very little taken into account and
were not recognized as the real basis of

psychopathological developments. So long as

the root causes of psychoneurosis were held to

belong to the sadomasochistic fusions of sexual

and aggressive drives, so that impulse-control
was the major problem, this explanation by
means of ‘unconscious guilt’ was the obviously

correct one. The moment, however, we realize

that these conflicts over antisocial impulses are
defensive in nature, and arise out of the patient’s

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 frantic struggles to force his basically schizoid

personality back into touch with outer reality, to

put energy back into his detached and de-
emotionalized self of everyday living, and to

counteract his deep-seated regressive flight from

life motivated by his earliest unmastered fears, it
becomes necessary to seek a deeper explanation

of ‘blocked analysis’. Even if its cause is

regarded as ‘guilt’, it soon becomes apparent
that this guilt is felt not so much over sex and

aggression, as over weakness and fear, and tends

to take more and more the form, not of moral
guilt, but of contempt and hatred of a part of the

personality which the patient feels will ‘let him

down’.

A striking example of the fact that it is not

‘guilt over bad impulses’ but ‘fear of weakness’
that is the cause of ‘resistance’, is the following

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 comment of a male patient: ‘I play a “cat and
mouse” game with myself. “Why can’t you stop
being a mouse?” Then I turn the tables and say
“Why can’t you leave me alone?” It’s all very
well coming here but at bottom I don’t want to
get better, or only part of me does.’ I suggested

that his ‘cat and mouse’ game with himself was

a rival policy to psychotherapy, a struggle to
solve the problem his own way. He was being a

cat to himself to prove that he wasn’t nothing

but a mouse. He replied ‘It’s like putting your

head in a gas oven to get your name in the

papers. Do the stupid thing in a big way. I’ve
had years of analysis and I’ll go on for ever. I’m
not going to be one of those people who can be

cured in six months. One must have some

distinction.’

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 The fundamental conflict in human

personality is not that of a sadistic if ‘moral’

superego attacking cannibalistic or murderous
incestuous impulses. It is the desperate struggle

of a person who feels at bottom to be no more

than a helpless and frightened infant, dependent
on other people, to compel himself to keep going

‘under his own steam’ by hating and driving his

basic infantile self, which is so deeply
withdrawn from all real object-relationships. It is

the struggle to master and defeat chronic

infantile dependent needs by internal violence,
and force the outer-world self to carry on in a
state of maximum independence of other people.

Herein lies the substance of the schizoid conflict

between needs and fears of human relationships.
It is a rival policy to that of psychotherapy for

that involves acceptance of the therapist’s help

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 to get well. In a word, fear of weakness rather
than guilt over bad impulses is the basic cause of
resistance to treatment. So great is the human

being’s fear of appearing weak that he will

rather be bad and suffer guilt; and he will also
rather go on being ill and suffering the miseries
of neurosis than admit the implication of
weakness by the acceptance of the therapist’s
help. Yet the patient is in truth weak, through no

fault of his own. He has been gravely damaged

in infancy and childhood, he is deeply fear-
ridden and his emotional ego-development has
been arrested at the deepest levels, so that his
inner self is in a state of chronically anxious
infantile dependence and craves all the time for

a good parent-figure with whom he can get a

new start. Thus he can neither fully accept nor
fully reject the therapist, and most of the

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 difficulties of treatment lie in his desperate need

to set up and maintain some form of compromise

relationship.

FORMS OF THE SCHIZOID COMPROMISE

CE AGAINST PSYCHOTHERAPY
AS A DEFENC

Blocked Analysis Itself as a Compromise

The essence of the schizoid compromise is to

find a way of retaining a relationship in such a

form that it shall not involve any full emotional

response. It is quite easy to do this with

psychoanalytical treatment. The patient keeps on

coming but does not make any real progress. He

exhibits recurring moods of restlessness,

complains of feeling ‘stuck’, says ‘We’re getting

nowhere with this’ and toys with the idea of

stopping treatment. But he does not stop. He

keeps coming without opening out any real

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 emotional issues for analysis. Some patients give
the impression of being prepared to go on
indefinitely like that, deriving some quite
valuable support from sessions but not
undergoing any real development of personality.
I have come to regard a prolonged therapeutic

stalemate of this kind as a very important

indication of the severity of the deepest level
anxieties the patient will have to face if he

ventures farther. He dare not give up, or serious

anxiety will break out, and he dare not ‘let go’

and take the plunge into genuine analysis, or just

as serious anxiety will be released. I once had a
patient who, instead of continuing analysis on a
dead monotonous level of unbroken stalemate,

kept breaking off and returning again. Once she

dreamed that she was walking along a road and
came up against an enormous blank wall which

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 simply barred the way forward. I suggested that

this was her way of saying that she knew that

her progress in treatment was completely at a
standstill. She was at a dead end. She replied

‘I’ve got to go on, if you can stand it.’ I said ‘I

can stand it if you can.’ Finally, however, she
revealed the plain fact that she could not stand

that committal of herself to another person that a

real therapeutic relationship would have implied,
for she brought the following dream. ‘I got on a
tramcar and walked straight through to the

driver’s platform, turned the driver off and drove

the car myself.’ As we had only just begun one
of her periods of return to analysis, I put it to her

that the tram was the treatment and I was the

driver, and she felt the situation to be one in
which she was in my power which she could not

tolerate. Only if she could take complete charge

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 of the analysis and run it herself, could she go on
with it: but in that case it would not be treatment
and would do her no good. She did not come
next time and finally ended her analysis at that

point. Nevertheless she was not able quite to

give me up, for much later on she sent me a
copy of one of my own books, filled in all the

margins with critical comments. She was still

‘keeping going’ by holding on to a now
internalized struggle for power with the analyst,

which never produced any constructive results

because it kept her half in and half out of the
relationship.

A blocked analysis is always liable sooner or

later to break down in some such way as this. So

long as it does not break down there is a chance
of analysing the forms of compromise the
patient sets up and promoting some progress.

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 Yet there is no certainty about this. I had a male
patient who persisted steadily in a long analysis.

He was a very able man, running a skilled

business of his own, a bachelor living alone, and
a man of intellectual interests over and above his

business. He had come to analysis for depressed

moods, because he was well informed about
analytical treatment and was convinced that it

was the only way he could be helped. He had an

extremely bleak childhood, and had repressed
real terror of a psychotic father. His early
analysis moved through the usual sexual and
aggressive conflicts, sado-masochistic dreams
and phantasies, guilt, and some punishing

physical symptoms, to a point where his

depression was markedly relieved. There he

stuck fast. He said ‘I feel that all the outlying

areas of my neurosis have been cleared up and I

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 have come up against a circular wall, too high to
get over, and there are no doors or windows in it.
I keep going round and round it and I don’t
know what is inside.’ It became clear, at any rate
in an intellectual way, that what lay behind it
was the self of his childhood which he felt was

‘a miserable little worm.’ The only emotional

indications of its presence deep inside were
occasional feelings that it would do him good to
have a good cry, and sudden attacks of

exhaustion, when he would go home and go to

bed and sleep it off. In general he was a tightly
organized, obsessional hard worker, liked and
respected by his employees to whom he was fair
and just. He could not involve himself in any

closer kind of human relationship, though he had

always wanted to be married. After the ‘circular
wall’ phantasy he would say ‘I can’t let anything

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 disturbing out this session. I’ve got an important
business meeting tomorrow,’ and constantly

commented ‘There’s something I’m doing that

holds up the analysis. I wish I knew what it
was.’ This was analysed from many points of

view, but he never succeeded in giving up this

stalling reaction. Then one day he did not turn
up and I learned that he had been found dead

from a coronary thrombosis. That gives the

measure of the severity of the internal tensions
he locked up inside himself. If he could have

risked a complete regressive illness (as he would

have had to do, if it had been pneumonia) at an

early enough period, he could no doubt have

escaped the thrombosis and solved his psychic

problems. But it is not easy to get a regressive

illness accepted and understood: also he had a
business to run. His steady and determined

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 persistence in what came to be a blocked

analysis was a schizoid compromise which

probably he had no option but to maintain; and
to support him in it was the only way of giving

him such help as he could accept. Such a case

makes it clear that resistance is not perverseness,
or negative transference, or moral fault, but a

defence of the patient’s very existence as a

person within the limits of what is possible to
him. Such resistance and blocked analysis, in so

far as it is successful, must seem practically

preferable to opening up devastating conflicts in
order to seek a real solution. I am confirmed in

this view by the severity of the struggle to get

the deep hidden schizoid ego reborn, in a
number of patients who have been able to go

beyond a purely defensive position. From one

point of view, the schizoid compromise is a

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 struggle to maintain stability, even though from
another it is a resistance against psychotherapy,

the kind of treatment that involves opening up

disturbing inner problems to get a chance to
solve them. In this sense, this kind of stability is

an evasion of the real solution, but it is not for us

to say lightly whether a patient should or even
can lay himself open to the radical cure. That

depends partly on whether he gets the support he

needs from his therapist, but ultimately on the
degree of severity of his deepest problems,
especially in the light of his present day real-life
situation. My impression is that if the patient can
face it, he will, and if he cannot, no amount of

analysis will make him do so.

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 Compromise Techniques in the Patient’s
‘Management’ of Analysis

These are much simpler matters and fairly

easy to recognize, and need not detain us at

length. They often take the form of trying to turn

analysis into an intellectual discussion. One
patient began by saying that he looked on the

analysis as ‘a valuable course in psychology.’

Others will bring for discussion their intellectual

problems about religion or morality or human

relations in society, or their doubts about

psychoanalysis. I do not think that this kind of

material can be just rejected as a defensive
manoeuvre. It can well be that the patient feels
that his intellect is the one part of his personality
that he can function with, and if he is just

ruthlessly stopped from using it in sessions he

may well feel ‘castrated,’ or as I would prefer to
say, reduced to a nonentity, depersonalized. The

grown-up self needs support and understanding

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 in analysis as well as the child. For that reason,
when treating patients who work in medical,

psychological or social fields, I have never

refused to co-operate when they have wished to
discuss some of their own ‘cases’ in session. It is

on a par with the parent-patient wishing at times

to discuss the problems of his children. One can
be too purist in this matter. The patient is very
likely quite genuinely needing help, and does

feel that his analyst is a person capable of giving

it to him. It is all the more important, when

afterwards he says ‘I was never able to discuss

anything frankly with my parents.’ It is best to
go through with this and use it to help the patient
to see where his difficulties in dealing with

others are bound up with his own problems.

Then it can lead back into analysis proper. Only
when too persistent a use is made of this kind of

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 discussion must it be challenged as a schizoid
compromise, an attempt to keep going in

relationship with the therapist while keeping the

inner self withdrawn.

One male patient proceeded with his defence

against analysis by flooding every session with

long recitals of endless dreams, simply
recounting one after another without a stop. That

this was quite a serious compulsion was evident

from the fact that for a long time my assertion
that these dreams were a waste of time since he
never made any use of them, made no

impression on him. By cramming the sessions

with dreams he could prevent my saying

anything that might stir up anxiety. When at last

he did consent to have a look at a dream before

hurrying on to the next, he would set about the

intellectual analysis of its meaning (which he

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 was able to do since he was well versed,
professionally, in symbolism) or else keep on

asking me questions as to what I thought this or

that meant. I judged it inadvisable to let him
come up against too blank a wall of non-

response on my part, and carefully selected the

points on which I did comment, to help him to
become aware of his deeper anxieties. Gradually

he became able to drop this compromise method

of coming for analysis without having it, and
then he began to ‘feel’ how much his very

schizoid personality was out of real touch with

his environment. The theme of loneliness took
the place of somewhat excited dreamtelling.

This is a convenient place at which to stress

the fact that dreaming is itself the schizoid
compromise par excellence, and, as such,
dreaming is a rival policy to psychotherapy. This

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 is apparent, not only from the above case, but
from those patients who will occasionally say

‘I’m not going to tell you my dream, you’d only

spoil it’, or who even begin to tell a dream and
suddenly forget it completely. One patient

dreamed furiously every night, yet could never

remember a thing in the morning. He then
decided to take pencil and paper to bed and write

down his dreams during the night, while he had

them quite clearly in mind. To his surprise he
just stopped dreaming and after a few nights he
no longer troubled to take up his paper and
pencil. At once he began dreaming furiously
again. Dreaming is the maintenance of an

internal life, withdrawn from the outer world, in

which the outer world, including the analyst, is
not to be allowed to share. It is essentially a

schizoid phenomenon based on the fact that the

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 over-anxious or insufficiently formed ego cannot
maintain itself in existence without object-
relationships. The loss of all objects simply
leads to depersonalization. Therefore, when the

infant makes a mental withdrawal from a too

traumatic external world, he runs the grave risk
of losing his own ego the deeper he takes flight

into himself. I have had a number of patients

who quite clearly remembered as tiny children
having ‘queer’ states of mind in which they did

not know who they were and felt everything to

be unreal. Lord Tennyson as a boy must have
withdrawn into himself from a very gloomily

and bitterly depressed father, and was once

found alone staring into space and mechanically
repeating his name, ‘Alfred, Alfred’. He grew up

to be intensely shy and to suffer from sudden

marked ‘absences of mind’. This is the danger

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 that the early schizoid flight from outer reality
incurs, and the obvious way to counteract it is to

set up an internal world of imaginary object-

relationships in the mind, the world of dream
and phantasy. Thus, young Anthony Trollope,

ostracized by everyone at Winchester and

Harrow Schools on account of his poverty,
developed a persistent and elaborate phantasy

world which he carried on from day to day and

even from year to year, until at last he
disciplined it into a gift for novel-writing.

The two indubitably real parts of the

personality are the self of everyday conscious

living, and the fear-ridden small child in a state

of schizoid withdrawnness deep in the

unconscious. The intermediate dream-world is

an artefact, a defence against the dangers of

withdrawal. As a wish-fulfilment, it is primarily

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 an expression of the wish to remain in being, by
having a world to live in when you have lost the

real one. Wish-fulfilment would be better

described as ego-maintenance. That is why
dreaming is such a constant phenomenon in the

night. In proportion as tendencies to feel

depersonalized are strong, night and sleep are
felt as a dangerous risk of ego-loss. Patients will

say ‘I fear I may never wake up again’ or as one

patient said ‘I have to keep waking up at
intervals to see how I’m getting on. It’s so
difficult going to sleep because it feels like
going some place where there isn’t anybody and
you’re really by yourself.’ Then dreaming keeps

the ego in being. If too much interest is allowed

to become ‘fixated’ on dreams in analysis, it

positively helps the patient to maintain his

schizoid defence, and it may well be that much

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 dream analysis which looks fairly convincing
and useful is, from the patient’s point of view,
much more intellectual than emotional. I have
been very impressed with the extent to which
patients begin to live out emotionally in a
genuine and consciously anxious way, states of

mind that they expressed quite clearly in one or

two notable dreams probably one or two years
previously. Thus, if dreams are a ‘royal road into
the unconscious’ in so far as it is a defensive

inner world, they are also a rival policy to

psychotherapy, the patient’s struggle to solve his
own problems in his own way. Most dreams
belong to what Fairbairn has called ‘the static
internal closed system’ (1958), the private world

which is the patient’s answer to the badness of

his real world, and into which he does not want
anyone else to intrude. Therefore, when we have

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 learned all that may contribute in a dream to the
patient’s insight into himself, the dreaming-

activity should itself be interpreted as his form

of resistance to the whole outer world, including
the analyst. Otherwise, the handling of dream

material may give the patient an excellent

chance of maintaining his schizoid compromise
of being only half in touch with the analyst. I

should, perhaps, say that I am speaking here of

dreaming as we come upon it in patients. It
cannot be said that all dreaming is schizoid and

pathological of necessity, even though in actual

fact most dreaming is. We may illustrate the

problem by comparison with abstract thinking.

When we are doing something that presents no

difficulty, our thinking is tied to our immediate

activity step by step, and is directly orientated to
outer reality. The schizoid intellectual, on the

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 other hand, has retreated from direct dealings
with the outer world, makes thinking an end in
itself, and is ‘sicklied o’er with the pale cast of
thought’. Thinking has become an interior life
carried on in withdrawnness from real object-
relations. Most dreaming, and certainly the

dreaming of patients, is of that nature.

There is, however, another kind of abstract

thinking in which the thinker, having come up

against an unsolved problem which halts his

activity, ‘withdraws’ or ‘stops to think’. The
construction of a scientific theory, or the

planning of a battle by a general who is trying to

see beforehand what his opponent’s moves are
likely to be, illustrates this. This is a kind of

abstract thinking which is not aimed at

‘withdrawal from reality’ but at ‘mental
preparation for further action’. It does not

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 belong to a self-contained ‘static internal closed

system’, but is directed towards action in the real

world all the time. There is no reason why a
healthy-minded person should not at times do

some of his deep inward ‘preparation for future

living’ in dreams. Maybe Jung’s view that some
dreams have an outlook on the future comes in
at this point. But such dreams will not be a

disturbing compulsion like the dreams of

pathological anxiety.

One patient said: ‘I begin to see what you

meant when you said dreaming is an alternative

policy to psychotherapy. I’m not interested in

anything real, because if you’re interested in

anything you come slap up against people. I can

only live my dream and phantasy life. If I were

interested in people I could be interested in lots

of things. But I’m afraid of people. In my dream

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 world I’m really all by myself and that’s what I

want to be, to get back to my dream world, a

protected world. If I get too deep into it, I may
not be able to get back from it, but what will I do
if I stop dreaming. My real interests are so few,

I’ve nothing to think or talk about.’ I reminded

him that he was too afraid of people to have any
interests. He replied ‘I’m cross with you now’. I

said I thought that was because I am a real, not

an imaginary person, and called him out of his
dream world into the real one. He said ‘I’m
angry because I feel anything you say is
interference in my private world. Dreaming is
against psychotherapy and it’s against life.’

Sometimes a patient’s general behaviour

expresses this compromise. One patient found

great difficulty in deciding where to sit. She felt

the couch was somehow unnatural and isolating,

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 the patient’s armchair seemed to be ‘too adult’ a
position. Anywhere too near to me was she felt
frightening. Finally she compromised by sitting

on the floor fairly close to me but with her back

to me, obviously at one and the same time
seeking and yet rejecting any relationship with
me. Another patient made use of a small stool
which she could move closer to or farther away
from me, according to which way her anxieties

developed. One male patient lay on the couch

and wanted me to place my armchair close to it
where he could see me, which I did. But after a
while he got anxious and needed me to take my
chair away to the other side of the room. This
‘to-ing and fro-ing’ often has to be repeated and

analysed many times till its significance really

gets home to the patient. Some patients will keep
their overcoat on, buttoned up tight, expressing

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 their self-enclosure and withdrawnness from the

therapist, and it is a good sign when of their own

accord they begin to take it off in the natural
way and leave it outside the room.

Schizoid Compromise in Real Life Which is Not

Brought into Analysis

Hold-ups in analysis are sometimes

discovered to be related to a successful schizoid
‘half in and half out’ relationship which the
patient is maintaining in real life, but is keeping
hidden from the analyst. He fears, of course, that

if it is analysed he will have to give it up and so

lose the protection of relative stability it gives

him. Sometimes one discovers that a patient’s

entire practical life is conducted in terms of

‘brinkmanship’ (Guntrip, 1961b). They do not
properly *belong’ to anything. However
interested they become in any organization, if

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 they are asked to join they stop going. It is
amazing how far systematic non-committal can
be carried in relationships with friends,
organizations, jobs, houses or what not, so that
the patient is for ever on the move, like a
butterfly alighting for a time and then flitting on.

One patient mentioned casually, not thinking

that it had any significance, that he never went to
the same place twice for a holiday. That this has

meaning is clear when it is compared with the

opposite fact of the person who goes always to

the same safe and familiar place, and would not

dream of going anywhere else. The way
ordinary life is conducted gives plentiful
material for studying the conflicts that go on

between needs and fears of close relationship.

One female patient at once dislikes all the
clothes she buys as soon as she has got them

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 home, however much she felt ‘I just must have

that dress’ so long as it was in the shop. Many

patients will not think of mentioning such things
as these, because they cannot risk seeing their

inner meaning. They slip out ‘by accident’ as

casual asides. One such observation may lead to
the opening up of whole areas of successful

compromise in which the patient is entrenched.

A not uncommon compromise that is kept

out of analysis and operates as a successful
defence against real progress is the secret sexual

affair. One patient’s regular sexual relationship

with a married woman provided for the

emotional support of his dependent infantile self

in a way which saved him from the dangerous

close involvement of marriage, but it also saved

him from really bringing his fear-ridden infantile

inner self into the treatment relationship. The

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 position enabled him to maintain in real life a
duplicate version of the schizoid split between

the infant and the adult in himself. The infant

was so to speak ‘kept quiet’ by a sexual affair
which was completely cut off from all the rest of

his life and left his adult hard-working self free

to go its own way. Two parts of himself were
kept out of relationship with each other.
Prostitution and homosexuality are clear cases of

schizoid compromise, evading full commitment

to the real relationship of marriage. That is why

they are hard to cure. Under these conditions

clearly no progress is going to be made in
analysis. An analogous situation is sometimes
met with in the treatment of a medical man. He

is always trying to do without the analyst by

depending on his own self-prescribed drugs, and
so long as any of these schizoid compromises in

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 real life are kept out of analysis, the result is a

serious blocking of progress.

Classical Analysis Utilized as a Defensive

Position to Mark Time In

This possibility has already been envisaged

in dealing with dream-analysis, but it is a much

more far-reaching danger than that. I have been
driven to the conclusion that classical analysis,

not being orientated to the uncovering of the

schizoid problem, inadvertently helps the patient
to maintain his defences against it. That is not to
say that no benefit can be derived from classical

analysis. By classical analysis I mean an

analysis based on the theoretical position that the
cause of neurosis is the Oedipus Complex, the
conflicts over the patient’s incestuous desires for
the parent of the opposite sex, and fear, guilt and

hate for the parent of the same sex. This is the

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 theoretical position which results from the

analysis of depression, and it must be regarded

as Freud’s first great pioneering contribution that
he analysed depression and the area of moral

and pseudo-moral conflict so exhaustively as to

open the way for still deeper probing into the
inner life of man. The measure of success which

can be obtained by analysis on this basis of

theory is illustrated by the example of the male
patient who had the ‘circular wall’ phantasy. He

came for treatment for an orthodox depression, a

gloomy, angry, guilt burdened, resentful but
paralysed state of mind. He presented Oedipal

material in plenty, dreams of being in bed with

mother, of fighting and castrating father, of
being castrated himself, of being dragged before

courts of justice and condemned for criminal

activities. His conscious phantasy, both sexual

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 and as it concerned motor car driving, was sado-
masochistic in full detail. Anal material both in
dreams and symptoms was plentiful. The

analysis of all this did without doubt moderate

his depression so that life became practically
more comfortable for him, and his work was less
interfered with by his moods. At his first session
he said ‘I feel that I’ve got a bag of dung inside
me which I want to get rid of and can’t’. Over a

number of years of a long analysis he held to

this idea and could not give it up. It stood for the

notion that his trouble was something in his

personality or make-up which was bad, unclean,
which mother (who was a martinet in cleanliness
training) would frown on and about which he

felt guilty. He clung to this idea long after his

depressive moods had faded. It is not, therefore,
to be wondered at that he remained a very highly

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 organized obsessional character. His was one of
the cases that led me to feel that the results of
classical analysis at best were an improvement
of the patient’s character-pattern in the form of

either a milder and more livable obsessional

character, in which very efficient self-control
and self-management was maintained, or else a

milder and somewhat easier schizoid character,

in which the typical schizoid compromise
between being in and out of relationships was

managed in a sufficiently socialized form to

make daily life more possible without risking
any dangerously strong feeling being aroused.

This means that classical analysis does not

get to the ultimate roots of the

psychopathological problems. It treats sexual
and aggressive problems as ultimate factors in
their own right and does not seek to go behind

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 them by seeing them as defences against the
deeper problems of the most primitive fears. Of

course, the primitive fears will break through,

but it all depends on the interpretations put upon
them, as to what will happen to them. If fears are

regarded as secondary phenomena, anxiety

reactions to bad impulses, then obsessional and
schizoid defences will be strengthened and the

primary fears buried. In considering the Oedipus

Complex, we must note that an Oedipal
phantasy is neither on the one hand an adult
marriage with real life commitment, nor is it on
the other hand frank pregenital infantile
dependence. Oedipal phantasies are an end-

product of infantile phantasy life and represent a

child’s struggle to overcome infantile

dependence by disguising it in semi-adult form.

But the hidden infantile dependence is but thinly

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 disguised, as may be judged from Fairbairn’s

comment that hysteric genitality is so extremely

oral (1954). The Oedipal phantasy life arises
when an anxious child withdraws from his outer

world, and seeks to compensate for his inability

to make progress in dealing with real life, by
setting up a schizoid substitute for it inside. We

have already seen that this whole inner world

phantasy life is basically a defence against the
dangers of too drastic withdrawal. The Oedipus

Complex always masks poor relationship with

parents in reality, and should be analysed in such
a way as to lead to the discovery of the hopeless,
shut in, detached infantile ego which has given

up real object-relations as unobtainable and

sought safety in regression into the unconscious.
In the case of one patient who had actually been

seduced by her father, the physical relationship

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 was certainly a schizoid compromise on his part
between his inability to give her a genuinely

personal relationship and his prevailing tendency

to ignore her altogether. This Oedipal situation
had been the patient’s one anxiety-burdened

hope as a child of meaning anything to her

father, and therefore of feeling herself to be
something of a person. In analysis she naturally

produced a fully developed Oedipal

transference, and clung to this stubbornly as a
defence against a genuine therapeutic

relationship; for this would have meant bringing

her disillusioned, apathetic childhood self to a

real person for real help. Sexual relationships,

both in reality and phantasy, are a common

substitute for real personal relations. One

bachelor patient who was a quite remote
personality with little feeling about anything,

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 described his occasional sexual affairs as due to
the need to discharge ‘an intermittent biological
urge which has nothing to do with me’.

The above example of Oedipal transference

suggests that transference analysis on the basis
of an impulse-psychology falls into the trap of
being doubly schizoid. In the first place it treats

the Oedipal phantasy, which is itself a schizoid

compromise between real life and flight from
reality, as if it were a matter of genuine natural

instinctive feelings and desires which are

ultimate factors in their own right. Then, having

been encouraged to believe that his deceptive

Oedipal feelings are genuine loves and hates, the

patient is further helped to believe that his

feelings for his analyst are not realistic but are

transferred from his parents of long ago. In this
situation the patient is helped to concentrate

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 attention on the unreal as if it were real; and

becomes unable to experience in a frank and

undisguised way what his actual and quite
realistic feelings for his analyst are. What he is

really feeling, without being able to let it emerge

plainly, is that he is a frightened, weak and
helpless small child needing to depend on his
analyst for protection and support, while at the

same time he is afraid he will be ridiculed and

rejected if he shows this openly, and is
forestalling the rejection by rejecting himself.

His attention is kept diverted from all this, if he

is allowed to believe that his Oedipus Complex
is the ultimate root of his neurosis. In that case a

schizoid compromise is maintained by unwitting

collusion of analyst and patient.

It must, however, be recognized that what I

have spoken of as ‘classical Oedipal analysis’ is

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 much less a specific entity in practice today, than
it may appear to be in theory. The work of Mrs

Klein has forced analysis ever deeper into the

pre-Oedipal, pre-genital levels. It is true that she
carried the term ‘Oedipus Complex’ back into

far earlier periods than that covered by Freud’s

original use of the term. In practice, her work
has taken clinical analysis deeper down than the

classical Oedipal level, into the earliest paranoid

and schizoid problems. Here we are not dealing
with the child struggling with the problems of
socialization in a multi-personal family group;
but with the primary two-person mother-child
relationship in which the earliest ego-splitting

and creation of internal objects occurs.

The position, however, is still confused

because, as Balint points out, theory lags behind

practice. Mrs Klein imposed her new object-

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 relations developments on the more or less
unaltered classical psychobiology of Freud. She
did not, as Fairbairn did, seek to revise basic

theory adequately to take into account the shift

from depressive to schizoid problems. Writing in
1949, some six years after Fairbairn’s
revisionary work, Balint still found theory tied
to ‘the physiological or biological bias’ rather
than ‘the object-relation bias’, and based on the

data of depressions and obsessional neurosis

rather than on hysteric-paranoid-schizoid
phenomena (Balint 1952, pp. 226-231), and he
was still calling for ‘a transition between the old
theories and the new ones’ (p. 231). So far
Fairbairn alone has attempted this in a full and

systematic way. What I have said about the

possibility of using analysis on the basis of the
pure classical psychobiological Oedipal theory

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 as an unwitting support for resistance, simply
reemphasizes the need for theory to catch up

with practice. It is an important sign of progress

that practice is already so far ahead of theory in
this matter. It is wise, however, to stress this, in

view of Balint’s reference to ‘the unconscious

gratification [that] lies hidden behind the
undisturbed use of accustomed ways of

thinking’, which ‘is best shown by the often

quite irrational resistance that almost every
analyst puts up at the suggestion that he might
learn to use or even only to understand a frame
of reference considerably different from his
own’ (p. 232). Such a state of affairs can hardly

fail to be a drag on the wheels of therapeutic

practice. It would appear to be time that
resistance was overcome to considering the

schizoid, as opposed to the depressive, ‘frame of

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 reference’ in the construction of theory, so that
theory can become a better support to therapy.

THE NECESSITY OF THE SCHIZOID

COMPROMISE AS AN INTERMEDIATE PHASE
TO THE EMERGENCE OF THE
REGRESSED EGO

Though I have sought to show how this need

to set up a middle position, in which the patient

is neither completely isolated nor yet fully

committed to object-relationships, is the cause,

in general, of psychotherapeutic stalemate and

blocked analysis, it must also be added that this

situation should not be too ruthlessly exposed. It

is, in fact, often a necessary stage through which

the patient has to pass on his way to facing at

long last, first his frightening sense of

fundamental isolation; and then the fears of the

real good relationships which alone can heal his
early hurt and liberate his devitalized infantile

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 ego for healthy and vigorous growth. The

emergence of the ultimate withdrawn infantile

self is the hardest of all ordeals for the patient.

In previous papers (1960, 1961b, 1962) I

have given reasons for the view that, in

proportion to the severity of the patient’s illness,
a definite part of his total self is specifically
withdrawn into the unconscious in a state of

extreme infantile regression. This ‘Regressed

Ego’ is the headquarters of all the most serious
fears, and it feels a powerful need for complete

protected passive dependence in which

recuperation can take place and a rebirth of an

active ego be achieved. Nevertheless, patients

experience the most intense fear as this

Regressed Ego draws near to consciousness. It

brings with it a sense of utter and hopeless

aloneness and yet also a fear of the good-object

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 relationship as smothering. The patient feels that

his need for some measure of regressed

dependence on his therapist will involve him in
the loss of self-determination, of independence

and even of individuality itself. He cannot feel it

as the starting-point of new growth in security.
In truth, the need to regress cannot be taken

lightly. In the most ill it may involve

hospitalization. In others I find that sufficient
regression can be experienced in sessions while
the active self is kept going outside. In some

other cases, it seems that specific regression is

not needed, and ‘withdrawing’ tendencies can be
reversed in a normal transference-analysis.

The schizoid problem and its compromise

solutions show, however, where the ultimate

difficulties of psychotherapy lie, and just how

difficult it is and why. The patient cannot easily

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 and quickly abandon his inadequate solutions or
defences, for what he feels to be the uncertain
promise of a real solution, bought at the price of
encountering such severe anxieties. He can only
do so by easy stages, and meanwhile must use
whatever schizoid compromises between

accepting and rejecting treatment as he can. In

truth he endures other anxieties by holding on to
his own attempts to carry on in his own way,

which are as severe as the fears of over-

dependence and far more destructive. But since
the real ‘cure’ seems to involve sinking his own
personality in passive dependence on that of

another person, we must admit that the patient is

confronted with a formidable prospect. Often, if
he could not effect some compromise

relationship, he would have to break off

treatment. I once had a patient who had

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 previously and consciously spent several years

using psychiatrists as ‘someone to argue with’,

giving them no chance to help her because she
felt that the degree of dependence involved

would be too humiliating. It would take a major

cultural revolution to create an atmosphere in
which patients might find it easier to accept
psychotherapy; a cultural atmosphere from

which not only Suttie’s ‘taboo on tenderness’

had disappeared, but also its deeper implication,
the ‘taboo on weakness’. Then, perhaps, illness

of the mind could be treated with the same

acceptance of the need for ‘healing in a state of
passive recuperation’ as is already accorded to

illness of the body.

Yet the final difficulty is in the patient’s own

mental make-up. Two patients of mine needed to

accept a regressive illness which involved

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 hospitalization. One, with a gentler nature who

made no difficulty about accepting help, ‘gave

in’ to the situation thoroughly and made an
excellent recovery. He came out to return to
work straight away and, with diminishing

frequency of analysis, maintained his

improvement. The other, an obsessional, hard-
driving and at times aggressive worker who

could not be tolerant to himself, could not

surrender his struggle to drive himself on. He
came out of hospital, having got over the acute
crisis, but still with a lot of tension and conflict.
His own comment was: ‘I couldn’t make the best
use of hospital. I couldn’t give in. I felt I had to

be adult and keep myself active.’ If we turn from

purely theoretical possibilities to simply
practical ones, especially where it is not possible

for the patient to have a very long analysis, we

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 may have to accept a useful schizoid
compromise. If the patient feels a very intense
need to safeguard his independence and freedom

for self-determination, which he feels to be

compromised by accepting help, we must
recognize that the solution of this problem will
take a long time. If for any reasons the patient
cannot go through with such a long analysis, it
may well be that he needs to be helped to accept

the fact that he cannot force himself beyond a

certain point in making human relationships, and

must find out what compromises between being

too involved and too isolated work best for him.
Yet I am sure that, given time and favourable
circumstances, this problem can be resolved in

psycho-analytical therapy.

We must certainly concentrate our best

efforts in research to this end, for the feeling of

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 angry frustration, of being caught in a trap which

is their own mental make-up, of being entangled

in a web of difficulties and only becoming more
and more entangled the more they struggle to get

free, is a very serious problem with some

patients. The naturally active, energetic and
capable persons who cannot succeed, or be

contented, in becoming cold, emotionally

neutralized intellectuals, and yet cannot effect
stable and happy human relationships and get on

with living, can reach a point of volcanic

eruption. They cannot stand the utter frustration
of their inability to escape from their own need

for compromise, half in and half out, solutions.

If such a person has no understanding and
reliable therapist, the result can be tragedy for

himself, for others, or for both. It is well for him

if he has the safeguard of a genuine therapeutic

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 relationship at such a time, which offers him a
chance to grow some deep level security on the
basis of which he can find a way out of his trap.

REFERENCES

Balint, M. (1952). Primary Love and Psycho-

analytic Technique. London: Hogarth Press.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1954). Observations on the

nature of hysterical states. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 27(3): 105-125.

_____ (1958). On the nature and aims of psycho-

analytical treatment. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 29(5):374-385.

Freud, S. (1923). The Ego and the Id. London:

Hogarth Press. New York: Norton.

_____ (1938). Outline of Psycho-Analysis. London:

Hogarth Press.

Guntrip, H. (1952). A study of Fairbairn’s theory of

schizoid reactions. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 25(2, 3):86—103.

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 _____ (1960). Ego-weakness and the hard core of the
problem of psychotherapy. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 33(3):163-184.

_____ (1961a). Personality Structure and Human

Interaction. London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1961b). The schizoid process, regression and

the struggle to preserve an ego. British Journal
of Medical Psychology 34(3, 4):223.

_____ (1962). Manic-depression in the light of the

schizoid process. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 43(2, 3).

Laing, R. D. (1959). The Divided Self. London:

Tavistock Publications.

Note
[6] Read at meeting of Tavistock Clinic, London, 1962.

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 9

THE INFANT IN THE PATIENT: A

UNIQUE CENTRE OF MEANINGFUL
EXPERIENCE7

The title of this paper8 may well appear

pretentiously large in scope. It is best, therefore,
to make it clear at the outset that I mean simply

to convey the notion of tracing developments in

psychodynamic theory to see how they bear on
the only partially solved problem of
psychotherapy. This became a particular interest

of mine from about 1950 as my clinical concern

came to centre specially in the study of schizoid
problems. The results of this work began to

emerge by 1960, and throughout I had found

Fairbairn’s formulations in the field of theory

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 invaluable. Two concepts, the Ego and the
Schizoid Process, came to dominate the enquiry.

They at once suggest a contrast to a

psychodynamic theory based on the very
different concepts of Instincts and Depression,

as in the classic Freudian theory. Nevertheless,

the fact that in the 1920’s Freud himself turned
his interest from instincts to the analysis of the

ego, shows that what we have to consider is not

two opposed views, but a development which
has been going on in psychodynamic research
for some forty years. For this development
Freud himself provided the initial impetus and it
arose logically out of his own earlier work.

It may be well at this point to pause and

reflect on the nature and place of theory in our

work. All are agreed that we do not interpret to

patients in theoretical terms, nor do we seek to

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 fit the patient into a pre-determined theoretical
scheme. Were we to do so, we would learn

nothing new from our clinical work. This error

in technique is, probably, not in fact always
avoided. We must use our theoretical concepts to

guide our thinking in trying to understand the

patient, and therapists obviously do not find it
easy to let what the patient presents modify the

concepts they are used to and have acquired a

vested emotional interest in. Nevertheless,
human problems are still so far from solution
that we cannot afford to become theoretically
static. Concepts are most useful at the stage at
which they are being formed. They represent the

intellectual effort to clarify and formulate new

insights which are emerging in the thick of the
pressure of clinical work. For a time they act as

signposts pointing the way in the right direction

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 for the next advance: but concepts date. By the
time further new experience has begun to gather,

previous concepts have become stereotyped and

too rigid, and they then act as a barrier to fresh
thinking. This has been the fate of some of

Freud’s concepts, in particular those of instinct,

libido, aggression (as an innate drive), the id, the
super-ego, the Oedipus Complex. It is now

becoming clear that they mark stages in an

advancing psychodynamic enquiry. Freud
opened the way to still deeper levels where new
insights and new concepts are called for. To try
to work on new material with nothing but the old
conceptual tools retards deeper understanding.

Psychoanalysis has been carried, as Freud

himself was, by clinical pressures to ever deeper

levels of psychic life, so that it may be said in
general that we have no choice now but to focus

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 our thinking more on the problems of ego
development in the first year than on the Oedipal

problems, of later infancy. Mrs Klein’s attempt

to read back the three-person Oedipal problems,
dated at 3-4 years in the classic theory, into the

first-year two-person problems, was not

generally accepted, but was eloquent proof that a
change in basic theoretical standpoint was

developing. The process of change has been at

work ever since Freud turned definitely to ego
analysis in the 1920’s, but of all the analysts
who have contributed to the slow furthering of
this change, so far only one, Fairbairn, has made
a specific attempt to think out the nature of the

fundamental reorientation of theory that is going

on. He would be the last person to wish that his

contribution to theory should, in turn, become a

fixed and stereotyped scheme blocking the way

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 to further insight. Nevertheless, he has
formulated certain basic concepts which appear

to be as necessary for the intelligible ordering of

our field of knowledge at this stage, as were
Freud’s Oedipal concepts and his structural

terms at earlier stages. Fairbairn’s work is no

more a mere proposed change in terminology, as
some critics suggest, than was Freud’s.

I hold no particular brief for any conceptual

terminology as final. Terms are only useful tools

to be discarded when we find better ones. No
doubt in fifty years time wholesale revision will

have taken place. The term ‘libidinal’, though

useful, is far from satisfactory as standing for the
fundamental life-drive in the human being to

become a ‘person’. Its historical associations are

too narrowing for it to be adequate to this new
orientation that we have now to take into

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 account. If the term ‘libidinal’ is revised, all
Fairbairn’s terms will have to be revised.

Meanwhile, till someone suggests a better term

than ‘libidinal’, I feel compelled to say that,
once mastered, I have found Fairbairn’s

terminology closer to clinical realities than any

other, and too valuable not to be used. Balint
writes: ‘How much unconscious gratification lies

hidden behind the undisturbed use of

accustomed ways of thinking ... is best shown by
the often quite irrational resistance that almost
every analyst puts up at the suggestion that he
might learn to use or even only to understand a
frame of reference considerably different from

his own’ (1952, p. 232). I shall seek in what

follows to place Fairbairn’s work in what seems

to me to be its proper position and context in the

march of psychodynamic theory, to show in

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 what way I found it invaluable in my own
particular study of schizoid problems, and to

present it as a challenge to willingness to think,

where necessary, in new terms as new insights
develop. At the International Congress of

Psychoanalysis in Edinburgh in 1961, one

speaker objected to Winnicott asking us to use
‘new terms such as “impingement”, etc.’. But

the time seems to have come when progress will

be blocked if we persist in trying to pour
supplies of new wine into old bottles that are too
small.

My own interest in this whole matter was

aroused when, around 1950, three patients, each
in their own way presented the same problem.

The first was a middle-aged, unmarried

engineer running his own business; well

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 educated, who sought analysis of his own accord
for attacks of guilt-burdened depression. He had

some six years of orthodox analysis whose

content would be familiar to every analyst. He
talked out his early loveless family life, his

submissiveness to his egotistical mother and fear

and hate of his violent father, sibling jealousies
and adolescent rebellion. He produced Oedipal

and Castration dreams, sado-masochistic

fantasies, genital, anal and oral; guilt and
punishment reactions. A classic psychoanalytic
text-book could be written out of his material.
Throughout he remained a conscientious hard-
working obsessional personality, with all his

emotions under tremendous internal control. His

personality type did not change but he improved

greatly as compared with his original crippling

depressions. His ego defences, we may say, were

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 modified and he felt more free to work. He

summed up his position thus: ‘I’m very much

better. I feel I’ve cleared all the outlying areas of
my neurosis, but I feel I’ve come up against a

circular wall with no doors or windows and too

high to see over. I go round and round it and
have no idea what is inside. I know there’s

something I’m doing that blocks further analysis

and I don’t know what it is. It’s difficult to let
anything more out. I’ve got to keep fit to run my

business.’ Here, apparently, was a closely

guarded hurt and hidden part of his inner self
into which neither I, nor even his own conscious

self, was allowed to intrude. He once dreamed of

going down into an underground passage and
coming to a halt at a locked door marked

‘hidden treasure’.

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 The second patient, an older, very ill
professional woman whose doctor said she
would never work again, had a similar
background and normal Oedipal analysis during
which she returned to work, suffered no further
breakdown, and was able to work till she

qualified for a full pension. She then seemed to

stick, and like the first patient held her gains but
made no further progress. At that point she

dreamed of walking along a road and coming up

against a huge wall. There was no way of getting

forward and she did not know what lay on the

other side. Her comment was ‘I’ve got to go on,
if you can stand it’. She clearly felt that if she
succeeded it would mean a difficult time for

both of us. Here again was this clear-cut

unconscious knowledge of an inaccessible cut-
off part of the inner personal life into which the

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 patient seemed unable and afraid to penetrate,
but which had to be opened up to reach a real

‘cure’.

The third patient, a medical man in middle

life, presented the same theme in a different way.

This was the case with which I opened my 1961

paper on ‘The schizoid problem and regression’.
His presenting symptom, an embarrassing and

active preoccupation with breasts, faded out

under analysis only to be replaced by powerful
phantasies of retirement from active living into
some impregnable stronghold isolated from the

outer world. Like the other patients he carried on

his active professional life. This then must have

indicated the drastic withdrawal from the outer

world of a specialized part of his personality

existing passively inside the fortress, the

impassable wall. These patients were markedly

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 schizoid, detached, shut in, had great difficulty
in human relationships, and would feel alone
and out of touch in a group.

At this point I tried to write a paper on ‘The

Schizoid Citadel’ but could not arrive at any
satisfying conclusion. Therefore, as a starting
point for enquiry, I made a clinical study of
‘Fairbairn’s theory of schizoid reactions’
(Guntrip 1952) and set out, first, to gather fresh
clinical material on schizoid problems, and

secondly, to survey the development of

psychodynamic theory from Freud to the
American ‘Culture Pattern’ writers, and to Mrs

Klein and Fairbairn, to see what pointers were

emerging to the solution of this problem. The
result of this historical study I presented in the
book Personality Structure and Human
Interaction (1961a). On the clinical side, I owe

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 everything to a group of schizoid patients whose
variety was fascinating: a biologist, a

communist, a hospital sister, a university

lecturer, a grandmother in her fifties, a young
borderline schizophrenic wife, a social worker

who had had a paranoid schizophrenic

breakdown, a young middle-aged mother who
was also a language teacher, an outstandingly

successful but most unhappy business man, and

so on. Their treatment always seemed to move
ultimately beyond the range of the classic
psychoanalytical phenomena, the conflicts over
sex, aggression, guilt and depression. All
patients began by producing this kind of

material, which occupied analysis in the first few

years. For what came after that I did not find
much help, except in the interpretation of details,

in the literature on schizoid problems. It seemed

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 to lack intrinsic connexion with the existing
psychoanalytical theory of Oedipal and

depressive problems. I had to let impressions

accumulate, and only in the last three years have
these begun, as I feel, to disclose some definite

pattern.

One strongly emerging theoretical trend

provided the necessary standing-ground for
thinking. In 1949 Balint called for a transition

from a physiological and biological bias to an

object-relations bias in theory (1952). That was
exactly the major trend that stood out in the

historical survey. It was visible in the work of

Americans such as Horney, Fromm and
Sullivan, though more from the social and

‘culture-pattern’ point of view. As early as 1942-

44 Fairbairn made a fundamental revision of
theory on exactly the lines Balint called for,

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 from the endopsychic rather than the cultural
viewpoint (1952). Here and elsewhere were the
signs of a growing and widespread consensus of
thought which can be expressed in several

different but parallel and related ways. Theory

has been moving from concentration on the parts
to attention to the whole, from the biological to

the properly psychological, from instinct

vicissitudes to ego development, from instinct
gratification to ego maintenance, and from the

depressive level of impulse management to the

deeper schizoid level where the foundations of a
whole personality are, or are not, laid.

Throughout, the concepts of the Ego and the

Schizoid Process became ever more dominant.

Classic psychoanalytical theory is a moral

psychology of the struggle to direct and control
innate antisocial but discrete and separate

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 instinctive drives of sex and aggression, by
means of guilt. This, when it produces too

drastic repression instead of ‘sublimation’, leads

to the mental paralysis of internalized
aggression, self-punishment and depression.

When Freud turned to ego analysis, however, he

started lines of enquiry which were destined to
lead to a quite different orientation; for schizoid

problems turn out to be, not problems of the

gratification or control of instincts, but problems
of ego splitting and the struggle to recover and
preserve a whole adequate ego or self with
which to face life. This newer type of theory had
much to say about the problems of my patients

who were unconsciously guarding their secret

schizoid citadel in which some vital part of their

total self apparently lay buried, hidden and lost

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 to use. Impulse psychology had little

enlightenment to offer on this.

Here I must record my agreement with

Fairbairn that the term ‘psychobiological’ is an

illegitimate hybrid which confuses two different

disciplines. It is like that earlier hybrid
‘physiological psychology’ as set forth in

McDougall’s book (1905). It was just

physiology and not psychology at all. We study
the one whole of the human being on different
levels of abstraction for scientific purposes.

Biology is one level, psychology is another.

Each deals with phenomena, organic or psychic,
which the other cannot handle. When it comes to

therapy, knowledge from all disciplines must be

taken into account. We do not suppose ourselves
to be dealing with two separate entities, one
called body and the other mind, but neither can

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 we study such a complex whole as if it were a
kind of Irish stew in which everything is lumped
together in one pot. We must abstract its main

distinguishable aspects and stick consistently to

what we select to study.

The business of psychodynamic research is

with that aspect of the whole man which we call

the motivated and meaningful life of the growing
‘person’ and his difficulties and developments in

object relationships with other persons. A

dynamic psychology of the ‘person’ is not an

instinct theory but an ego theory in which

instincts are not entities per se but functions of

the ego. The way an instinctive capacity

operates is an expression of the state of the ego.

The trend of psychoanalytic theory moves
steadily in that direction. Instinct theory per se
becomes more and more useless in clinical

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 work, and ego theory more and more relevant.

Outside the sphere of pure psychodynamics, I

would think that the philosopher J. MacMurray
has given the coup de grace to instinct theory in

the study of human persons, in his Gifford

Lectures, Vol. 2, ‘Persons in relation’. The most
important single subject of investigation on all

sides is the earliest stages of ego growth, as in

the work of the Kleinians, Fairbairn, Winnicott,
and researches into the psychodynamics of

schizophrenia. The classical Oedipal, social,

sexual and aggressive conflicts are dropping into
their place as aspects of the internal, sado-

masochistic, self-exhausting struggle of an

already divided self to maintain psychic
defences against ego collapse.

I have thus come to feel that the first great

task which confronted Freud in his pioneer

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 exploration was that of analysing the area of
moral and pseudo-moral conflict. This had
hitherto comprised man’s whole traditional
account of his nature and troubles; and it
blocked the way to more radical understanding.
Freud did analyse it so exhaustively that he

opened the way to the deeper level hidden

beneath it. The result of Freud’s work is that
unrealistic traditional ideas about children have

been replaced by an ever deeper knowledge of

the very earliest infantile fears and ego

weakness. Freud actually took over the

traditional popular and philosophical psychology
of Plato and St Paul as his starting point. St Paul
was content with a dualism of the ‘law of the

mind’ and the ‘law of the members’ in inevitable

warfare. Plato gave us the trichotomy which the
Western world has accepted right up to Freud

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 and the present day. Human nature comprised a

lustful beast, a spirited lion and a rational man,

the id, the super-ego and the ego. Plato’s many-
headed beast of the lusts and passions of the

flesh and St Paul’s ‘law of the members’ became

the powerful anti-social instincts of sex and
aggression in the id. Plato’s charioteer of reason

and St Paul’s ‘law of the mind’ became the

controlling ego with its scientific reason. Just as
Plato’s ‘reason’ made an ally of the lion, the

fighting principle, turning it against the beast to

enforce control, so Freud envisaged the ego
working with the sadistic super-ego to turn
aggression inwards against the self, and showed

how pathological guilt produced depression.

Freud used the traditional philosophical

moral psychology of impulse control, but he

used it in a wholly new way, to guide an original

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 and factual clinical analysis of the detailed
mental processes involved in man’s experience
of moral and pseudo-moral conflict. All this was

analysed so exhaustively that it represents a

reasonably completed scientific investigation of
man’s sado-masochistic struggle to civilize the
recalcitrant impulse-life he finds within himself.
Yet Freud failed to answer or even to ask the
crucial question. Since man is without doubt

social by nature, how does it come about that he

feels such anti-social impulses so often? Why do
men have anti-social impulses? Freud, like all
his predecessors, simply assumed that they were
innate, that in man’s nature there was an
unresolvable contradiction of good and evil.

This is the traditional view of man in our

culture.

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 However, Freud’s analysis of moral conflict
unwittingly revealed the fact that this is not the

whole of, nor even the deepest element in, the

psychic experience of human beings. In fact,
man’s age-old conviction that all his troubles

come from his possession of mighty if nearly

uncivilizable instincts of his animal nature, turns
out to be our greatest rationalization and self-

deception. We have preferred to boost our egos

by the belief that even if we are bad, we are at
any rate strong in the possession of ‘mighty
instincts’. Men have not wanted to see the truth
that we distort our instincts into anti-social
drives in our struggle to suppress the fact that

deep within our make-up we are tied to a weak,

fear-ridden infantile ego that we never
completely outgrow. Thus Fairbairn regarded

‘infantile dependence’, not the ‘Oedipus

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 Complex’ as the cause of neurosis. The Oedipus
Complex is a problem of ‘instincts’. Infantile
dependence is a problem of ‘ego weakness’.
Depression is the psychology of badness. The
schizoid problem opens up the psychology of
our fundamental weakness, and human beings

would rather be bad than weak. This shift in the

centre of gravity in psychodynamic theory will
enforce a radical reassessment of all

philosophical, moral, educational and religious

views of human nature.

Psychoanalytic practice seems to be in

advance of psychoanalytic theory in this matter.

In my paper on ‘The manic-depressive problem

in the light of the schizoid process’ (1962) I
traced how, in the 1960 ‘Symposium on
depression’ in the International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis, the papers oscillated between

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 two opposite poles of this complex illness.

Viewed as classic depression it was explained

by reference to ambivalent object relations and
guilt over sexual and aggressive drives. Yet there

appeared to be another aspect of it characterized

as regression, which needed to be explained
rather by ego splitting, arrested ego

development, weakness, lack of self-fulfilment,

and apathy. But depression and regression were
not clearly related, though Zetzel remarked that
in the modern view of depression the significant

new concept was that of the ‘ego’. It is,

however, hopeless to deal with ego psychology
in terms of instinct theory. The problems of ego

psychology are those of loss of unity and ego

weakness, depersonalization, the sense of
unreality, lack of a proper sense of personal

identity, of the terror some patients experience

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 of feeling so ‘far away’ and ‘shut in’ that they
feel they’ll never get back in touch again. These
phenomena can only be dealt with by a theory
based firmly on the analysis of the schizoid

processes of withdrawal to the inner world under

the impact of primary fears. It is in this region
that the uncertain beginnings of ego

development are to be found.

So far only Fairbairn has sought

systematically to re-orientate theory from a

depressive to a schizoid foundation.

Nevertheless, the whole drift of psychoanalysis

today is in that direction. In a recent private

communication Fairbairn stated that the internal

situation described in terms of object splitting

and ego splitting ‘represents a basic schizoid
position which is more fundamental than the
depressive position described by Melanie Klein.

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 ... A theory of the personality conceived in terms
of object-relations is in contrast to one

conceived in terms of instincts and their

vicissitudes.’ Freud’s structural terms, id, super-
ego, ego, give an account of classic depression

and moral conflict. Fairbairn’s structural terms,

libidinal ego, antilibidinal ego, central ego, give
an account of the schizoid process and the loss

of the primary unity of the self.

As I see it there have been four stages in the

development of psychoanalytic theory: (1)
Freud’s original instinct theory, which enabled a

penetrating analysis of moral and pseudomoral

conflict to be made. This led to (2) Freud’s ego
analysis. Because this remained tied to instinct

theory, it could not give more than a superficial

account of the ego, as a utilitarian apparatus of
impulse control, an instrument of adaptation to

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 external reality, a means of perceptual
consciousness, etc. Before an adequate theory of
the ego as a real personal self could be worked
out, a third stage had to come about. (3) Mrs
Klein had to explore the psychology of the object
as psychically internalized to become a factor in

ego development. She explored the psychology

of internal object relations as thoroughly as
Freud had explored that of impulse management.
Mrs Klein’s work is ‘an object-relations theory

with emphasis on the object’ and it led to a

fourth stage, (4) Fairbairn’s ‘object-relations
theory with emphasis on the ego’. Fairbairn’s
primary interest had always been in the ego, as
seen in an early paper on a patient’s dream-

personifications of herself. But he made no

progress with this till Mrs Klein’s work made its
impact on him, as he is the first to acknowledge.

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 Now, his work brings out clearly that the
importance of the object is not primarily that of

being a ‘means of instinctual gratification’; this

gives only a psychology of instinct vicissitudes.
The importance of the object lies in the fact that

it is ‘a necessity for ego development’; this gives

us a psychology of ego vicissitudes, ego
differentiations, splittings and what not. He

brought Mrs Klein’s ‘object-relations theory’

back full circle to ego theory again, but this time
not to Freud’s superficial ego theory, but to a

fundamental ego theory which makes

psychodynamics a genuine theory of a real self

or person, a unique centre of meaningful

experience growing in the medium of personal

relationships. Fairbairn is, of course, far from

being the only analyst to see the need to
orientate theory and therapy afresh to the true

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 selfhood of the whole person. Winnicott writes

that the goal of therapy is: ‘the shift of the

operational centre from the false self to the true
self. … That which proceeds from the true self

feels real’ (p. 292, 1958). Again: ‘In favourable

cases there follows at last a new sense of self in
the patient and a sense of the progress that

means true growth’ (pp. 289-290). Winnicott’s

theory of the true and false self is likewise a
theory of ego splitting and deals with

phenomena that Freud’s structural terms take no

account of. Fairbairn, however, is the only
analyst who has taken up the task of the overall

revision of theory from this point of view. The

result is an impressive intellectual achievement.

In the communication quoted Fairbairn

regards separation anxiety as the earliest and
original anxiety, and as the basic cause of the

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 schizoid process of flight or withdrawal of part
of the now split ego from contact with the outer

world. There are several causes of separation

anxiety. Fairbairn earlier stressed that unsatisfied
love needs become dangerous and the infant

draws back. Winnicott stresses the infant’s direct

fear of the ‘impingement’ of a bad object, and
the infant finding himself simply deserted,

neglected. However caused, the danger of

separation is that the infant, starting life with a
primitive and quite undeveloped ego, just cannot
stand the loss of his object. He cannot retain his
primitive wholeness and develop a sense of
identity and selfhood without an object relation.

Separation anxiety then is a pointer to the last

and worst fear, fear of loss of the ego itself, of

depersonalization and the sense of unreality.

The reason why patients hold on with such

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 tenacity to their Kleinian inner world of internal

bad objects, and their Freudian inner world of

Oedipal conflicts over sex and aggression, is that
they have so weakened their external object

relations by early schizoid withdrawal inside,

that they are compelled to maintain a world of
internal phantasied objects to keep their ego in

being at all.

It seems to me that conflicts over sex,

aggression and guilt are, in the last analysis,

used as defences against depersonalization, and

the patient is reluctant to give them up. Patients
will try to go back to these classic conflicts

unless we keep them well analysed, rather than

face the terrors of realizing how small, weak and
radically cut off, shut in and unreal they feel at
bottom. A dream of a male patient of fifty

illustrates this. ‘I was engaged with someone

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 (undoubtedly his tyrannical father) in a
tremendous fight for life. I defended myself so

vigorously that he suddenly stopped fighting

altogether. I then immediately felt let down,
disappointed and quite at a loss, and thought

“Oh! I didn’t bargain for this”.’ His real life was

conducted very much in terms of rationalized
aggression, opposing authority, attacking abuses,
defending his independence, all really in the

interests of keeping his insecure ego in being.

He couldn’t keep going without the help of a

fight. Another patient said: ‘If I don’t get angry

with my employees, I’m too timid to face them.
I feel some energy when I’m angry, otherwise I
feel just a nobody.’ That is the basic problem in

psychopathology, the schizoid problem of feeling

a nobody, of never having grown an adequate
feeling of a real self. If we go far enough it

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 always emerges in some degree from behind the
classic conflicts. I suspect this to be more true of

all human beings than we like to know, and that

the chronic aggression which seems to be the
hallmark of ‘man’ is but a veneer over basic ego

weakness.

PSYCHOTHERAPY

When we turn from theory to consider its

bearings on therapy, this conclusion hardly
makes the task of psychotherapy look any easier.

In my group of patients I began to observe the

emergence of a fairly consistent pattern of three
stages of treatment, which we may call the

stages of (1) Oedipal Conflict, (2) Schizoid

Compromise and (3) Regression and Regrowth.

In the first stage whatever diagnostic label

might be stuck on the patient, hysteric,

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 obsessional, anxiety state, etc., the first few
years of analysis dealt with the problems of the

child struggling to adapt and maintain himself in

an unhelpful family situation widening out into
the social environment. This is broadly the

‘Classic Oedipal analysis’ of defences and

conflicts concerning ambivalent object relations
of love and hate, primarily with parents and then

transferred into wider areas of living. As

symptoms faded, the underlying conflicts over
sex, aggression and guilt would emerge and

classic depression have to be dealt with. Such

analysis would lead to marked improvements
which were very welcome, yet left the feeling of
something else unspecified still to be dealt with.

The analysis produced valuable but not final

results just because it dealt with defences, not
causes. Thus ten years ago a man came to me

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 very depressed after the death of his father. He
said ‘I can afford time and money for 100

sessions’. I advised him to spread them over two

years since growth is a matter of time. In
addition to his depression, he was in a rut in his

work and his childless marriage was hardly

happy. At the end of his 100 sessions he was
definitely improved. He had got out of his rut at

work, taken a better job and was doing well. He

and his wife had faced their problem and
adopted a child. I heard from him recently that
he was carrying on well. I had told him that his
whole problem could not be cleared up in 100
sessions and he accepted that. He said he still

had occasional moods but felt he understood and

could manage them, and his work and home life
were satisfactory. That is a worthwhile result if

not a complete one. In practice, the greater part,

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 certainly of short-term psychotherapy, is on this
level. In the early days of psychoanalysis a year
was adequate for treatment. Fairbairn once said
to me: ‘The more we analyse the ego, the longer

analyses become.’ I found that the initial

Oedipal analysis usually led on to:

A second stage of marking time on the

ground gained, retaining improvements by

effecting a more rational control, i.e. a modified
and more reasonable obsessional or schizoid

character. If maintained, this may well represent,

for all practical purposes, a cure: in fact it is

itself a schizoid compromise in varying degrees.

The patient does not do without personal

relations, yet cannot wholly do with them, or

cannot stand their being too close and involving.
He takes up a ‘half in and half out’ position in
which he hopes to remain relatively undisturbed.

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 Like the patient cited, he may leave analysis and
with luck remain stable. There is no doubt that

such relative stabilization is possible, and can

and does work in a number of cases. If a patient
can stabilize to that extent without going deeper,

it is not good to probe deeper. Nevertheless, not

all analyses can terminate at that stage. The
patient may leave and later encounter too severe

real-life stresses which break him down again

and bring him back to treatment. Or he may
stick at analysis without really making use of it,
seeking to make analysis itself his compromise
solution, gaining some support from sessions but
not changing much. This may break down; the

patient feels frustrated, leaves in a resentful

mood, and finds that his resentment of the now
absent analyst is quite a useful if hardly

constructive motivation helping to keep his ego

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 functioning. Lastly, the patient may stick at
analysis and allow his compromises to be

analysed till slowly he gets beneath them.

Whether he has returned to analysis with a
second breakdown or carried on doggedly till the

deepest levels were reached, the result is much

the same.

The way in which the schizoid compromise

solution is attempted and is liable to break down

is best illustrated by two actual cases. A male

patient in the early fifties, who had decided to
end a long analysis and move to another city to

start life afresh said ‘The height of my ambition

now is to get through life without trouble. It’s
not that bad an aim, a bit negative; it has a

certain vegetable feel about it, a kind of

blankness. Under such circumstances you don’t
feel anything much at all. That’s a preferable

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 state to feeling awful. Big changes have gone on
in me really. It’s a tremendous relief not to feel
so frightened, nor so excited in a bad way. Yet it
feels also like losing something.’ The last
remark showed that he was aware that this was
not a final, positive result, but a compromise

solution aiming at maintaining improvements. It

lacked the vital sense of reality in living.

How a well-established compromise solution

can break down is seen in the case of a woman

of 48 years. She had recovered complete

physical health after a long analysis, and at a late
age took a university course to qualify for a

profession, established her independence of

parents, got a flat and a car of her own and made
all the progress it was possible to make along
those lines. The fact that this welcome
improvement and independence also included a

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 schizoid compromise, protecting her from any
real involvement in personal relations, became

clear when she suddenly panicked at the

prospect of marriage. In one session she said: ‘I
think I’ll be best keeping my freedom and

independence; my job and money, flat and car,

and not feeling too deeply about anything. I
don’t want to feel love or hate. If I feel I become

a baby. If I skate over the surface and don’t feel

much, I can be more grown up, and in a way I
enjoy life better then, especially driving my car.

Really I’m a child and don’t want to do

anything, I only want to go home to mother and

father. I picture our family living on a desert

island and never going out of it. I can’t really

face life. I never wanted to do a job, only stay at

home and do housework with mother. But I
know they can’t live for ever and I’ve got to

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 think out a different way of life. Perhaps really
I’ll drift into marriage, though with my eyes
open, and make something of it.’ The challenge
of marriage, however, made it increasingly
difficult for her to maintain her improvement
based on schizoid compromise, and she was

pushed beyond it.

The third stage. Here problems are now quite

different, specifically schizoid rather than

depressed. One begins to lay bare the terrified

infant in retreat from life and hiding in his inner
citadel, the problem of my three patients of

twelve years ago. Fairbairn writes: ‘Such an

individual provides the most striking evidence of
a conflict between an extreme reluctance to

abandon infantile dependence and a desperate

longing to renounce it; and it is at once
fascinating and pathetic to watch the patient, like

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 a timid mouse, alternately creeping out of the

shelter of his hole to peep at the world of outer

objects and then beating a hasty retreat’ (1952,
p. 39). Two more recent cases were decisive for

me. (i) A married woman of fifty, during a

prolonged hysteric phase, dreamed of a hungry,
greedy, clamouring baby hidden under her
apron, the symbolic representation of an active

orally sadistic infant who had to be kept under

control or none would like her. When she had
worked through that level she became markedly

schizoid, quiet, shut-in, silent, finding it hard to

maintain any interest in life, beginning each
session by saying ‘You’ve gone miles away

from me’. She now produced a phantasy of a

dead, or else a sleeping baby buried alive, in her
womb, and felt that she had a lump inside her

tummy as if pregnant, (ii) The second patient

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 was a male who had an earlier period of analysis

of exceptionally sado-masochistic oral material

and intense conflicts over both sexual and
aggressive impulses which he controlled with
great difficulty. He reached a stage where his

original guilt-depression faded away and he

could carry on as a successful if obsessionally
hardworking professional man. Then an

unusually severe run of family troubles broke

him down again. When he returned to treatment
he was plainly struggling against a powerful
regressive drive, feeling exhausted, and having
phantasies of an infant wrapped away in a warm
and comfortable womb.

It was this material that first suggested to me

that what Fairbairn calls the libidinal ego,

corresponding to the libidinal aspect of the

Freudian ‘id’, the dependent needy infant, itself

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 undergoes a further and final split. It is already
split off and isolated in the personality by
repression, by the Freudian ego and super-ego,

or what Fairbairn calls the central ego and

antilibidinal ego. To this internal persecution the
infantile ego produces a double reaction of
‘anger and fight’ and also ‘fear and flight’. This
leads to the deepest ego split of all, into an
active oral ego and a helpless regressed ego as a

final hidden danger. Psychoanalysis has taken

full account of the ‘ego vicissitudes’ of anger
and the aggressive or fighting impulses in face
of threat. It has not taken the same full account
of the ‘ego vicissitudes’ of fear and flight from
life, and so has never satisfactorily fitted

regression into the conceptual framework. In

practice, regression is usually treated as a
nuisance to be checked. I believe regressive

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 trends are in fact derived from a structurally

specific part of the total self which is deeply

withdrawn, the schizoid ego par excellence, the
hidden self in the schizoid citadel. It has

undergone a two-stage withdrawal, first, from a

persecutory outer world of external bad objects;
and secondly, from a persecutory inner world of

internal bad objects, and above all the

antilibidinal ego (Guntrip 1961b).

Psychotherapy may produce valuable results

en route, but it cannot be radical unless it

reaches and releases this lost heart of the total

self which is not only repressed, but also too
terrified to re-emerge. So far as I can see, though

our terminology is different, this is what

Winnicott is saying when he describes a patient
as having had a successful Oedipal analysis, and
then later coming to him for a treatment which

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 he calls ‘therapeutic regression aiming at the
rebirth of the true self (1958, p. 249, ‘Mind and
its relation to the psyche-soma’).

This problem justifies us in saying that what

psychoanalysis has discovered so far is just how
difficult radical psychotherapy is. It presents us
with two final problems for analytic research.

First that of ‘resistance to treatment’, which

now turns out to be due not simply to

unconscious guilt, but to sheer fear of collapse
into a self which is too weak and fear-ridden to

face life. The infantile dependence which

Fairbairn regards as the true cause of neurosis is
something which the patient has been taught
culturally to despise, and emotionally fears as

undermining his efforts to carry his adult

responsibilities. He fights against any real

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 dependence on his therapist, believing that it

will throw him back on the weakest part of his

personality, rather than be a position of
emotional security setting him free for regrowth.

What Balint (1952) calls ‘primary passive love’

is the necessary starting point for his ‘new
beginning’, when the basic ego has been too

badly damaged in early childhood. But the

patient has spent his life fighting against just
this, and feels intense contempt and self-hate
over it. This is more elementary than the moral

super-ego; not fear of bad impulses but fear of

weakness. This, I think, is the ultimate meaning
of Fairbairn’s antilibidinal ego. It enshrines the

frightened child’s fear of his own weakness, his

desperate struggle to overcome it by self-forcing
methods, and by the denial of all needs,

especially passive ones.

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 Fairbairn’s antilibidinal ego (the denial of
needs) is thus the patient’s main defence against

the ‘dangers’ of regression, and is therefore the

chief source of resistance to a good therapeutic
relationship with the analyst by means of which

a controlled constructive regression could be

undergone to whatever extent it may be
necessary to make possible regrowth. At the
same time it illuminates Fairbairn’s view that

resistance is due to ‘libidinal cathexis of the bad

object’ (1952, pp. 72 ff.), for if the patient

cannot let himself have a good object, he must

cling to bad objects, either in phantasy or fact, or
risk the loss of his ego. One sees patients
undergoing self-imposed tortures mentally

which they do not seem able to give up. They

cannot trust themselves to the therapist because,
having been let down by their environment in

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 infancy, they had to keep going by a fanatical

internal cult of enforced independence which

they are afraid to relax (Guntrip 1960). Hence
Fairbairn’s further view that the patient struggles

to maintain his neurosis as an ‘internal closed

system’ (1958).

If at last the patient can undergo and accept a

therapeutically controlled regression, the second

and worse problem emerges. He will experience
terrifying states of despair, feeling utterly shut-in
and hopeless about any rebirth. For a long time
he oscillates between regression and resistance.
The analysis of Oedipal conflicts seems to me

relatively straightforward by comparison with

the analysis of the complex infantile schizoid
fears and persecutory anxieties which originally
prevented the growth of a strong basic ego, and

now bar the way to the rebirth of the lost heart of

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 the self. One patient recently reported that while

she was sitting in a bus she suddenly had a queer

purely mental experience. ‘I felt I was nobody,
neither body, soul nor spirit. I felt that I, the real

“I”, was nothing at all.’ Here is the patient’s

discovery of the basic need to find a real self.

The problem is constituted, not only by the

existence of persecutory fears, but also by the

persistence of an undeveloped, weak infantile
ego state; a vicious circle in which the fears
block ego development and the weak ego
remains exposed to fears. Psychotherapy has to
provide a new security in which a new growth
can begin. Just how afraid the patient is, is

shown in a letter from the woman of 48 years

already referred to.

I am consumed with fear. I have always

been and still am terrified of everything

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 and everybody. Terrified of doing things,
too afraid to live at all. All my life I have
been running away and trying to hide. That
is what I am doing here in this job and this
flat. I want to hide and be undisturbed by
the world and other people. I want to sleep
and let the world go by. Yet there is another
side of me that longs to live, and wants to
be able to do things and live an interesting
life free from fear. But it is such a struggle
always fighting fears. The prospect of
marrying has brought this to the fore. I
want love desperately yet I am afraid to
accept it or even to believe in it. I have
been trying to force myself to go the pace
alone but I need help desperately.

So far as I can see the very real gains and

developments in her ‘ego of everyday life’ as a

result of the earlier orthodox analysis, enabled

her to face the uncovering of a regressed infant
in herself. But, until that was regrown, no
therapy could be complete. Is it safe or possible

to go so deep with everyone?

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 At this point three practical problems arise,
two of them being related almost as mutually
exclusive opposites. The question can be asked,
on the one hand, whether increased knowledge

of the regressed infantile ego in the schizoid

citadel will enable us to uncover it more quickly
and so shorten the ever-lengthening process of

psychoanalytical treatment? In any absolute

sense I cannot think this is practicable.
Premature interpretation of the existence of the

most withdrawn part of the complex ego will

yield no better result than premature
interpretation of any other problem. The patient

will either not understand or else grasp the

meaning only in an intellectual way. If the
patient is nearer to the emergence in an

emotional way of this basic withdrawnness,

interpretation of it before he can stand it will

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 only intensify his defences. There is no short
cut. The patient’s strongest defences are

permanently mobilized to keep his regressed ego

and his passive needs hidden, for when they
begin to emerge he feels he is really ‘breaking

down’. All the Oedipal and compromise

positions involved in his defensive system must
be patiently worked through and in that process

the patient comes to feel strong enough and well

enough understood and supported to face the
ultimate test of bringing the fear-ridden infant
into the treatment relationship.

If we were to try at once to drive straight to

the tap-root of all problems, the schizoid
problem, we would not only risk fitting the

patient into a theory, block him by trying to take

up conflicts not in the natural order of their
unfolding, and learn nothing new, but a problem

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 of an opposite kind would arise; namely, granted

that the schizoid problem is the ultimate one, if

we insist with too narrow and rigid logic on this,
we may fall into the trap of thinking that nothing

else matters. This would lead to premature

attempts at reduction of all problems to this one
problem, in psychotherapy, much as Rank

(1929) thought he could go straight to his ‘birth

trauma’ and clear everything up quickly. That
would be a delusion. The patient will dictate

how fast the analysis can move by what and how

much he can cope with as it goes along. One can
only deal with what the patient presents and let
the next phase grow out of that. I have never felt

able to do more than keep a sharp lookout for

any signs of ‘withdrawnness’ the patient actually
does present, and take care not to hold up the

analysis by treating conflicts over sex and

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 aggression as ultimates when the patient is ready
to go behind them.

We cannot afford to concentrate attention

exclusively on any one thing, whether it be the
Oedipal problem, the depressive position, or

schizoid withdrawal and regression. We can only

recognize that psychoanalytical investigation has
discovered these problems in that order as it has

worked deeper. We must use all concepts which

are relevant to whatever the patient presents and
keep an open mind for anything ‘new’ he

discloses. Psychodynamic theory will not come

to a final closure in our generation. Assuming
that, so far as we can see at present, the schizoid

problem is the basic one, certainly not all

patients begin by presenting this kind of
material. If they do, they are more than
averagely ill, and even then its complexity is

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 enormous and we know all too little about
primary ego development as yet. So we must not
allow theory to become dogma but use it as a
signpost.

The third question that will very likely be

raised is that the patient wants to be treated as a
baby, with the implication that he should not be

indulged in this. I believe that to be a grave

misrepresentation of the case. There is an infant
in the patient who actually needs to be accepted

for what he is, by being helped to whatever

degree of ‘therapeutic regression’ proves to be

necessary. But there is also a ‘forced

antilibidinal adult’ in the patient who hates this.

If the patient senses that the therapist is on the

defensive against his deepest needs, this will

have the effect of forcing them to the front, and
he may well be driven to become demanding

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 and try to manipulate an analyst (parent) who

basically rejects him. If, however, the patient

slowly realizes the analyst will accept and help
the baby in him, it has the effect of bringing his

antilibidinal defences into the open, and we

witness the intensity of the patient’s resistance to
treatment as a struggle not to depend on the
analyst for help. This is a situation the analysis

of which leads to far more real progress towards

a more secure, relaxed, non-anxious and
spontaneously loving personality. We need to

know more about the processes of rebirth and

regrowth of the profoundly withdrawn infant
self hidden in the schizoid citadel, and what kind

of relationship of the analyst with the patient is

required to make that possible. One patient said
simply: ‘If I could feel loved, I’m sure I’d grow.

Can I be sure you genuinely care for the baby in

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 me?’—a statement which makes it clear that
fundamentally what the patient is seeking and

needing is a relationship of a parental order

which is sufficiently reliable and understanding
to nullify the results of early environmental

failure.

REFERENCES

Balint, M. (1952). Primary Love and Psychoanalytic

Technique. London: Hogarth Press.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Tavistock
Publications.

_____ (1958). On the nature and aims of psycho-

analytical treatment. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 39:374-385.

Guntrip, H. (1952). A study of Fairbairn’s theory of

schizoid reactions. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 25: 86-103.

_____ (1960). Ego-weakness and the hard core of the

problem of psychotherapy. British Journal of

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 Medical Psychology 33: 163-184.

_____ (1961a). Personality Structure and Human

Interaction. London: Hogarth Press.

_____ (1961b). The schizoid problem, regression and

the struggle to preserve an ego. British Journal
of Medical Psychology. 34: 223-244.

_____ (1962). The manic-depressive problem in the

light of the schizoid process. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 43: 98-113.

McDougall, W. (1905). Physiological Psychology.

London: Dent.

Rank, O. (1929). The Trauma of Birth. London:

Kegan Paul.

Winnicott, D. W. (1958). Collected Papers: Through

Paediatrics to Psycho-Analysis. London:
Tavistock Publications.

Note
[7] This [chapter] is expanded from a paper read to the medical
section, B. Ps. S., June 27, 1962, as a summary of my view
of recent developments. It therefore, of necessity, refers to
some already published clinical material which was
important in shaping the point of view presented.

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 [8] The paper’s original title is “Psychodynamic Theory and the
Problem of Psychotherapy.”

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 10

THINKING WHAT WE FEEL;

FEELING WHAT WE THINK

The paper on “The Concept of Mind” by H.

J. Home (1966) re-aroused my interest in this
subject which had concerned me closely in

writing Personality Structure and Human

Interaction in 1961. I give a brief indication of
the position taken by Mr Home, as our starting
point here. He defined “mind” as the meaning of
“behaviour”. We do not speak of the
“behaviour” of dead (inanimate) objects but

only of their activity, because it has no

“meaning”. “Meaning” only exists for live
objects and constitutes their subjective

experience of their own activities and those of

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 other live objects, in terms of their aims and
purposes. He regarded science (i.e. “natural”

science) as the study of the activities of dead

objects. The objective methods of such science
are useless for dealing with the “meanings” of

the subjective experience of live objects, but this

is what psycho-analysis sets out to study. He
concluded that psycho-analytic or

psychodynamic thinking is not “scientific” but is

“humanistic thinking”, based on our knowledge
of ourselves and our capacity to identify with
(and therefore to know inwardly) other people.

The basic emerging problem is that of the

status and nature of specifically psychodynamic

studies. Home worked out thoroughly one of the

two possible answers, namely that

psychodynamics is not a scientific but a

humanist study. The other possible answer is to

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 expand the meaning of science. Like the
philosopher Hume, he pursued an important line

of argument to its logical bitter end and so

highlighted all the problems involved. This
present discussion of the concept of

psychodynamic science falls into three parts: (1)

a discussion of the terms “physical” and
“mental” science, or the “natural” sciences and

psychology, (2) the raising of the question

“Have we really got a ‘mental’ science?”, and
(3) is “Object-Relations Theory” a true
psychodynamic science?

“PHYSICAL” AND “MENTAL” SCIENCE

We must at the start guard against befogging

the theoretical issue by confusing it with a false
antithesis between a scientific and a human
approach. A surgeon can be capable of sympathy

with his patient however objectively and

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 impersonally scientific he is in his medical
theory and practice. It is true that a person who

has, shall we say, a flair for personal

relationships is likely to feel drawn to
psychotherapy, while others are more at home in

laboratory research. This does not bear on our

problem, except when someone who cannot do
or is antagonistic to psychotherapy, prefers a

definition of science which rules out a personal

relationships approach. Thus, Eysenck says that
psychologists explain but do not understand
human beings.

What concerns us is the theoretical question

of the definition of science. If psychodynamic
studies are scientific, then there are two kinds or

levels of science. There are fundamental

differences between the methods and the type of
conceptualization employed in the physical

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 sciences, and in the psychodynamic studies
which are the theoretical basis of psychotherapy.

I shall speak of “physical” or “material” science,

not “natural” science, because psychic
phenomena are as “natural” as physical ones.

The term is a relic of a time when scientists

thought that psychic phenomena did not deserve
to be given the status of reality, as in Huxley’s

view of mind as an epiphenomenon, related to

the body like a whistle to a train, playing no part
in its running. The train would “go” just as well
without the whistle. Only physical phenomena
were thought worthy of, or regarded as open to,
scientific study. Many regard that stage as now

over. In a more subtle sense I do not believe it is

over. Home put the question “Is psychodynamics

a science after all?” If it is, we have not yet

really decided in what sense.

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 The classic view of science still holds in
many minds. The extraordinary material and

technological success of physical science

compared with the extremely modest
achievements of mental science support this.

There is an emotional addiction to a view of

science which is, in fact, being intellectually
superseded. This seems to be strong in

psychiatry, and to be subtly present in much

psychoanalytical writing, because in this field
we operate closest to our own psychological
weaknesses; more so than in the physical
sciences, which therefore provide us with an
escape. Even Freud, when anxious, longed to get

back to the physiological laboratory again,

where he felt on safer ground. Astronomy,

physics, and chemistry provide the primary

model, with mathematics, for what is entitled to

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 be called science. They were the earliest
sciences to arise, because they dealt with the

kind of phenomena which were easiest to treat

scientifically, and they did not encounter so
much subjective emotional resistance in the

investigator, as when we study human nature.

Physiology, neurology and biochemistry were
built up on the same scientific model. They dealt

with “material” phenomena, and the pseudo-

philosophy of scientific materialism classed
mental phenomena with religion and fiction, as
not only outside science but not really important,
mere imagination.

I shall, however, refer here to “material” and

“mental” science. This does not imply any

definition of “matter” as opposed to “mind” as

entities. I mean simply that material science
studies those aspects of reality which we

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 investigate by sensory perception and
experimental methods based on it. One can

study behaviour this way, and call it psychology,

but it is not psychology. It is not about the
psyche, but only about the outward expression

of some aspects of it as behaviour, a most

incomplete guide to the full nature of a “person”
and the whole range of his subjective

experience. To quote Dicks:

While behaviour is subject to scientific

observation of an objective kind,
experience is not—it needs to be shared
and understood.

Physical scientists do not usually regard psychic

phenomena as having the same material

trustworthiness for investigation as material

facts. In whatever way we acquire our

knowledge of our thoughts, feelings and
volitions, we do not get to know them by seeing,

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 hearing, touching, tasting or smelling them, but
by a wholly subjective inner process which we

call recognition or realization of our immediate

experience. They are what Gellner (1959) calls
“warm mental entities, introspectible mental

experiences”. Of course, sensory perception is

also a subjective experience, but it has an
objective reference which is entirely absent from

our experiencing of ourselves.

We know our thoughts and feelings do not

have any necessary objective counterpart in the
outer world, but they have a reality of their own,

psychic reality. This direct immediate

knowledge of psychic reality is quite different
from our sensory experience of the outer world.

Our knowledge of our thoughts and feelings is

our experience of ourselves as “subjects”. We
can mentally know ourselves in this manner

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 without any intermediary method or technique

of investigation. There is nothing else at all that

we can know in this direct manner. We may, and
often do for our own motives, deceive ourselves

and distort our immediate experience of

ourselves. In that case we directly experience the
distortion. It is still true that when we realise that

we are thinking this thought or feeling this

emotion at this moment, that knowledge has an
absoluteness about it which cannot be

questioned. Free association rests on this. We

never consciously know all that we experience,
but whatever else a free-associating patient may

or may not know about himself, he knows with

certainty that he is thinking and feeling whatever
associations occur to him as he talks, and that

that knowledge is dependable. Psycho-analysis

bases itself on this fact, the fact that, even if only

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 slowly, psychic reality reveals itself to us
directly, that the analytic method frees more of it
to do so and that it has to be taken seriously as a
fact. It is only of our own experience that this is
true, and our capacity to know and understand
other people’s experience is based on our

knowledge of our own. Our understanding of

others is an inference based on our knowledge of
ourselves, will not be more thorough than our

knowledge of ourselves, and must be tested and

justified by further experience. That is why a

personal analysis is indispensable for a psycho-

analyst. But we can know others “on the inside”
by identification, as Home stressed, because we
know ourselves directly “on the inside”; and this

is a phenomenon entirely absent from the

physical sciences. In this sense “material
objects” have no subjective or “inside” aspects,

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 and can be wholly satisfactorily studied
objectively.

Possibly because of this difference, many

scientifically trained people seem reluctant to
recognize psychic reality as a fact. Mayer-Gross,

Slater and Roth (1954) say that

instability in the attitude of psychiatrists is

made all the easier by the subjectivity and
the lack of precision of psychological data
[their italics]. Mental events can only be
described in words that are themselves
often open to varied interpretation. Many
terms in psychiatry are taken from
everyday language, and are not clearly
defined. … Much psychiatric literature of
today owes its existence to the possibility
of playing with words and concepts; and
the scientific worker in psychiatry must
constantly bear in mind the risks of
vagueness and verbosity.

Yet they are not complaining of carelessness in

the precise use of terms, but of something

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 deeper. They speak of the “instability of
attitude” of students of psychiatric phenomena.
“Attitude” to what? They mean instability of
attitude to what is and is not science. They write:

This book is based on the conviction of the

authors that the foundations of psychiatry
have to be laid on the ground of the natural
sciences [their italics]. An attempt is made
to apply the methods and resources of a
scientific approach to the problems of
clinical psychiatry.

They simply equate science with “natural”

science, and reject any description of psychic
reality that does not conform to natural science

terminology, as “not clearly defined”, “vague

and verbose”, and “playing with words”. But it
is not for a scientist to try to dictate to facts, but

to try to understand what is there; and psychic

reality is indisputably there, and moreover its
study cannot be carried on “on the ground of the

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 natural sciences”. We need a “mental” or

“psychodynamic” science, distinguished from

“physical” science. This conclusion is supported
by Taylor in The Explanation of Behaviour

(1964). He writes:

To assume from the superiority of Galileo’s

principles in the sciences of inanimate
nature, that they must provide the model
for the sciences of animate behaviour, is to
make a speculative leap, not to enunciate a
necessary conclusion (p. 25).

He concludes that “Behaviourist Psychology”

shows the invalidity of one form of mechanistic

explanation of behaviour, which can only be

explained teleologically by reference to purpose;
that Behaviourism is “non-psychological

psychology”.

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 HAVE WE GOT A “MENTAL” SCIENCE?

It has been reserved for psycho-analysis to

show respect for, and create the definite concept

of, “psychic reality”, denoting as stubborn a fact

as can be found anywhere, in the sense that a
fact is what is effective. Yet it is not a fact that

can be studied by the same kind of methods used

in physical science. We gain nothing by avoiding
the use of the term “mental” even though we do

not work with a dualistic philosophy or regard

“mind” as a separate “thing”. “Matter” and
“mind” are the age-old and honoured terms by
means of which mankind has expressed its direct
recognition of the fact that there are two quite
different aspects of our existence. This is a fact

that it seems many people have not yet come to

terms with on the level of scientific thinking.

They still hanker after the false simplification of

“scientific materialism”. If we refuse to turn a

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 blind eye to this ineradicable dualism in our
experience of existence, then there are only two
possible solutions:

1. To limit science to the study of material

phenomena and agree with Home that
mental phenomena call for a different kind
of thinking.

2. To expand the meaning of science to include

the study of “mental” phenomena in its own
and not in physical terms.

Can we really do that? It is not satisfactorily

done by the development of the social sciences.
They look to us to supply a psychodynamic
science for them to work with. Otherwise they
can only deal with behaviour and study it

objectively.

Nor do I think that biology provides the type

of thinking required to do justice to mental or

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 psychic phenomena. I agree with Home that
biology comes under the heading of physical

science. As I understood him he distinguished

between studying live objects and dead objects,
but there is an ambiguity in the word “object”. It

covers both personal and impersonal objects but

the difference matters in psychodynamics. The
objects we are interested in are capable of being,

and in fact are, subjects of experience. The

objects of natural science are either not capable
of being subjects, or when they are it does not
matter to science, which ignores that aspect of
their reality. When live objects are studied as
subjects, we have psychodynamic science. On

the other hand when live subjects are studied as

objects only, as is done by biology, neurology,

behaviouristic psychology and sociology, then

we have the classic model of “natural” science.

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 There is an element of objectivity in every kind

of study and every kind of relationship, but I

would prefer to sum the matter up by saying that
psychodynamics studies its objects basically as

“subjects", while traditional science studies

whatever it does study as “objects only". It is
this exclusively objective approach of classical

science that fails to do justice to “persons” as

“subjects of experience”. Psychodynamic
studies pose a genuinely new problem for

science, which cannot be handled by the classic

scientific modes of conceptualization. Thus
either science in the traditional sense will have

its absolute limits revealed, or else it will

undergo radical revision as to the meaning of
science. This revision is actually already under

way, for it is found that there is not the old-

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 fashioned solidity and simplicity about matter,
space, and time that used to be assumed.

There may, however, be more to be said for

Home’s view that science can only deal with

“dead objects” or with live objects as if they
were dead. There is an arresting passage in

Bion’s (1962) Learning from Experience,

chapter 6. He calls sense-impressions β-
elements, which a hypothetical α-function works

up into α-elements, thoughts that can be used.

He says of some patients that “evading the

experience of contact with live objects by

destroying α-function” makes them unable to

have a relationship with anything except as an

automaton, i.e. a dead object. He then observes:

The scientist whose investigations include

the stuff of life finds himself in a situation
that has a parallel in such patients. The
breakdown in the patient’s equipment for

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 thinking leads to dominance by a mental
life in which his universe is populated by
inanimate objects. The inability of even the
most advanced human beings to make use
of their thoughts, because the capacity to
think is rudimentary in all of us, means that
the field for investigation, all investigation
being ultimately scientific, is limited, by
human inadequacy, to those phenomena
that have the characteristics of the
inanimate. We assume that the psychotic
limitation is due to illness; but that that of
the scientist is not. ... It appears that our
rudimentary equipment for “thinking”
thoughts is adequate when the problems are
associated with the inanimate, but not
when the object for investigation is the
phenomenon of life itself. Confronted with
the complexities of the human mind the
analyst must be circumspect in following
even accepted scientific method; its
weakness may be closer to the weakness of
psychotic thinking than superficial scrutiny
would admit.

Bion sees that traditional science would

depersonalize man, or as Wordsworth said “We

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 murder to dissect”. The psychotic and the
scientific limitations appear to meet in the
schizoid intellectual (and there are many among
scientists) who can only think about inanimate
objects, not about live subjects, for he is too
basically anxious to risk identification and the

sharing and understanding of experience. For

him, as for power politicians, persons are things.
Home can claim Bion as a powerful ally.

Science is limited to the investigation of

inanimate objects, which seems to imply that

some other kind of thinking must deal with live

subjects.

Nevertheless, I would prefer to accept Bion’s

shrewd observation about the nature of most of
what is called scientific or “natural” science
thinking, and go on to explore whether the
concept of science cannot still be expanded to

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 take in the study of “live subjects”. Bion

provides a reason for science remaining for so

long bound up with the ideology of scientific
materialism, which Macmurray described as

neither scientific nor philosophical, but only a

popular prejudice based on the prestige of
science. It may have deeper causes; partly

emotional, in that people feel safer on what they

think is the more solid ground of material facts,
but more, according to Bion, because of the

sheer limitations of our capacity to think beyond

the range of inanimate facts. It is of a piece with
this that many physical scientists regard the
human sciences such as anthropology, sociology

and psychology as either an inferior sort of

science, or even not properly science at all. A
reviewer of Teilhard de Chardin deprecated his

claim to be regarded as a scientist because his

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 anthropological pursuits did not have the
exactness required by the real sciences with their
mathematical tools. For this very reason

psychology, in its fight for scientific status, has

always had to encounter attempts to reduce it to
something less than psychology, such as
neurology, biology or physiology. We know
what a terrific struggle Freud had to move in an
opposite direction.

We cannot, however, reduce

psychodynamics to psychobiology. This does
not involve ignoring biology for its proper
contributions, as for example in problems of

heredity, but it avoids the confusion of thought

arising from mixing two different levels of
abstraction. For example, term like “meaning”
and “experience” belong specifically to the
psychological level. As I understand it, biology

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 does not deal with a living creature as a
“subject” whose experience and actions have

meaning for himself and others, but as an

objective phenomenon to be studied from the
outside by experimental methods, rather than

appreciated from the inside by identification,

sympathy, empathy, or what-have-you. Biology
for most scientists surely means biochemical,

just as psychology for material scientists means

psycho-physical. I fancy that in those compound
terms the important components are “chemical”
and “physical”. “Bio” and “psycho” are added as
consolation prizes. In spite of the powerful
support of Bion’s argument that the scientific

intellect is too limited to deal with anything but

the inanimate, I would rather not distinguish, as
Home does, between the “live” and the “dead”

as the fields of study respectively of

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 psychodynamics and physical science, for this
seems to me to indicate only the difference
between biology and physics. We are more
concerned with the difference between the
merely animate and the personal, i.e. between
the personal, and the subpersonal and

impersonal: for there are forms of existence

which are alive but of no interest to us in
psycho-dynamics because they are not personal

(such as fleas, bugs, mosquitos, plants). We are

concerned with the study of the “person”, with

that level of abstraction at which we speak of the

human being as not a “thing” or an “organism”
but a “unique individual". We only talk
significantly about persons when we talk of their

experiencing their environment and themselves

in a way that has meaning. The difference
between these two levels of thinking is clear

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 from the fact that a person has no meaning for

his merely material environment, but that

environment has meaning for him. I mean
nothing to the mountains of Glencoe but they

mean a great deal to me. It is the “person", the

unique and individual “subject” of meaningful
experience that the methods of traditional

science so fail to deal with. Psychodynamics is

the science of the personal subject, not of mere
objects. Psychodynamics is the touchstone of
whether psychology in its own right has really

been accepted as a science.

Psychotherapists, whether psychiatric like

Sullivan, or psycho-analytic like Szasz and

Colby, have produced stout protests against the

reduction of psychodynamics to something less

than itself. Szasz (1956) wrote:

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 Mathematics can function as a tool in
physics and astronomy without the identity
of those sciences suffering thereby.
Psychology cannot so use mathematics
without thereby altering its own identity. It
appears that in psychology the very process
of expressing experiences in highly
abstract symbols—even if they pertain to
phenomena which are ordinarily thought of
as psychological—alters one’s conception
of the nature of the problem.

Sullivan and Colby are, however, somewhat

equivocal.

Sullivan (1955) writes:

Biological and neurological terms are

utterly inadequate for studying everything
in life. ... I hope that you will not try to
build up in your thinking correlations (i.e.
of “somatic” organization with
psychiatrically important phenomena) that
are either purely imaginary or relatively
unproven, which may give you the idea
that you are in a solid reliable field in
contrast to one which is curiously

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 intangible. If a person really thinks that his
thoughts about nerves and synapses and the
rest have a higher order of merit than his
thoughts about signs and symbols, all I can
say is, Heaven help him.

So far so good, but then Sullivan rules out the

study of the person’s “unique individuality”. He

says it is a great thing in our wives and children
but we are not concerned with it in science. But

it is the very point in question when we ask what

is the nature and status of psychodynamic
studies. “Unique individuality” is just what we
are concerned with, for in Sullivan’s

“interpersonal relationships”, what we are and

how we react is most closely bound up with

what the other person is, and vice versa. Sullivan

is saying that something knowable is outside
science. After proclaiming the limitations of

physical science, Sullivan fails to establish a

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 psychodynamic science on its own proper level,
which may warn us of the difficulties.

Colby (1955) also illustrates the failure of a

thinker, who certainly understands the

limitations of physical science, to establish
psychodynamic science satisfactorily. He speaks
of levels of integration in reality and of
abstraction in thought, and writes:

At each level of integration, characteristic

and new properties emerge which are not
entirely explainable in terms of levels
below them. For these new properties,
special methods of study and a special
language are required. ... At the psychic
level of integration, between the neuronal
and the social, we assume certain
properties to be the consequence of what
our language calls psychic functions. …
The higher we go in theoretical abstraction,
and the further away we get from material
tangible substances, the more difficult it
seems for some to grasp what it is that is

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 being discussed. Many simply cannot
understand what it means to theorise on a
psychic level. We must now abandon them
as ill-starred and continue on in a
psychological language.

What then is Colby’s psychological language?

We find we are after all no further forward. He
says:

We consider psychic functions to be

performed by a hypothetical psychic
apparatus. It is an imaginary, postulated
organization, a construct which aids our
understanding of certain observable
properties … But there is no point-to-point
correspondence between the psychic
apparatus and the brain.

He avoids the reduction of psychology to

physiology but has not arrived at a true

psychology. An “apparatus for studying
observable properties” is a physical science

concept, quite unsuitable for representing

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 personality. At best it could only conceptualize

the study of behaviour, not of the experience of a

personal self which has unique individuality.
“Meaning”, which is so vital to the reality of

psychic experience and everything that psycho-

analysis studies, is not “an observable property”.
We can see or hear certain agreed ways we have

of conveying our meanings to one another, but

“meaning” in itself is not observable; it can only
be subjectively realised, appreciated. So true is

this that, when we have written or said

something and believe we have made it crystal
clear, we can be disconcerted to find that

someone thinks we have written or said

something entirely different from what we
meant. Colby proceeds to elaborate a diagram of

endopsychic structure which might well pass as

a diagram of a computer or electronic brain,

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 processing in-put and delivering out-put. Thus
even those who see that psychodynamics call for

a new or broader conception of science, do not

yet see clearly what a truly “psychodynamic”
science will be like.

The contribution of Hutten (1956) is

important at this point. He writes:

[In psychodynamics] we describe all

happenings in terms of psychical reality,
and so can dispense with the frame-work of
physical space-time which does not apply
to mental phenomena.

He accepts multiplicity of causes and over-

determination as essential to psychological

theory and in no way militating against its

scientific status. It is heartening to find a
professor of physics who does not use the term

“cause” with its old scientific meaning in the

realm of psychology. He says:

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 Classical physics is taken as the standard
when it is said that a scientific theory must
explain a given phenomenon in one way
only; but this is not really true even there,
and certainly not in modern physics.
Underneath this ideal is, I think, the
metaphysical belief in the mechanical
determinism of past centuries, according to
which everything in the world is connected
by the iron chain of necessity.

Hutten confirms my feeling that a view of

science which is gradually becoming outdated

intellectually, is still held for unconscious

emotional reasons. Just as Freud said that the
religious believer projected the father-image
onto the universe for security reasons, so many a

scientific believer projects onto the universe the

“iron-chain-of-necessity” image, scientific

materialism, also for security reasons. They feel

on safer ground then. There is nothing like

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 dealing at first hand with psychic reality, for
encountering disturbance.

Psycho-analysis itself grew up so much

under the sway of the classic scientific outlook,
that Freud could not really escape that projection

himself. Thus many attempts to make psycho-

analysis scientific have in fact been
unrecognised attempts after all to press it back
into the mould of the material science type of

theory. This becomes increasingly unsatisfactory

as the modern philosophy of science makes it

plain that physical science no longer sanctions

the old solid reliable deterministic universe, a

closed system in which we know to a certainty

exactly what is what. Thus Popper in The Logic

of Scientific Discovery (1959) writes:

The empirical basis of objective science

has nothing absolute in it. Science does not

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 rest upon rock bottom. The bold structure
of its theories rises as it were above a
swamp. It is like a building erected upon
piles. The piles are driven down from
above into a swamp, but not down to any
natural or given base; and when we cease
to drive our piles into the deeper layers, it
is not because we have reached firm
ground. We simply stop when we are
satisfied that they are firm enough to carry
the structure, at least for the time being.

By the “swamp” I take it Popper means the area

of ultimate ignorance beyond our limited
knowledge. Bertrand Russell’s prophecy many
years ago that one day science would have
discovered everything and provided a gigantic
card index in which we could look up the

answers to every possible question, seems now

unconvincing. Since the movement of science
has been from the physical to the psychical, it is

comforting, when we are puzzled by psychic

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 reality, to remember that physical reality is part
of the same swamp, and we are only trying to

drive the piles a bit deeper. How are we doing

this?

Hutten has thoroughly excluded physical

models for psychic reality, but I do not feel he

has yet arrived at a full psychodynamic science.
He says:

The usual cause-and-effect language breaks

down when we want to treat processes in
which we cannot immediately recognize
some constant element. The language
works only if the process is no more than
the displacement of a permanent thing in
space-time under the influence of a
constant force. This is largely true for
physics, but even there exist examples
where this no longer holds. ... A psycho-
analytic explanation is about a conflict or a
process. … The same set of data (may)
lead to exactly opposite results … which
shows that the processes underlying human

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 behaviour are dynamical in the sense that
they represent a conflict or tension between
two opposite poles.

What this demonstrates is that psycho-

analysis has a right to its own terminology and
cannot be strictly modelled on physical science.

Hutten looks in the right direction when he says

that in psychodynamics we speak not about

causal laws but about the aetiology of an

illness. Instead of description and
prediction we have diagnosis and
prognosis. … Unlike mass points human
beings have a history and we cannot hope
to predict their future from their present
alone.

But neither can we hope to predict their future at

all, even from their present plus their history.

What Hutten is glimpsing is the human personal

subject of experience as the source of
psychodynamic phenomena. Unless we think of

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 Hutten’s “processes” and “tensions” and
“opposite poles” as manifestations of the life of
a personal subject, we shall find we have slipped
back into some kind of physical science

terminology, and are not on the proper level of

psychodynamics. We seek a genuinely
psychodynamic theory, not tied to the physical

conception of science, yet not giving up the

claim to be scientific. Psychodynamics is called
on to conceptualize what science has never

hitherto regarded as coming within its purview,

namely the human being as a unique centre of
highly individual experience and responsibility.

IS “OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORY” A
TRUE PSYCHODYNAMIC SCIENCE?

In what terms can we construct

psychodynamic science? I have much sympathy
with Home’s view that some metapsychological

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 statements literally do not mean anything, as for
example when Segal (1964) tells us that “the

infant projects the death instinct into the breast”.

This extraordinary statement is due both to
careless use of words (if the infant has such a

thing as a death instinct, it certainly cannot

project it anywhere else), and a confused mixing
of psychodynamic and biological concepts.

“Projection” is a psychodynamic concept,

“instinct” is a biological concept. An instinct
cannot be projected. Moreover, though Freud
said “Instincts are our mythology”, and on its
first introduction spoke of the “death instinct” as
a speculation he, and certainly Melanie Klein,

and Segal thereafter, treated it simply as an

undisputed fact. Credible theory cannot be
created in this way.

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 This difficulty of the confused mixing of
psychodynamic and biological concepts is

perhaps clarified indirectly by a statement of

Foulkes (1965) on Group Therapy. He said:

Psycho-analysis is a biological theory

which has only very reluctantly been
pushed into being a social theory by the
pressure of psychotherapy. Group therapy
is not psycho-analysis.

The first sentence is, I am sure, right.

Psychotherapy is a social, personal relationship

problem. This is obvious in group therapy but

not really less so in individual analysis. Thus,
psycho-analysis, which came into being as a

result of a search for a method of, and a

theoretical basis for, psychotherapy, did not,
after all, in its original form, provide one.
Psycho-analysis began as a biological theory,

and has been very reluctant to be pushed into

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 being more than that. But it has been so pushed
by the pressures of psychotherapy, which needs
a social and personal relations theory. Is that not
the explanation of the great difference between
the pre-1920 biological stage of Freud’s work,
and the post-1920 psychodynamic stage growing

out of the theory of the superego, a concept

which owed nothing at all to biology but is a
pure psychodynamic concept? What Foulkes
called “the pressure of psychotherapy” is the

pressure of the facts about human beings as

persons, demanding a theory which goes beyond
both physiology and biology to the highest level
of abstraction, where we study the unique
individual. In this first period Freud struggled to

transcend physiology and arrived at

psychobiology. In his second period he began to
transcend psychobiology and move on to a

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 consistent psycho-dynamic theory of personal
object-relations. With his concept of the super-

ego, we begin to see, not an organism dominated

by instincts, but an “ego which has instincts
among its various properties”, shaped as a whole

in the matrix of human interaction. But the drag

of biology and of the metapsychology built on it
proved strong, and the result is seen in the work

of Melanie Klein. She moved steadily towards a

fully-developed object-relations theory while at
the same time clinging all the more tightly to an

instinct-theory metapsychology, giving us the

unfortunate death instinct, constitutional envy

and so on. Nevertheless, the direction that

development was taking, was bound to demand

a re-evaluation of the term “ego”, as more than

just a control-apparatus. In the work of Fairbairn
it became what etymologically it really is, a term

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 denoting the “I”, the core of the personal self,
the essence of the “whole human being”.

The difficulties in psycho-analytic theory

arise from its having remained too tied to classic

“natural science” concepts, particularly in
biological form. This could not have been
avoided. Psycho-analysis arose in the natural
science era. It was only Freud’s work that forced
recognition of psychic reality in a new way.

Everything cannot be done at once. New insight

grows gradually out of a period of confusion in
which old and new overlap. But Foulkes was

surely right when he said that the pressures of

psychotherapy have forced theory to move on, I
would say to a consistently psychodynamic

theory of the unique individual in his personal

relations. This is what the emergence of “Object-
Relations" theory is about.

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 The argument so far can be brought to a head

by a closer look at the work of Bion. He

criticizes psycho-analytic theories for being “a
compound of observed material and abstraction

from it”. He seeks a theory of “the practice of

psychoanalysis” which uses only “pure scientific
abstraction”. What is meant by “pure scientific
abstraction”? Abstract terms must be appropriate

and relevant to the level of reality at which the

abstraction is made. Is he making a
psychodynamic theory of the person? His

abstractness might seem a target for Szasz’s

criticism that in expressing psychological
experiences in highly abstract symbols we alter

our conception of the nature of the problem.

Nevertheless Bion’s concepts imply a dynamic
experiencing person whose processes he

symbolizes. He uses the symbols α and β to

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 avoid prejudging issues by premature

description. Thus he speaks of our capacity for

thought-making as α-function so as to avoid the
risk of defining it concretely in advance of
adequate knowledge. This is entirely legitimate.

He postulates β-elements as experiences of, and

a-function as a dynamic activity of, an
individual psyche, α-function operates on two

different sets of data, sense impressions and

emotions. These are the β-elements which α-
function works up into thoughts usable for
thinking. Wisdom points out9 that the theory
requires two levels of both consciousness and
comprehension, a primitive consciousness and

comprehension of β-elements or the raw

materials of experiences, and then a more
developed level of consciousness and

comprehension on which α-function does its

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 work and produces “thoughts”. If α-function
fails we cannot think, for we have no thoughts to
think with. Here again we must distinguish two

levels of thinking, thinking as a process that

develops “thoughts” and thinking as a process
that uses “thoughts”. There seem then to be three
levels of psychic activity, immediate experience
(sense data and emotions), thought-production,
and reflection on experience (science). These

can only be theoretically distinguished in our

actual experience, except where pathological
states artificially isolate them. β-elements are the
starting-point of all our experience, α-function is
our “digestion” of it, (Bion’s term) and science
is our reflection on it.

The immediate experience of sense

impressions must be the raw material of physical
science, from which our α-function builds up

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 such understanding as we can achieve, of the

external world. But that cannot be the model for

mental science, for the raw material of that is
not sense impressions but emotions, i.e. our

experience of ourselves as subjects in relation to

objects. Our α-function may well operate less
adequately on emotions than on sense-

impressions, so that we find thought-building

easier about objects than about subjects. Here
may lie the innate limits of our capacity for

thinking that Bion refers to. One result is that it

is difficult to talk about mental phenomena in
any other than metaphorical language. Our

language is based primarily on sensory

experience. We apply the terminology of sense-
perception to psychic phenomena when we

speak of the unconscious as “deep down”, or of

the schizoid person as “shut in” and “out of

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 touch with his world”, or of the ego as “split”.
But patients themselves describe their
experience that way and what other language
would express it as accurately, for the purposes
of primary description. This no doubt is what
Home meant in a private communication when

he said that he regarded the language of

psychology as ordinary language. This is the
criticism of Mayer-Gross and others (1954) that

“terms in psychiatry are taken from everyday

language” and that psychic phenomena “lack

precision”. But they do not lack precision if we

look for the right kind of precision, precise
expression of emotional, not sensory experience.
“Shut in” does not express a spatial relation but

a state of mind, a substitution of self-

communing for object-relationship. The
possibility of thought-building is easier for

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 physical science, but cannot be an impossibility

for mental science, for after all we are dealing

with facts, the facts of psychic experience and
reality.

Using Bion’s ideas, physical science is the

result of his hypothetical α-function turning our
immediate experience of sense impressions of
objects into thoughts of objects, which are then

developed through the levels of dream-thoughts,

concepts, scientific systems and finally algebraic
calculus. But this physical science is simply an

account of the easier half of our experience to

think about and conceptualize. Mental science is

about the more difficult half of our experience to

conceptualize, not the objective world but

ourselves as the subjects of experience. It must

be thought of as α-function turning the β-

elements of our emotional experience of

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 “ourselves in relation to others”, into thoughts
which can be developed into psychodynamic

science. This is the difference between the

science of objects known from the outside, and
of subjects known from the inside. We have

made more headway with the first than the

second. My own feeling is that “Object
Relations” theory is the nearest we have got yet
to a true psychodynamic science. It is not all the

way there but it is on the way. It appears to me

that Home’s “humanistic thinking” is the

description of our immediate experience of

ourselves in ordinary everyday language. If that
were substituted for “Psychodynamic Science” I
think it would be open to Gellner’s (1959)

criticism of “ideographic science”, as

[a] study which claims to know individual

things “in their full individuality” and

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 without the intermediary of general terms
or concepts.

We must have general concepts, but derived from

the study of experience, not of behaviour. There
must be a further stage of reflection, or thinking

about experience, which is psychodynamic

science, working with general abstract ideas of
personal, not impersonal, reality.

Freud’s work has developed into the

exploration of the subjective personal life of
man, the understanding of our inner experience,

as distinct from the objective description of

behaviour. Instincts are no longer all-important
and the central place in the theory is now taken
by the ego, the core of the personal self, in living

relations with other persons or selves. Freud’s

supreme achievement was to rise superior to his
scientific origins and challenge science to go

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 beyond treating human beings as laboratory

specimens to be investigated and manipulated,

and see them as persons whose lives mean
something to themselves and others; persons

who can only really be known and helped by

someone who does not just objectively diagnose
their illness and prescribe treatment, but who

knows and in a way shares their experience of

suffering, goes along with them in seeking to
understand it, and offers them a relationship in

which they rediscover their lost capacity to trust

and love. The analytic session and the
therapeutic relationship is the laboratory in

which psychodynamic science is formulated,

and all the time it is a problem of understanding
what is going on here and now between two

persons, how their past experience contaminates

their present meeting, how that can be

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 eliminated and replaced by realistic mature
relationship, i.e. how two “egos” can meet in a
fully shared experience. This is what the

“Object-Relations” theory, emerging from the

work of Melanie Klein and Fairbairn is in
process of exploring and formulating: what
Martin Buber calls the “I-Thou” relation in
contrast to the scientific “I-It” relation.

Before we look specifically at “Object-

Relations” theory, it must be noted that so far

use has been made of Bion’s views only as they

concern “thought-building”, the development of

the intellectual function with its ultimate

consequence, the creation of science. This

corresponds to Winnicott’s use of the term

“mind” as distinct from “psyche”. Mind is not
there at the beginning as psyche is. Later in the
first year, brain maturation makes intellectual

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 activity possible, and Winnicott then speaks of
“mind” or the infant’s “thinking” capacity as
gradually becoming able to take over the care of
the child from the mother. The primary psyche

he regards as not simply a reflection of somatic

experience, for it may be but loosely related to
the body in the first months of life. Soma and

psyche are distinguishable aspects of the whole

“person”. Winnicott (1958) writes:

The psyche of a normal infant may lose

touch with the body, and there may be
phases in which it is not easy for the infant
to come suddenly back into the body, for
instance, when waking from deep sleep.

The psyche must learn to integrate somatic

experience, and this it can only do if
environmental adaptation to the infant’s needs is

adequate. The fact that the infant psyche can

lose touch with the body and regain it frequently

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 in the earliest months, emphasizes what
psychoanalysis calls “psychic reality” as distinct

from “material (somatic) reality”. The psyche

(Fairbairn’s “pristine ego”), which Winnicott
says is “from the beginning … already a human

being, a unit”, experiences the soma, and

develops an inner relation to it, comes to “own
it” or feels at one with it, and this is part of the

integration of personality as experience

develops.

In “object-relational” terms, the infant

psyche is from the start potentially an ego, or as

Fairbairn puts it a “pristine ego” as yet

undifferentiated as to internal structure, and it
needs a good enough human environment to

make possible the actualization of the ego

through a developing process in object-relations.
Here we may return to Bion’s “emotions” as “β-

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 elements” and he includes in his list of basic

“functions of the personality” the emotions of

loving and hating. I do not understand why
“fearing” is omitted. He includes in his basic

functions “reaction between the paranoid-

schizoid and depressive positions”, and fear is
the basis of the paranoid-schizoid position in

exactly the same way as hate is the basis of

depression. The omission of fear seems to be
due to the persistence of the traditional psycho-

analytical view that the fundamental conflict is

that between love and hate. Freud held that hate
is the primary human reaction to the
environment and that fear is the secondary result

of hate. The study of the schizoid position as

antedating depression makes it clear that the
very opposite is the truth. Human beings hate

because they are afraid. If the weak and

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 dependent infant finds his environment
unsupporting and even hostile while he is as yet

quite unable to defend and support himself, fear

dictates withdrawal and the breaking off of
relationships. It is fear that makes it impossible

to love and the conflict between love and fear is

the fundamental problem. In an intractable
environment, it leaves the infant with only one

choice, that between “flight” and “fight”,

between schizoid withdrawal or the development
of hate, of fighting back at those who make it

impossible to love, as the only means of

maintaining object-relations. It takes a strong

and stable person to love; hate is a defence of

weakness and fear.

The simplest elements of our psychic

experience in its emotional aspect are (1) a
natural capacity to trust, depend on and love (at

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 first unconsciously) the good object, and grow
with it feeling secure; (2) fear of the bad object,
precipitating schizoid withdrawal and the
breakdown of object-relationships, which can
only be maintained at the price of paranoid
persecutory anxiety; (3) hate of the bad object in

an attempt to retrieve the situation, force it to

become helpful and restore object-relations.
(This refers to pathological hate. There is a
healthy hate which a mature person will feel as a

response to, say, intentional evil such as

deliberate cruelty); (4) guilt, insofar as, unlike
fear, hate implies love and involves hurting love-

objects, thus evoking the urge to reparation;

and/or (5) self-punishment, self-suppression, the
sadistic “superego” or “antilibidinal ego”, with

resulting loss of physical and emotional

spontaneity, and the growth of rigidities of

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 character and inhibition of functions. (6) Out of

this inherently unstable and highly complex

inner situation, having fear and the lost capacity
to love at the bottom of it, personality illness

arises. This is not the result of failure of mere

gratification of instincts, but of the tension and
conflict of the desperate struggle to achieve and
maintain a viable ego, a self adequate to cope

with living in the outer world. These are the

emotional experiences which a-function must
“digest” (Bion) and turn into “thoughts” if we

are to be able to understand them and build up a

psychodynamic science. They are all object-
relational experiences. We have to deal with the

ego-growth in object-relations.

Laing (1965) has criticised Object-Relations

Theory in a way which it seems pertinent at this

point to examine. He said:

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 The object-relations theory attempts to
achieve, as Guntrip has argued, a synthesis
between the intra-and the inter-personal. Its
concepts of internal and external objects, of
closed and open systems, go a considerable
way. Yet it is still “objects” not “persons”
that are written of.

In an earlier version of his paper he put this

more strongly: “The objects, in object-relations

theory, are internal objects, not other persons.”
This latter criticism would appear to me to be
true of Kleinian theory, where internal objects
are formed first of all, not by external
experience, but by the internal operation of a

biological factor, the innate conflict of the life

and death instincts, which is then projected onto
external objects. The internal life of the ego
could be worked out as a solipsistic affair and

the external world need be no more than a blank

projection screen. So far as Fairbairn’s object-

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 relations theory is concerned internal objects
belong properly to the realms of the
psychopathological, since they are internalized

in the first instance because they are bad objects.

This, it seems, is supported by Bion’s view that
good experience is digested and worked up by
α-function into thoughts. Bad experience
remains undigested, a foreign body in the mind
which the psychic subject then seeks to project.

In health, ideally, our objects are not internal

objects but real persons, even though in fact
none of us can be as healthy as that. But our
internal objects are reflections of our experience
of real persons from earliest infancy.
Psychotherapy aims at cure by real relationship

between two human beings as persons. In it, the

psychopathological relationship of the ego to its
internal objects as revealed in the transference,

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 steadily changes into the healthy reality of
objectively real personal, or ego to ego,

relations, first achieved by the patient with the

therapist, and then becoming capable of
extension to the rest of life. The “ego” for

Fairbairn was not an “apparatus” nor merely a

structural part of a psychic system. It is the
personal self, so that when the primary ego is

split in experience of other real persons, each

aspect of it retains “ego” quality as a functioning
aspect of the basic self.

Should we speak of “Object-Relations”

theory or of “Personal-” or “Ego-” or “Subject-

Relations” theory? In one way the term “object-

relations” begins to date. It reminds one of

Freud’s “sexual object” which was there to

gratify an instinct, not to provide a two-way

relationship. On the other hand there is no

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 intrinsic objection to the use of the term “object”
provided it is not held to imply an exclusively
impersonal object. Even then, a science of
human experience must include Buber’s “I-It”
relation, the ego-object relationship where the
object is impersonal, since this is a valid part of

the experience of the ego, not solely in the sense

of the scientific investigation of material objects,
but in the sense of say, the appreciation of
beauty in nature. Nevertheless what really

concerns psychodynamic science is the ego-

object experience where the object is another
ego. Only then do we have the full reality of
personal experience and personal relations.
Psychodynamics is the study of that type of

experience in which there is reciprocity between

subject and object, and of the experience of ego-

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 emptying and ego-loss when relationship and

reciprocity fail.

I made my own view clear in Chapter 17 of

Personality Structure and Human Interaction

(1961). I described immature relations as

essentially unequal and of the “one-up-and-the-
other-down” type. This is natural in the case of
parent and child but pathological as between

adults, as for example in the sado-masochistic

relationship. In a way each is “using” the other
rather than “relating personally” to the other, and

such relations tend towards the “I-It” pattern.

Mature relations are two-way relations between

emotional equals, characterized by mutuality,

spontaneity, co-operation, appreciation, and the

preservation of individuality in partnership.

There can be no “turning of the tables” in this

kind of relationship, for it is the same both ways.

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 Each goes on being and becoming, because of

what the other is being and becoming, in their

personal interaction and mutual knowledge.
Object-relations theory has not yet come

sufficiently to grips with conceptualizing this. It

does now possess a truly psychodynamic theory
of the development of the individual ego in

personal relationships; but not of the complex

fact of the personal relationship itself between
two egos. From Freud’s ego and superego,
through Melanie Klein’s internal objects,

projection and introjection, to Fairbairn’s

splitting of both ego and objects in relationship,
and finally Winnicott’s tracing of the absolute

origin of the ego in the maternal relationship, we

have a highly important view of what happens to
the individual psyche under the impact of

personal relations in real life. But the theory has

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 not yet properly conceptualized Martin Buber’s
“I-Thou” relation, two persons being both ego
and object to one another at the same time, and
in such a way that their reality as persons
becomes, as it develops in the relationship, what
neither of them would have become apart from

the relationship. This is what happens in a good

marriage, and a good friendship. This is what
psychotherapy seeks to make possible, for the

patient who cannot, because of his inner

problems, achieve it in normal living. This is
what out theory has to deal with. This raises the
fundamental question: how far can we know and

be known by one another?

REFERENCES

Bion, W. R. (1962). Learning from Experience.

London: Heinemann.

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 Colby, K. (1955). Energy and Structure in
Psychoanalysis. New York: Ronald.

Foulkes, S. (1965). Group psychotherapy: the group-

analytic view. Proceedings of the 6th
International Congress of Psychotherapy, ed.
Pines and Spoerri. New York and Basle: Karger.

Gellner, E. (1959). Words and Things. London:

Gollancz.

Guntrip, H. (1961). Personality Structure and

Human Interaction. London: Hogarth Press.

Home, H. J. (1966). The concept of mind.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 47.

Hutten, E. H. (1956). On explanation in psychology

and physics. British Journal of Philosophical
Science 7.

Laing, R. (1965). Practice and theory: the present

situation. Proceedings of the 6th International
Congress of Psychotherapy, (see Foulkes 1965).

Mayer-Gross, W., Slater, E, and Roth, M. (1954).

Clinical Psychiatry, 1st ed. London: Cassell.

Popper, K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery.

London: Hutchinson.

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 Segal, H. (1964). Introduction to the Work of
Melanie Klein. London: Heinemann.

Sullivan, H. S. (1955). Conceptions of Modem

Psychiatry. London: Tavistock Publications.

Szasz, T. (1956). Is the concept of entropy relevant to

psychology and psychiatry? Psychiatry 19.

Taylor, C. (1964). The Explanation of Behaviour.

London: Kegan Paul.

Winnicott, D. W. (1958). The first year of life:

modern views on the emotional development. In
The Family and Individual Development.
London: Tavistock Publications, (rep. 1965).

Note
[9] In a review-article (unpublished) on Bion’s work.

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 11

THE HEART OF THE PERSONAL10

The theme of this memorial lecture to Mary

Hemingway Rees, ‘Religion in Relation to
Personal Integration’, indicates one of her

special interests. It is a formidable task to try to

‘think together’ two great areas of human living
in which I am deeply interested, psychotherapy
and religion. But I must first rule out any

misunderstanding of what I am going to talk

about. I shall not discuss the Christian, Jewish,
Hindu or Mohammedan religions, or any
religious cults or creeds that arose in particular

historical and cultural conditions. Today we can

all share in the gifts to humanity of the great

seers, Jesus, the Buddha, Socrates, Mohammed,

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 Confucius, and many others, who saw beyond
that obsession with purely material ends,

described by Wordsworth as: ‘Getting and

spending, we lay waste our powers’. The world
today is a much smaller place than it was 100

years ago, and it has become more possible for

us to think in terms of our common shared
humanity than it was in, say, A.D. 1800. Then,

most individuals throughout the world hardly

knew of the existence of any other culture than
their own, and the religion in which they were
brought up must have seemed the only religion.
Today, radio, television and air travel have
brought us all together from every part of the

globe, and parochialism is impossible. We must

learn to think in terms of the fundamental
realities of experience in which we all share as

human beings. By religion, then, I shall mean a

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 basic human experience which, however
differently it may be expressed in different times

and places, is essentially the same for all men.

‘Experience of what?’ is the question we seek to
answer. I want to explore the fundamental nature

of the religious experience as such.

First we may note that if Freud did not

contribute much to the question of the nature of

religious experience per se, he did show that

there are neurotic forms of religion which are an
essentially infantile longing for a lost Mummy
and Daddy. If, however, we dismiss all religion

because there is such a thing as neurotic religion,

we are on dangerous ground, for there are also

neurotic forms of politics, of art, of marriage.

Fairbairn once said to me: ‘If we psychoanalyse

everything, what will there be left?’ We cannot

dismiss anything because it can be neurotic, for

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 neurosis is simply the disturbed and anxious
expression of normal and ineradicable human

needs, a distorted expression of human truth. It

is the investigation of neurosis that has taught us
so much about what is normal and basic for

man. We cannot draw any hard and fast line

between the normal and the neurotic; do not all
of us partake to some extent in the fears,

anxieties and insecurities that man is heir to. The

chronic uncertainty of the very disturbed human
being as to his viability as a ‘person’, itself
throws a flood of light on the essential truth
about human nature, and is one of the facts that
can throw light on the nature of religious

experience. Freud was precipitate in discarding

religion because he found neurotic forms of it.

But he did say definitely that his atheism was not

part of psychoanalysis. If religion can express

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 neurotic dependence, atheism can express
equally neurotic independence. There is no easy

negative solution of our problem along these

lines.

However, a scientific education still tends to

make people deny any kind of reality to religion;

and to regard the human needs traditionally met
by religion, as met now by political creeds,
scientific knowledge or philosophical insights. I

shall not spend long arguing this point, but be

content with two references, the first to Bertrand
Russell. This eminent philosopher proved to his

own satisfaction that man is merely an

insignificant accident in a purely mechanistic
universe, knowable only by the methods of

impersonal objective scientific experimentation.

Man is wholly without any intrinsic meaning
and value; indeed meaning and value are non-

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 existent in the scientist’s universe. But when
Russell turned from scientific theory about the

universe to the practical social, political and

moral problems of our daily living, he found
himself resolutely championing the rights of

individual human beings to be valued, respected,

left in undisputed possession of their intellectual
and emotional liberty. According to the ‘Rights

of Man’, no totalitarianism has any moral or any

other kind of right to ride roughshod over the
individual’s need for freedom to be fully human.
But this does not agree with the view that human
beings are meaningless accidents of no value
whatever. Russell could not have it both ways,

and had the courage to say that if we seek

justification for believing in the sacred rights of

human beings to be respected as persons having

intrinsic value, we must seek it in the higher

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 religions, for we cannot find it in science (1944).
There is no real difficulty in this. Science does

not find meaning, value and purpose in the

phenomena it studies, simply because it is not its
concern to look for them. It does not investigate

that side of existence. It gives us the tools and

knowledge to manipulate our environment,
including our own bodies. It cannot give us the

values and meanings of our relating to one

another as persons, which alone makes our
existence significant. Physical science alone,
uncontrolled by the imperative spiritual values
of our personal living in human fellowship, is
more likely to destroy us than save us, with its

nuclear missiles and its horrific annihilating

germ warfare weapons. What disturbs many

scientists today is that their discoveries are so

quickly harnessed to destructive ends. We have

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 to consider seriously the possibility of some
group of schizoid psychopaths, who can so

easily seize power in the political field,

recklessly unleashing destructive forces that
could not be counteracted. There is no reason in

science for this not to happen. It would merely

be another meaningless event.

But it would be irrational to blame science

for what is not the proper business of science.

We have to move beyond science into the realm

of moral and spiritual values to find the forces
that can control science: and then we are in the

field of both mental health and religion, and find

the two cannot easily be separated. If we do not
define mental health in a narrow medical way,

nor religion in some particular sectarian sense

but take it in its universal meaning, then we may
consider whether mental health and religion are

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 not two closely related ways of looking at the
same thing. It is relevant here to define

‘integration’ and ‘maturity’. The term

‘integration’ in our title is usually a synonym for
mental health in the sense of outgrowing internal

divisions and conflicts, split-ego states, and the

achievement of a fully functioning ‘whole’ self.
‘Maturity’ is defined in dictionaries as ‘fully

developed’, ‘perfected by natural growth’.

Psychologically I suggest it means the
realization of our full potentialities as persons in
personal relationships. None of us ever are
integrated or mature in those full meanings, but
they are important goals to have in mind. It may

well be that integration, maturity, mental health

and religious experience are all closely related.

I will illustrate this by a reference to an

American psychoanalyst who paid me a visit.

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 We discussed our analytical interests, and then

he said: ‘I am a Jew, brought up in the orthodox

Jewish religion. When I trained as a doctor, I felt
my scientific outlook made it impossible to

believe the orthodox faith. I could not become

an atheist, which is only being negatively
dogmatic and is equally unprovable. I decided to

call myself an agnostic, and suspend judgement

till I gained further experience. Then I came
across Fairbairn’s book on psychoanalytic

object-relations theory, and your expositions of

it. A group of us studied this approach which put
the nature of personal relationships in the centre

of the field of inquiry. I then found that some of

us were feeling that Freud’s atheism was getting
old-fashioned and out of date, and we began to

rethink the whole subject. We started with the

fact that all through human history there has

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 been something called “religious experience”,
and we are trying to find out what it is. We feel
this psychology of “personal relationships” is
most likely to throw real light on the matter.’

That seems to me a valid approach. Our

subject is ‘Religion in Relation to Personal
Integration’. The finding of present-day ‘object-
relations theory’ is that personal integration is a
function of growth in the medium of loving

personal relationships. Since religion is pre-

eminently an experience of personal

relationship, which extends the ‘personal’

interpretation of experience to the nth degree, to

embrace both man and his universe in one

meaningful whole, the integrating nature of fully
developed personal relationship experience, is
our most solid clue to the nature of religious
experience. It is not my business to deal with

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 philosophical and metaphysical problems, but to
examine whether psychology can throw any

light on the nature of religion. In doing this I am

not using a circular argument, defining
integration as religious experience and then

treating religious experience as integration. I see

both of them as closely related manifestations of
the basic development-process of human living,

which is a process of personal-relating at every

stage. A personality split by fears and hates
cannot relate constructively to any
environmental reality, human or universal. Fears
and hates are only outgrown and a healthy
‘wholeness’ restored by the influence of a

healing or therapeutic relationship. Personal

integration and personal relationships are a
beneficient circle in fact; just as deteriorating

relationships and ego-disintegration form a

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 vicious circle leading to catastrophic breakdown.
The conflict-ridden ego struggling to relate may
fall victim to illusory and regressive forms of
both human love and religion. Someone must
offer us the real thing before we can make use of
it. But integration is a product of personal

relationship, and, as I see, human love and

religious experience are two levels of this same
basic phenomenon.

Can there be integrated personalities not

related to loving personal relationships? That

needs study in depth. Integration is not an all or
none matter. Mostly we are more or less

integrated, achieving such partial degrees of

integration as we can, using whatever supportive
good relations come our way. Integration is not
the same thing as a life unified on a conscious
level by devotion to some exclusive interest or

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 life-work. That is possible along with a lot of
hidden tension. Psychological integration must

include a sense of inward peace and poise, of

wholeness in depth and the security of inward
unity. We all dimly sense the possibility of this

in our most self-fulfilling moments. In

psychodynamic terms, this is our natural
pathway of development, when we have the

good fortune to grow in good personal

relationships from infancy onwards. Is it not
what religion describes as ‘the peace that passes
all understanding’, an experience in which the
individual and his environment cannot be
separated, for it includes a marked sense of

security, which can never be found in isolation.

To discuss religion, we must establish some

common ground as to what it is, not in terms of

doctrines or organizations but of facts of

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 experience. We must isolate the essence of
‘religious experience’ as religious people

describe it, and might take the mystics of all

religions as our guide; and bring to bear on that,
any relevant psychological knowledge. This will

not be behavioural or experimental psychology,

or psychobiology, but the psychology of
‘personal relationships’, which psychoanalytic

‘object-relations theory’ presents as the medium

of ego-growth, beginning with the secure infant
with the loving mother. It is an analysis of the
same kind of experience as religious writers
describe in not very different terms. Freud
(1927) saw that when he described religion as a

regression to infantile dependence, and the

projection of the parent-image on to the

universe. But that only describes neurotic

religion. It is more realistic to see this basically

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 important ‘personal relations factor’ as not in
itself infantile, but as the essential permanent
factor in our existence at every stage of life, and
as itself undergoing a process of maturing that is

central to all our development as persons. It is

the core of all our experience in social life,
friendship and marriage, in the ramifications of

our cultural life and finally in our religion. For

the purpose of this lecture I take ‘religion’ not as
theological doctrine, nor as an intellectual

activity, or an organization; though people who

have religious experience must think and
theorize about it, and organize in relation to it. I

take it as an overall way of experiencing life, of

experiencing ourselves and our relationships
together; an experience of growing personal

integration or self-realization through

communion with all that is around us, and

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 finally our way of relating to the universe, the
total reality which has, after all, evolved us with

the intelligence and motivation to explore this

problem: all that is meant by ‘experience of
God’.

Let us now turn to the other concept in our

title, ‘integration’, the ‘wholeness’ or ‘psychic
unity’ which results from growing out of inner
conflicts and ego-splits. In the last 40 years, a

great change has come over ‘psychoanalytic

studies of the personality’, to use the title of
Fairbairn’s book. Psychoanalysis began as a

psychobiology, seeing us as victims of mighty,

antisocial, turbulent instincts, sexual and
aggressive. The poor little conscious ego was

too weak to control what Rapaport called ‘the

seething cauldron, the battle of the Titans in the
unconscious’, the chaotic instincts with which

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 our animal ancestry was held to have endowed

us. Even Erikson, who really transcended this

crude theory of the evolutionary past surviving
in us unmodified, perpetuated the idea by

suggesting the Centaur ‘with its human top and

its bestial under-pinnings’ as the model of
human nature. Freud was at least logical when

he stated that on this view most of us are

doomed to be either criminal or neurotically
repressed. The Centaur model implies that

evolution proceeds like the building of a brick

wall, layer on unmodified layer, with no real
unity as a living whole but only contiguity of

parts. Surely evolution is a process which really

modifies each stage as it becomes an appropriate
constituent of a new and more developed whole.

A man is not a human top on an unchanged

animal bottom half, but a new kind of total

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 being. Humans do not have crude animal
instincts left over from a primitive past. Where
basic organs and functions persist, they operate

in a far more complex product of biological

evolution. We have ‘human energies’ that do not
conform to patterns of animal instinct. The
concept of ‘instinct’ is now widely rejected as
not useful in human psychology. Fairbairn only
used the term adjectivally as indicating

‘dynamic patterns of activity which characterize

human ego structures’. While recognizing

certain biologically innate behaviour patterns,

psychoanalysis is outgrowing the theory of
instincts as reservoirs of energy or motivating
entities determining our whole psychic life.

Emphasis has moved away from ‘instinct

entities’ and their control, on to the vital
problem of how we begin to grow an ego, the

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 core of a personal self, in infancy; and how this

growth in personal reality is rooted in the baby’s

environment of personal relations, first with the
mother, then the father, family, neighbours,

school, and the ever-widening world around.

Psychodynamic science is not now about
‘mechanisms’ for the control of inherited

biopsychic drives, thought of in terms of

quantitative energy-concepts. It is about the
recovery of psychic wholeness when, in its

pristine form, it is disrupted by early bad

experiences. These, as Melanie Klein showed,
are mentally retained and distort the growth of

the ego or core of personal selfhood. This is

known as ‘object-relations theory’ in Great
Britain and ‘interpersonal relations theory’ in

America, and has grown out of the original

classical instinct theory. This redirection of

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 psychoanalytic thinking really began with Freud
himself, when, after 1920, he centred his
concern more and more on group psychology,
and the analysis of the ego in the field of human
relationships.

No one school of thought is responsible for

this move from instincts to personal relations. It
belongs to the cultural tide flowing today as a
reaction against the depersonalizing type of

thinking characteristic of physical science, as

unsuitable for studying ‘man’ as a ‘person’. In

America, Harry Stack Sullivan, as early as the

1920s, rejected ‘human instincts’, worked with

the concept of a biological (not an animal)

‘substrate of personality’, and then defined
psychiatry as

the study of processes that involve or go on

between people … the field of

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 interpersonal relations.

This led in America to a great flowering of

social psychology. We do not, of course, reject
biology. What is rejected is ‘organicism,

mechanistic biopsychology’ as an explanatory

theory. We reject the confusion of different
disciplines. Physics must be physics, and
biology biology, and psychodynamics must be
psychodynamics, the study of the psychosomatic
whole of human beings as ‘persons’, not just

‘organisms’.

‘Object-relations’ thinkers in Great Britain,

stimulated by Melanie Klein’s work, went

deeper into our inner psychic make-up than

American social psychology did, largely because
Sullivan, in stressing the interpersonal, hardly

explored the intrapsychic. He studied what went

on between people, but not so clearly what went

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 on inside the individual. Melanie Klein achieved
a new kind of analysis of the internal world of
our unconscious, not as a battle-ground where

primitive instincts fought to break out from ego

and superego control, but as an internal world of
ego-object relations. We see it in our dreams and
childhood fantasies, where we live a highly
personal subjective life of relating to either
frightening bad figures or supportive good ones;

the child’s fantasy of wicked witches or fairy

godmothers. Years later we find adult patients
haunted in nightmares by images of persecuting
parents many years after they have died, and see
how dependent this makes them on protective
relations with helpful people in real life. Only so

can they survive the deep-seated depressions and

despairs that arise because they feel tied in their

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 deeper mind to bad unloving persecuting
persons belonging to their childhood.

This kind of psychology, developed by Klein

and Fairbairn, is now taken back to the very
beginnings of the growth of the personal ego by

Winnicott. He describes how the mother’s

‘primary maternal preoccupation’ with her baby
enables her by profound identification with this

little being who began life as part of her, to

know intuitively, in a way that the scientifically
trained doctor or psychologist cannot know,
what her baby is feeling and needing. She

provides for him a near-perfect environment of

love, care, understanding and valuation.

Winnicott holds that the baby’s ego is as weak or

strong as the mother’s ego-support is weak or

strong. His work spotlights what the ‘object-

relations theory’ clarifies, that a human infant

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 cannot begin to be an ego, self or person, except
in the medium of good personal relationship. In
a personal vacuum, an environment empty of
genuine human rapport, the infant’s potentiality
for growth of personal selfhood is stunted, and
may even be destroyed at the outset. The baby’s

predicament is expressed by very ill patients

who will say: ‘I feel quite cut off, unreal,
paralysed, a nonentity.’

If the baby has to relate to a bad

environment, he grows profoundly disturbed by

fears, hates and guilts. If the human environment

is not actively bad, persecuting, frightening, but

simply lacking in true love, devaluing, ignoring,

then the baby may suffer an even worse fate. He
will feel stranded in an impersonal milieu, a
world empty of any capacity to relate to him and
evoke his human potential. He can develop the

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 worst of all psychopathological states, the

schizoid condition of withdrawn isolation,

fundamental loneliness, profoundly out of touch
with his entire outer world; so that people seem

like ‘things’ and the material world around him

seems like a flat unreal imitation. The
depersonalized schizoid individual living in a

derealized world is the ultimate tragedy, of lack

of true personal relationships aborting the very
beginnings of ‘personal integration’ and ‘true
selfhood’. In fact, we human beings cannot be

human, cannot be ‘persons’ in an empty world.

For good or ill, the universe has begotten us with
an absolute need to be able to relate in fully

personal terms to an environment that we feel

relates beneficiently to us. As one little girl said:
‘What’s the use of being me, if nobody cares?’

In fact, if nobody cares, we cannot even get a

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 start in being a ‘me’. Spitz demonstrated that if a
baby is too seriously deprived of maternal
handling, it can deteriorate and die. Bowlby has
shown the enormous importance of ‘attachments

to the mother’. Winnicott regards the basic

internal condition of mature, strong, integrated
personality as ‘basic ego-relatedness”, a built-in

experience of being in touch, a sense of

belonging, of being understood and valued, that
arises out of good mothering at the start and

remains the inner core of our capacity to face

adult life without feelings of isolation. One of
the tragic moments in my experience of

psychotherapy was when a young man said: ‘I’m

a non-person. I’m a good scientist but when my
day’s work is done, I don’t know how to relate

to people. I can’t make friends. I’m a non-

person.’ We have to go deeper than the

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 ambivalent love-hate and guilt problems of
depression to find the root cause of human

distress. Fairbairn’s work pointed to the schizoid

state of depersonalization through lack of
essential personal relations, the emptying or loss

of the ego in a vacuum of personal experience,

as the final tragedy. This is the basic conclusion
of psychodynamic research, that human beings

have an absolute need for a personal

environment that values us as persons, if we are
to be able to become and survive as persons.

I return now to the American analyst who

moved from the study of ‘personal object-

relations’ to a rethinking of the nature of
religious experience. He sensed that these two

were closely related. Here we must not confuse

two different things. One is the relevance of the
current forms of religious thought and worship.

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 These can cease to be helpful in changed
cultural conditions, and new forms of religious
expression and symbolism do repeatedly evolve.
The other is the reality of the religious
experience as such, which basically does not
change. I suggest that 'religious experience’ is

the same kind of ‘stuff as human ‘personal

relations experience’. They differ in ‘range’ but
not in ‘type’, and both promote personal
integration or ‘wholeness’ of personality in

which a human being feels ‘at home’ in both the

human and the universal milieu, experiencing a
sense of kinship and belonging. I think it is not a
natural or healthy state of mind to experience the
universe as merely a stark soulless mechanism

which degrades and depersonalizes us to the

level of meaningless accidents in an impersonal
cosmic process. How real is the experience of

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 the universe as a living environment with which
one’s own life is bound up, was brought home to

me recently by a patient, himself a scientist. He

dreamed: ‘I was manipulating a colour TV set. It
kept fading into a dull grey. I did not want that

and kept trying to get it back to colour. When I

did it came alive and came out of the screen and
was the real world.’ He was dreaming of his

own growth out of dull impersonal schizoid

apathy into a live experience of a real world. He
commented: ‘I used to think my problem was

sex but it isn’t. My sex would be all right if I

was all right. What I want is to feel like a real

live person. I so often see the world as a screen

image, no depth, not my world. But when I feel

real, the world feels real, and I feel well.’ To this

man the world was an alien place, when he
could not feel a real person himself, and relate to

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 it on that basis of experience. When he felt real

and in touch himself, his whole way of life and

the world around him changed and ‘came alive’.
At the end of the session he said: ‘I used to see

you as an analyst. Now I see you as a person.’

The impersonal scientific approach to the
universe is the proper one for the practical

purposes of science. But it becomes essentially

schizoid if it goes further and tries to dictate our
whole philosophy of existence.

Science is utilitarian knowledge of how to

manage the universe as a machine. It says

nothing about the subjective personal meanings
and values, the qualitative rather than

quantitative aspects of reality for our human

living. I am speaking now of physical science. It
is not impossible to get scientific, objectively
stated knowledge of our subjective personal

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 experience, but that is the task of
‘psychodynamic science’. That is a new

departure for science and cannot be carried on in

the traditional physical science thought-forms.
Physical science has outside, not inside

information about us as living persons. When

Crick and Watson discovered the double helix
structure of the DNA molecule, they did not

discover what ‘life’ is, but only the physical

structure of the complex molecule that carries
‘life’. It may help to find a cancer-cure, and
make possible dangerous experiments in
modifying existing forms of life, with
incalculable consequences. But it will shed no

light at all on what we mean by ‘love’ as a

meaningful experience. Science can tell us how

our body functions sexually, but cannot explain

the experience of two people who are genuinely

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 in love. It cannot explain why a promiscuous

man once said to me: ‘Sex is a much over-rated

pleasure. I’m bored with it’; nor why it seemed
like a revelation of new truth to him when I

commented: ‘Of course; none of your women

have ever meant a thing to you’.

These are the kinds of facts that the methods

of physical science cannot deal with. They are

outside the scope of traditional science; they are
in the realm of personal, cultural and ultimately

religious experience. They call for a different

kind of knowing, like the mother’s intuitive,
non-intellectual, emotional understanding of her

baby through personal relating. This kind of

knowing is found in artistic, poetic and religious
experience. To conceptualize it intellectually, we
need a new approach and different terminology.

Erikson (1950) writes of ‘a new kind of

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 intellectual process specific for psychoanalysis’.
Scientific utilitarian knowledge is indispensable

when we want to manipulate the universe, to

make a computer or cure a disease, make an
atom bomb or travel to the moon. Such

knowledge is irrelevant when we want to relate

to the universe as a living environment in which
we can be ‘persons’. Russell Davis, Professor of
Mental Health, Bristol, writes that for

understanding persons and personal relations the

psychiatry of the text book appears to be capable

of contributing little. Ibsen and Hamlet are of

more interest than Mayer-Gross, Slater and Roth
(Davis 1968). For that purpose poetry may be
nearer to the truth than physical science.

Wordsworth wrote of the beautiful Wye valley

I have felt,
A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts, a sense sublime

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 Of something far more deeply interfused
Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean and the living air,
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man:
A motion and a spirit that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all
thought,
And rolls through all things.
Therefore am I still
A lover . . .

This kind of knowing, which is more than

utilitarian, involves experiences which cannot be
known unless they are shared: experiences of

beauty, of love and of the religious or personal

way of feeling our oneness with the totality of

the ‘real’. To be whole human beings, we must

be both poets and scientists, both lovers and

technicians. It has been suggested to me that

mature human love can extinguish the need for

religion. It can certainly extinguish, by

transcending, a neurotic need for religion. The

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 person finds stability in a real relationship
instead of fantasy. If a person has expressed a

need for religious experience through out-of-

date dogmas or inadequate symbolisms of
worship, he may lose interest in these when he

finds real human love. But to the best of my

knowledge, 'mature human love’ makes a person
more sensitive to his whole environment, and I

think is actually one part of a full religious

experience. It is immature infatuations that shut
two people up together and exclude them from

healthy rapport with their environing world.

This something called ‘religious experience’

has always existed and achieved expression in

artistic and poetic forms. It belongs to the

‘personal’ side of living, expressed not in
mathematical formulae or intellectual theories,
but in emotionally meaningful symbols.

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 Psychoanalytic therapy also works by the
interpretation of symbolized experiences of

personal relationships, and healing has always

been an essential part of religion, including its
psychological factors, long before modern

theories arose. The saying of Jesus ‘Thy faith

hath made thee whole’ I am sure has parallels in
all the great religions. Winnicott makes the

striking suggestion that all culture is at heart the

symbolic expression of our experience of
personal relationships, and that the actual
beginning of culture is the ‘transitional object’,
the little child’s cuddly toy which represents and
is a symbol of mother when she is not to be

seen. This is the first symbol or ‘representation

of relationship’, the starting-point of our ever-
elaborating cultural expression of our

experience of our environing universe as not

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 depersonalizing us, a world in which ‘persons’
can feel at home with a sense of belonging. I
suggest that the fullest personal integration and
maturing, the profoundest sense of inner strength

and meaningfulness in living, includes the

religious way of experiencing our existence in
this world. Then the values of our personal lives

have more than mere transient reality and we as

persons have firm standing ground. Another way
of putting this is to say that, however varied the

forms religion has taken, and however much

religion, like all other human experiences, has
been liable to extravagant and neurotic forms,

there has always been ‘religious experience’ as

a fact, because it is a natural phenomenon.

We are in a fundamental cultural dilemma

today. The Ages of Faith were followed by the
Age of Reason, of the Humes and Voltaires, with

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 a choice between religion and rationalistic
philosophy. Hume found in life no connecting

principle, no purpose, and had come to regard it

as a restless, aimless heaving up and down on a
waste ocean of blind sensations. Last century the

dilemma changed into a choice between

Religion and Science, as many still see it. But
this is already becoming a false antithesis

philosophically. At the turn of the century

science was thought to have no limitations.
Years ago Bertrand Russell said that science
would eventually compile a complete card-index
of every fact in the universe and have the answer
to every possible question. Today, Dr John

Taylor, a London physicist, tells us, on the BBC

Third Programme, that you cannot have a
scientific theory that explains itself. It always

rests on basic unexplained concepts, and in

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 every direction scientific inquiry runs up against
ultimate indefinable mysteries.

Yet the antithesis persists as a choice

between a personal and a non-personal or
impersonal philosophy of living. We have no

time to trace this in the conflict between

democracy and totalitarian ideologies in politics,
but there is a danger of an erosion of personal
values even in democracy. Technology is the way

material science is transformed into a social

structure of living. Fortunately there is a lot of
sound criticism of the subtle ways of influencing

people that our technological age has devised,

using scientific discoveries. One way is the
development of the mass media of

communication, which are not so much means

of communicating as means of creating a mass
mind pushed down to its lowest common

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 denominator, a morbid interest in sex and
violence; even though that itself can be a blind
protest against the mechanization of living and
the denuding of truly personal values. Another
way is the ransacking of the results of
psychological research by advertising

specialists, to find ways of irrational, emotional

control of people’s minds in the interests of
salesmanship. I mention this to show how our
basic cultural dilemma has now emerged in the

field of psychological science itself. We have

non-dynamic behaviour theories describing
human beings as just repertoires of behaviour
patterns to be treated by techniques of
reconditioning to force their behaviour patterns

to conform to the social norms: to quote Dr

Dicks (1950) ‘to mould them like lead pipes till
they fit’. Such an impersonal approach is a clear

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 threat to ‘personal values’. Over and against this
is the dynamic psychology of the psychoanalytic

and psychotherapeutic schools, standing for

man’s basic freedom and right not to be
manipulated, but to be supported till he can find

his own proper mature selfhood. In contrast to

the purely scientific approach, the
psychotherapist does not set out to ‘cure’ a

patient and expect him to get well in a given

time. He seeks to create for a ‘person’ a situation
of secure understanding relationship in which he

can grow at his own pace, out of all that he is

afraid of in his present day disturbed self. The

emergence of psychotherapy out of the womb of

a ‘natural science culture’ shows that the spirit

of man cannot be suppressed. The reality of the

‘person’ with his right to be a ‘unique’
individual always reasserts itself. There is no

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 reason in science itself why its discoveries
should not be used by technology in ways that
threaten to impoverish the personal realities of
living. But there is today a ground-swell of
reaction against this trend. Many people are
aware that we are far better at making efficient

machines than at rearing happy human beings.

The exact opposite of both ‘personal

integration’ and ‘religious experience’ is seen in

the way people realize the destructiveness of

isolation when deprived of adequate personal
relationships in a world that seems impersonal.

One elderly woman said: ‘I feel everything is

quite unreal round me. I feel quite out of touch. I
can’t reach you. If you can’t reach me, I’m lost.’

A middle-aged mother put the same experience

into a vivid dream. ‘I was alone on an empty
seashore and terrified. Then I saw your house up

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 the beach, but the tide had come in round me

and I was cut off, and panicked. But then I saw a

boat tied to your gate and thought calmly “It’s
all right. I can’t get to him but he can get to me!”

’ They were convinced that they could not

survive as ‘persons’ in a totally impersonal
environment. The rage and hate one can feel of
an impersonal loveless world is shown in a

dream of a man with a psychotic mother. ‘I was

hiding in a dugout. There was a vast nuclear
explosion. Later I crept out and found

everything destroyed. I was utterly alone and

frozen with fear.’ Hate relations, however, lead
back into isolation, so in a later dream he tried to

cut all feeling out and have a purely intellectual

relationship with his world; the most perfect
schizoid dream I have encountered. He was back

in the dugout, hiding from the outer world under

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 a mechanical turret. It had two periscopes for

eyes, two slits and a tape recorder for ears, and a

hole for a mouth through which he transmitted
messages to the world outside. Cut off from
healthy emotional relations, a prisoner inside

himself, his head functioned as a bit of

machinery for purely intellectual communication
through scientific instruments which protected

him from living contacts. That is what happens

if we try to substitute science for religion. In
fact, science and religion belong together as the
body and soul of personal living. Many of the
greatest scientists have been deeply religious. To
oppose science and religion is false. Science

alone supplies our need for tools, and reveals the

astonishing order and pattern of the material
universe, and its extraordinary evolutionary

drive to development. In some incomprehensible

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 way, the universe itself is not a static
mechanism, but alive and growing. But science
can tell us nothing about its meaning, value and

purpose. Here we have only the quality of our

experience as persons to guide us. Today,
psychodynamic science is showing us another
kind of order, not material but personal, the way
the human infant grows in the medium of
intimate personal relationships, to develop

stable, mature loving personhood. I suggest that

this is the key to that still wider-ranging
experience that human history has called
‘religion’, a way of experiencing the universe
that does not condemn us all to meaningless
schizoid isolation, but relates us to a personal

heart of reality, that we refer to by the

indefinable term ‘God’, experienced but not
explained, the ‘ultimate indefinable mystery’

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 that Dr Taylor finds science always running up

against.

We cannot escape experiencing what we may

not be able to explain, and when we are thrown

back on the genuineness of our experience, it is

easy to deceive ourselves. Many under pressure
of intense need have believed that they had

genuinely fallen in love, only to find that it was a

self-deluding infatuation. So in religion, deeply
felt needs can persuade people that an intensely
believed dogma or an assiduously practised form

of worship is a real religious experience, when it

may only be a substitute for ‘real relatedness’.
Private experience has to be tested by

comparisons and by the stress of life itself. But

all through history human beings have felt this
need to experience the universe as validating
their reality as persons. I see this not as a

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 speculative dogma but as a fact of human
experience, the reason why the historical
religions have arisen at all, and survived. Today,
three such different movements as
Existentialism, Communist philosophy (as
distinct from power politics) and psychoanalysis

have all become preoccupied with the

experience of ‘alienation’ as a widespread
phenomenon in human lives. We can evade its

experience by pressures of conscious activities,

political, social, cultural and even formally

religious. Fanaticism in any cause is a flight

from frightening emptiness within. What I
believe to be a psychological fact, and the one
full answer to alienation, is the basic religious

experience of the universe as not alien to our

nature as ‘persons’, a sense of oneness with
ultimate reality akin to the experience of human

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 love, what Jung (1936) referred to when he

wrote of ‘what the living religions of every age

have given to people’. My own ‘depth
psychology’ study of human beings in distress,

has led me to regard the assertion that science

has made religion unnecessary, as a major
example of wishful thinking, aimed at diverting

attention from the frightening sense of alienation

from which perhaps we all suffer to some
degree.

It used to be argued that in pre-scientific

times men invented religion because of their

‘powerlessness’ in the face of nature; and

science has altered all that. But it is not

‘powerlessness’ that is the real problem, but

isolation, loneliness, the sense of personal

unreality, the answer to which is ‘personal

relationship’, all the way from the infant’s need

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 of the mother to the adult’s experience of this
extraordinary universe in which our life is set.

This experience achieves concrete expression in

many different credal concepts and symbols, in
different ages, cultures, races and nations. None

of these forms in which religion finds ‘a local

habitation and a name’ can be the final wholly
true intellectual expression of the experience.
The history of ideas and institutions never stands

still, and they are only fully useful to the

generation that makes them. If we forget that,

the ‘forms’ of religious expression can become a

dead hand stifling the growth of true religious
experience, and an excuse for persecuting
heretics who may well be seeing something

more clearly than we do. Nevertheless, the

cultural past has to be built on, not just rejected.
One remarkable fact is the large amount of

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 common material in the symbols of all times.

There is a continuity of insight in which all races

and ages share, whether dimly or
sophisticatedly, because at bottom the essential

religious experience is the same for all men. I

feel a spontaneous sympathy for the extremely
sensitive mythology of the African Bushman, as

recounted by Laurens van der Post, in spite of

my Western philosophical education. The
capacity to have this experience is intrinsically

more important than computers, for personally

satisfying and meaningful living. Some of us do
not have this experience, just as some of us do
not have the experience of human love, and

probably those who do, only have it imperfectly.

We are all only partly free to have the full range
of our possible human experience. I would not

dare to claim that I possess any great depth of

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 religious experience, but only to have sensed

enough to be convinced that it is a reality. It is

not the profession of a faith, but the possession
of the experience that matters, and it is an

integrating factor in life. I have not attempted

any philosophical or metaphysical justification
of religion. I have simply taken it as an historic

fact of human experience and sought to show

what light modern psychodynamic science
throws on its nature as the culmination of the

‘personal-relationship essence’ of human living.

REFERENCES

Bowlby, J. (1953). Child Care and the Growth of

Love. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Davis, D. R. (1968). Personal view. British Medical

Journal 2: 555.

Dicks, H. V. (1950). In search of our proper ethic.

British Journal of Medical Psychology 23:1-14.

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 Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and Society.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books (rep. 1965).

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Tavistock
Publications.

Freud, S. (1927). The future of an illusion. Standard

Edition 21.

Jung, C. G. (1936). Modem Man in Search of a Soul.

London: Kegan Paul.

Post, L. Van Der (1961). The Heart of the Hunter.

London: Hogarth Press.

Russell, B. (1944). The Philosophy of Bertrand

Russell. Chicago: Northwestern University
Press.

Sullivan, H. S. (1940). Conceptions of Modem

Psychiatry. London: Tavistock Publications.

Winnicott, D. W. (1965a). The Family and Individual

Development, ch. 2. London: Tavistock
Publications.

_____ (1965b). The Maturational Processes and the

Facilitating Environment. London: Hogarth
Press.

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 _____ (1967). The location of cultural experience.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 48:
368-372.

Note
[10] Mary Hemingway Rees Memorial Lecture, given at the 7th
International Congress of Mental Health, London, on
August 12, 1968.

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 Section IV
1971-1978
“LIVING”:
THE POST-WINNICOTT
PERIOD

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 12

FREUD, ADLER AND DICKIE

VALENTINE11

This is a dual-purpose lecture, first to mark

the centenary of the birth of Alfred Adler, who
died of a heart attack in 1937 in Union Street,

Aberdeen, on the last day of a course of lectures

he gave at the University, one result of which
was the setting up of a Professorial Chair in

Psychiatry; secondly, to open a Conference on

Psychotherapy, individual and social, in our
present age, a Conference to inaugurate the

Psychotherapy and Social Psychiatry Section of

the Royal Medico-Psychological Association. In
view of this dual purpose it would not be
appropriate to deal only with past history. I shall

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 seek to relate the ideas that originated up to 70
years ago to our contemporary knowledge and

needs.

I preface this with a general observation. We

can surely at this distance of time ignore the

elements of temperamental clash and embittered

controversy that marked the early days of
psychoanalysis. It is more dignified now, as well

as showing more intellectual common sense and

scientific objectivity, to accept the fact that these
frictions of personality are common to all and
every aspect of human affairs, and the students

of ‘human psychology’ cannot be exempt from

their own human limitations and imperfections.

Freud, Adler and Jung were, in this respect, no

better and no worse than the rest of us, but being

the first daring explorers of this highly

dangerous explosive field of ‘human

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 subjectivity’ and our ‘personal psychic life’, a
field sown thick with hidden land-mines in the

form of ‘unconscious repressed conflicts’, they

were more exposed to unforeseen risks than they
were in a position to recognize; just as much

today, controversial argument, playing as it does

on our individual differences, can generate
tendencies to mutual excommunication. If our

own ‘psychodynamic discipline’ has at all

matured us, it is now time for us to rise above
sectarianism, in the sense of ideologically rigid,
closed ‘schools of theory’, to create an
intellectually open-minded ‘field of
psychodynamic inquiry’ within which like-

minded students could form ‘groups’ in

stimulating intercourse with other ‘groups’, not
as rival claimants to the possession of the whole

truth. This would not preclude each group

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 carrying out its own ‘training programme’, so
long as ‘training’ does not amount to

‘indoctrination’. The schismatic history of

theological sectarianism, orthodoxy and
heterodoxy has been all too closely paralleled in

the history of psychological theory and therapy,

and warns us that we all tend to have too much
personal emotional investment in our theories

for security sake, to be easily able to consider

without prejudice the different ideas of other
workers in our field.

There is, however, another quite practical

problem that tends to keep us apart. Life is short

and time is so fully occupied that we have little
of it to spare for the detailed study of views

other than those we are most used to. Few of us

can aspire to be a Dieter Wyss, whose Depth
Psychology: A Critical History (1966) covers

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 every existing ‘school’ or ‘trend of opinion’ in
the field of psychodynamic studies, an

encyclopaedic volume which can do for us what

we cannot do for ourselves: at least keep us
open-mindedly informed of the possibilities of

there being more than one serious point of view,

theoretically, about psychotherapy. It is in this
spirit that I shall set out to explore once again

the theories of Freud and Adler. So much does

space and time circumscribe us, that Jung must
be omitted here.

Towards the end of last century, one of those

great dramatic developments of the human mind,

in its exploration of the mystery of existence,
came about. These developments are never

recognizable at the start. They begin with a few

penetrating minds whose work expands slowly,
until eventually history looks back and describes

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 how in such and such an era a new religion
arose, a new philosophy emerged, a new

technology changed the lives of millions, a new

science came to birth. All such movements come
to be represented by a few great names, though

many take part. Religions centre on such

towering names as Moses, Christ, the Buddha,
Mohammed, Confucius. We are in humbler but

still exalted company with the philosophers,

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, and the more
prosaic Descartes, Hume and Kant. In politics,
the great creators were for centuries great
conquerors, Alexander, Julius Caesar,
Charlemagne, Napoleon. By the 18th century a

new phenomenon appeared, the revolutionary

political philosopher and a dictator ready to

enforce his ideas in practice, Rousseau and

Robespierre, and Marx and Lenin.

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 But already by the 19th and 20th centuries
another mighty force had come into being in the

form of ‘physical science’. Even here some

names acquired a symbolic significance, Galileo
in astronomy, Darwin in biology, Newton in

physics. They made a new kind of mental

approach to the understanding of the material
environment in which our life is set, a non-

emotional, purely objective, factual and

experimental one, laying bare the workings of
the physical machine, from planets and chemical
elements to organic bodies and micro-organisms
which enable our speculative selves to exist. The
material universe and everything in it has, so to

speak, been taken apart into ever smaller and

smaller particles, to see what they were made of

and how we might control them, until now at

last the ultimate particles, the proton and

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 electron, have surprised everyone by the fact
that when they collide, they do not break up into

still smaller groups of ‘things’ but disappear into

a wave of energy. No one knows what that is,
but as Bertrand Russell (1946) said, at least it is

not a ‘thing’. I have reason for mentioning these

matters, for the great intellectual and practical
problem today is ‘things and persons’, and what

is the difference between them. Physical science,

or the pseudo-philosophy of ‘scientific
materialism’ that was fathered on to it, has for a
hundred years taken over the mantle of
dogmatism that had previously been the property
of theology. The physical scientists did not set

out to be intellectual dictators, but to do an

honest job of investigation, but ‘materialism’

became a dogma which invaded our own field of

psychological interests; so that early in this

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 century we had J. B. Watson denying the
existence of ‘consciousness’. One wonders how

he could be ‘consciously aware’ of the non-

existence of consciousness. His Pavlovian
descendants, Skinner and Eysenck, try to forbid

us to use any psychological terms at all. You

must not say, ‘The rat goes down path L because
he desires food’ for ‘desire’ is that shocking

thing, a teleological psychological term. It

actually has ‘meaning’ and indicates ‘purpose’,
while every good physiological psychologist
knows that such mystic things do not exist. All
you are permitted to say is that ‘If path A is
blocked, the rat goes down path L’. You must

not ask such an unrealistic, dangerous question

as to ‘why’ he should want to go down either

path; though as Professor Charles Taylor points

out in The Explanation of Behaviour (1964), a

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 satiated rat will not bother to go down any path.

If new eras of thinking had come to an end with

the development of ‘physical science’, we would
have been debarred from asking any intelligent

questions about ourselves in our own private

and deep inner experience, and the significance
of our relations with one another.

It is therefore appropriate at this point to say

that the other aspect of our existence, our
subjective personal experiencing mental selves,
with our purposes and values, loves and hates,

persisted in being there to challenge

understanding, and did not go unnoticed.
Around the turn of the century a new

development arose, among a few people who

dared to turn their minds back upon themselves
and their fellows to seek deeper understanding.
Foreshadowed by the medical hypnotists, it

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 began quietly with one man, Sigmund Freud,
working practically alone for ten years from
1890, but has now spread into a world-wide
endeavour of what we have come to call
psychodynamic inquiry and psychotherapeutic
endeavour. Its ‘Heroic Age’ was from about

1890 to 1914, and three names have stood out to

represent it, Freud, Adler and Jung. I think few
would dispute Freud’s claim to the first place,

but it is not given to any one man to know

everything. There is something to be learned

from the study of all three of these innovators in

the field of an entirely new type of study of
‘man’ in his private, personal and social living.
How different were these three men. Freud the

scientist, Adler the pragmatist, Jung the mystic.

Yet they all three stood together as a developing
influence to counteract the blatant ‘materialistic

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 psychology’ that has had too long a reign this
century; though on this matter Freud is the least

clear of the three. Adler and Jung in their

different ways were unmistakably ‘on the side of
the angels’. Adler held to the unique

individuality of each human being, and created

an unmistakable ‘ego psychology’. Jung worked
out a theory of ‘individuation’, of finding the

true centre of the personal self. Neither of them

would have acquiesced in behaviourism, or non-
psychological psychology. Freud had a harder
time over this problem. Jung’s deep interest in
religious mysticism protected him from a
surrender to materialistic science. Adler’s

rugged individualism made him see the intensity

of the individual’s struggle to find and maintain
a place for his own personal self in his social

world, as more important than problems of

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 neurophysiology. Adler would never have tried
to write Freud’s ‘Psychology for Neurologists’.
Adler’s was a social psychology, not a
psychobiology in the Freudian sense. Adler both
gained and lost by this difference. He lost touch
with Freud’s ‘depth psychology’ which was the

best thing the instinct theory did for Freud; it

enabled him to create a psychology of the
unconscious, the most important single item in
psychodynamic theory from the practical point

of view. But breaking with Freud enabled Adler

to develop an ‘ego psychology’ long before
Freud came up with this problem seriously, after
the First World War. Winnicott has said that Jung
early achieved particular insights that

psychoanalysts are only just beginning to come

up with, and they are inclined to feel that Jung
jumped the gun. I think contemporary

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 psychoanalytic ‘object-relations theory’ can now
give a firmer basis to Jung’s intuitive

observations about ‘individuation’ than Jung

himself could provide. I have not seen any
similar recognition by a psychoanalyst that

Adler also had insights that early anticipated

later psychoanalytic developments, and in that
he has been underestimated.

All three of these innovators are now dead,

Freud and Adler over 30 years ago, and their
basic ideas were developed from 50 to 70 years
ago. Quoting them now is beginning to look

rather like quoting Newton in physics. It is not

easy for us always to remember how different

was the intellectual climate of science in their

heyday. If Freud could have grown up in the

intellectual climate of the philosophy of science

of Sir Karl Popper, he would have felt far freer

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 to develop a properly psychodynamic science,
instead of a psychobiology that is for ever

struggling to transcend itself and grow into

being a true psychology of the ‘person-ego
growing in personal relationships’. If Freud

could have known of the pronouncement of one

of our greatest neurophysiologists, Lord Adrian
(1968), that while perhaps most of our everyday

activity could be explained on behavioural lines,

‘there is one thing that does not fit into this neat
and tidy scheme, the “I” that does the thinking,
feeling and willing’, he would have felt free to
cut loose from the ties of a dubious
psychobiology and develop a genuine

psychodynamic ego psychology, an insight into

what is meant by our being ‘persons’ and not

‘things’ or ‘machines’. With Bronowski’s (1965)

view that man is both a machine and a self, and

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 that there are two qualitatively different kinds of
knowledge, knowledge of the machine, the
organism, which is physical science, and
knowledge of the self, which is to us

psychodynamic science, or Taylor’s

‘psychological psychology’, he would not have
remained tied to what is clearly an inconsistent

and outmoded ‘instinct theory’. He would, I

believe, have developed an ‘ego-psychology’ far
earlier, that would have made for easier

cooperation between him and Adler, at least so

far as theory is concerned.

It should be clear to us that sex and

aggression are not instinctive ‘drive-entities’, as

Fairbairn put it ‘giving the ego a kick in the

pants’ from behind (1952). Sex clearly is one of
the biochemically based ‘appetites’, which, like
eating and drinking, excreting and even

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 breathing, can be either over-stimulated, or
partially or wholly inhibited, or left free to

function normally, according to the state of the

ego as a whole personal self. Sex is certainly not
our major causal drive. Aggression is not a

permanent destructive drive, or death instinct in

us, in spite of Konrad Lorenz and Anthony Storr.
Aggression is the natural parallel to anxiety.

When Freud changed his theory of anxiety, and

no longer regarded it as dammed up sexual
tension but as ‘an ego reaction to threat’, he
missed a golden opportunity to explain
aggression in the same way. There are two ego
reactions to threat, fight and flight, or aggression

and anxiety leading to fear-dictated withdrawal.

Freud’s psychobiology is today an unnecessary

encumbrance to a realistic ego-and-object-

relations theory of our personal selves. Without

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 it, I think that he would have developed, not a

control-apparatus-ego, but a ‘whole-person-ego’

theory, and this would have put him in a position
to have seen the importance of Adler’s stress on

the ego as the individual fighting to win and

keep his place among his fellows. While Adler
and Jung were wholly on the side of the

‘personalists’ as against the ‘materialists’, Freud

was only about 50 per cent so, with his
pessimistic view of human nature, and his late

conclusion that psychoanalysis would probably

turn out to be more important as an instrument
of scientific research than as a psychotherapy. If

it fails as therapy it will be useless as a research

method. Adler, who was a brilliant
psychotherapist, especially with children, would

never have arrived at such a view.

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 Yet I think Freud would have been set free
intellectually in the climate of our present-day
‘anti-reductionist philosophy’. In ‘Analysis,

Terminable and Interminable’ (1937) when he

says ‘where id was, let ego be’, he was plainly
asking for what was impossible on his own
theory, for in classic Freudianism all the drive
energy lies in the instincts and the ego is only a
‘control-apparatus’. Bowlby (1969) rejects

Freud’s concept of ‘psychic energy’ on the

ground that all energy is physical only; that I

disagree with, and regard it, like Bowlby’s

obvious fear of ‘teleological thinking’, as a
capitulation to scientific materialism. I reject
Freud’s concept of psychic energy for the

opposite reason, that in fact it is not really

psychic. Bowlby seems not to recognize that
Freud’s psychic energy was in fact simply

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 ‘physical energy’ (biological drive) labelled as

psychic; but it is testimony to the fact that Freud

was wanting to find a way of escape from the
bondage to physical science if he could, because

his real genius was for truly psychological

intuitive insights into human motivations. Freud
badly needed what was unobtainable in his time,

intellectual freedom to develop a truly

psychodynamic science, in which ‘psychic
energy’ would really be psychic, i.e. it would be

‘motivational energy’. This is implied in Adler’s

view of the inferiority complex. Physical science
has no right to a monopoly of the term energy,

when a man’s values and purposes and

fundamental aims in life can be so powerful as
to motivate a whole life-time of strenuous and

self-sacrificial activity. ‘Motivational energy’,

greatly influenced by internalized early parental

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 object-relationships, is the core of Freud’s theory
of the unconscious, as is shown by the concept
of the ‘superego’, but he never seemed clearly to
recognize this. The whole idea of the ego having
to borrow energy from the id and neutralize it, in
order to control the id, as in Hartmann (1964), is

mere playing with words. Adler accepted that

the ego has its own teleological, motivational,
purposive energies, which are psychic, not

physical. The person-ego, or true self living

through its bodily organism, is the driver, not the

car. Adler did not have the same kind of

intellectual scientific inhibitions as Freud had.
He began his own independent psychological
observations, as a general practitioner, by seeing

that patients who had organic handicaps strove

to compensate for their sense of inferiority, a
true theory of motivation. He saw his patients as

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 a good family doctor ought to see them, as real

persons, individuals with an aim in life, and a

sense of values, and a capacity for suffering if
for any reason they felt inadequate and

devalued. Adler simply accepted the reality of

the patient as a ‘person’ who had a ‘personal
life’ to live, and ‘personal values’, a personal

‘life style’ to motivate his strivings not to be left

out of the race and tamely accept inferiority, if
he could do anything to prevent it. Freud began

to psychologize, not from the point of view of

the general practitioner but of the scientific
laboratory research worker, and for long wished
to give up psychoanalysis and return to his

neurology laboratory which did not pose such

awkward ‘unscientific’ problems as
psychopathology presented. Yet in fact Freud did

not surrender, but went bravely on with his

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 scientific conscience and his psychologically
intuitive genius at war inside him. In spite of all,
Freud along with Adler and Jung have been

major influences helping to keep alive the

possibility of a truly ‘psychological psychology’
in the era of scientific impersonalism: the reality
of ‘persons’ as well as ‘things’.

I referred just now to the growing ‘anti-

reductionist’ philosophy of science, and will
quote some examples. Dr Chance of
Birmingham (1968), the ethologist, denies that
‘behaviour’ can be analysed into, or reduced to,
‘atomic particles of behaviour’ in the

Eysenckian fashion and specifically rejects

reductionism as out of date. He is concerned
with the significance of the behavioural ‘wholes’
that are built up, not with what bits and pieces
they could be taken apart into. Dr Bannister, a

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 clinical psychologist, rejects behaviouristic
reductionism, and writes:

The chances of developing a science of

physiological psychology are about as
good (or as bad) as the chances of
developing a chemical sociology or a
biological astronomy. … The
unquestioning acceptance of physiological
psychology most often stems from a
reductionist approach. Reductionism is a
philosophic posture which assumes that
physiology is somehow nearer to reality
than psychology and therefore a more
‘basic science’. [1968]

The medical model for treating

psychological disturbance has already
shown itself to be inappropriate and must
eventually be replaced by a psychological
model. [1969]

Sir Denis Hill made that same point in his

inaugural lecture at the London Institute of
Psychiatry. But finally, a Director of Medical

Research, Sir Peter Medawar (1969) (whose

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 view is the more welcome as he is not exactly
friendly to psychoanalysis) sets forth the
‘hierarchical model of the structure of
knowledge’, that it is like a building with a
ground floor which is physics and chemistry, and
then rises tier by tier upwards, with physiology,

biology, ethology, sociology, and finally

psychology, first behaviouristic, and finally truly
personal psychology. He does not enumerate the

tiers or floors as exactly as I have done but that

is what his theory involves, based, as he states,

on the views of Popper. The important point is

that he specifically insists that the process of
thought can only move forwards, and upwards,
not backwards and downwards. At each level on

the way up, new phenomena arise which call for

new concepts which cannot be explained in
terms of the concepts used on the floor below.

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 Such a theory of knowledge would have been a

godsend to Freud and would have enabled him

to use his psychological genius untrammelled.
Both Adler and Jung could and would have

made full use of it, and in spite of their different

types of mind, all three might have found more
to agree than to differ about in the end. I think

that in the growing struggle against the

materialistic impersonalism of physical science,
the psychodynamic studies of Freud, Adler and
Jung have played a larger part than can yet be

estimated. It is their work that has kept alive the

fully psychological personal approach of the
psychotherapist, in spite of all its detractors.

Adler’s views must have their share of

recognition in this matter. All three stood for a
radically new way of studying human beings in

their personal lives.

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 We need not concern ourselves with their
temperamental clashes and schismatic
differences of opinion; these are common to
most human undertakings. It would, I think,

have been better if they had never met, but each

developed his own ideas in his own circle of
adherents apart. Then other independent minds

could have assessed and related their views

without controversy. Adler and Freud were such
different types of personality. Adler was a social

extravert, gregarious, and a second son frankly

jealous of his model eldest brother. He once said
to Phyllis Bottome (1939), his biographer: ‘My

eldest brother is still ahead of me and always

will be.’ Thus, having to strive to overcome a
sense of inferiority was bound to be the starting-

point of his psychology, a motivational ego

problem. Freud was an eldest brother, used to

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 the sense of authority that position gave him. It
was reflected in his early theoretical blindness to

the primary importance of mothers, and his

automatic acceptance of the idea at first, that it is
the father who is the dominant family head, the

superego incarnate. On the theories of both of

them, therefore, they were in an emotional
relationship which gave them little chance of

working together. We have to remember that the

first analysts did not have the advantage of
having a personal analysis. It will be useful to
look at their differences.

Freud himself was a battle ground between a

rigidly scientific training and a daring
psychologically speculative intelligence, with

unique intuitive gifts. It was certainly not his

Helmholtzian science nor the influence of
Brücke the physiologist that drove him into the

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 exploration of psychic life and later to write
about religion, civilization and its discontents,
Leonardo da Vinci, and Moses and Monotheism.
He was at once an austere intellectual with a
deep if often hidden warmth of heart. He would
write to Pfister as ‘Dear Man of God’. His

scientific systematizing intellect at first produced

a clear-cut neurological theory which, only after
a tremendous struggle did he accept, was unable
to meet the need for psychological

understanding. In view of his own and

Hartmann’s stress on psychoanalysis as a
biological science, it is doubtful whether Freud
ever was able to let himself see that
psychological understanding goes right beyond

physical science. Yet the other half of him, his

genius for true psychological intuitive insight
allied to his speculative intellect, kept his

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 theories for ever on the move, and particularly
after the 1914-18 war, he became ever more

deeply concerned about ‘ego’ problems, and

problems of civilization and religion; and he
redefined anxiety as an ‘ego-reaction to threat’. I

think we may fairly say that ‘ego-reaction to

threat’ exactly defines the point of view with
which Adler started 20 years earlier. I do not see

any evidence that the tragedy of the war forced

Adler, as it did Freud, into a major new
development of theory. Adler’s theory was

already an ‘ego theory’. One great thing Freud

had done, through his explorations of sexuality,

taking him back into early childhood, was to

establish, as demonstrable fact, the existence of

an ‘unconscious but enormously active area’ in

our personality, manifested in both conscious
and dreaming fantasy and symptoms. He showed

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 that this ‘unconscious’ was principally the all

too active persisting legacy of our early

childhood experiences. It remains that, whether
we believe in instincts or not. He endowed us

with a ‘depth psychology’ such as the world had

never known before, which remains permanent
even though Freud’s-views of its contents and

processes have undergone change. The Kleinian

‘internal objects’ theory, and the work of
Fairbairn, Winnicott, Balint and others have

established, not so much a double unconscious, a

primary biological id, and a secondary repressed
unconscious of forbidden impulses, but the fact

that we all live in two worlds at once, an inner

world where the self of our early life is still
bogged down in early traumatic life-situations,

and an outer world of the present day where we

live subject to interference from this inner world,

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 what Freud called transference and resistance.
He once wrote most generously, in ‘The History

of the Psychoanalytic Movement’ (1914):

Any line of investigation, no matter what

its direction, which recognizes transference
and resistance as the starting-point of its
work, may call itself psychoanalysis,
though it arrives at results different from
my own.

In the same work, Freud accused Adler of

making psychoanalysis into a system, but I
would think Freud was more of a system-maker
than Adler, and many of his followers made

‘classical Freudian oedipal theory’ into a system

that admitted of no real development. It would

have been better if Hitler had not dispersed the

original hard core of the Freudian circle, but had

left mid-European psychoanalysis to grow and
exercise its influence from there, and also left
Adler’s thirty child guidance clinics at schools

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 untouched. Then, under the stimulus of their

work, therapists in Britain and America and

child guidance workers all over Europe could
have been more free to develop their

psychodynamic theory and therapy in their own

very different atmospheres.

By comparison with Freud, Adler was a very

different kind of man and was bound to produce

a different type of theory, a less elaborately
systematic and more fluid, but humanly realistic,

set of ideas. Adler was essentially an

individualist by temperament. I do not mean that
as a criticism. I mean that he made a strong and

therapeutic impact on his patients by his

individuality, while Freud sat out of sight behind
the patient’s couch. He grew medically, not out
of Freud’s laboratory milieu, but out of general

medical practice. His psychological interests

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 began independently of Freud, with his
observations of how his patients compensated

for their organic inferiorities or handicaps in

their personality development. This was not a
starting-point that would naturally lead him to a

‘depth psychology’ in the sense in which that

was the most important of Freud’s contributions.
That was something that Adler failed to take
really into account. His own view of the

unconscious was more superficial. On the other

hand, his starting-point enabled him to create an

ego psychology, and see the importance of ego

problems long before Freud did, at a time when,
as Anna Freud admitted (1936), it was heterodox
to discuss the ego. When, however, in course of

time, Freud came up with this problem, he had

laid deeper foundations for an ego psychology
than Adler achieved, as may now be seen from

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 the ego theories of Fairbairn, Winnicott and
others. That does not mean that Adler’s

contributions to ‘ego psychology’ are not

important. His actual analysis of patients’ ego
problems was always clinically extremely acute

and insightful, but they needed to be integrated

with deeper views of the total personality. Adler
remained socially orientated and Freud remained

scientifically (in the narrower sense) orientated.

When Freud ventured into the social field, he
showed himself to be a deeply convinced
pessimist about human nature. He was an
analyst of the impersonal universal constituents
(as he saw them) of the human psyche. Adler

analysed the struggling social individual.

At this point, we may look at Adler’s chapter

19 in Individual Psychology (1929) on ‘The

Role of the Unconscious in Neurosis’, dated

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 1913. After 11 years of friction, he had broken
away from Freud in 1911 to develop his own

theory of ‘individual psychology’. Curiously, I

find myself agreeing with Adler at many points
as against the Freud of that period, and yet I still

feel that these very points are more

fundamentally explained today, not by Freud but
by later developments that have arisen on the

basis of Freud’s work. Adler did not accept

Freud’s ‘Oedipus complex’, and substituted the
valuable ‘family constellation’ concept; but

contemporary psychoanalysis itself now holds a

broader view of oedipal problems than the
original over-simple classic theory, and also has
gone much deeper down into the far more

important pre-oedipal problems of the schizoid

infantile level. Again, Adler rejected Freud’s
view of a sex instinct as the fundamental

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 motivational drive, the causal force, in all human
action, and he insisted that human character and

action must be explained teleologically. I

definitely agree with Adler. When we come,
however, to the key concept of ‘the

unconscious’, Adler’s view seems to me too

superficial. The unconscious calls for a far more
profound understanding, of the kind that post-

Freudian theory has today developed. Not that

we could have expected either Freud or Adler to
have achieved this more profound view at that
time, 60 years ago. It is rather that it has
developed on the basis of Freud’s, not Adler’s,
starting-point.

Adler had recognized his patients’ struggles

to compensate for what he held to be organic

inferiorities, and when he seized on this sense of

‘inferiority’ as the starting-point of the neurotic

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 process, he had in fact made the first approach to
what we now know as the ‘schizoid problem’.
Not that anyone could have recognized that then.
Freud had accepted the general psychiatric view

of an absolute division between neurosis and

psychosis. Neurotics could be treated because
they were capable of personal transference

relations and could project their early oedipal

relations with parents on to the analyst and work
through them. Psychotics were thought to be

incapable of transference and unreachable by

psychoanalytic therapy, which called for an
‘intact ego’. We now know that the idea of an

‘intact ego’ is a fiction. It is all a matter of

degree. The neurotic has enough ego-sense to be
struggling to relate, but his ego is weak, torn by

conflicts rooted in early relations to parents and

siblings just because these were unsatisfactory.

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 Adler was more occupied with the position of
siblings in the ‘family constellation’, Freud with

the relations of children to parents, which the

family constellation concept could include. The
more clear-cut the oedipal problem, the more

clear it is that neurotic parents forced it on the

child. In fact, the patient’s unconscious inner
world, and therefore his external struggles to

relate to people, are far more complex than

either the oedipal or family constellation
concepts account for. What emerges as you go
ever deeper into the childhood of a very
disturbed patient is that his problems in relating
now in adult life are not simply due to his being

tied to lusty powerful sexual and aggressive

instincts and relations to parents, or simply to
feeling an ‘inferior’ among siblings, but to the

fact that both oedipal relations and omnipotence

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 fantasies are pathetic efforts to manufacture a
pseudorelationship out of sexual and aggressive

emotions or the ‘will to power’, because genuine

personal relations have been non-existent. The
quality of truly parental personal relationship

was so poor that in the last resort, if he dared let

himself know how he really felt, the child would
feel that he was out of touch with everyone,

living in an emotional vacuum in which he could

find no one with whom he could experience
himself as real. The schizoid patient at worst
feels he has not got an ego, and while in part and
at the level of consciousness he fights to make
contacts of any kind, to feel some sort of self, at

bottom he is in despair at his feeling of utter

emptiness. The feelings of inferiority, Adler’s

starting-point, are betraying signs, according to

their degree of severity, of an ultimate failure of

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 genuine ego development at the very start. We
could not expect either Freud or Adler to
recognize what over half a century of research
enabled a Fairbairn and a Winnicott to see and
conceptualize. It was Fairbairn who was one of
the first to say that the more severe hysterias

have roots deep down in the schizoid, and

schizophrenic problems. Freud’s ‘Oedipus
complex’ was the ‘form’ in which he discovered
the intensity of his patients’ struggles to hold on

to relationships at all costs, and exploit sex and

aggression for the purpose, thus exposing
themselves to neurotic guilt. Adler’s ‘inferiority
complex’ theory was the ‘form’ in which he
discovered the other half of the whole problem,

the patients’ struggles to find a self with which

to relate to others. In this discovery he had
touched the tip of an iceberg which had far more

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 below the surface of consciousness than it was
possible for anyone at that time to see.

‘Inferiority feelings’ were the betraying signs of

a degree of ego weakness which could, at the
worst, be total. Inferiority is a symptom, not a

cause of problems, and to ascribe it simply to a

need to overcome ‘organic or other inferiorities’
is to be misled as to its real nature. Serious

actual physical handicaps are rare, differences of

natural endowments are not interpreted as
‘organic inferiorities’ by a child who grows up

securely mothered and valued for his own sake.

In a broad sense all children are ‘organically

inferior’ to older siblings and adults, simply

because they are small and weak. But this does

not start every child off on the road of neurotic

over-compensation and the development of
grandiose and omnipotent fantasies and wishes.

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 The origin of the problem is not in organic or
real inferiorities but in the failure of parents to
give basic emotional security to the child, so that
he cannot grow an ego strong enough to cope
with his real-life situation. He has not developed
what Winnicott calls a built in ‘basic ego-

relatedness’ (1965). My own experience is that

patients who have this fundamental problem in
very severe form feel, not inferior, but different

in a way that puzzles and confuses them, and in

the worst cases actually empty. They will say, ‘I
feel I haven’t got a self. I’m a nobody, a non-
person’. In conversation, Dr Weissman

(Chairman, Adlerian Society of Great Britain)

suggested that Adler’s ‘inferiority feeling’ was
the same thing as the ‘schizoid state’. That,

however, is not the case. If a person feels

‘inferior’ he is in a relationship to another

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 person whom he feels is superior. The ‘schizoid

state’ is caused by the ‘emptying experience’ of

there being no one there to relate to in any way,
living in a psychic vacuum in which both

‘world’ and ‘self feel unreal.

In one important matter Adler was nearer the

truth than Freud, in that he did not draw the then
accepted absolute distinction between psychosis

and neurosis. If Phyllis Bottome (1939) is right,

Adler held that the chief difference between the
psychotic and the neurotic is that while

the neurotic builds up an unreal world to

live in, he can live in it or not as he
chooses, and he more than suspects its
unreality; whereas a psychotic is compelled
to live in his unreal world, while he has
ceased to doubt that it is unreal. Adler used
to say, ‘I always feel a cold sensation at the
base of my spine when I find myself in the
same room as a psychotic. He is a man who
has cut himself off [my italics] from the rest

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 of mankind’. Adler did not believe that
psychotherapy in treating a psychotic is
different in kind - but merely in degree -
from that of the treatment of a neurotic, but
always a far longer and slower process,
with far more likelihood of serious
relapses.

Adler was certainly right there, as contemporary

psychoanalysis recognizes. Marion Milner’s
recent full length case-history of a 20 years’

successful treatment of a schizophrenic girl

entitled The Hands of the Living God (1969) is
proof positive. But Adler could not make full
use of that insight, nor do I think anyone else at

that time could have done; the clinical evidence

for a full ‘depth psychology’ was not then
available.

There is, however, a particular reason why

Adler did not probe deeper. He regarded both
neurosis and psychosis as the patient’s choice.

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 The psychotic has ‘cut himself off from the rest
of mankind’. Bottome (1939) writes that he
would explain to the neurotic

how he exaggerated his difficulties, and

how to tackle the real obstacle in a sensible
way. He would say ‘I believe that by
changing our opinion of ourselves we can
also change ourselves’.

I wish it were so easy, though I am sure that

back in 1900-1914 we could not expect anyone

to have seen the bedrock truth. Adler’s
individual moral approach, not in blaming the

patient, but in making him responsible for

resolving his problems by an active conscious
choice, did in fact blind him to the ultimate

facts, while Freud’s theory of the ‘depth

psychology’ of the unconscious made it possible
later on to arrive at the bedrock truth today, and
that is that the neurotic has not simply ‘chosen’

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 to over-compensate for what he feels to be

organic inferiorities, by omnipotence fantasies;

he is struggling to cope with life with an ego that
has been weakened, undermined, by

unsupportive family relationships in the earliest

impressionable and vulnerable years of infancy
and through early childhood. The psychotic has

not ‘cut himself off from the rest of mankind’.

He has been frightened off into a drastic
withdrawal by seriously bad relationships, or

even definitely shut out of all relationship by

parents who simply did not want him and did not
relate at all to him. He has been left to grow in a

vacuum of personal relations. Nor is it true that

he is incapable of transference as Freud thought.
What he is transferring to us is his basic

conviction that no relationship is possible; he

comes to us ‘out of touch’ and lets us see it and

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 hopes we will understand, for as Winnicott
(1965) says, in the very last resort there is
always a ‘true self’ deeply hidden away in cold
storage hoping for a chance of a rebirth into a
more accepting world. One extremely schizoid
patient of mine would say, ‘I feel when I come

here I leave part of myself outside’, clearly

hoping I could help him to link up with it again;
or why tell me about it? Another patient

dreamed of being a little girl in a high chair in a

gloomy kitchen, staring at a man lying asleep or

drunk, sprawled half on a sofa and half on the

floor. No mother was there; she was in fact
working at a factory, and father, a drunken
sailor, presently disappeared for good and all.

She later dreamed of a tiny baby locked up in a

steel drawer, staring with wide open
expressionless eyes because there was nothing to

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 see, and she said, ‘I can’t get to you. If you can’t

get to me I’m lost’. Later she had that ‘gloomy

kitchen’ dream again, but this time I came in and
carried her out. I have described these

phenomena in detail in Schizoid Phenomena,

Object Relations and the Self, Parts 1 and 3
(1968). This is how the schizoid and

schizophrenic has transference experiences.

They communicate to us their cut-offness, and if
we cannot understand that and help them, by
getting slowly into touch with the lost heart of

their innermost self, they are lost indeed. All that

could not have been seen as far back as the
beginning of this century and was not seen by

either Adler or Freud, but Freud’s depth

psychology, in a way he hardly foresaw, going
deeper than oedipal problems, has helped us

most, at this vital point.

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 Adler’s view, so far as I understand it, was
that the child growing into adulthood, with a

basic sense of inferiority, seeks through his ‘will

to power’ to overcome or overcompensate for
that ‘inferiority’ by creating a ‘fictive goal of

superiority’, of omnipotence. As this becomes

ever more unrealistic it must be shielded from
the test of contact with reality. Adler (1929)
wrote:

The patient makes use of the unconscious

in order to be able to follow the old goal of
superiority. … One of his artifices is to
transfer the goal into the realm of the
unconscious … The frequent antithesis
between the conscious and the unconscious
impulses is only an antithesis of means. For
the purpose of heightening the feeling of
personality or the attainment of the goal of
god-likeness, it is irrelevant.

In 1900-1913 that was shrewd and penetrating

analysis, and we should judge a man’s writings

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 always in the light of the period when they were

written. But we cannot now accept that as a

correct analysis of the deep unconscious. It
makes it little more than one aspect of neurotic

choice or stratagem; to protect godlike fantasy

from the disillusioning test of contact with
conscious reality, it must be made and kept

unconscious. Adler’s unconscious is created by

choice. He wrote:

If this ‘moral’ goal is hidden away in some

experience or fantasy, the patient may to
such an extent fall a victim to amnesia …
that the fictive goal become lost to view …
When the neurotic life-plan might nullify
itself by coming into direct opposition with
the feeling of the community, then its life-
plan is formed in the unconscious …
Psychotherapy can begin here by bringing
into consciousness the guiding ideas of
greatness, thereby rendering their influence
upon active life impossible. [1929, p. 230]

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 This is a good description of the early days of

psychotherapy, when it was held that helping the

patient to achieve conscious ‘insight’ was the
curative factor. ‘Insight therapy’ is still a label

much in use but it does not correspond to the

realities of treatment. The development of
‘insight’ during psychotherapy is more the result

than the cause of good progress; a sign that a

‘growth process’ is under way due to the
efficacy of the therapeutic personal relationship

of patient and analyst. Insight then stabilizes and

helps on that process. I think that in this respect
Adler stood where all the early psychotherapists

stood. They put too much responsibility on the

child and the patient for the existence of his
weaknesses and his defences, and expected him

to be able to alter himself, if he could be got to

see what he was up to. Phyllis Bottome (1939)

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 includes in her biography of Adler, as an
appendix, the Memorial Address given by Dr
Lydia Sicher, and she makes the Adlerian

position completely clear.

Adler no longer regarded neurosis as a

disease sui generis, but unmasked it as a
social deviation, as the effect of imperfect
‘cooperation’ with the collective action of
humanity. The neurotic is no longer to be
treated as a sick person to be pitied, who by
the ordinance of fate has become a victim
of heredity, his environment or his
instincts, but as a person who has made a
mistake, who has not learned to
accommodate himself to the rules of the
game of life [my italics]. Perception,
feeling, thinking and willing— all the
bodily and mental situations of an
individual —are actively directed by
himself, and are employed unintentionally
and unknowingly for the purpose of
safeguarding his own personal ideal, which
allows him to develop an activity centred
solely on himself.

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 Hysterical behaviour certainly can look just like
that at times, if we do not recognize the terrible
fears that are hidden behind the exploitatory
behaviour of the florid hysteric reaction. But to

leave it at that superficial level of analysis does

grave injustice to deeply disturbed people who
are more like a person flung into the sea when he

cannot swim, but only frantically clutch at

anything that looks like a life-belt.

When we examine now those theoretical

beginnings of psychodynamic research, we find

pretty much what we would expect to find;

valuable initial insights that opened up

unsuspected depths. Looked at today, Adler

offers a too simple theory of the self in his

‘individual psychology’, and Freud offered too
simple a theory of ‘personal relations’ in his
‘Oedipus complex’ and ‘instinct theory’ but here

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 were the two halves of the truth or the
beginnings of them, the truth that a ‘personal

ego or self cannot be created or grow in a

vacuum of personal relations, or in bad personal
relations’. The unconscious is not a stratagem

for hiding our neurotic choices or fictive goals; it

is the accumulated experience of our entire
infancy and early childhood at the hands of the

all-powerful adults who formed us. We have no

choice about its creation, and we can only
acquire the possibility of a regrowth to normal
stability and self-confidence after a bad start, if
someone can give us the kind of reliable and
understanding, valuing relationship that Balint

called ‘recognition’, i.e. recognition by the

therapist of the patient’s actual reality as a

person in his own right, in a way that slowly

sinks in and sets going new growth processes

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 leading to the rebirth of a genuine self. A human

being is not born with a fully formed ego,

however infantile. He is rather ‘a psyche with
human personal ego-potential’, needing good

human relations in which to grow. Professor

Stoller (1968) of Los Angeles says that the
formative factor for good or ill is the ‘minute by

minute, hour by hour, day by day, month by

month, year by year impact of the atmosphere of
the parents on the child’, and that is what is

built-in as we grow up, as the foundation of all

later adult development. Our contemporary
‘object-relations theory of the personality’, that a
true self can only grow in the soil of personal

relations with other selves, beginning with the

baby and the mother, settles once for all the
question of the nature of the therapeutic factor,

as not a ‘technique of treatment’ but a ‘quality of

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 relationship’. A patient who had a psychotic
mother, and began therapy as an ill man, off

work and stuck in a junior position, and who has

progressed steadily through a long period of
therapy to the very top of his professional tree,

came in recently and sat down and said straight

away, ‘I feel relaxed now the moment I come in
and sit down. It used to be half way through

sessions before I could feel like that’. His

capacity to do his work in a relaxed state of
mind has developed pari passu with his capacity

to relax in sessions. There has been plenty of

dream analysis, and life-story telling, and

frightened and angry transferences and all that

one finds in the textbooks, but all the time there

has been a slow growing process of feeling more

and more like a real person in relation to me.
That is what we have to make possible for our

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 patients, most of all for the deeply schizoid ones.
We are in luck if we find a simple case where a
symptom can be cleared up in a few weeks or
months by ‘insight therapy’. That can and does
happen, but they are not the cases we learn most
from. The deeper we go, the more severely we

ourselves are tested, till finally we might say, if I

may venture to elaborate the words of St Paul:

Though I speak with the tongues of men

and angels, popes and cardinals,
archbishops and theologians, philosophers
and scientists, psychiatrists and
psychotherapists, Freudians, Kleinians,
Adlerians, and Jungians, and though I have
the gift of prophecy (of interpretation and
insight) and understand all mysteries and
all knowledge (of all the psychodynamic
theories) and have not love (therapeutic
love, the kind of love a genuine parent can
give to a child), I am a sounding brass and
tinkling cymbal.

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 Where real therapy is going on, we and our

patients are growing together at the same time,

and neither of us can be the same afterwards.
What Adler called ‘the power to turn a minus

into a plus’ is in the end the ‘power to grow

from being an insecure child into being an
adult’, and mental processes are, as he said, not
causal, not driven from behind by a force, but

teleological, drawn forwards to the goal of our

self-fulfilment in personal relationships.

The child’s ego or self can be fragmented by

multiple inconsistencies in the ways adults

handle him. He needs a ‘whole’ therapist to

grow whole with. At one extreme Freud was

impersonal in treatment, the interpreting ‘mirror’

analyst, out of sight behind a couch. At the other

extreme Adler was entirely personal, even to

letting patients invade his private life and follow

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 him on holidays, not I think the best way of
helping the child in the patient to grow up and

go his own way. But in those early pioneering

days, all methods needed to be tried; yet in the
end Freud grew pessimistic about therapy and

Adler did not. Not that ‘personal therapy’ has to

go to Adler’s extreme. It is true, as St John
wrote, that ‘perfect love casteth out fear’ but

therapeutic love is not subjective involvement,

but objective respect for, and understanding of,
the other person’s reality so that he can find
himself. The one absolute, fundamental need is
not for ‘satisfaction’ or ‘gratification’ of
instincts, but for stable psychic ‘existence’ itself;

not a need to be sexual or aggressive or superior

or to be boss, but simply to ‘be’, to feel so sure
you are a real person that you are hardly

conscious of it as you enjoy living. The ultimate

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 fear is not of sex deprivation or persecution or
inferiority, but the terrible fear of just ‘not being
anything’, of feeling empty, a nobody, a non-

person. People will do anything to fill that gulf

with compulsive repetitive thoughts or acts,
anxieties, aggressions, obsessions, physical
symptoms, anything, rather than be threatened
by the fear of the loss of the self, of
depersonalization. That is the depth to which

Adler’s inferiority complex and Freud’s

repetition compulsion pointed. Psychotherapists
have no monopoly of this truth. For
confirmation, may I appeal to an unexpected
source. The title of a ‘pop’ song by Dickie
Valentine is ‘The Best Thing to Be Is a Person’.

Any discussion of psychotherapy, to be

realistic, must admit that, while it can provide an
answer to the individual problems of the lucky

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 few who can get it (and however many
therapists we train, their patients will still be the

lucky few, especially when we remember the

importance of matching patient and therapist), it
cannot by itself be the answer to the massive

problem of social or community mental

disturbance or instabilities of personality. The
work of the specialists provides the basis for the

answer, but the total problem of mental

disturbance is so vast as to be beyond the reach
of individual therapy. Professor Sir Denis Hill
has already warned us that the case load of
deviant characters, drug addicts, alcoholics,
sexual offenders, delinquents and so on, many of

them not, properly speaking, medical cases at

all, is more than the medical profession can
possibly cope with, and he has called for the

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 training of both medical and non-medical
personnel in psychotherapy (1969).

But the full answer must be based on the

principle that prevention is better than cure. The

principles and conditions of stable, healthy
personality development, as clarified by the
specialists, have somehow to be brought home
to teenagers, parents and teachers, and to social
workers of all kinds, ministers and clergy, and
even politicians and business executives. The

stark truth about the causes of personality

distress, and the rationalized disguises it
assumes when not breaking out as illness (Freud

pointed out that crime, i.e. anti-social behaviour,

aggressiveness, is the other side of neurosis),
and the basic necessities in the personal care of
children at all age levels, beginning with mother
and infant, must soak ever deeper into our

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 culture. The process has already begun in the

increasing education of all the social work

professions in the principles of psychodynamics.
We must give Adler his due as a pioneer of this

movement, with his thirty child guidance clinics

attached to schools, and lectures to teachers, and
conferences with parents. The only danger here

lies in its being done amateurishly. Expertly

done it can nip in the bud a tremendous lot of
trouble.

REFERENCES

Adler, A. (1929). Individual Psychology, rev. ed.

London: Kegan Paul.

Adrian, Lord (1968). Quoted by C. Burt (1968).

Brain and consciousness. British Journal of
Psychology 59:55-69.

Balint, M. (1968). The Basic Fault. London:

Tavistock Publications.

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 Bannister, D. (1968). The myth of physiological
psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 21:229-231.

_____ (1969). Clinical psychology and

psychotherapy. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 22:299-301.

Bottome, P. (1939). Alfred Adler: Apostle of

Freedom. London: Faber.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, vol. 1.

London: Hogarth Press.

Bronowski, J. (1965). The Identity of Man.

Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Chance, M. R. A. (1968). Ethology and

psychopharmacology. In Psycho-pharmacology,
ed. C. R. B. Joyce. London: Tavistock
Publications.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Routledge &t Kegan
Paul.

Freud, A. (1936). The Ego and the Mechanisms of

Defence. London: Hogarth Press.

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 Freud, S. (1914). History of the psychoanalytic
movement. Standard Edition 14.

_____ (1937). Analysis, terminable and interminable.

Standard Edition 23.

Guntrip, H. (1968). Schizoid Phenomena, Object

Relations and the Self. London: Hogarth Press.

Hartmann, H. (1964). Essays on Ego Psychology.

London: Hogarth Press.

Hill, D. (1969). Psychiatric education during a period

of social change. British Medical Journal 1:205-
209.

Medawar, P. (1969). Induction and Intuition in

Scientific Thought. London: Methuen.

Milner, M. (1969). The Hands of the Living God.

London: Hogarth Press.

Russell, B. (1946). History of Western Philosophy.

London: Allen & Unwin.

Stoller, R. (1968). Sex and Gender. New York:

Science House.

Taylor, C. (1964). The Explanation of Behaviour.

London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

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 Winnicott, D. (1965). The Maturational Processes
and the Facilitating Environment. London:
Hogarth Press.

Wyss, D. (1966). Depth Psychology: A Critical

History. London: Allen & Unwin.

Note
[11] A slight amplification of a lecture given at Aberdeen
University Medical School, September 18, 1970.

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 13

PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMON

SENSE

The terms of my title12 are taken from the

debate between Professor Kuhn and Sir Karl
Popper on the nature of science, of which more

anon. The title could as well be ‘What is a

“Scientific” Psychology?’ A survey of British
Psychological Society Bulletins over the last ten
years shows a marked shift of opinion, gathering
force, as to what constitutes ‘psychology’. This
coincides with far-reaching changes in the

overall philosophy of science. The two cogent

articles by Joynson (1970, 1972) summarize an
incipient revolution in psychology. It may cause

some surprise that as a psychoanalytical

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 therapist I do not want to see too violent a
pendulum swing of opinion, but an open-minded

dialogue between psychoanalysis and some

constructive contributions of behaviourism.
Some bias on both sides is no obstacle. Sir Peter

Medawar (1969) states: ‘Innocent unbiased

observation is a myth: “experience itself is a
specimen of knowledge which involves

understanding”, said Kant’. I have never worried

about criticisms that psychoanalysis is not
science. Laboratory experimentalists do not have
the ‘experience that is a species of knowledge’
of human beings, day in and day out suffering
anxieties of often suicidal intensity. I always felt,

what I think Joynson demonstrates, that

psychologists were mostly more concerned to be
‘scientific’ than to be truly ‘psychological’. I left

University College, London, in the 1920s with a

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 divided mind about both psychology and
psychoanalysis. I felt that efforts to make

psychology a physical science were a blind

alley, ending in nothing but just physiology,
valuable in its proper place but not psychology.

Joynson substantiates this. At the same time I

had misgivings about an inner contradiction
within psychoanalysis, between its

‘physicalistic’ psychobiology of instincts and the

intuitively accurate, personalistic or truly
‘psychological’ insights of Freud into the
vicissitudes of the personal self growing in
unfavourable environments of bad personal
relations. As Joynson noted, Freud’s early

biological unconscious overshadowed the ego or

personal self. Psychoanalysis could not make up
its mind whether it was biology or psychology

(which is still true of Hartmann’s ego

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 psychology and unnecessarily true of Kleinian
psychoanalytic theory), and psychologists could

not make up their minds whether their studies

were physiology or psychology. For me, the
question, regarded by many intellectuals as

unreal, ‘Is psychoanalysis a science?’ was only

part of the larger question, ‘Is any kind of
psychology a science?’ I came near to

abandoning psychotherapy in the 1940s because

classic Freudian psychobiology, the instinct and
oedipal theories, gave me no clues to understand
the suffering of patients I later came to recognize
as ‘schizoid’, cases of ‘ego-weakness’, not of the
damming up of so-called id drives. The way

forward was opened for me by the more

genuinely psychological theories of the

American interpersonal relations school

(Sullivan, Horney, Fromm) and particularly the

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 British object relations views of Fairbairn,
Winnicott and others, the psychoanalytic

equivalent of Macmurray’s personal relations

philosophy. Till the 1960s I felt I watched from
the ringside, while physiological and

experimental psychologists were shadow-boxing

with a subject they could never knock out.

The obligation felt by both J. B. Watson and

Freud to be ‘scientific’ in the physical science

sense was forced on them, because, in the pre-

Einstein era, no other concept of ‘science’
existed. All our difficulties over this are a legacy

of the scientific materialism of the ‘billiard-ball

universe’ era, eventually exploded by Einstein
and quantum physics. Watson pontifically

announced that there is no such thing as

consciousness, without explaining how he could
be aware, or conscious, of that fact. Everything

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 in our richly varied human, personal, creative
life was to be ‘reduced’ to conditioned reflexes,

neurological habit patterns, cerebral

biochemistry. Psychology did not really exist,
though as a courteous gestur’, it might be called

‘physiological psychologye’ and then, in an

attempt to relate it to our actual living,
‘behaviourism’. Despite the vigorous protests of

Ward and Stout, and a halfway stand by

McDougall, this ‘reductionist’ psychology
became the Establishment Psychology,
determined to monopolize academic teaching in
university departments of psychology. Now in
the last decade the signs of revolt have been

multiplying, in the climate of a radically

changed philosophy of science which is frankly

anti-reductionist. It is becoming apparent that if

you start with the dogma that everything

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 ‘mental’ or ‘psychological’ can only be
explained or known in terms of brain process,

then you are bound to end up with nothing but

brain process. This so-called ‘scientific
psychology’ based on controlled laboratory

experiment and observation has, of course,

yielded some valuable results, an array of usable
mental tests, behaviour therapy techniques of

variable usefulness for suppressing symptoms;

they do not profess to do any more, for on
Eysenck’s authority there is nothing more to do,
there is ‘nothing behind the symptoms’.
Desensitization is the most interesting
psychologically (psychoanalysis can be seen as a

highly personal process of desensitization of

childhood fears of bad parents and/or traumatic

situations, liberating personal growth potentials);

aversion therapy, the use of fear to suppress a

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 symptom, being the most questionable, though
there are cases in which I would not rule it out.

A more important result of behaviourism has

been to study the large part played by ‘habit’, by
‘repertoires of behaviour patterns’ in everyday

living, which psychoanalysis has failed to take

adequately into account. A patient who was an
obsessional and a pianist told me how he sat

down to play a Chopin nocturne and after a

while, to his surprise, stopped and found he had
come to its end. He had played the whole piece
entirely unconsciously, while his conscious
thought had remained obsessionally stuck on the
theme of the opening bars. Here was an

elaborate behaviour pattern running its own

automatic course, and without the possibility of

such habits, we could not carry on our lives at

all; but if we had a record of that nocturne, I

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 think we would find it had been played
mechanically, devoid of the subtle element of

‘artistic interpretation’ that is the genius of a real

pianist. We see this phenomenon in the
hysterical fugue. Burt (1968) quoted Lord

Adrian, the neurophysiologist, as saying that he

thought most of our daily activity could be
behaviouristically explained, but ‘one thing does

not fit into this neat and tidy scheme, the “I” that
does the thinking, feeling and willing’.

At this point we become aware that the

overall contribution of the Establishment

Psychology to a genuine understanding of our

human living as ‘persons in relation’ has been
meagre, leading to charges of irrelevance, and

student unrest about overdosage of

behaviourism. At a technical college where I
lectured on Freud, a male student said to me

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 afterwards: ‘I have just finished my course in

psychology and got my degree, and it has

destroyed my faith in everything. We are nothing
but repertoires of behaviour patterns! But I want

to thank you for giving me back some hope.’ At

a university college one student said: ‘I chose
psychology because I wanted to become a child-

care worker and I’m having to study nothing but

experimental psychology.’ Another said: ‘I
chose psychology because I want to become an

occupational therapist and I’m having to study

nothing but statistics and animal psychology.’
Both the irrelevance and the authoritarianism of

the teaching are important. To get diplomas and

degrees you have to give the right answers. This
charge of indoctrination can be made against

psychoanalysis as well. Both sides have tended

to create ‘dogma’, and now we have raised a

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 question that is being debated on the highest
philosophical level between Professor T. S.
Kuhn and Sir Karl Popper. In the symposium
Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (1970)
Kuhn distinguished between what he called
‘normal’ and ‘extraordinary’ science. He thinks

that nearly all science is ‘normal’, consisting of

‘puzzle-solving within the limits of the theory
the scientist has been taught’. The theory is not

questioned and if the puzzle is not solved by

reference to it, the theory is not invalidated, the

scientist has failed in ingenuity. ‘Extraordinary’

or as Popper prefers to call it ‘revolutionary’
science, Kuhn thinks is rare, the work of a
Galileo, Newton or Einstein. He holds that

professionals are educated in ‘normal’ scientific

puzzle-solving without questioning the theories
they are taught. That seems an exact account of

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 the psychology teaching and experimentation of
this century, along with the theoretical

intolerance of the Skinners and Eysencks to

what Professor C. Taylor (1964) called
genuinely ‘psychological psychology’. They

would dogmatically debar us from the use of

genuine psychological terms at all, and confine
us to their ‘data language’ or ‘thing language’,

and all that developed from its simple

beginnings in Pavlov’s ‘conditioned reflexes’.

Popper’s reply to Kuhn is arresting. He

writes (1970):

Normal science in Kuhn’s sense does exist.

It is the activity of the non-revolutionary,
not-too-critical professional: of the science
student who accepts the ruling dogma of
the day. ... It does exist and must be taken
into account by the historians of science.
… But it is a phenomenon I dislike
(because I regard it as a danger to science).

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 The ‘normal’ scientist in my view has been
taught badly. He is a person one ought to
feel sorry for. I believe, and so do many
others, that all teaching on the university
level should be training and encouragement
in critical thinking. The ‘normal’ scientist
has been taught in a dogmatic spirit: he is a
victim of indoctrination. He has learned a
technique which can be applied without
asking the reason why (especially in
quantum physics).

I admit to surprise that Popper finds this even in

quantum physics, but it makes it so much easier
for us to admit its existence in psychology, both
physiological and psychoanalytical. My own

concern has been with the growth of

‘psychodynamic’ studies in the light of the needs
I met with in psychotherapy, beyond the

Establishment theories of classic Freudianism,

into the psychodynamics of ‘persons developing
in personal relationships’; not with behaviour,

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 the study of human beings as objects, nor
psychobiology (as illegitimate a mixture as

psychophysiology) with its non-psychological

‘id’ and the monstrosity of the death instinct, but
with the psychology of Lord Adrian’s T that

does the thinking, feeling and willing. This is the

viewpoint of the original intuitive, truly
psychological genius of Freud, developing

through some basic insights of Melanie Klein,

into the British object relations theory of
Fairbairn, Winnicott and others, and in the
American independent interpersonal relations
theory of Sullivan and his colleagues. I have
already made it clear that I do not simply reject

behaviourism, only the monopolistic intolerance

of some of its leaders, and regard its study of
repertoires of behaviour patterns as important. In

our everyday activity, we could hardly move

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 hand or foot without them, and would have to
‘stop and think out’ every next move.

Psychoanalysis has not studied the way such

relatively fixed patterns run through the whole of
our life, both healthy and pathological: though

Dr J. Sandler, editor of The International

Journal of Psycho-Analysis, has written (Sandler
and Joffe, 1969, p. 84) that after emotional

determinants have been resolved, a symptom can

sometimes persist as a habit for behaviour
therapy to deal with. We cannot settle the
relationship between general psychology and
psychoanalysis solely by the terms ‘normal’ and
‘pathological’. Both fixed habits and disturbed

reaction run through both normal and abnormal

psychic life. The differences are mostly of

degree. The method of ‘introspection’ is,

however, common to both disciplines (q.v.

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 Joynson) and our concern about being
‘scientific’ includes every type of truly
psychological study.

Recent BPS Bulletins have shown clear signs

of a breakaway from Kuhn’s ‘normal’,

dogmatic, orthodox science in psychology, and a
growth of critical revolutionary thinking, which

Popper holds should be characteristic of science

all the time. Thus an occupational psychologist,
S. Thorley (1969), writes: ‘I cannot stress too

strongly the danger of theoretical ideas and

laboratory research being propagated which

have no connection with the reality of life.’ He

quotes Lord James, that ‘educational research

often conceals a pseudo-objectivity. We have got

to have the courage to say that some things are
not worth discovering.’ An educational
psychologist, R. Moore (1969), writes of

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 the gap between the present state of
psychological knowledge and the real
problems the educational psychologist has
to face. … The one-year professional
training courses must be so tightly packed
with the learning of techniques that only
incidental consideration can be given to the
quality of understanding that educational
psychology demands.

He quotes the Summerfield Report on ‘the need

to clarify the feelings of a child for other people
and his attitudes to them and relations with
them. A well-founded knowledge of
interpersonal relations and the psychodynamics
of families and school groups’ is needed. A

clinical psychologist, D. Bannister (1969),

writes:

Confrontation by people who are in process

of trying to change in a complicated
personal context would be a continual
reminder to the psychologist of the over-
simplifying nature of the psychological

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 portraits implicit in most standard theories.
The demise of trait and S-R theories might
well be hastened by a forced recognition of
the capacity of people to interpret and
reinterpret themselves and their situation.
In terms of deriving and testing
hypotheses, the psychotherapeutic
situation, rather than the experimental
laboratory situation, may turn out to be the
acid test of the validity and utility of
psychological theories.

An experimental psychologist, R. Phillips

(1969), writes:

The increasing dependence of experimental

psychologists upon complex gadgetry is
yet another sign of man’s alienation from
his fellow man. … The machine is erected
by the experimenter as a sort of last-ditch
defence mechanism. Only the study of
psychology can save us: that psychological
psychology in which the proper study of
mankind is man!

Moreover, the disillusionment of students and

field workers has spread to the academics. D. E.

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 Broadbent, an empirical psychologist (1970),
admits that his colleague, Miss P. Wright, found
that ‘among those psychologists of roughly

senior lecturer rank and above, about half called

themselves behaviourists, but amongst those
more junior not one did so.’

The protests cited reflect a notable one in the

Presidential Address by R. ]. Bartlett (1948):

In common parlance the subject matter of

psychology is mind, but there is a serious
danger of psychologists becoming so
absorbed in the study of organized matter
that, as scientists, they become able to deal
only with matter and motion, mass and
energy. Science has to do with mass and
motion, and has no place for mind, except
to do its thinking. … The concept of mind,
which is in danger of being discarded by
psychology, lives a strong and healthy life
among men. Ought we not to accept this
concept, or the supposed reality behind it,
as our proper study, instead of being

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 satisfied with the careful recording of the
material changes credited by common
consent to be the products of its activity. Is
not the proper study of the psychologist the
psyche. ... As mind is too often equated
with brain, there is grave danger that
psychology may become indistinguishable
from applied physiology.

This result, foretold by Stout in 1896, is

welcomed by Zangwill in 1971: ‘One may hope
that neurology and psychology will become

increasingly integrated into a single scientific

discipline’, and naturally evokes Joynson’s call
for ‘The Return of Mind’. Bannister writes

(1968):

The chances of developing a physiological

psychology are about as good (or as bad) as
the chances of developing a chemical
sociology or a biological astronomy. …
Psychology needs to be self-referring
because the concept of ‘self’ is essentially
a psychological concept. It is no accident
that concepts such as consciousness,

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 choice, and teleological models are
reiterative in psychology since, in spite of
the most gallant attempts, we have failed to
get far by adhering to a purely mechanistic
model. An unquestioning acceptance of
physiological psychology stems from a
reductionist approach. Reductionism is a
philosophical posture which assumes that
physiology is somehow nearer to reality
than psychology, and therefore a more
‘basic’ science.

No study can claim to be ‘scientific’ if it

refuses to study its field in terms properly
relevant to just those phenomena that are in

question. To reduce them, or pretend that they

are some different kind of phenomena already

studied by other sciences, is strictly prejudice,

the prejudgement of all the issues at stake, not as

a result of investigation but as a dogma laid

down without proof by one of Kuhn’s ‘normal’

orthodox scientists. It is encouraging to find a

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 physicist and biologist, Professor Bronowski,

saying: ‘Man is both a machine and a self, and

there are two qualitatively different kinds of
knowledge, knowledge of the machine and

knowledge of the self’ (1966). The way is now

more clear to see that the sophisticated R-f (S,0)
formula, where O is the organic internal

conditions of the responder, is only an indirect

way of acknowledging that behaviour, response,
is a manifestation of a ‘behaving subject’ who

has direct access to his ‘internal conditions’,

which are not confined to organic factors, by
introspection.

Does the separation of psychology from

biology and physiology then deprive it of the
possibility of being a science? Not if we see
science in terms of the post-Einstein philosophy

of science, as developed today by Sir Karl

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 Popper and outlined very clearly in Sir Peter
Medawar’s Jayne Lectures (1969). Science, in
the solely physical-science sense, can only treat

human beings as ‘objects of investigation and

manipulation’, and that is precisely what is most
self-defeating, and therefore most unscientific in
dealing with psychic phenomena. Behaviourism
is an attempt at scientific manipulation, trying to
force or manoeuvre the patient into changing;

which is only legitimate in certain circumstances

and so long as the patient understands and
agrees. Psychotherapy is leaving the patient free
in a personal relationship of understanding
support in which his fears can die down as he
explores them, and his inhibited growth-

potentials can become active again in

developing a real ego or self. How can this kind
of experience be conceptualized in a scientific

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 way? It could not be done on the 19th-century
physical science model, but the ‘billiard-ball

universe’ of the last century was exploded by

quantum physics, and Popper tells us that
science has lost its old solid rock-like basis. It

‘drives its piles down into the swamp’ of the

ultimate mysteries, ‘only so far as is necessary to
support’ a theoretical structure for the time

being. Its method is no longer the patient

collection of facts and induction of ‘laws of
nature’, but rather a somewhat random poking
about in various ‘areas of interest’ to see what
turns up. We know that most planned scientific
research leads nowhere, or not to the goal it

sought, but nearly all great scientific discoveries

are the result of‘lucky finds’, which suggest
imaginative, intuitive hypotheses which might

explain them, and then can be tested out: the

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 ‘hypothetico-deductive method’. This is the only
intellectual process for studying any kind of
phenomena. We can know nothing of the
ultimate realities that lie behind matter, life,
mind, but we can seek to understand all the
ways in which they appear to us in our

experiencing of our world. All science is a study

of phenomena, inorganic, organic, behavioural
and social, and psychic, ultimately in the fully

personal sense. Psychological phenomena are as

real and as inescapably there, demanding

understanding, as all other phenomena. This is

precisely what is taken into account in
Medawar’s exposition of the ‘hierarchical model
of the structure of knowledge’. Knowledge is

like a building with a ground floor, physics and

chemistry, and rising above them, floor by floor,
tier by tier, new levels creating new sciences

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 which study new phenomena in new terms. He

firmly rules out ‘reductionism’. ‘The flow of

thought works one way only. Each tier of the
natural hierarchy makes use of notions peculiar

to itself. The ideas of democracy, credit, crime

or political constitution are no part of biology,
nor shall we find in physics the concepts of

memory, infection, sexuality or fear. In each

plane or tier of the hierarchy new ideas emerge
that are inexplicable in the language or with the
conceptual resources of the tier below. … We

cannot “interpret” sociology in terms of biology,

or biology in terms of physics.’ This is the point
Bannister made, and we must add: ‘nor

psychology in terms of physiology or

neurology’.

On the topmost tiers we shall find, first,

‘social psychology’, for human beings react in

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 simpler ways on the crowd level; and finally,
‘individual psychology’, studying ‘the subjective
personal experience of human beings creatively
developing and relating to one another’ in ways

that become ‘introspectible’. Here Joynson

envisages a cooperative dialogue between a new
‘introspectionist’ general psychology, the

‘personalistic’ tradition of Kelly, Allport,

Bannister, and the later developments of
psychoanalysis, in which the ego plays a more

central role in theory. This will be helped by the

fact that behaviourism has also been undergoing
changes, and as, Ralph McGuire (late of Leeds,

now of Edinburgh) stated in a recent discussion

in Leeds, behaviourists are now prepared to look
beyond symptoms for causes and reasons. This

brings behaviourism and psychoanalysis on to

common ground, and only needs recognition of

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 the further fact that ‘causes and reasons’ may
have to be found in the legacy of a traumatic

childhood repressed in the unconscious and

emerging disguised in dreams and symptoms.
For this reason I feel a cautionary word must be

said about ‘introspection’. It can lead into deep

and disturbing areas of psychopathology and
become almost too hot to handle, which may be

vaguely sensed by many emotional critics of

psychoanalysis. But since a pretty stable person
cannot be psychoanalysed (he would not have
any reason for letting his ego defenses be
breached) we need: (1) a general psychology to
make an introspectionist study of repertoires of

behaviour patterns on the social psychology

level, (2) a more personalistic study of

behaviour patterns interwoven with spontaneous

and creative functioning on the individual

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 psychology level, and (3) a psychodynamic,
psychoanalytic psychology working, not from
the normal but from the psychopathology end of
the continuum of human experience, while (4)
these varying approaches meet in a middle area
of human living where the relatively normal and

the varyingly psychopathological phenomena

are to be found mingled together. Joynson writes
(1972): ‘Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious
initially reduced the significance of the

conscious, but the conscious ego has gradually

acquired a more central role in theory.’ This
needs some restatement. Initially, the
unconscious was the biological ‘id’, too
powerful for the superficial ego to control.

Contemporary object relations theory leaves the

‘id’, the biological ‘given’, to biology, and
studies the ‘use’ the psychological ‘ego’ makes

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 of it. The unconscious is part of the ego which is
tied to the unresolved anxious problem-relations

of the past, an ‘inner world’ where ‘feeling’

predominates, while the conscious part of the
ego relates to the present-day outer world where

‘feeling’ must be more governed by ‘thinking’;

and while it also digests as much of the
experiences of its ‘unconscious other half’ as it

can tolerate coming into consciousness. In the

emotional unconscious the inspirations of art
and the symbolism of dreams arise. Patients are

often highly imaginative artists in their dreams.

Psychoanalysis gives us a depth psychology with

which to understand the personality as a

‘whole’. Needed behaviour patterns can be

consciously studied, and we keep ‘half an eye’

on our useful ‘repertoires’ while engaged in
spontaneous pursuits. But the ‘repertoires’ do

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 not explain creativity and spontaneous action,

whether in art, personal relations, or the intuitive

imaginative hypotheses on which science
depends. A final comment from a linguistic

philosopher. John Linsie writes (1972): ‘Ought

we to expect to solve our puzzlement about the
meaning of “mind” through a more detailed

understanding of brain functioning? I think not.’

He says: ‘questions of the “meaning” of a word
(such as mind) must be solved either by

“perceptual reference”, pointing to a relevant

object (such as brain) or by “conceptual
clarification”, clarifying our awareness of a

familiar experience (mind)’. He thinks that most

psychologists have put ‘the perceptual cart
before the conceptual horse. Ordinary language

is full of references to “mind” (such as “mind

your step”, “what’s on your mind”). Even

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 psychologists, for whom studying “mind” is
professional anathema use the word “mind” in

their off-duty moments. No doubt even such an

arch-experimentalist as Dr Eysenck advises his
students to “mind what they are about” in their

exams. As ordinary folk we know what we are

talking about when we use the term “mind”. We
must make explicit what we have always

implicitly known about mind. To do this it will

be necessary to refer to everyday experience of
the market place’ (or with Bannister we may say
the therapeutic situation) ‘not the specialized
experience of the psychological laboratory’.

REFERENCES

Adrian, Lord (1968). Quoted by Sir Cyril Burt in

Brain and consciousness. British Journal of
Psychology 59:56-69.

Bannister, D. (1968). The myth of physiological

psychology. Bulletin of the British

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 Psychological Society 21:229-231.

_____ (1969). Clinical psychology and

psychotherapy. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 22:299-301.

Bartlett, R. J. (1948). Mind. Bulletin of the British

Psychological Society 1(1):14—24.

Broadbent, D. E. (1970). In defence of empirical

psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 23:87-96.

Joynson, R. B. (1970). The breakdown of modern

psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 23:261-269.

_____ (1972). The return of mind. Bulletin of the

British Psychological Society 25:1-10.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). In Criticism and the Growth of

Knowledge, ed. I. Lakotos and A. Musgrave.
Cambridge University Press.

Linsie, J. (1972). The concept of mind. In Some

Myths in Human Biology. London: BBC.

Medawar, P. (1969). Induction and Intuition in

Scientific Thought. London: Methuen.

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 Moore, R. B. W. (1969). The nature of educational
psychology in school psychological and child
guidance services. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 22:185-187.

Phillips, R. (1969). Psychological psychology: a new

science? Bulletin of the British Psychological
Society 22:83-87.

Popper, K. (1970). In Criticism and the Growth of

Knowledge, ed. I. Lakotos and A. Musgrave.
Cambridge University Press.

Sandler, J. and Joffe, W. G. (1969). Towards a basic

psychoanalytic model. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 50:79-90.

Taylor, C. (1964). The Explanation of Behaviour.

London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Thorley, S. (1969). Psychology: occupation, vocation

or profession. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 22:181-183.

Zangwill, O. L. (1971). Correspondence. Bulletin of

the British Psychological Society 24:88-89.

Note
[12] The paper’s original title is “Orthodoxy and Revolution in
Psychology.”

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 14

FREUD, RUSSELL AND “THE CORE

OF LONELINESS”

If I were asked to quote one passage that

more than any other expresses the fundamental
truth and problem about human nature, I would

quote, not any passage from Freud, but one from

Bertrand Russell. I must defer for the moment
the citing of this passage since, to feel its full
force, we must pave the way for it. Yet, in spite
of the profundity of that one passage, Russell’s
life work has contributed little of permanent

value for man, in a practical sense, while Freud

started what has become the profoundest
research into human nature ever yet made. The

intriguing problem is why did Russell’s

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 profound insight lie sterile and unused in all his
later work, while Freud’s less profound early

observations and tentative theories developed

into a systematic “penetration” (to use Russell’s
own word) into that very region of human

experience that Russell might have explored.

Freud and Russell, two of the intellectual

giants of the end of last century and the first half

of this one, may seem, at first sight, to be an

unlikely pair to choose for a comparative study.
They reveal, however, not only striking
differences but also unexpectedly intriguing

parallels. There is a superficial overall parallel in

that both of them began with an apparently total

dedication to impersonal intellectual work, the

one in physical science, the other in philosophy,

but in due course both of them moved on to

become steeped, in different ways, in most

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 practical human problems. If Freud’s early
interest was not quite so abstractly intellectual as

was Russell’s in geometry, his interest in human

nature was more intellectual than practical.
Ernest Jones tells us that “To medicine itself

Freud felt no direct attraction … and wished to

devote himself to the cultural and historical
problems of how man came to be what he is”

(Jones 1953, p. 30). After a normal childhood in

an unbroken home, Freud was educated as a
medical laboratory scientist, working with the
methods of objective experiment in the physical
sciences. He accepted the dictum of his mentor,
Professor Brücke“that there are no energies in

the organism other than physical and chemical

ones.” Brücke“set Freud behind the microscope
to work on the histology of nerve cells” (p. 51),

and Jones states that in three published papers

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 Freud “paved the way for the neurone theory. …
The unitary conception of the nerve cell and

processes—the essence of the future neurone

theory —seems to have been Freud’s own and
quite independent of his teachers” (pp. 54-55).

He was also the unacknowledged first discoverer

of the medical uses of cocaine. This basic
intellectual discipline never lost its hold on him,

and Jones states that when he brought back into

science the concepts of “wish,” “intention,”
“aim,” and “purpose,” he still “never abandoned
determinism for teleology” (p. 50). It is clear
that neither Freud nor Jones saw the inherent
self-contradiction of this “philosophy of

science” in the field of “psychodynamic

phenomena,” which explains the uneasiness that

often made Freud long to get back to the security

of his physical science laboratory, where

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 everything was so much less worrying than in
the conflict-ridden areas of human motivations.

When Freud was forced out of his laboratory

security (by anti-Jewish prejudice, which for
once produced a most fortunate result for

mankind), and was compelled to earn a living by

doing clinical work, seeing patients, coming face
to face with human suffering rather than
laboratory problems of histological research, it

emerged that he possessed genuine genius for

intuitive psychological insight into the deep-
seated disturbances of human beings as

“persons” rather than “organisms.” This new

field of investigation was not easy to reconcile
with his previous scientific training. There were

many pitfalls of premature conceptualization,

such as his early failure to distinguish between
memory and fantasy of early sexual trauma, in

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 the psychodynamic field. He resisted for a long
time the need to conceptualize in different terms

from those of physical science, and worked hard

to cast his early findings in neurological thought
forms. Even later in life he expressed the view

that psychoanalysis was useful for treating

hysteria until such time as neurology could cure
it. But steadily, the pressure of hard facts—of

stubborn psychodynamic phenomena—

compelled him to abandon his “Psychology for
Neurologists” because of its uselessness in his
clinical work, and he did his best to create a
psychological theory that would still be tied to
physical science in the form of biology.

Classical Freudians, like their master, never got

past that position. Heinz Hartmann in 1964, in

Essays in Ego-Psychology, was still saying that

psychoanalysis is one of the biologic sciences,

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 and could not conceive of a “psychology in its
own right.” Yet Freud’s intuitive genius could

not be imprisoned, and in spite of his education

and the mental habits of his first 40 years, he
also gave us “clinical studies” that are profound

first-hand observations of human beings in their

intimate personal struggles and that provide the
data for the purely psychodynamic hypotheses

he gave us concerning the unconscious and

conscious “motivational” life of humans in their
relations with one another from childhood
onwards. In his somewhat hybrid theory, the
purely theoretical Freud has become dated, the
clinical Freud abides as the permanent

foundation of all psychodynamic studies of

human beings as “persons” not just “organisms.”

Though he never managed to integrate fully the

physical scientist and the psychodynamic

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 therapist in himself, the latter is his imperishable
contribution.

There is a curious parallel dualism in

Bertrand Russell, but the two sides of him are
kept far more completely apart and are not

allowed to conflict head on in the way Freud

could not prevent in his own case. The two sides
of Bertrand Russell are the impersonal, abstract,
purely intellectual philosopher (the

mathematician, logician, Logical Atomist, and

Logical Positivist) and the warm-hearted
generous friend, the ardent lover (four times

married), and the aggressively campaigning

political and social reformer who could lead a
“sit down” in Whitehall in protest against

nuclear armaments. He agreed with Hume’s

dictum that “reason is and ought to be the slave
of the passions.” The philosopher in him could

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 question whether external objects were “logical
constructions” or “inferred entities,” but that

never made him hesitate for a moment in

coming to the financial help, unbeknown, of a
close friend, or to fall deeply in love four times.

Indeed so strong was his capacity to love that it

raises a challenging problem, which we shall
presently find highly relevant to his

understanding, that having fallen strongly in

love the first three times and contracted
marriages that each lasted an average of ten
years, he should gradually have found that he
had fallen out of love again. There is a sad but
highly important problem here for understanding

human nature, especially in contrast to Freud’s

one marriage, which lasted a lifetime. Freud

could feel deeply for one or two other women,

but that never for a moment weakened his basic

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 love of his wife. There is a problem here that is

absolutely central to the understanding of human

nature. On occasion, the two sides of Russell
could nod to each other in some of his borderline

writings, and to some extent in his rather scanty

“philosophy of morals,” but in the main there is
a gulf between the head and the heart that kept

them wider apart than in the case of Freud, a fact

from which there is much to learn. There is a
gulf between the extreme impersonality of what

he regarded as his greatest work, Principia

Mathematica, and the passionate advocacies of
most human causes in some of his later writings.

The “intellectual” in Russell became a

philosopher, not a scientist as with Freud, and
the “humanist” in Russell became a social and

political propagandist, not a personal therapist

like Freud. This may seem to be a comparison

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 that is sufficiently descriptive and calls for little
further comment. The two men might simply
offer an interesting variety in human types. But
we shall miss very many important and
fascinating human problems, if we leave it at
that.

Thus, it appears to me that the two sides of

Freud’s personality maintained a constant
tension to the end, and Freud the scientist and

Freud the therapist never really settled the issue

between them. In one of his late papers, on

“Analysis Terminable and Interminable” (1937),

he concluded (and I think it must have been

sadly) that psychoanalysis would probably in the

end prove of greater value as a method of
scientific research than as a therapy. I find that
astonishing, for if it fails as a therapy, it must be
useless as a method of scientific investigation,

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 since on Freud’s own theory and experience,
human beings will never cooperate in the

investigation of their unconscious distresses,

unless they can thereby be healed of their
emotional pain. The whole point of Freud’s

discovery of “transference” and “resistance,” or

“negative transference,” is that the traumatic
experiences of early childhood, whether they be

of sheer fear, or of the ache of unmet needs, or

guilt-burdened impulses of aggression, would so
seriously interfere with adult living that they
must be kept repressed. If they break through
our “ego-defences” the result is illness and
incapacitation. The only alternative is to

“transfer” these disturbing emotions from their

infantile situations as preserved in the
unconscious to some handy figure in real life

and blame that person for the whole disturbance.

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 This is a common phenomenon in everyday life;
the only way in which repressed emotional
disturbances can emerge into consciousness,
other than in the therapeutic situation where they
can be understood and lived through, is by
working them off on the wrong person. The

scientifically investigating psychologist will

either not tap the deeper sources of the subject’s
emotional life, or else will find himself
becoming the target of reactions he is not likely

to tolerate understandingly, not being concerned

with therapy. It seems to me that Freud’s
conclusion, even at that late date, was
unconsciously dictated by his still persisting
longing to get out of the difficult

psychotherapeutic commitment into the much

less disturbing scientific laboratory situation.
Only a powerful unconscious motive could have

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 blinded so penetrating a thinker to his own
major discoveries, even momentarily. It seems to

me evidence that the battle in him between the

scientist and the therapist was never really
resolved, and that the scientist threatened,

without final success, to come out on top at the

end, for we must never forget that Freud’s last
and unfinished contribution to “theory” was his

recognition of the fact that the purely

psychodynamic phenomenon of “ego splitting”
was universal, not confined to psychoses but
extending through the entire range of the
neuroses. This has been the starting point for the
post-Freudian development of “personal ego-

psychology,” the most momentous development

psychoanalysis has made, setting it free from
biology and physical science, and enabling it to

become a genuine research into our personal

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 “motivations” as we develop our “ego” in
“personal relations.” Freud’s aim, once he was

committed to the detailed study of his patients

sufferings, was to create a science of the
emotional dynamics of our personal living, and

in pursuit of this aim he very nearly, if not quite,

moved on beyond the physicalistic concept of
biological drives or instincts, to the fully

psychodynamic concept of “motivational

energies of the psychic ego” which, when they
conflict with one another, bring about the state
of psychic disorder and confusion we call “ego-
splitting.” But he prepared the way for the
discipline he founded to pursue this goal to

success in our contemporary “personal” or

“object-relational theory.”

Russell’s development was different. His

early philosophical period was impersonal,

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 abstract, purely intellectual, and nonpractical in
the extreme. In collaboration with his tutor and
close friend, A. N. Whitehead, he buried himself
for ten years in the production of Principia

Mathematica, of which he wrote the lion’s share.

Its aim was to reduce mathematics to logic by
reducing “numbers” to “classes.” It is not

relevant here to expound that attempt, though I

had to wrestle with it as an undergraduate.

Since my university days, I have kept in

touch with philosophy as an interested reader

seeking general information, not as a specialist

student, which I did not need to be. It is

sufficient to note that Russell’s earlier work led

him on to his philosophies of Logical Atomism

and Logical Positivism. This work will have its
place in the history of philosophy, but it did not
turn out to be the “final solution” of

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 epistemological problems I think Russell was
seeking. A. J. Ayer (1972) now writes:

“Russell’s conception of philosophy is old

fashioned ... in the high tradition of British
empiricism ... he makes the now unfashionable

assumption that all our beliefs are in need of

philosophical justification.” Russell failed, as
philosophy must always fail, to isolate and

identify the “ultimates” in epistemology and

ontology. The human intellect does not have the
capacity to “explain” the ultimate reality or
realities. We may heed the warning of Bion
(1962), the psychoanalyst,

All investigation being ultimately

scientific, is limited by human inadequacy
to those phenomena that have the
characteristics of the inanimate. We assume
that the psychotic limitation is due to
illness; but that that of the scientists is not.
… Our rudimentary equipment for

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 ‘thinking’ thoughts is adequate when the
problems are associated with the inanimate,
but not when the object for investigation is
the phenomenon of life itself.

In psychotics, grossly disturbed emotion has

overwhelmed objective thinking; in scientists,
thinking is, for the time being, simply divorced

from feeling. But there can be no

“understanding” of the living and of the
ultimate, except by the cooperation of both

aspects of our whole nature, and the difficulty

there is in the concept that “feeling” can grasp
and respond to far more than “intellect” can
define, there are “things that lie too deep for

words,” which still include the profoundest

realities in our lives. I am not thinking at the
moment of religion, but for example, of “human

love,” the only possible proof of which is for

two people to live together for a lifetime. There

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 is no other way of validating results in this field,
and all the things that are most important to us
are in the realm of “personal relationships.” The

rest is “technology,” the invention and use of

“machines,” varieties of which are useful for
sustaining our physical existence, but, while
they can keep us alive, they do not enable us to
“live,” in any meaningful sense.

This can be stated another way. The intellect,

the philosopher’s tool, can only operate with

“language” and it is the limitations of this tool

that made Ayer and post-Russell British

philosophers see Russell as “old-fashioned” in

his view that “all our beliefs are in need of

philosophical justification.” Paul, of Oxford,

writing of Wittgenstein in 1956, shows why
Wittgenstein and others moved beyond Russell’s
and the pure empiricist’s position. He wrote,

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 With Moore, Wittgenstein shared a
sympathy for metaphysical philosophers.
[He wrote:] “The problems arising through
a misinterpretation of our forms of
language have the character of depth: they
are deep disquietudes, their roots are as
deep in us as the forms of our language.”
These philosophers have when at their best,
“run their heads up against the limits of
language.” And Wittgenstein emphasized
with Moore, “our strange position,” that we
know what many words and phrases mean
even though “no philosopher, or anyone
else, has succeeded in setting out in detail
what they mean.”

Russell the philosopher worked at an insoluble

problem. But, just as Wittgenstein and British

philosophy moved beyond Russell, Russell in a

different way moved beyond himself, not so

much intellectually as practically. He never

again devoted all his time and energy to purely

abstract impersonal intellectual problems. The
dating of his books and their subject matter are

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 instructive. Principles of Mathematics (1903)
and Principia Mathematica (1910-1913),
represent the early philosophical Russell. He
wrote 11 smaller books on problems of logic and
epistemology and general philosophy later on,
and is probably best known for his both popular

and valuable History of Western Philosophy

(1945), but none of these are on the scale of
Principia Mathematica (1913). On the other

hand, between 1916 and 1954 he wrote 13 books

on such subjects as social reconstruction,

politics, freedom, Bolshevism, education,

religion, marriage, morals, happiness, power,
authority and the individual, New Hopes for a
Changing World, ethics and, as he grew older,

five biographical books, ending with Portraits

from Memory (1958) at the age of 86 and,

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 finally, his monumental Autobiography in three

volumes, 1967-1969, at the age of 95-97.

His development may be described, in one

sense, as akin to that of Freud, who also became

ever more interested in broad human concerns,

the psychology of art, and religion (Civilization
and its Discontents, Group Psychology, Moses

and Monotheism), though he sought to integrate

these studies with his, hopefully, scientific
psychology. With Russell, no attempt was made

to integrate his intensely human and practical

concerns with his early philosophy. With Freud,
the intellectual scientist kept a dragging hold on

his human concerns without contributing

anything to their understanding. With Russell,
the older he became the abstract philosopher was
outstripped by the emotional and intensely

personal humanist, once the first ten years were

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 over. One may feel that his final effort, an
autobiography, arose out of his own deep need to
understand himself as a person, to trace the path

of his development to see if he could find out

what had really happened to him and what he
had become. It is my belief that if only Russell
could have addressed himself to this task,
equipped with Freud’s powers of intuitive
psychodynamic understanding, he would have

created a psychoanalysis that explored deeper

depths than Freud’s Oedipus Complex theory.
Equally, if Freud would have had Russell’s
disturbing and lonely childhood, given his
remarkable psychodynamic intuition, he also
would have given us a psychoanalysis that

probed deeper depths than the Oedipal problems

he uncovered. Both men moved beyond
impersonal and intellectual problems to basic

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 personal and emotional ones, but both were
conditioned by the influence of their childhood

in the shaping of their personality. Freud’s

remarkable intuition carried him as deep as he
himself needed to go in his self-analysis.

Russell, in one astonishing example of intuitive

understanding of the suffering of another, but
unwittingly in the light of his own personality

and early life, saw deeper than Freud’s Oedipal

or parent-child relations, to the depths of
isolation and loneliness that arise from, not
positive disturbing parent-child relations, but the
failure or nonexistence of such relations, which
creates what we have come to call the schizoid

problem. Freud had no inner incentive to probe

deeper than Oedipal problems and had to wait
for the traumatic impact of World War I to drive

him to consider the fundamental problem of ego

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 growth. Russell’s early life left him profoundly
bogged down in the problem of what to do with
an ineradicable loneliness and emptiness at the
heart of him. He first fled from the problem into
the most abstract forms of pure intellectualism,
from 1883 to 1913. But the security of his

intellectual cloisters was first invaded when he

fell in love in 1889 at the age of 17, and he then
sought to cure his inner isolation by successive

marriages, and by plunging into the social,

moral, and political battle for human rights, and

finally by delving deeply into his entire life-

story, as if his autobiography was his last
hopefully therapeutic attempt to understand and
make sense of his life. His one astonishing

moment of truth came in 1901 at the age of 29,

before he had written any of his books, but it
will be profitable to defer consideration of that

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 till after we have first examined Freud’s

childhood, as a standard with which to compare

Russell’s.

Freud grew up as the eldest son of a second

marriage and had an unbroken progress in a

united family, in his education from childhood
into the medical profession and the scientific
laboratory. Jacob Freud, his father, was 41 when

Sigmund was born and is described as “a man of

gentle disposition, well loved by all his family.”
There were two sons by the first marriage,

Emmanuel, 24 years older than Freud who

emigrated to England, and the younger half-

brother who was 20 years older than Freud and

only one year younger than Freud’s mother, who

married at age twenty. Freud senior died at the

age of 81—kindly, tolerant, friendly, and

intelligent. Sigmund’s mother died at the age of

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 95, a lively personality who would refer to
Sigmund as “Mein Goldener Sigi.” Freud was
breast fed and was his mother’s favorite child.
Jones says that “a close attachment existed

between the two throughout.” One would hardly

think that any very serious Oedipal problems
would arise for Sigmund in such an intelligent

and affectionate family. Such problems were

certainly not forced on him by inadequate
parental behavior. He consciously loved and

deservedly respected his father, and in adult life

would say that he got his sense of humor and
intellectual liberalism from his father and his

deeply emotional nature from his mother. The

father’s influence on Sigmund is there, even in
religion. Jacob Freud began as an orthodox Jew

and moved quietly and unostentatiously to a

more and more liberal theology, at the end being

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 religious rather in the sense in which Ayer
described Russell as “a man of religious temper”

rather than theological orthodoxy. Freud

disavowed religion but developed a lasting
friendship with the Reverend Oscar Pfister, the

first clerical psychoanalyst, writing to him as

“Dear Man of God.” (Their letters have been
published.) Freud used his psychological theory

to explain religion away as the projection of the

father image on to the universe, thereby
admitting indirectly the enormous importance of
the father image in his own mind: it was the
prototype of God. He remained fascinated by
religion, and by Michaelangelo’s “Moses” in

Rome (which he visited repeatedly). He could

not leave the subject alone; his last book was

Moses and Monotheism. His mother was more

simply emotionally if healthily religious. One

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 may say that there was an emotional, if not an
intellectual, continuity between the young Freud,
who was the eldest and favorite son in a good
family life, and Freud the creative adult thinker.

One might think that Freud’s family life

would contain little more than the usual
jealousies, possessiveness, demands for
attention, rivalries among siblings, and
resentments of authority that are normal in
vigorous growing children. Had that been the

case, I do not think Freud would have had the

motivation to create his full-blooded Oedipus
Complex theory of heterosexual possessiveness

and homosexual hate and aggression, deep guilt,

and self-punishment that demanded the use of
the Oedipus myth for its symbolic expression.
He certainly would have created a theory of the
unconscious as retaining permanent emotion-

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 loaded traces of parent-child relationships,
which are never completely outgrown and which

can become pathological if the emotions locked

in them are powerful enough. I do not think any
experienced person would question the truth of

the Oedipus theory in this broadest sense as

embodying the ineradicable influence of the
parents on the growing child, much as Adler’s

Family Constellation theory embodies the

totality of family influences. We have, however,
to account for the fact that when Freud

undertook his self-analysis at the age of 41, he

was startled to find in his dreams evidence of far

more disturbingly intense emotions than that.

There was, in fact, a curious reason.

Sigmund was the eldest son of his father’s

second family, and the younger of his two half-
brothers, Phillip, 20 years older than himself and

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 only one year younger than Freud’s mother,

lived close by and was always in and out.

Sigmund was in the curious position of living
with two senior males, a half-brother old enough

to be his father, and who was very friendly with

his mother, and his actual father old enough to
be his grandfather. Consciously he felt very

strong affection for his actual father, and felt

markedly hostile to his half-brother Phillip who
seems to have given him no adequate reason for

this. At 41 he was more than surprised to find

himself dreaming of intense hate of his real
father, and remembered an occasion when he

had gone as a child into his parents’ bedroom

and his father had angrily ordered him out.
Evidently he was saved from the difficulties, at

least superficially, of having an ambivalent

relationship with his real father, by having a

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 convenient half-brother at hand, old enough to
be his father, and close enough to be a rival for

mother’s attentions, on to whom he could project

his hate without much harm. Though I do not
agree with E. Jones in all his detailed and literal

Oedipal interpretations, and I do not believe in,

or I have not myself found, a full-blooded
Oedipus Complex in every patient, I am

prepared to accept that this unusual family set-

up was the source whence arose the powerful
emotional conflicts that troubled Freud and
puzzled him with neurotic reactions and
depressions, which began to abate with his self-
analysis. His early nicotine addiction, his highly

ambivalent friendship with Dr. Fliess, dependent

yet increasingly full of hate, his phobia of

traveling and street phobia, his guilt and

reparation in having to sacrifice or smash a

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 valuable vase when his daughter’s life was

spared in an illness, and his preoccupation with

death, were all signs of an analyzable emotional
disturbance of the order of neurosis. Only by

knowing ourselves do we become able to

understand others, and Freud’s self-analysis was
a unique and very great achievement. Fairbairn

once said to me, “I can’t think what could

motivate any of us to become psychotherapists
unless we had difficulties of our own,” but this is

not a welcome fact to many would-be students

of human nature, and Freud’s courage in facing
this extremely difficult fact must remain perhaps
his greatest claim on our respect. It was through

lack of the capacity (not the courage) to do this,

that Russell missed the chance, not only of
solving his own personal problem, but also of

creating a profounder psychodynamic theory

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 than Freud’s Oedipus complex, as we shall see.
But Freud probed as deeply as his own

unconscious fantasy life called on him to probe.

This favorite son being faced with two older
rivals, a father and a half-brother, for the

exclusive attention of his much-loved and highly

attractive mother, seems to have generated a
powerful jealousy and hate of them, which he
might have resolved in the process of emotional

maturing had there been only one rival. As it

was, there being two, he could the more easily

separate his love and hate for both of them, and

thus preserve intact in consciousness his love of
his father, while in time repressing also intact his
hate of the other rival, only to find in his dreams

that that too ultimately had been felt against his

real parent. The fact is too obviously important
to ignore that the death of his father was the

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 immediate precipitating factor in his starting
self-analysis, in the very middle of his highly

ambivalent and growingly hostile five-year

friendship with Dr. Fliess, the Berlin throat and
nose surgeon. For a man of Freud’s stature to

become emotionally fixated on an intellectually

inferior man and make him practically a father-
confessor for some five years requires

explanation. This emerges in the fact that his

self-analysis of his ambivalent love-hate relation
to his father, freed him from his fixation on this
father substitute. So Freud’s psychodynamic
theory went no deeper than his own personal
problem, as we might expect. His theory of

“moral control” embodied in his “superego”

concept, grew out of his view of the absolutely
fundamental nature of parent-child relations.

The “superego” or conscience was the

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 psychically molded, internalized version of the
parental authorities. Freud’s whole psychology

is an exploration of the long-lasting, often

permanent, results for good or evil of the
relationships between parents and the child,

especially in early childhood. Two points of

critical interest call for comment: the term
“relationships” and the term “early” as distinct

from “earliest.” The concept of “relationship”

was not the ultimate one for Freud, at least
theoretically. His basic concept was “instinct”

and for him relationships were the arena in

which “instincts” of sex and aggression played
out their roles. Bad parents frustrated the child’s
instincts and caused the damming up of

“instinctual tensions,” which could be

discharged in psychotherapy. Today, the
emphasis has moved off the biologic on to the

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 psychodynamic concept of “personal
relationships” as the medium in which the

beginnings of a child’s ego grow to stability or

instability. The move from an instinct
psychology to an ego-development psychology

in post-Freudian psychoanalysis, on which we

have already commented, was prepared by Freud
himself in his post-war writings. The point is

relevant to my use of the term “early” rather

than “earliest” relationships of parents and child.
His delving into the unconscious did not go
deeper than the early relationships of the child to
parents, which do so often seem to be
experienced in terms of body functions,

sexuality, jealously, possessiveness, and

aggression: “bad” impulses which are kept in
control and under repression by the “parentally

moulded superego.” Freud did not explore the

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 still earlier, or rather earliest psychic levels of
the first two years. When Melanie Klein began
to probe as deep as that, she was accused of
“reading back” Oedipal phenomena into a period

when they could not yet have appeared. The

point did not emerge clearly, until object-
relations theory developed, that the problems of

the earliest phases are not problems of “impulse

control” such as Freud’s Oedipus Complex
theory envisaged, but problems of ego

development, of the very beginnings of the

experience of being a self at all. If ego growth
fails at the start, because parents cannot or do

not genuinely really relate to the child, then we

get, not classic Freudian Oedipal impulse
problems, but schizoid and even schizophrenic

and paranoid states of mind. Freud regarded

these, as did all psychiatrists at that date, as

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 untreatable, certainly by psychoanalysis,
because he held that the patients cannot form a

relationship, or experience “transference” with

the analyst. Freud’s successors have been
compelled to reject that view and to discover

that “psychotics” can be treated if the therapist

understands that what they bring to us in the
transference is the terror of their isolation, their

own inability to do anything about it, and their

desperate hope that we may be able to
understand this and get in touch with them.
Freud did not penetrate, in his psychoanalysis, to
this inner core of hopeless loneliness that is the
real basis of all serious mental illness. That must

have been because, in his own self-analysis, he

did not find that problem emerging; or else
because that kind of problem cannot emerge in a

self-analysis (at least not till a transference

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 analysis has prepared the way), since the
problem of isolation can only be dealt with by

the availability of a relationship with a

therapeutic person. But his own family history
would suggest a marked contrast to Bertrand

Russell’s at this very point, i.e., Freud did not

experience any drastic lack of genuine parental,
and especially maternal, relationships at the

beginning. Freud did not need to probe deeper

than the rather later childhood Oedipal parent-
child relationships. He had not experienced the
disaster of catastrophic loss or deprivation, the
ultimate disaster, of the failure of parental
relationship that leaves the child in an emotional

vacuum which generates the schizoid problem.

It may come as a surprise to anyone not

familiar with the life of Bertrand Russell to learn
that he discovered this very problem in a

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 “sudden revelation” in 1901, and I venture to say
that if his energies and researches had gone into
Freud’s field of psychopathology, he would, in
fact, have gone deeper than Freud did, and
created, not a psychology of conflicting impulses
and the guilt producing super-ego, but of

experiencing the basic psychodynamic problem,

the initial failure or early breakdown of primary
experiences of “relationships” in which the
beginnings of a coherent developing ego could

arise, with the result that no secure “self" exists

capable of owning the body, using its appetites,
having motives and impulses, or entering into
relationships. Freud took relationships for
granted because he had not been failed in that

respect as Russell had, and had no personal

problem there for his self-analysis to explore. He
had his Oedipal and superego problems, as his

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 already mentioned analyzable symptoms show.
Since probably some degree of schizoid

introversion is universal, we could trace that

problem in Freud’s personality, but it was, it
seems, not severe enough to force its way into

his self-analysis. But it is also likely that

“schizoid aloneness” is intrinsically incapable of
being therapeutically analyzed without a

therapeutic relationship to supply what was

missing in infancy. Freud recognized
diagnostically the existence of that problem in

paranoid and psychotic patients, but he never

explored it in actual psychoanalysis, regarding it

as beyond its scope: a view analysts have now

been compelled to abandon. But since we now

know that both Oedipal conflicts and abstract

intellectual interests (scientific or philosophic)
can be used as a defence against an underlying

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 schizoid problem, it seems justifiable to infer
that Freud operated both these defences
successfully, and paid for it by some loss of faith
in psychotherapy at the end. Nevertheless, with
his family history, his schizoid problem could
not have been so severe as was Russell’s, whose

family life was utterly different.

Russell’s mother and sister died when he was

only two years old. His father died before he

was four. He had none of Freud’s continuity of

family life. He was seven years younger than his
brother Frank. Their grandfather died at 83—

only three years after they went to live with him

and their grandmother. Thus, since his brother
had been sent away to school, he was left to a

very lonely childhood with his grandmother,

who was 60 and hardly an emotionally adequate
mother substitute. She was a staunch

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 Presbyterian of rigid moral and religious

convictions, known to her husband’s political

friends as “Deadly Nightshade.” Bertrand,
endowed with an exceptionally brilliant and

original intellectual capacity, rapidly outgrew

her moral and theological constraints. Ayer
writes:

In adolescence he began to suffer from

loneliness and he was made unhappy by his
sense of an intellectual estrangement from
his grandmother. The moment of his
greatest intellectual awakening was his
discovery of the geometry of Euclid ... at
the age of eleven.

an interest in science having already been

aroused by an uncle. Mathematics is often the

refuge of the schizoid intellectual, just because it

is so impersonal and nonemotional. A young
schizoid scientist once said to me: “I’m all right
at work during the day. I know my stuff and do

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 my calculations accurately. But when that’s over,

I’m a non-person. I can’t make friends. I can’t

enter into human relationships,” though he
longed for them as only the desperately lonely
can. Russell also deeply needed a fundamentally

satisfying emotional relationship, and for years

to come, we may say metaphorically, his heart
longed for love while his head for a long time

sought to do without it.

At seventeen, he met and “fell instantly in

love with” Alys Pearsall Smith (Ayer 1972), five
years his senior, surely suggesting a deep need

for a mother. They married five years later, in

1894, and were very happy till 1902. When

Russell was 18, a mathematics scholarship took

him to Trinity College, Cambridge, under A. N.

Whitehead, a partnership which by 1913

produced Principia Mathematica. For the last

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 decade of the nineteenth century mathematics
took care of his head and Alys of his heart, at
least till 1902. The next nine years were very

unhappy and they parted in 1911 with Russell

threatening suicide. It was in 1902, when out
cycling, that he suddenly realized that he no
longer loved Alys, though she loved him to the
end. It cannot be without significance that this
sudden breakdown of a stable relationship, for

no apparent reason other than a sudden and

seemingly inexplicable discovery by Russell that
he did not love her, followed not so long after
the momentous experience in 1901, which I
have already referred to as Russell’s “moment of
truth” and which Ayer calls a “sudden

revelation.” He and Alys were sharing a house

with the Whiteheads, and Mrs. Whitehead was
an invalid with heart trouble. Ayer writes:

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 Russell describes an occasion when,
finding her isolated in pain, he had a
sudden revelation of “the loneliness of the
human soul.” He reflected that ‘nothing can
penetrate it except the highest intensity of
the sort of love that religious teachers have
preached. ... In human relations one should
penetrate to the core of loneliness in each
person and speak to that’. ... He was a man
of a religious temper …

even if he rejected organized religion. I find this

one of the most profoundly moving and
revealing intuitive insights I have ever seen put

into words. He discovered “the central fact of

human personality” at the age of 29. Had he

been able to follow it up with factual

investigation, he would have created a

profounder psychodynamic theory than Freud’s

classic Oedipal psychoanalysis. He had

discovered what post-Freudian analysts were

driven to probe and understand half a century

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 later. It was the discovery of a man who had his
own “inner core of loneliness” and it must have
weakened his defences against the repressed
unmothered loneliness of his childhood, against
which Alys, ever since 1889, had been a
protective bulwark. Then quite suddenly the

secret schizoid isolated core of him, which could

neither love nor relate, erupted and destroyed his
marriage. Thereafter his emotional history was a

sad story of deep and happy attachments

breaking down in the tragic discovery that he did

not love. With Alys he maintained, for nine

years, the typical “schizoid compromise” of a
“half in and half out relation.” Then after two
love affairs (with Lady Ottoline Morrell, in

1911, and Lady Constance Malleson in 1916—

she became for him a “refuge from the world of
hate”), he married Dora Black in 1921 and left

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 her in 1932, married Patricia Spence in 1936 and

left her in 1949, and finally in 1952, at the age of

80, he married Edith Finch. He died in 1970.
This sad story is clearly important. One cannot

for a moment think that a man of Bertrand

Russell’s caliber was fickle. His first three
marriages lasted happily for nine, 11, and 13

years, and while they lasted were deeply

satisfying to him. But each time, from
somewhere deep within him there would erupt
the legacy of his unmothered childhood, his

deep inner “core of loneliness,” to break down

the security of the closest of his human
relationships. Fortunately, he gave us the clue

that he himself could not use, to understand a

great man’s tragic predicament, and it came to
take precedence over his intellectual and

philosophical curiosity. He sought to find a

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 solace for it, perhaps even a cure of it, in two
ways: marriage and intellectual immersion in

“mathematica” until that was complete in 1913.

From time to time his analytical intellect
continued to probe philosophical problems both

in lecturing and in book writing but, beginning

with Principles of Social Reconstruction in
1916, his interest in righting human wrongs
grew steadily over the years to crusading

strength, while from the publication of The

Amberley Papers in 1937, the biographical

interest grew, and finally became predominant

with the publication of Portraits from Memory
in 1958 and the three volumes of his
autobiography in 1967-1969, completed one

year before his death. He shifted over a lifetime,

from a lonely childhood, immersion in
impersonal philosophical mathematics and logic,

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 to a lifelong search for a love that could speak to

“the core of loneliness” in his heart, and an

increasing awareness of the practical problems
of living, as distinct from thinking, that affect all

human beings in economic, social, political,

moral, and personal problems in a changing
world. Certainly his own unsolved problem of

that core of loneliness was the motivating force

behind both his search for love in successive
marriages and in his public crusading in aid of

human happiness. One cannot but regret that so

great a man, with such extraordinary intellectual
powers and at the same time such powerful
emotional needs and sympathies, could not have

had his attention diverted to the much closer

study of the therapeutic possibilities of “the sort
of love that religious teachers have preached,”

combined with a newly developing

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 psychological knowledge which could have

enabled him to use “human relations” as an

experimental therapeutic set-up which would
have enabled him to “penetrate to the core of

loneliness in each person and speak to that.”

There is every evidence that the women he
married genuinely loved him, and for an average

of ten years each gave him a basic stable

relationship. The sad thing is that each time his
“frozen” core of loneliness broke through and he

found a part of himself that could not love in

return, he was plucked helplessly away from his
only hope of a lasting cure. For he lacked

Freud’s motivation to and training for personal

therapy. As it was, I think we must say that
Freud has made by far the more lasting

contribution to human well-being. Russell’s

family roots were too deep in liberal politics and

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 utilitarian philosophy and ethics, with John
Stuart Mill as his godfather, and a grandfather
who was twice Liberal Prime Minister, and a

mother who was a daughter of the liberal

aristocracy. Probably each of his marriages gave
him enough emotional support for a time, to free
his energies for social crusading.

It is not accidental that while both Freud and

Russell were professedly antireligious, they

were both, in another sense, deeply religious

men. Freud would address Pastor Pfister as

“Dear Man of God” and Ayer describes Russell

as a man “of religious temper.” I take this to

mean, by Russell’s own definition, a profound

concern for personal relationships as the only

real cure for the “core of loneliness” that exists
to some degree in all of us. Religion is not about
theological metaphysics, but about therapeutic

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 personal relationships, which are given absolute
preeminence over problems of science and
technology which are purely utilitarian and
cannot of themselves give any meaning or value

to our personal existence. Wittgenstein regarded

Russell, philosophically, as “a man who had run
out of problems.” The one profoundest problem

for all men is the one to which Russell never

began to find any answer, and which could be of
any use to other people; it was the one basic

problem that Freud’s life work has eventually

opened up constructively for us. R. Harré
(Oxford) writes in The Philosophies of Science,

“Freud was a great scientist because he looked

for the causes of such commonplace occurrences
as slips of the tongue, as well as for the causes

of such unusual happenings as fits of hysteria.”

We should add “such commonplace happenings

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 as dreams.” Unlike Medawar, who
unscientifically and rather airily dismisses this

universal phenomenon as “nonsense,” Freud saw

that they are “the royal road into the
unconscious.”

One of my schizoid patients recently

dreamed “I was at a card party with the family, I
had some cards. They all played but I couldn’t
think or move. I just sat. Then they asked me

‘What’s your score?’ I said ‘I haven’t played.’ ”

She was in a family where, to use Russell’s
words, no one knew how to “penetrate to the

core of loneliness [in her] and speak to that.” I

could wish that after his “revelation” in 1901, he
could have spent the next ten years seeking to

understand how to penetrate to the loneliness in

people and in himself—that he might have been
able to write a “Principia Psychologica” which

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 would have been of greater service to mankind

than showing how mathematics can be reduced

to logic. I do not dispute the right of the born
philosopher to pursue his own natural interests. I

feel sad, however, that such an extraordinary

flash of profound insight, which does not often
come to the physical scientist or philosopher,

and certainly never to the “Behaviourist,” was

not recognized by Bertrand Russell as more
profoundly important than anything else he had

ever thought, and was wasted at that time,

because he had not the means of following it up.
Fortunately, psychoanalytically orientated
psychotherapists have, since Freud’s death, been

able to develop and use his theories and methods

in new ways to open up this ultimate region in
human personality. It is sad that psychoanalysis

had not progressed far enough at an earlier date

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 for Russell to have made use of it, for through
the Bloomsbury Circle he had contacts with it in

the 1930's.

REFERENCES

Ayer, A., (1972). Russell. London: Fontana/Collins.

Bion, W. (1962). Learning from Experience. London:

Heinemann.

Jones, E., (1954). Sigmund Freud: Life and Work vol.

1. London: Hogarth Press.

Paul, G., (1956). In The Revolution in Philosophy.

London: Macmillan.

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 15

PSYCHODYNAMIC REALITIES

Developments in this post-Einstein era of the

philosophy of science, associated with such
names as Popper, Kuhn, Polyani, Lakatos and

others and popularly expressed in Sir P.

Medawar’s Induction and Intuition in Scientific
Thought should compel us to rethink the nature

of psychoanalysis as an area of investigation of

certain phenomena, which no one else is
investigating in what we feel to be terms
appropriate to its proper nature. From time to

time eminent thinkers including Popper and

Medawar tell us that psychoanalysis is not
science. Psychoanalysts rarely reply, partly
because the evidence is confidential, the study of

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 the very private, personal inner suffering of a
human being often disturbed for years, dating

back into childhood. Full length case histories

cannot be published. Marion Milner’s The
Hands of the Living God (a D. H. Lawrence

quotation by the patient), a successful 20-year

treatment of a schizophrenic girl, told with her
consent, was a tremendous exception, as was

Hannah Green’s autobiographical account of her

treatment by Dr. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, I
Never Promised You a Rose Garden. A
University graduate wrote to ask me for some
psychotherapeutic help: “I am suffering from
anxiety with a continually thumping heart and

attacks of terror and paralyzing feelings of being

a nonexistent person. My troubles go right back
as far as I can remember. I believe you could

help me.” That represents word-for-word scores

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 of such letters. Such people cannot submit
themselves to investigation as objects of pure

scientific research. They can only cooperate if

they feel they will be understood and helped. So
if psychoanalysis is a science at all, it can never

be a pure science. The nature of its task compels

it to be an “applied science.” Most analysts are
hard-worked “general practitioners” with little

time or training for research and writing, which

may, unhappily, have fostered a type of theory
which can seem esoteric, the dogma of a “closed
in-group.” Few, if any, of its critics have first-
hand experience of psychoanalysis in practice, in
the nature of the case. The result is a

communications breakdown between the

therapists and their critics, medical, scientific or
philosophical. Yet it may well now be incumbent

on us to rethink our discipline in the changing

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 scene of the philosophy of science today: first,
because it is changing and viewing science in

ways that were not open to Freud, and could

help us to better conceptualize our clinical data;
and second, because if we do not make our

contribution to contemporary thinking, we are

shirking a cultural responsibility, for it is now
clear that the question “Is psychoanalysis

science?” is only part of an overall question, “Is

any kind of psychology science? And if so, in
what sense?”

THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The dilemma which arises over whether any

psychology can be a science, concerns

psychiatry, general psychology, and
psychoanalysis. An article written by Eliot
Slater, an eminent psychiatrist, in World

Medicine (Feb. 1972) was entitled “Is psychiatry

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 a science? Does it want to be?” He wrote: “It is
surely only the glamour the name of ‘science’

exerts which has induced us all to mistake out

functions,” i.e., by claiming to be scientific. He
states the problem:

The scientific method can only concern

itself with the real world, the world outside
us, which we can to some extent study
objectively. There is also the world within
us, for ever the domain of subjectivity, for
ever beyond the reach of science, the
territory of the arts and humanities. …
Despite its inaccessibility to science, it yet
contains the possibility of greater
understanding. This is a world the
psychiatrist cannot ignore and in which the
psychoanalyst seeks his understanding.

His problem is that the Positivist philosophy of

over 2 centuries only allows him to regard the
world outside us as real and open to scientific

study, yet he sees the urgency of understanding

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 the “world within us.” But this restricted use of
the term “real” to mean only what the physical

sciences can study, is quite unreal. Hitler’s

delusions of greatness were not only
subjectively real for himself but also terribly

objectively real for the rest of us. If someone

threatens us, we need to know “Does he really
mean it?” The objective reality of the nuclear

bomb only worries us because of the possible

objective reality of someone’s preparedness to
use it. It is impossible to accept the restriction of
reality to what can be studied by the physical
sciences. Science from “scio,” to know, means
simply knowledge. Consciousness, also from

“scio,” means self-knowledge, knowledge of the

world within, but we are very resistant to self-

knowledge and so the knowledge of the so-

called outer or material world developed first.

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 Comte’s Positivist philosophy excluded
psychology from the sciences. Psychology

belonged to the humanities, where speculation,

fantasy, fiction, even superstition were rife. The
pseudo-philosophy of scientific materialism

grew in this atmosphere. When at the turn into

the 20th Century, specifically psychological
studies began to grow apace, they were gravely

handicapped by the dogma that they must be

scientific in the Positivist sense.

At the turn of the century, it seemed to

Pavlov, J. B. Watson, and even McDougall with

his early book Physiological Psychology, and

also to Freud with his Psychology for
Neurologists, that it was more important to be

scientific than to be genuinely psychological.

Freud struggled uneasily to yoke together a
physicalistic biological theory and truly

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 psychological intuitive understanding, and never
succeeded; probably the main reason why the

claim of psychoanalysts that their theory is

scientific seemed to so many intellectuals
equivocal and easy to reject. J. B. Watson was

not gifted with Freud’s psychologically intuitive

genius, so it was easy for him to be a Positivist.
He denied the very existence of consciousness;

all the phenomena included under it were

illusions, but he forgot to explain how he
became aware, i.e., conscious, of the
nonexistence of consciousness, or what we have
illusions with, and how they come to have such
terrible destructive reality in many cases.

Everything was either fact or fiction, brain or

mind, neurological system or consciousness,

reality or appearance. It was held not necessary

to account for the existence of mind,

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 consciousness, appearance. The Idealist
philosophers from Berkeley to F. H. Bradley did

not help for they only reversed the other, saying

that mind is the reality and matter the
appearance. Neither side saw that the distinction

between appearance and reality is itself unreal,

and only rested on the apparent irreducibility of
supposedly solid matter in the billiard-ball

universe of that era. All that has now changed, in

the relativity atmosphere of post-Einstein
thinking, and with quantum physics
disillusioning us about the solidity of the atom.
As Bertrand Russell (1946) put it: “When an
electron and a proton collide, they do not break-

up into still smaller things but disappear into a

wave of energy. No one knows what that is, but

at any rate it is not a ‘thing.’” So the ultimate

reality of matter has become as mysterious as

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 that of mind, and the distinction between reality

and appearance has faded. Appearance can only

be the appearance of reality, and we can only
study reality in the forms in which it appears to

us. What we experience is phenomenal reality,

and that enters into our experience in at least
three ways—inorganic, organic, and psychic;

matter, life, and mind, all equally real and

equally ultimately mysterious. Yet we can
develop increasing understanding of all three,

and do not need to be as wistfully hesitant as Dr.

Slater in seeking increasing understanding of the
world within us.

Scientific materialism is now renamed

“reductionism,” and contemporary reductionists,

hardline Behaviourists in the Watson tradition
such as Skinner and Eysenck, have not absorbed
the change in the philosophy of science. They

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 seek to foreclose the issue as to the nature of a
science of psychology by dismissing psychic
reality as mere fantasy, fiction, imagination,
illusion, only to be studied scientifically by
reducing it to physical science terms in
neurophysiology. All we are left with is

molecular biology, genetics, cerebral

biochemistry, and neurological conditioning and
reconditioning. But once we leave the

experimental laboratory to confront real life, as

analysts have to do, these sciences do not help

us to understand the meaning of the joys and

sorrows human beings experience in their
struggles to relate constructively or destructively
with one another, as the subjects of their own

experience. These sciences are indispensable to

understand what Sullivan called “the biological
substrate” of personality, but when we turn to

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 the psychic reality, the actual stuff of human
beings’ experience of themselves, we face again

the fantasies and imaginative symbolism in

which human beings express the emotions that
correlate with differing qualities of personal

relationships, all of which are inescapably real

for their happiness and even existence. They
turn up at times as frighteningly powerful

determinants of destructive behavior, or again as

the inspirational basis of the world’s greatest art
and literature. Would biochemistry really help us
to understand the tragedies of Macbeth or
Hamlet, or Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler, and their
effects on the people round them. There is an

area of real facts here which demands study in

terms appropriate and intelligible in the light of
the nature of the subject matter. The terminology

of physical science throws no light at all of

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 understanding in this region of psychic reality. It
is significant thus, that a physical scientist, the
physicist Professor Bronowski (1965), reflecting
the new outlook, says that man is both a
machine and a Self, and that there are two
qualitatively different kinds of knowledge, of the

machine (the organism) which is physical

science, and of the Self, which he says is found
in literature. But that is only one area in which
knowledge of the Self is found.

Psychopathology is certainly another. Literature

is such an expression because it is the firsthand
expression of human experiences in relations
with other Selves, and with subhuman life and
inorganic nature: of which Thomas Mann’s short

story Tobias Mindernickel is a startling example.

Many great artists and writers had deeply
disturbed personalities; their psychopathology

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 did not explain their genius, but it was expressed
by their gift. Fairbairn told me that he once

successfully treated a painter for depression

which had become so bad that he could not paint
at all. But after his depression was relieved,

something vital had gone out of his painting.

The emotional tensions of his depression had
found direct expression in his art. But this kind

of knowledge of the Self, of the private and

shared experience we have as subjects
meaningfully relating (not just objects observed
and experimented with from the outside, but
subjects understood from the inside) only exists
in literature in spontaneous and wholly

unorganized form. Any serious study of the

nature of this kind of knowledge of the Self must
attempt some systematic conceptualization and

organization, for the sake of clarity of

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 understanding and further testing and correcting.
We have then arrived at the concept of a possible

Science of the Personal Self in Personal

Relations, a systematic study of our meaningful
subjective experience as psychic reality, a

definition emerging in psychoanalysis today

after 70 years of critical research.

The fact that the older Positivist view of

science cannot accommodate this view, is

leading, on the evidence of The Bulletins of the

British Psychological Society, to increasing
disillusionment among British psychologists.

Joynson of Nottingham University, in two

articles, “The Breakdown of Modern
Psychology” (1970) and “The Return of Mind”

(1972) spelled out in detail how Stout’s 1896

prediction that the laboratory experimentalist
approach would lead to the absorption of

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 psychology into physiology, has become
fulfilled in Behaviorism, and a return to
introspectionist study of the Self that behaves is
required. Bannister, a clinical psychologist wrote

(1968): “The concept of ‘Self’ is essentially a

psychological concept. Consciousness, choice,
and teleological models are reiterative in

psychology, since, in spite of the most gallant

efforts, we have failed to get far by adhering to
the mechanistic model. Reductionism is a

philosophic posture which assumes that

physiology is somehow nearer to reality than
psychology.” In line with this, Skinner’s Beyond

Freedom and Dignity has had the most

drastically critical reviews, viewing it as 19th
Century Utilitarianism, Bentham’s pleasure

motive (positive reinforcement) and as

advocating a technocratic dictatorship. This

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 would highlight the dangerous negative,
manipulative aspect of hardline Behaviorism.

Similar criticisms were voiced by Witenberg at

The W. A. White Institute:

A threat is posed by the rise of

Behaviorism as a theory. It represents an
idolatry of law and order. Everyone is
programmed in his proper place. It goes
with the virtual disappearance of courses
on personality development from the
curricula of graduate schools of
psychology. … The challenge to the
theoretician is an Open-ended view of the
human being. Physics has been able to
introduce the principle of indeterminacy.
Why cannot we? We are daily confronted
with clinical material we cannot explain in
a deterministic manner. Why then do we
try to fit these data into theories based on
determinism?

There is clearly a growing call for a

nondeterministic, non-Positivistic, telelogical

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 theory, what C. Taylor called a “psychological

psychology” to aid us in the study of the

psychodynamic phenomena of human beings as
persons in relationships. The key psychological

concept is not just the Self but the Self growing

in personal relations. Whatever may be thought
about psychoanalytic theories, we have an

enormous amount of sheer clinical data about

the nature of psychic reality, which demands
review in the light of the newer concepts of

science today. There seem to be three criteria of

what constitutes a science—logical,
epistemological, and phenomenological.

The Logical Criterion concerns the

intellectual method used by science. The

Inductive method of last century is now
discredited. Science does not grow by endless
experiments piling up collections of particular

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 facts out of which emerge generalizations which
are laws of nature. Karl Popper’s Hypothetico-
Deductive Method is expounded by Peter

Medawar as starting with the investigator

developing an interest in certain phenomena; for
example, A. Fleming’s interest in infected war
wounds, and we may add Freud’s interest in the
similarities between certain neurotic symptoms
of hysteria and some hypnotic phenomena. The

next step is an intuitive or imaginative guess at a

possible explanation, which is formulated as a

hypothesis, to be tested out by experiments. For

Popper these should be designed not to support
but to falsify the hypothesis. If the experiment
does not falsify the hypothesis, then to that

extent it is confirmed till such time as an

experiment is made which finds a flaw in it.
Then the hypothesis is, to use Medawar’s

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 expression, not so much disproved as repaired or

mended. So there is a slow steady development

of theory under pressure all the time from
confrontation with phenomena. It is in exactly

this light that I regard psychoanalytical

interpretations. They are not authoritarian dicta
imposed by the analyst. They are possible

explanations of the problem the patient is

unfolding, to be tested by reference to his
reaction. I personally never announce the

meaning of any dream, symptom, fear, or what

not. Based on my experience, I will suggest a
tentative view of what this or that may mean,

and the patient may say: “No, that doesn’t ring a

bell”; in that case the interpretation is not true
for him, or not true for him as yet, and we drop

it. But he may say: “Ah! Do you know I thought

that only the other day,” and his own insight into

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 himself is supported. Exactly by this
Hypothetico-Deductive Method I found years
ago that with my patients Freud’s original classic
Instinct Theory of Sexual and Aggressive drives
dammed up inside, and needing abreaction or
detensioning, did not prove adequate; not that

there were no sexual or aggressive phenomena;

there nearly always were, but I found them
pointing back to deeper problems of sheer Ego-

Weakness, arrested development of a basic Self

in the earliest years. Precisely this method had

led psychoanalysts increasingly to see that what

Freud called “Oedipal phenomena” are so often
a defence against the far deeper and more
serious schizoid problems, fundamental failures

of secure, integrated whole-ego experience from

earliest infancy. By this method of falsification
of the classic psychobiology, psychoanalysis has

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 preserved the factual clinical data Freud

observed and steadily developed the Personal

Relations Theory out of the work of Melanie
Klein, H. S. Sullivan, R. Fairbairn, D. Winnicott,

and many others. It is certainly true that

psychoanalytic theory has also been too often
expounded as an orthodox dogma, but this is

also true of behavioral and experimental

psychology, and Popper holds it to be true even
in quantum physics. Kuhn and Popper both

agree that most scientific investigation is in

support of orthodox theory, but Popper says
plainly that this is very bad science, and that true
science should be critical and revolutionary all

the time. Psychoanalysis cannot be singled out

for criticism on this score and it has its own
history of constant critical revision of theory, for

which Freud himself set the example. He once

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 wrote in 1914 that anyone whose work starts
with transference and resistance (which are
psychic phenomena, not theories) “can call his

work psychoanalysis, even though he arrives at

conclusions different from mine.”
Psychoanalysis stands up to the logical criterion
of scientific method.

The Epistemological Criterion, as

expounded by Medawar, the “hierarchical model
of the structure of knowledge,” is of the greatest
importance. Knowledge is like a building with a
ground floor, and floors rising above it, each
floor higher than the one below. The ground

floor is the basic sciences of physics and

chemistry, and as we go up we come upon the
various sciences that have come into being,
many of them this century: biology, ethology,
anthropology, sociology, to name a few, and

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 from our point of view, arriving at psychology at
the top. Medawar is specifically anti-

reductionist. He writes: “Each tier of the natural

hierarchy makes use of notions peculiar to itself.
The ideas of democracy, credit, crime, or

political constitution are no part of biology, nor

shall we expect to find in physics the concepts of
memory, sexuality or fear ... In each tier or plane

of the hierarchy new notions or ideas seem to

emerge that are inexplicable in the language or
with the conceptual resources of the tier below.
The flow of thought works one way only. We
cannot ‘interpret’ sociology in terms of biology,
or biology in terms of physics.” Nor, we must

add, psychology in terms of any lower-level

science. Results of research on lower levels may
be utilized on higher levels as when drugs are

used to control emotions; but higher-level

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 phenomena cannot be reduced to the terms of
lower-level phenomena. Psychology must be
psychology and not neurophysiology. This is a
charter for the investigation of psychodynamic
phenomena in their own terms.

The Phenomenological Criterion. This

concerns the nature of the phenomena that are
under investigation, and it follows from
Medawar’s view that on each tier of the

hierarchy of knowledge new ideas representing

new phenomena arise, that all the various types

of phenomenal reality—inorganic, organic,

psychic—must be studied in term that are

realistic, appropriate, and relevant to the nature

of just those phenomena in question. Thus
Skinner’s “data or thing” language, forbidding
the use of psychological terms in the study of
behavior is merely an arbitrary dogma and sins

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 against the whole orientation of the present-day

philosophy of science. It is incumbent on us to

say what we mean by “psychodynamic reality”
for once that is settled, the way is now clear,

philosophically, for the creation of a field of

genuine psychological studies, in which a
progressive Behaviorism, an up-to-date

introspectionist general psychology, and the

personalist psychology of Allport, Kelly, and
Bannister, could maintain a valuable dialogue
with the Personal Relations Theories of our

contemporary psychoanalysis. Since life is

always a mixture of time-saving habit and
creative spontaneity, there is room for both a

truly psychological Behaviorism and a

psychodynamic depth psychology. The matter
has been clearly put by Adrian, the

neurophysicist, in saying that while “most of our

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 everyday activities could be behavioristically
explained, there is one thing that does not fit into
this neat and tidy scheme, the T that does the
thinking, feeling, and willing.” To illustrate the

existence of behavior patterns, a patient who

was an obsessional and a pianist told me that one
day he was playing a Chopin Nocturne and was

suddenly surprised to find he had stopped

playing. He discovered he had come to the end,
and had actually played the entire piece right

through automatically while his consciousness

was fixed on the theme of the two opening bars.
A different type of example is that of social and

cultural conditioning, as studied for instance by

Erikson and others. If we had been born in
Russia or China all our modes of adapting and

relating to one another would be different,

though our basic human nature would be the

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 same. All these are matters for genuine
psychological study, but in this wide area of

personal psychic phenomena, whether

considered objectively as behavior, or
subjectively as experience (the “I” that does the

thinking, feeling, and willing), psychoanalysis

has a special concern with depth phenomena.
The hierarchical model of knowledge makes it

unnecessary to adopt Slater’s restricted Positivist

view of science, or to view “the world within us,
for ever the domain of subjectivity [as] forever
beyond the reach of science, in which no
possibilities of verification exist.” We shall
rather hold that for each level of phenomena,

there exists an appropriate conceptualization and

relevant methods of verification. In particular,

prediction and validation as found in the

physical sciences are not relevant to psychic

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 reality. As Bronowski says: “If I was predictable
I would not be a Self but a machine,” and what
is to be looked for in a Self is not rigid
predictability but constancy, reliability, and
consistency. As to methods of validation,
Medawar writes: “Matters of validation are

important in the experimental sciences, but not

as important as they are sometimes made out to
be. … An obsessional preoccupation with
matters to do with ascertainment is part of the

heritage of inductivism.” Eysenck has called for

comparison of cases under psychotherapy with
untreated control cases, but he overlooks the fact
that all patients are so highly individual with
such great differences of both history and

present-day environment, that none could serve

as genuine controls for comparison with any of
the others. I have treated a considerable number

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 of patients who could have been given the same
diagnostic label but they were all so individually

different that none of them could have served as

a genuine control case for comparison with any
of the others. Also in cases of the break up of a

massive amnesia for a serious traumatic event,

no control case would be possible for we do not
know at the start what the trouble is for which a

possible comparative control case could be

sought. Eysenck has also made play with the
idea that untreated cases (in the Barron-Leary

study of 150 cases for under 9 months) show as

much remission of illness as those treated by

psychotherapy. But he does not cite the fact that

many people have suffered from biochemical

energies of sex and aggressive instincts has been

long falsified for all but ultra-orthodox analysts
and replaced by the ‘person-ego hypothesis’, the

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 gradual differentiation of the infant out of the

state of ‘primary identification’ with mother at

birth through adequate mothering in the first two
years. Failure then by the ‘facilitating

environment’ leaves the infant a prey to ‘ego

disintegration’ and schizoid derealization, at best
only masked by the conscious development of

what Winnicott called a ‘false self on a

conformity basis’ (or a rebellious, or an abstract
intellectual, or any other social persona basis).

If, however, that first phase goes well, the child

enters the second important phase of childhood,
latency and adolescence, when his growing

personality must expand to cope with various

good, bad and indifferent kinds of personal
relations both in the family and beyond it. In

these years the basic triangular ‘parents and

child’ relationship patterns steadily complicated

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 by ever more varied experiences beyond the
family circle, become ‘built-in’ as the

‘endopsychic structure’ of the developing

personality. This period of Freud’s oedipus
complex is too narrow a formula to cope with all

the facts. It is the period when the hard core of

the ‘psychoneuroses’ develops, just as ‘schizoid’
problems have their deepest roots in the infancy

period, which has only been deeply studied in

the post-Freudian era. Even in the third main
phase, adulthood, from say 18 onwards, too hard
pressures in real life may produce emotional
stress of the intensity of illness, but this is less
likely in proportion as the earlier years gave a

facilitating environment for the growth of a

basically stable ego.

We have roughly three levels of therapy:

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 1. Short-term therapy in which stress in adult
life has not necessarily played on deeper
hidden discords in the personality.

2. Complex problems in basic personal

relationships, so severe as to break down a
veneer of adult stability and trigger off
diagnosable neurosis. Here the causes will
be found at least as deep as the 3 to 18 years
period.

3. Drastic inner collapse of the personality, with

apparently complete inability to cope with
life, and regression to states of ‘infantile
dependence’, schizoid characters of
psychotic illness in so far as these are
psychogenic. That such cases can be
psychogenic has now been shown by
successful treatments of some cases of
schizophrenia.

Is the existence of an ‘unconscious’ area of

our personality implied in this scheme as the

hidden storehouse of our legacy of the early
past, a statement of ‘fact’ or a ‘falsifiable

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 hypothesis’? A brief word on this must serve as
illustration for many other similar questions

about psychoanalysis. Two of the most

important psychoanalytic hypotheses are

1. the quality of mother-infant relationship,

especially as mediated in breast feeding,
creates the basic character-formation in the
infant:

2. early infant and childhood experience

persists as the psychically alive but
unconscious basis of the whole personality.

Are these hypotheses testable? It has been

suggested to me that what is ‘unconscious’ must

be ‘unfalsifiable in principle’. If the
‘unconscious’ simply remained always

unconscious that would be so, but in fact it

repeatedly erupts and subsides.

It is worth citing the most dramatic example

of this I have witnessed. An extremely schizoid

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 young mother who had failed in a suicide
attempt, responded slowly over several years of

uneventful therapy. It was clear that her mother,

a grossly abnormal woman, whom I once saw,
had been exceptionally cruel to her as a child,

though she could give no details. She once

dreamed that she had to pass a dark wood in
which was a terrible witch, but she was not

afraid because I was with her. Slowly she was

feeling that with my protection she could face
whatever was there. One night her husband rang
at 2:00 a.m. and I motored to their house. She
was fast asleep, sitting on the bedroom floor,
writhing in pain and moaning, ‘Don’t, Mummy.

I will be good.’ I said, ‘It looks as if her mother

is doing something to her back. Have a look.’
Her husband looked and found faint scars there,

and one larger one. In the morning she

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 remembered nothing, but went on ‘acting out’ in
sleep the terrifying scenes of childhood, till one

day her husband lost his job through a merger.

They were a young couple and very anxious
now over economics. Her midnight ‘acting out’

stopped at once, though she was quite unaware

of the fact. Two weeks later he got another good
job and that very night she again began to ‘act

out’ in sleep her childhood terrors. I witnessed

these several times and saw her next morning
and very slowly she began to remember, little by

little, what had happened in the night. Then

suddenly her total amnesia for those traumatic
events broke up; memories flooded back. Her
mother had burned her with a red hot poker, and

once with a heated flat iron which had caused a

bad burn that went septic, leaving the large scar.
The breakdown of her total amnesia and the

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 security gained by reliving it all with me and her
husband initiated an enormous improvement

through which she was ultimately able to end

her treatment.

I have had two other cases of the eruption in

therapy of deeply repressed traumata with most

beneficial results. In one of these cases a long
period of deep depression ended with the

recovery of the buried memory of the patient’s

mother cursing him on her death bed after he
had nursed her in her terminal illness. In the case
of the first patient I actually witnessed the verbal

and emotional expression of her unconscious

while it was totally dissociated from her
conscious self, which was wrapped in a trance-

like sleep: and I then saw these terrible

memories slowly work through into normal

memory. If anything can be absolute, that

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 experience was for me absolute confirmation of
the reality of the unconscious.

As for the first hypothesis, the relationship

between breast-feeding and character-formation,

Margaret Mead (1935) found excellent breast-

feeding in the friendly Arapesh tribe, and
drastically rejective breast-feeding in the

paranoid, aggressive Mundugumor tribe.

No adequate study of so large a subject can

be made in a single paper. That would take

several volumes, and would have to involve very
detailed study of actual case material. The
biggest difficulty here is that in general it is too

confidential to be published at full length, but

the scientist or philosopher who wants to make a
genuine critical study of psychoanalysis must be

prepared to go beyond merely ‘intellectual

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 criticism’ of theory. He must be prepared to
collaborate with analysts in critical study,

confidentially, of actual case-material, however

difficult that may be. My aim here has been
simply to show reason for staking a serious

claim for psychoanalysis to be recognized as a

growing if young science, that is seeking
therapeutically usable tested knowledge of

human beings as ‘persons in relationships’,

whether ill or well.

REFERENCES

Adrian, Lord. (1968). Quoted by Sir C. Burt in Brain

and consciousness. British Journal of
Psychology 59:56-69.

Bannister, D. (1968). The myth of physiological

psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 21:229-231.

Bartlett, R. J. (1948). Mind. Bulletin of the British

Psychological Society 1:14-24.

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 Bion, W. R. (1962). Learning from Experience.
London: Heinemann.

Bowlby, J (1969). Attachment and Loss. London:

Pelican.

Bronowski, J. (1967). The Identity of Man. London:

Pelican.

Burt, Sir C. (1968). Brain and consciousness. British

Journal of Psychology 59:56-69. Einstein, A.
(1949). Philosopher Scientist, ed. Schilff and
Friedman. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic Studies of

the Personality. London: Kegan Paul. Guntrip,
H. (1961). Personality, Structure and Human
Interaction, chapters 7 and 14. London: Hogarth
Press.

_____ (1972). Orthodoxy and revolution in

psychology. Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society 25:275-280.

Harré R. (1972). The Philosophies of Science.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Klein, M. (1957). Envy and Gratitude. London:

Tavistock Publications.

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 Lakatos and Musgrave. (1970). Criticism and the
Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Lomas, P. (1973). True and False Experience.

London: Allen Lane.

Mayer-Gross, Slater, and Roth (1954). Clinical

Psychiatry, 1st ed. London: Cassell.

Mead, M. (1935). Sex and Temperament in Three

Primitive Societies. New York: Morrow.

Medawar, Sir P. (1969). Introduction and Intuition in

Scientific Thought. London: Methuen.

Morse, S. (1972). Structure and reconstruction: a

critical comparison of M. Balint and D. W.
Winnicott. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 53:487-500.

Popper, Sir K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific

Discovery. London: Hutchinson.

_____ (1963). Conjectures and Refutations. London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Ryle, G. (ed.) (1956). The Revolution in Philosophy.

London: Macmillan.

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 Slater, E. (1972). Is psychiatry a science? Does it
want to be? Journal of World Medicine
February, 79-81.

Winnicott, D. (1965). The Maturational Processes

and the Facilitating Environment. London:
Hogarth Press.

_____ (1971). Playing and Reality. London:

Tavistock Publications.

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 Appendix 1

CAN THE THERAPIST LOVE THE

PATIENT?

I have read Professor J. C. McKenzie’s

article "Limitations of Psychotherapy” in the
British Weekly of March 6,1958. Having enjoyed

and profited by Professor McKenzie’s books, it

is with sorrow that I have now to record my
strongest possible disagreement with his
conclusions in this article. I must quote at length
the passage that surprises, indeed astonishes me.

Every psychiatrist acknowledges that we

have A Need to Love and be Loved, a Need
to belong, a Need for a Moral Standard,
and a Need to Believe. But these are needs
which the psychotherapist, as such, cannot
satisfy. All that the psychotherapist can do
is to lay bare what is hindering these needs

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 to be fulfilled. There are psychiatrists who
contend that we must “love the patient
better”. They cannot, however, supply the
love the patient needs or accept the love he
wants to give. … They know that love is
the greatest therapeutic agent; but they can
neither give nor receive, as Freud knew.
Hence his condemnation of Ferenczi’s
methods. It is here the minister can turn the
patient to Christ’s love which can come
through the action of the Holy Spirit.

So when we come to the dissipation of

guilt feelings, all the psychotherapist can
do is to help the patient to repress the guilt;
and for a time the patient may seem
“cured”. Alas! the guilt returns, and we get
a cyclic condition—for a period on top of
the world, then down in the depths of
misery. The only thing that can dissolve
guilt feelings is the forgiveness of God.

This is a seriously erroneous description of

psychotherapy. Professor McKenzie is saying in

fact that love is the therapeutic factor, and the
psychotherapist cannot love his patient, so that

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 psychotherapy is not therapeutic. It is not a case
of the “Limitations” of psychotherapy. In

Professor McKenzie’s sense it is a case of the

impossibility of professional psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy is mere diagnosis: only religion

cures.

That is a false way of opposing, rather than

relating, psychotherapy and religion. The only

thing that could make a psychotherapist adopt

such views is a defensive fear of the patient’s
need towards himself. When Dr McKenzie
writes: “All that the psychotherapist can do is to

lay bare what is hindering (the patient’s) needs

from being fulfilled”, he is putting

psychotherapy back into the position

characteristic of the most arid days of Freudian

orthodox and scientifically impersonal

technique. Freud wished to make psycho-

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 analysis a “natural science” and to create
psycho-analytic treatment as a purely scientific

‘method of investigation’. It is well known that

Freud’s experience led him, as he grew older, to
become more and more pessimistic of psycho-

analysis as treatment, as “curative”, and to value

it more and more as a method of scientific
research. Psycho-analysis has, as Dr Clara

Thompson states (“Psycho-Analysis: Evolution

and Development”), suffered from recurring
periods of therapeutic pessimism. It was not then
recognised that this was due to the fact that a
purely scientific investigation cures no one of
anything. The method of investigation is

essential to the discovery of what is buried in the

patient’s mental make-up that needs to be cured.

But the curious and startling thing is that this

method of investigation proves to be

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 unworkable, unusable, in any deep-going sense,
if it is merely a scientific investigation. No one

lays bare the most disturbed and painful areas of

their inner life, which for a lifetime they have
been doing their utmost to hide even from

themselves, to the impersonal gaze of a mere

scientific investigator. Only the psychotherapist
who can approach these “wounded areas” of the

human spirit with deep and loving sympathy will

be allowed to see them.

I have had to treat two patients who had

previously been treated by psychotherapists who

were cold, detached and intellectually remote on

principle, believing that to be, as Professor
McKenzie apparently holds, the proper attitude

for the therapist. The results were disastrous. In

both cases, the patients became steadily more
and more frustrated and disturbed until at length

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 they could not stand the situation any longer and
left the therapist, the one in a despairingly

depressed condition and the other afraid of an

accumulation of pent up frustration-rage which
was becoming incredibly difficult to manage.

Freud’s technique was not at first so

impersonal as it later became. A number of his
earlier therapeutic successes were obtained with
friends whom he analysed as they went for

walks. But his predilection for a strictly

scientific technique, and also, as he himself said,
his dislike of being directly stared at by patients

for eight hours a day, that made him adopt the

highly impersonal technique that became the
classic psycho-analytic method. It is becoming

increasingly recognised today that to make a

patient lie on a couch while the analyst sits out
of sight behind, saying nothing except to put in

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 an occasional word of “interpretation”, is, with
the more disturbed and ill patients, especially if

they suffer from hysteria, to repeat on them all

the traumatic deprivations they suffered at the
hands of inadequate parents in childhood. The

only result is to drive the patient deeper and

deeper into a regression to emotional infantilism.
Dr Fairbairn of Edinburgh and Dr Frieda

Fromm-Reichmann of America have expressly

stated in their writings that this impersonal set-
up is undesirable and many psychotherapists
have abandoned it in practice.

Dr McKenzie says: “Love is the greatest

therapeutic agent; but (psychotherapists) can
neither give nor receive, as Freud knew. Hence

his condemnation of Ferenczi’s methods”. But

the controversy over psychotherapeutic method
as between Freud and Ferenczi is not settled.

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 Today, a new point of view is gathering force in
the psycho-analytic world. The followers of Mrs

Melanie Klein hold that in order to get well a

patient must be able to “introject” (i.e. to possess
mentally) the analyst as a “good object”. Dr

Fairbairn has stated that the therapeutic factor is

not simply insight, but the personal relationship
between the analyst and the patient. This point

of view is growing rapidly.

I do not agree that the psychotherapist

cannot either give to or receive love from the
patient. Everything turns on the meaning of the

elusive word “love”. One patient of mine

substituted for it the word “cherishing” to
express what she felt my attitude to her was. In

fact, the therapist’s attitude to the patient should

be a maturely parental one, otherwise that
patient cannot come by those experiences by

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 means of which alone it is possible to outgrow
the disastrous effects of early bad human

relationships. If it is bad human relationships

that make people emotionally ill, it can only be a
good human relationship that can make them

well again. It is the psychotherapist’s

responsibility to discover what kind of good
parental relationship each patient needs in order

to get well. Moreover, as the patient gets better,

he or she usually feels perfectly genuine
emotions of gratitude and regard for the
psychotherapist.

This itself represents one aspect of the cure,

that the patient whose capacity to love has
hitherto been choked by hates and fears is now

becoming free to feel in more natural human

ways. If the therapist were to reject the patient’s
love at that point he would inflict most serious

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 damage to growing normality and confidence,

and repeat the original trauma that caused the

illness. It is simply not true to say that “the
psychotherapist cannot supply the love the

patient needs or accept the love he wants to

give”. No doubt there are psychiatrists who are
unable to love their patients constructively and

can only investigate them scientifically; and

there are ministers who cannot love their people
but can only preach at them. But no real

“therapy” takes place in either case.

It is essential that, if the patient is to be

“cured” of personality disturbances, the
psychotherapist should be capable of giving him

that kind of constructive love the components of

which constitute the “vitamins of personality
growth”. The child grows up to be a disturbed
person because he is not loved for his own sake

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 as a person in his own right, and as an ill adult
he comes to the psychotherapist convinced
beforehand that this “professional man” has no
real interest or concern for him. The kind of love
the patient needs is the kind of love that he may
well feel in due course that the psychotherapist

is the first person ever to give to him. It involves

taking him seriously as a person in his
difficulties, respecting him as an individual in

his own right even in his anxieties, treating him

as someone with a right to be understood and not

merely blamed, put off, pressed and moulded to

suit other people’s convenience, regarding him
as a valuable human being with a nature of his
own that needs a good human environment to

grow in, showing him genuine human interest,

real sympathy, believing in him so that in course
of time he can become capable of believing in

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 himself. All these are the ingredients of true
parental love (agape not eros), and if the

psychiatrist cannot love his patients in that way

he had better give up psychotherapy.

Professor L. W. Crenstead, D. D., in his

foreword to my book Mental Pain and the Cure

of Souls, says that the “gravest issue that
psychiatry has to face is the fear of patients that

they are being treated as less than persons of full

and individual human worth. To depersonalise
them at the very heart of their being and to treat
them as cases and nothing more is the final

dishonour”. If Professor McKenzie had said that

in the hands of some “scientific

psychotherapists” psychotherapy can only

diagnose and not cure because there is no love

there, I could agree. But his view is that the

psychotherapist cannot give the patient the love

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 he needs, which is a denial of everything that
true psychotherapy is. I would like to refer
readers to The Leaven of Love by Mrs Isette de
Forrest for a profoundly true account of
psychotherapy.

One analyst of my acquaintance, in a private

communication, expressed the view that to get
real therapeutic results we need to add to
psycho-analysis another factor, namely, “Suffer
the little children to come unto Me”, for all

patients are hurt children at heart. Very slowly,

perhaps over a period of years, as patient and
psychotherapist work together, the patient grows

by little and little out of the legacy of an

unhappy childhood, in and through the medium
of his relationship with the therapist, until at last
the mature human being can emerge into healthy
and active self-expression and self-fulfillment.

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 When finally Dr McKenzie says about guilt
feelings: “All the psychotherapist can do is to

help the patient to repress the guilt”, it is

necessary to say plainly that this is an utter
distortion of the facts. The psychotherapist is

confronted with the patient’s pathological guilt,

a morbid factor in his personality which cripples
and crushes him. The therapist seeks to bring

this diseased pseudo-moral guilt into the fullest

consciousness, not that the patient may seek
forgiveness for it, but that he may get rid of it,
grow out of it. The mental field is now clear for
the development of a healthy moral sense, which
will only arouse guilt that is realistic. We do no

service to either psychotherapy or religion if we

try to make out that psychotherapy can only
diagnose and then hand the patient on to the

Church that he may be directed to seek the

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 forgiveness of God. Such an account of the
situation is seriously wrong both in fact and in

principle.

Sir, —I would like to thank Dr. McKenzie

for the time he has devoted to such a lengthy

reply to the two points I raised. No doubt this

was due to his recognition of the very great
importance of the whole subject of the
relationship of psychotherapy to religion. His

two articles raise so many and such large issues,

and rightly so, that I shall not attempt to deal
with them now.

I would say that I originally joined issue

with Dr. McKenzie on two specific points only.

They were his explicit statements:

(1) That the psychotherapist cannot give love

to the patient and (2) That all that the

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 psychotherapist can do about guilt is to help the
patient to repress it. So far as I can see his first
article in reply concedes my point. He writes:
“What the psychotherapist can give is loving

understanding! It is this which breaks down the

barriers of repression and resistance”. So far as I
am concerned “loving understanding” is “love”:

if it is not, then the understanding is not

“loving”. It is, in fact, exactly the type of love
that the patient has never hitherto received in

adequate measure. The psychotherapist can love

his patient in as fully real a way as the minister
can love his people. Today that would amount to

denying that the Holy Spirit can work through

the psychotherapist, which I am sure Dr
McKenzie does not wish to imply.

On the question of guilt feelings, I remain

less satisfied with Dr. McKenzie’s reply, to the

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 effect “that the psychotherapist cannot dissolve
real guilt”. If that had been his original

statement I would have seen no reason to

challenge it. What I disliked was the very
definite statement that the psychotherapist can

only seek to repress guilt.

That statement ignored the difference

between pathological and real guilt.
Furthermore, an experienced psychotherapist

does not help the patient to repress anything at

all, whether pathological or real, but rather helps
him to remain conscious of as much as he can of

his mental life and deal with it with full

awareness: only so can genuine maturing of
personality occur. No doubt, there are untrained

and inexperienced people practising

psychotherapy, some of whom make the
disastrous mistake of making light of “guilt

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 feelings” but the shortcomings of some

individual psychotherapists are not part of the

limitations of psychotherapy, per se, as practised
by its acknowledged authorities. I do not see

why, unless it is a protest against bad

psychotherapy, the point needs to be made that
the psychotherapist cannot dissolve real guilt. I

do not think any really competent

psychotherapist would attempt to do what could
only damage the patient’s realistic moral values.

The psychotherapist’s whole aim is to help the

patient to grow to a mature capacity for
responsible and loving relationships with people.

Dr McKenzie quotes Professor Allport as

saying: “Mental disease has not diminished,

rather it has increased … statistically viewed,
the success of modern psychotherapy has been
up to now not merely negligible but negative”.

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 What truth there is in this amounts to the fact
that individual psychotherapy, while supremely
important for the lucky few who can obtain it in

adequate form, is a drop in the bucket. The

Churches are as little successful as psychiatry
and psychotherapy in arresting mass mental
disease, in a world so disturbed that neurosis is
created faster than it can be cured. Prevention is
our great need.

I am sure that Dr. McKenzie joins with me in

thanking you as Editor, for making possible this

discussion of matters that are of ever-growing

importance in our modern life.

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 Appendix 2

REPLY TO HAMMERTON13

Some time ago a talk was given on the Third

Programme by Dr. Max Hammerton of
Cambridge, entitled: ‘Freud: The Status of an

Illusion’. He held that psychoanalysis was not a

science and that Freud’s work had only
entertainment value, providing the amusement
of trying to psychoanalyse famous men.

Opponents of Freud often attack him with

ridicule. He is a disturbing thinker to take
seriously. The very stature of Freud has been of
some disadvantage to psychoanalysis. He so

dominated the scene, that it was difficult for

analysts to take his hypotheses as stimulating

starting-points, and move on to newer

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 developments. It is no service to Freud to turn
his theories into an orthodoxy, when he said to

one of his translators: ‘The book will be out of

date in thirty years’. In due time, quoting Freud
will be like a physicist quoting Newton, and that

is how Freud would have liked it. Yet, in truth,

psychoanalysis is far more identified with
Freud’s early work by those who are outside the

psychoanalytic movement, in the general

cultural field, than by those inside it. Many
literary avant-garde idealisers of sex and
aggression appeal to the Freud of 1910, and are
quite unaware of the tremendous developments
in psychoanalysis since Freud in the 1920s

turned his attention from ‘instincts’ to the ‘ego’,

thereby focussing attention on the very centre of
our human nature as ‘persons’. Dr. Hammerton

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 spoke repeatedly of ‘Freudians’ as if all analysts
were stuck fast in a closed body of theory.

I want to put the question ‘What did Freud

really do?’ I ought to say that I am not a member
of the British Psychoanalytical Society, but an

independent thinker, for twenty four years

research worker in long-term psychotherapy in
the Leeds University Department of Psychiatry. I

was never expected to plug any particular theory

or method and have been left completely free by
successive heads of Department to use any
theory or method that seemed useful. After an

initial academic training in philosophy and

psychology, and an exploration of Freud, Jung,

Adler, and other later explorers in this field, I

found myself arriving at a fairly well-defined

position. This was due more to the pressures of

clinical work than anything else, a matter of

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 what helped most to understand the problems of
very disturbed people. I came to the conclusion

that Freud’s work was the most important in this

field, that I rejected some of it, particularly his
dual-instinct theory, but that his stress on the

extreme importance of personal relations in

family life for shaping either stable or very
disturbed personalities in children, loomed ever

larger in my work. I owe a great deal to a

number of leading psychoanalysts for criticising
and furthering my research, but I remain an
independent thinker with no axe to grind other
than my own freely developed conclusions, in
attempting to assess ‘What did Freud really do?’

I will give a provisional answer at once.

Freud was the real creator of that whole complex

of activities known as ‘Psychotherapy’, in every
modern sense of that term. That at once raises

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 the first big issue. Dr. Hammerton and similar
critics falsify the issue by setting analytic

therapy and psychiatry in opposition as rivals for

the treatment of mental ill health. They say
modern developments in psychiatry and

biochemistry have outdated psychotherapy. Not

by any means all psychiatrists take this view. It
ought to be ruled out on principle, for it implies

that ‘persons’ cannot have any true healing

influence, on each other as ‘persons’, which
simply flies in the face of all our own experience
of living. That persons can have a bad,
disturbing influence on each other is too obvious
to be argued. A human being is a Self, a ‘Person’

with a subjective mental experience of life that

has deep meanings, values, and purposes; and he

lives this life in and through his body with all its

organic processes. He must be understood from

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 both sides of his complex nature. A purely
physical disturbance can upset his state of mind.

Far more frequently, emotional upsets disturb his

biochemistry. The study of body and mind must
be partners and allies. I have had patients who,

through a long psychoanalytically directed

therapy, have grown far-reaching changes of
personality in the reduction of nervousness and

fear, greater ease in getting on with people,

increased spontaneity and enjoyment in living,
who never had a single pill. But some other
patients would have been unable to carry on
their work, or even at times to carry on with
psychotherapy, without the help of psychiatric

drugs, or in a few cases, hospitalisation. I am

stressing this two-sided approach.

Psychiatric treatments aim at controlling the

symptoms of mental disturbance through the

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 body, hoping to cut the illness short altogether.
Sometimes this occurs, but very often not. When

it succeeds the personality may stagnate at that

point. An able graduate patient, whose job was
saved in a crisis period by wise medication, said

later: ‘I must stop taking these pills. They have

done me a very good turn, but now they are
making me an artificial person. I’m more

honestly me when I’m more anxious than this,

and they are stopping me making use of
psychotherapy.’ The end result was excellent.
The patient benefited from both the psychiatric
and psychotherapeutic methods. If
psychotherapy were always available, there

would be far fewer re-admissions to hospital.

Alas, there are few fully trained psychotherapists

outside London, and in general psychotherapists

are more ready to see the need for psychiatry,

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 than many psychiatrists are to understand the
value of psychotherapy. Most psychiatrists have

no chance of first-hand acquaintance with expert

psychotherapy. Letters come to me on average
about one per fortnight, saying ‘I have been in

hospital several times, taken a number of

different pills or had E.C.T. (electro-convulsive
therapy), and been told I’m better, but I still

have all my old difficulties in living. Where can

I get psychotherapy to help me understand and
get over my problems?’ I cannot tell them
where. We are told that psychoanalytic therapy
is too long and expensive for all but the
fortunate few. In fact, there are many cases

where psychiatric treatment has gone on for

years and been just as expensive in time and

money, and some of these are cases where re-

admissions to hospital would have been

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 unnecessary if psychotherapy had been
available. Some of my own patients would have

been hospitalised without it. Trained

experienced psychoanalytic therapy is so rare
that there is a great deal of ignorance of what

really goes on in it. It is impossible to publish

detailed case histories; they are too confidential.
In fact, excellent results that stand the test of

time, are more frequent than is realised. Only by

psychiatrists and therapists working together can
such knowledge be shared. I speak out of the
experience of many years of exchanging patients
with a very experienced hospital Superintendent.

All I can do here is to describe what

psychotherapy is. I use this term, in asking

‘What did Freud really do?’ because his

influence has spread much farther than his own
psychoanalytic movement. My view is that

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 psychoanalysis has contributed more than any

other school to psychotherapeutic research, and

its effects are felt far beyond its borders. Every
school of psychotherapy today owes a big debt

to Freud, including all the trained social-work

professions, which are increasingly given at least
introductory knowledge of psychoanalytic

concepts. By psychotherapy then I mean all the

trained ‘helping professions’ but particularly
those directly concerned with individual

treatment, which have been influenced.

Psychotherapy belongs to and is part of a

much bigger thing, the whole field of human
relationships, including parenthood, friendship,

marriage, all partnerships in human enterprise,

and all the social and ‘helping’ professions. To
say that psychotherapy is not science is as
irrelevant as to say that parenthood is not

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 science. In fact parenthood and psychotherapy
are the two most closely related parts of this
field of human relationships. What the therapist
is having to do is in part what the patient’s
parents were too disturbed to be able to for him
at first, that is give him a secure personal

relationship that both supports him and leaves

him free to develop his own individuality. Thus
the therapist must be able to accept, understand

and help the patient, to see through and grow out

of the insecurities, suspicions, incapacity to

trust, resentments, and hates, morbid guilts, and

sheer lack of inner freedom due to the deep fears
of life that inhibit all spontaneous growth of
personality. Naturally, in this work we sift our

experience and form general concepts to explain

better what ‘human nature’ is. Dr. Winnicott
says: ‘A psychoanalyst cannot be original, for

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 what he writes today he learned from a patient
yesterday’. A body of theory has grown which

we call psychodynamic science, entirely

different from physical science. When critics say
psychoanalysis is not science, they mean it is not

‘physical science’. That is obvious but, as a

criticism, irrelevant. I call to witness, not a
psychoanalyst but a physical scientist, who has

thought deeply about the ‘wholeness’ of human

living. Dr. Bronowski, in The Identity of Man,
says that man has a dual nature, he is both a
machine and a Self, and there are two kinds of
knowledge, knowledge of the machine and
knowledge of the Self. The example he selects

for expression of knowledge of the Self is

literature. He regards physical science as
knowledge of the machine, which we only have

from the ‘outside’. Literature gives us

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 knowledge which we can only have from the
‘inside’. Actually the only Self we know directly
is our own Self. We know our own experience
‘on the inside’, but we communicate with one
another on the basis of this self-knowledge. By
identification we share in and know each other’s

experience. This is the kind of ‘knowledge’ used

in psychoanalytic therapy. The therapist ‘lives
it’, if he cannot always turn it into literature. If
anyone doubts this, he should get access to the

British Journal of Medical Psychology, June

1968, and read ‘Psychotherapy with the More
Disturbed Patient’ by Yvonne Blake of South
Africa. She records part of her first session with
an aggressive psychopath who had been before

the Courts more than once for assaulting girls.

Her intuition and personal courage in dealing
directly with this extremely difficult man, and

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 the way in which she so soon disarmed his
aggression and won his trust, makes as

absorbing reading as any Shakespeare drama.

Moreover, seven years of such therapy enabled
this very ill man to live through his ‘fear of

madness’, accept a period of extreme

‘dependency’; discard his completely
unscrupulous behaviour and end up by running a

useful and successful business of his own. Dr.

Hammerton might note that this kind of
psychotherapy is no ‘entertainment’ for either
patient or therapist. She acknowledges her debt
to Dr. Winnicott, a psychoanalyst.
Psychoanalytic or psychotherapeutic theory

must constantly develop under pressure of

clinical experience, if our understanding of
human beings as ‘persons’ is to grow. This

knowledge is generalised and presented

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 abstractly in concepts and hypotheses quite
unlike those of physical science. This

‘psychodynamic science’ cannot make a good

therapist, any more than a good parent or friend,
but it can guide the understanding of those who

already have the capacity to make good human

relationships, to be therapeutic. Psychoanalysts
undergo a training analysis, but not to learn

theory which they can get from textbooks. They

undergo analysis because we only have the right
to offer help by deep emotional exploration of
anyone’s personal problems, if we have already
faced our own. A psychotherapist is not a doctor
carrying out an impersonal scientific treatment,

but an experienced person offering a disturbed

human being a certain kind of human

relationship. He must be the kind of person with

whom this particular undermined and hurt

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 individual can win his way back out of the fear,
hate, guilt and despair, to a capacity to trust and
relate to people. The real qualification for the
therapist is to be the kind of person, partly by

natural temperament, partly by having this

training which consists in being helped by just
such an experienced therapeutic person, to face

and resolve in himself just the kind of problems

he will find his patients struggling with.

Modern psychotherapy, of which Freud and

the psychoanalytic movement was the true

founder, treats, not the symptom nor the illness

but the person who has it. When it is not

primarily an organic but a personality

disturbance, if we can help that person to feel

secure and real in personal relationships, the
illness and the symptoms fade out. Whether we
can do this depends partly on the patient’s

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 present day environment, partly on how deep-
seated the disturbance is, but mainly on how

genuine our care for the patient is, and whether

our own experience is adequate, but there are
many gratifying successes. That for most people

psychotherapy is unavailable, is a reproach

against us all. We must make it available. It is
not relevant that psychotherapy does not help

everybody. No treatment is equally successful in

all cases. Patient and treatment must be carefully
matched. What is relevant is that very many able
and intelligent people know well what is the real
cause of their disturbed personality, and do not
want its symptoms drugged into quiescence by

indefinite dependence on tranquillisers. They

want to get to the bottom of their problems and

are asking for psychotherapy. The demand is far

more widespread than I have seen admitted.

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 Psychotherapy must become a ‘Speciality’ in its

own right. Freud, its true founder, did not want

to see it confined to any one profession, medical
or otherwise, or to see it treated as an appendix

to textbooks on psychiatry. The expertise built

up in the psychoanalytic movement must
become available to training centres in all parts

of the country, where all concerned with helping

human beings in their personal lives can learn
from one another. Dr. Balint’s seminars for G.P.s

at the Tavistock Clinic are a fine example of how

this knowledge can be spread. Dr. Sutherland,
for 30 years Director of the Tavistock Clinic,

writes in The British Journal of Medical

Psychiatry, about ‘The Consultant
Psychotherapist in the National Health Service’.

In fact there are very few of them. He calls for

Psychotherapeutic Centres where ‘All the

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 professional sources of help must share the
framework on which their therapeutic work is
based … and formulate and communicate their

working hypotheses in terms of the data of

human relationships’. He adds:

The stimulus which psychoanalysis gave to

the social sciences, has led to an enormous
amount of research into the social
development of the child, and the ways in
which adult behaviour is governed by
social relationships. … The importance of
the study of the self and its identity. ... its
intimate relatedness to social transactions
… makes it increasingly likely that detailed
psychoanalytic work with individuals will
have to be matched with equally intensive
work into those social transactions that are
essential to being a person. … We must
marry psychodynamic knowledge of the
inner world with a sociological sensitivity
to the outer.

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 The answer, therefore, to the question ‘What

did Freud really do?’ is that he opened our eyes

to what we prefer to be blind to. He was the
effective starting-point of this entire, far-flung,

steadily expanding development of the many-

sided problem of understanding and helping the
very many people, young and old, who need to

be understood and stood by when life

overwhelms them. Once we have understood
Freud, we cannot just criticise and blame them,

if we are to retain our self-respect. The

foundations of security and self-confidence are
laid in childhood and infancy. It is now known

that a baby’s heart beats faster in response to

noise, light and movement, even before birth. So
early do we begin to react to, and can be

disturbed by, our environment. Such influences

are at their maximum in the early impressionable

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 years. If things go wrong then, a child can grow
into an adult who is like a superstructure of a
house with no foundations. A young married
man said to me: ‘I need the support of someone
who cares for me, to enable me to feel real. By
myself, I can’t feel substantial, can’t feel I am

anybody. With someone, I don’t worry about my

existence. Alone I become afraid I’ll die. I feel
I’ve got a hollow centre to my personality. I lack

self-reliance because I feel empty.’ He was

saying in adult terms what a little girl said

simply: ‘What’s the use of being me, if nobody

cares?’ The secret tragedy of those who struggle
on day by day with this inner feeling of deep
mental inadequacy, inability to cope with life, is

often expressed in dreams of struggling in a

flood tide and only just managing to keep one’s
head above water. One patient, after a period of

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 expressing bitter hates and resentments, began to

experience a mounting sense of fear and said:

‘I’d go under, or have to go to hospital, but for
you.’ Not till we recognise that hostile and

destructive behaviour is a defence against inner

fears, will we deal constructively with the
problem of aggression.

Such mental sufferers do not necessarily lack

ability, experience or physical health. People can
have all these and still feel this basic nonentity

in their personality. They may or may not

produce physical symptoms of tension. Their
real symptom is that they feel mentally unable to

relate vitally to their environment and feel alive,

interested and adequate. They are driven to
shrink into themselves from a world that seems
hostile, because they feel they cannot cope with

it. They have all they need for coping, except a

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 sense of reality and confidence in themselves.
This is the fundamental problem, hidden behind
all sorts of defences and symptoms. Recently a

woman said to me, ‘I’ve come out of hospital.

I’m told “All the possible tests have been taken,
the results are all negative. There is nothing at
all wrong with you”. But I feel in despair. I’m
just no good as a wife or mother.’ To such, the
psychotherapist has to give a kind of relationship

the patient can use to discover his own proper

selfhood. Let us face it. This is far harder than
prescribing pills.

The problem of psychotherapy is not that it

is not scientific; it has its own kind of science.

The difficulty is that we ourselves may not be
equal to its demands. We may not have the depth
of understanding, sympathy, tolerance, and
capacity to take the strain, that is required to

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 help a suffering human being to drop his
defences and lay bare his crippling fears, in the

confidence that we can understand and stand by

him till he has grown out of them. But the
therapist grows with his patients. If he did not, I

do not think we could do this work. Yet in the

end it is the most rewarding experience of all. It
has always played a part in life. It has always

been present in religion. The old-fashioned

family doctor was a psychotherapist without
being called one. No advances in purely physical
medical science can solve the problems of the
‘person’ as distinct from the ‘organism’. But we
owe it above all to Freud that this most

important of all healing arts, the healing of

‘personal Self’, has become a field of systematic
research, yielding results capable of being

applied in practice by those who are sufficiently

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 motivated to tackle human problems on this
basic level. The name of Freud will certainly
stand permanently among the great ones in the
history of discovery.

Note
[13] A reply published in The Listener magazine, August 29,
1968, to a talk by Dr. Max Hammerton of Cambridge, on
‘Freud, the Status of an Illusion.’

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 Appendix 3

RESPONSE TO EYSENCK

Psychoanalysts do not spend time attacking

behaviour therapy. Charles Rycroft (a
psychoanalyst) reviewing one of H. J. Eysenck’s

books gave a very favourable account of his

experimental work but castigated him for out of
date ideas of analysis. Many behaviourists, and

Eysenck in particular, do not reciprocate this

attitude. He is for “Behaviour therapy versus
psychotherapy” (the title of this article last
week). Behaviour therapy, he writes is an

“alternative to psycho-analysis and

psychotherapy,” and is “much more effective.”
Again, “behaviour therapy not only has been

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 shown to work but is the only method of therapy
for which this can be claimed.”

Attacking psychotherapy is an obsession

with Eysenck—a “behaviour pattern” which
might do with reconditioning. He writes:

“Research psychologists and clinical

psychiatrists do not necessarily share the same
aims and concerns.” But they can respect each

other.

I was genuinely interested in Eysenck’s

account of Wolpe’s “gradual desensitisation”

treatment of phobias. I do not accept Wolpe’s
own naively over-simplified definition of
neurosis: “Most neuroses are essentially

persistent habits of reacting with anxiety to

stimulus situations that objectively are not
dangerous.” His illustration is that a child who

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 burns his hand on the big black stove in the
kitchen, then develops a fear of a big black box

in the bedroom, and this reappears in later life as

a neurotic phobia. If only it were so simple. That
is an ideal case for desensitisation therapy, and I

do not doubt such cases can be found. But

Eysenck agrees that, “the value of
desensitisation was found to be inversely

proportional to the amount of severe free

floating anxiety.” In over 30 years, I have found
that most of the cases referred to me revealed
increasingly severe anxiety, the more one knew
about them; and it was not “free floating” but
directly related to tragic family histories often

over several generations.

There is a place for behaviour therapy. Habit

plays an enormous part in life as the great time

saver. And while there are useful healthy habits,

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 or behaviour patterns, so there are maladaptive,
pathological patterns which become symptoms

preventing the personality from functioning

freely. Some bad patterns originate accidentally
or incidentally, but I have abundant evidence

that they can originate in the profoundly

disturbed history of a lifetime. Sometimes if an
emotional problem is resolved, a symptomatic

habit that it created fades out. I have seen

transient phobias come and go (fears of snakes,
spiders, heights, open or closed spaces) as
complex anxieties were unravelled. But there
are, I doubt not, cases where the originating
emotional causes die down under psychotherapy,

and the symptom persists by force of habit. Dr.

J. Sandler (editor of the International Journal of

Psycho-Analysis) accepts behaviour therapy for

such symptoms. In such a case I would have no

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 hesitation about “the gradual introduction of the
feared object while the patient is in a state of

relaxation.” But would one dare risk “actually

placing the subject in the situation” which
evokes anxiety, if it is suicidal anxiety which is

usually evoked by mental isolation? In such a

case only a security-giving personal relationship
has any value. This is the reason for the failure

of “desensitisation” with severe agoraphobics,

who, like schizoid personalities, have at heart a
core of utter depersonalisation, terror of which is
the deepest and hardest problem for every kind
of therapy.

Critics of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy

rarely shows signs of knowing anything about

psychoanalysis later than the Freud of about

1910-1915. They betray little sign of
understanding the enormous change from basic

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 emphasis on instincts to that on personal
relationships, from emphasis on the later

Oedipal (or family group) rivalries and

jealousies to the early fundamental mother-
infant relation where the foundations of a secure

stable personality are, or are not, laid. They

seem to know little of Balint, Fairbairn, Bowlby,
Winnicott. Quoting Freud in psychoanalysis is

beginning now to become rather like quoting

Newton in physics.

In his recent book, Attachment and Loss

(Hogarth) John Bowlby writes: “What is

believed to be essential for mental health is that

the infant and young child should experience a
warm, intimate and continuous relationship with

his mother, in which both find satisfaction and

enjoyment … The young child’s hunger for his
mother’s love and presence is as great as his

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 hunger for food, and in consequence her absence
inevitably generates a powerful sense of loss and

anger.” I would add fear.

Extensive observation of children, by

Bowlby and James Robertson, before, during

and after separation from mother (as in hospital),

revealed that on return they showed, “on the one
hand an intense clinging to mother which can
continue for weeks, months or years, and on the

other a rejection of mother as a love-object,

which may be temporary or permanent (i.e.
detachment). These responses and processes are

the very same as are known to be active in older

individuals who are still disturbed by separations
suffered in early life.” Moreover physical

separation is not the only separation. Parents can

be physically present and yet emotionally either
absent or actively hostile. Most people who seek

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 psychotherapy were rejected or hated by their
parents, often in extremely subtle ways, and

their entire personality undermined in growth.

These are the preoccupations of present-day
psychoanalytic therapy.

An eminent analyst said to me recently:

“Freud was interested in symptoms. We have
become interested in persons.” Eysenck is still
interested in symptoms not whole persons.

Indeed for his theory “the self” does not exist.

He has told us, “There is nothing behind the
symptoms. The symptoms are the neurosis.”

Eysenck writes: “For Freud and his

followers even mild errors and minor

misspellings were evidence of deep-seated

complexes, and snake phobias in particular were
explained along symbolic lines which linked

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 them securely with his theoretic system.”
Evidently Eysenck sees the snake as the grand

Freudian sex symbol and if only behaviour

therapy can dissipate a snake phobia and show it
to be accidental and having no sex significance,

then the entire structure of psychoanalysis

collapses. In over 30 years I have never met a
full-blown snake phobia. I have known patients

produce transient ones, and also have dreams

about snakes, which sometimes did seem to have
a sexual significance, but not always. Sex is a
part of life and people do dream about it, but as
Ronald Fairbairn wrote in Psycho-Analytical
Studies of the Personality: “Sex is simply one

area of biological functioning in which

personality problems are played out.”

Problems of the philosophy of science are

raised by Eysenck and other behaviourists when

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 they try to claim that they alone are scientific

psychologists. In an international conference of

neurophysiologists in 1966 Lord Adrian, in a
paper on consciousness, said: “In our ‘public’

behaviour there is little or nothing which cannot

be brought within the framework of physical
science; and to this extent the behaviourist’s

hypothesis seems adequate. Yet for many of us

there is still one thing which seems to lie outside
this tidy and familiar framework—the ‘I’ who

does the perceiving, thinking and acting.”

The “I” is far more in evidence in our

“public” behaviour than Lord Adrian recognised,
and the psychoanalytic therapist is compelled to

be directly concerned with the patient’s “I”

which lies at the heart of his “behaviour.” It is
precisely his subjective experience of himself, at
worst his deep doubts as to whether he is a real

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 “self” or just a nonentity, that for him is his
illness. Dr. J. Bronowski in The Identity of Man
(Pelican) holds that man is both a machine (a
biochemical organism) and a self, and that there
are two qualitatively different kinds of
knowledge, knowledge of the behaviour of the

machine, any machine, from the outside, which

is physical science; and knowledge of the self
from the inside, which he finds expressed in

literature (and also in dreams). It is this

subjective knowledge of the self that the new

science of psychodynamics explores.

Early this century, following Pavlov’s

conditioned reflex concept, J. B. Watson

developed behaviourism in America, leaving,
according to Pillsbury in his History of
Psychology, “nothing of psychology but
conditioned reflexes and tongue movements. He

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 denied that consciousness had any existence at
all.” Today the American Skinner disallows the

use of psychological terms, such as feeling,

intending, purposing, desiring, aggression, guilt;
all these must be translated into “physical thing

language,” description of “patterns of

behaviour.” There can be no objection to the
study of behaviour as such, but there is every

objection to the view that this alone covers the

entire truth about the whole reality of man.

I shall go on studying man’s subjective

experience of himself in both healthy and

suffering relations with his fellows, because this

psychic experience is actually there to be

studied, and I see results not obtained by

behaviour theory, but purely by what has gone

on in mutual personal interchange.

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 Proof? A young mother with a bed-wetting
child and no symptoms but coldness and apathy
towards her family. She had a violent mother
and quarrelling parents, and suddenly began to
act out in sleep terrible scenes of her mother
burning her on the back and her self screaming.

Her husband discovered the scars, would ring

me in the night, and I witnessed several scenes
of which she remembered nothing next day.
Suddenly he lost his job and for two anxious

weeks the nightmares stopped. Then he got a

good job and the acting out began again. Slowly
she remembered it in the morning and discussed
it in sessions, and began to thaw out
emotionally. Afterwards she told me: “My

husband says I don’t freeze him off now, and my

little girl has stopped bed-wetting.” Another man
was referred to me for serious depression, but he

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 also had had for years severe attacks of sinusitis
which always required surgical intervention. He

unfolded a tragic story of his relationship with

his mother but always there was total amnesia
for the day of her death. Then came another

severe sinusitis, and next day he rushed into my

room saying: “It’s come back to me. I woke in
the night and I could see my mother on her death

bed. She died cursing me, when I was the only

one who looked after her. As it came back to me,
too horrible to be remembered, my sinuses
opened, the pus poured out and for the first time
I have got rid of it without the doctor.” Both
sinusitis and depression have gone.

Behaviour is there to be studied and many

useful things can be found out by its scientific

experimental investigation, but the tide has

begun to turn against its attempted take-over bid

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 for all psychology. In the Bulletin of the British
Psychological Society (no. 73, 1968) D.

Bannister has written:

Psychological and physiological concepts

stem from such different semantic
networks that they cannot be meaningfully
related. Ryle’s criticism of the “ghost in the
machine” concept did not recognise the
usefulness of this concept in drawing
attention to the differences between the
language in which we discuss the “ghost”
and the unrelated language in which we
discuss the “machine.” The chances of
developing a physiological psychology are
about as good (or as bad) as of developing
a chemical sociology or a biological
astronomy.

Eysenck says that “impersonal methods

(computer) work as well as personal methods.”
But he cites Truax and Carkhuff who

describe the personality qualities and

“therapy styles” of the two contrasted

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 groups of therapists. They find empathy,
warmth, and genuineness characteristic of
successful therapists; absence of these
qualities, and in particular presence of their
opposites, is found in therapists who
actually harm their patients. … Cold,
“interpretive” and purist behaviour on the
part of the therapist … prevents relaxation
and increases anxiety.

So “impersonal methods (computer)” are not

therapeutic after all. Eysenck perversely writes:

“It is in line with my view of successful
psychotherapy as embodying behaviourist
principles; empathy, warmth and genuineness

generate an easy relaxed atmosphere in which to

develop the hierarchies which carry so much of

the burden of successful therapy.”

This is disguised capitulation. Plainly, only

in a genuine personally therapeutic relationship

does real personality growth out of anxiety take

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 place—the quality of the person of the therapist
is always more important than his technique.

One last word. The “scientific” status of

psychoanalysis is usually criticised on the
ground that analysts do not study cases against

“control cases,” and do not frame hypotheses

that enable “predictions” to be made. Since no
two human beings are ever as exactly alike as
two bits of the same chemical, only roughly

similar “controls” can be found and no absolute

conclusions can be drawn, though useful
attempts have been made as by Bowlby here and

Carl Rogers in America. But it would be utterly

impossible to find any true “control case” for the
stark uniqueness of the two cases I have cited

here. As to “prediction,” Bronowski, a biologist,

has I hope settled that question by pointing out
that prediction is impossible for a “self,” for if it

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 were predictable it would be a machine and not a

self. What is required of a self is not

predictability but consistency.

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 CREDITS

The author gratefully acknowledges the

cooperation of the following professional bodies
in releasing the relevant material for publication

in this volume:

British Journal of Medical Psychology: Chapter

1: (originally entitled “A Study of Fairbairn’s
Schizoid Reactions”) 1952, vol. 25, pp. 86-103;

Chapter 2: (originally entitled “The Therapeutic

Factor in Psychotherapy”) 1953, vol. 26, pp.

115-132; Chapter 3: (originally entitled “Recent

Developments in Psychoanalytical Theory”)

1956, vol. 29, pp. 82-99; Chapter 5: (originally
entitled “Ego-Weakness and the Hard Core of

the Problem of Psychotherapy”) 1960, vol. 33,

pp. 163-184; Chapter 6: (originally entitled “The

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 Schizoid Problem, Regression, and the Struggle
to Preserve an Ego”) 1961, vol. 34, pp. 223-244;

Chapter 8: (originally entitled “The Schizoid

Compromise and Psychotherapeutic Stalemate”)
1962, vol. 35, pp. 273-287; Chapter 9:

(originally entitled “Psychodynamic Theory and

the Problem of Psychotherapy”) 1963, vol. 36,
pp. 161-172; Chapter 11: (originally entitled

“Religion in Relation to Personal Integration”)

1969, vol. 42, pp. 323-333; Chapter 12:
(originally entitled “The Ego Psychology of
Freud and Adler Re-examined in the 1970s”)
1971, vol. 44, pp. 305-318; Chapter 17:
(originally entitled “Psychoanalysis and Some

Scientific and Philosophical Critics”) 1978, vol.

51, pp. 207-224.

Leeds University Medical Journal: Chapter 4:

(originally entitled “Centenary Reflections on

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 the Work of Freud”) 1956, vol. 5, pp. 162-166.

The Institute of Psycho-Analysis: International

Journal of Psycho-Analysis: Chapter 7:

(originally entitled “The Manic-Depressive

Problem in the Light of the Schizoid Process”)
1962, vol. 43, pp. 98-112; Chapter 10:
(originally entitled “The Concept of
Psychodynamic Science”) 1967, vol. 48, pp. 32-
43.

International Review of Psycho-Analysis:

Chapter 16: 1975, vol. 2, pp. 145-156.

Bulletin of the British Psychological Society:

Chapter 13: (originally entitled “Orthodoxy and

Revolution in Psychology”) 1972, vol. 25, pp.
275-280.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis: Chapter 14:

(originally entitled “Sigmund Freud and

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 Bertrand Russell”) 1973, vol. 9(3), pp. 263-281.

Journal of the American Academy of

Psychoanalysis: Chapter 15: (originally entitled

“Science, Psychodynamic Reality and Autistic

Thinking”) 1973, vol. 1(1), pp. 3-22 (with
permission of The Guilford Press).

The author is particularly grateful to Gwen

Greenald and Bertha Guntrip, the daughter and
widow of Harry Guntrip, for their kind

permission to reprint material from his writings.

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