Carbon and Its Compounds

Facts About Carbon

Carbon is non-metal and the 15th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust

Earth's crust has 0.02% carbon from minerals like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, coal and
petroleum. Carbon is present in the atmosphere primarily in the form of carbon dioxide. Its
concentration is 0.03%.
The shells of aquatic animals are made from calcium carbonate.

CO2 is a colourless and odourless gas

​

Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond: The bonds which are formed by sharing of electron pair b/w the atom (either
same or different atom)
Covalency of atom: The number of electrons shared b/w two atoms to complete their octet i.e.
Monovalent, Divalent, Trivalent
The octet rule states that atoms are most stable when they have eight electrons in their valence
shell.

Types: Double Covalent Bond Eg: O2 , ​

Single Covalent Bond Eg: H2 , Cl2 

​ ​ Triple Covalent Bond Eg: N2 , ​

4+ 4−
Why carbon cannot become C : It would Why carbon cannot become C : Due to
require a large amount of energy to remove 4 the small size of carbon it would be difficult for
electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with a nucleus with 6 protons to hold on to 10
6 protons in the nucleus holding on to just 2 electrons
electrons So carbon shares 4 electrons to attain
Octet

Physical State: Solid, Liquid, Gas

Melting and Boiling Point: Low

Is the covalent bond weaker: Covalent bonded molecules have strong bonds within the
molecule but have weak inter-molecular force
Electrical Conductivity: As electrons are shared b/w atoms and no charge particles are formed
they generally have poor conductivity Exception: HCL
Solubility: Generally soluble in organic solvent and insoluble in water Exception: Sugar in water

Versatile Nature of Carbon

Catenation: The C atom has the property of self-linking with another C atom to form long-
branched and closed carbon rings

Carbon and Its Compounds 1

 Tetravalency: Each C atom shares 4 electrons to attain stability. It shows tetravalency and C
atom is teteravalent

Tendency to Form Multiple Bonds: Carbon tends to form multiple bonds like single, double and
triple with different elements

Why carbon shows catenation to maximum extent: Bcz of its small size. This enables the
nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly. The bonds formed by elements
having bigger atoms are much weaker

Allotrope of Carbon
Same element that exists in different physical structures while being in the same physical state
are called allotropes and this phenomenon is known as allotropism

Diamond Graphite Fullerene (C-60)

Each C atom is bonded to 4 Each C atom is bonded It contains 20 six-membered rings
other carbon atoms. 3-D Rigid to 3 other carbon and 12 five-membered rings of C
Structure atoms. Hexagonal atom. Soccer Ball
Electric Conductivity: No Array Named on Buckminster Fuller
Electric Conductivity:
No

Functional Group / Heteroatom

Hydrogen can be replaced by any other element like Cl, S, N, Oand provides completely
different properties regardless of the length and the nature of the C chain.

Alkyl Group of R: −Cn ​ H2n+1 

​
​

Homologous Series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having similar chemical properties but
different physical structures and differ by CH2 unit and 14u of molecular mass
​

With the increase in molecular mass, a gradual change in physical properties is observed, Eg:
melting and boiling point increase

Saturated HydroCarbons
C atoms are saturated with the maximum number of H atoms due to which no double/triple
bonds are present b/w carbon atoms. n = 1,2,3….

Alkane — Cn H2n+2 — Single bond — -ane

​

​
​

Cycloalkane — Cn H2n — Single Bond — -ane

​ ​

Carbon and Its Compounds 2

 Root
Words

No of C Root Word

C1 
​
Meth

C2 
​ Eth

C3 
​ Prop

C4 
​
But

C5 
​ Pent

C6 
​ Hex

C7 
​
Hept

C8 
​ Oct

C9 
​ Non

C1 0 
​ Dec

IUPAC Nomenclature Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Prefix + Root Word + Primary Suffix + Carbon atoms are not saturated with the
Secondary Suffix maximum number of H atoms due to which
double/triple bonds are present b/w C atoms.
Prefix - Alkyl / Side Chain / Branced / Halogen
n= 2,3,4….
Root Word - How many carbon in main chain
Alkene — Cn H2n — Double Bond — ene
​ ​

Primary Suffix(PS) - ane, ene, yne

Alkyne — Cn ​ H2n−2 — Triple bond — yne
​

Secondary Suffix(SS) - Functional Group

​

Cycloalkene — Cn ​ H2n−2 — Double Bond

​

After ‘e’ of PS if SS has “a, i, o, u, e, y” then

​

— -ene
eliminate ‘e’ of PS
Cycloalkyne — Cn ​ H2n−4 — Triple Bond —
​
​

Isomerism -yne

The phenomenon in organic Compounds Straight chains: carbon is attached to either

having the same molecular formula but one or two other C atom
different properties due to difference in the Branched-chain: C is attached to either one,
structure are called isomerism. two or more than two C atom
Organic compound showing isomerism is
known as isomers

Carbon and Its Compounds 3

 Oxidation Substitution Reaction
When alcohols are heated in the presence of One atom or group of atoms is displaced by
oxidizing agents like acidified K2 Cr2 O7 ​ ​ ​ another atom or group of atoms without
(Potassium Dichromate) or alkaline KMnO4 ​ change in the rest of the molecule
(Potassium Permanganate) they are
CH4 + Cl2 ​ ​ ​ CH3 Cl
​ ​ HCl
converted to carboxylic acids
Alkaline KMnO 4 or Acidified K 2 Cr2 O 7
CH3 −CH2 −OH CH3 COOH + MnO2
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Alkaline Potassium Permagnet

Ethanol ​ Ethanoic Acid + Manganese Dioxide

Purple
Colourless ​ Colourless Salt + Brown ppt at bottom

O O
Alchol ​ Aldehyde Carboxylic

Combustion Reaction Addition Reaction

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + When an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines
Water-vapour + Heat + Light with H/Brto give a single product in the
Complete Combustion: presence of heat and a catalyst like
CH4 + 2 O2
​ ​ ​ CO2 + 2 H2 O ​ ​
Ni/Pd/Pt

Incomplete Combustion: Catalyst: Catalysts are substances that cause

a reaction to occur or proceed at a different
2 CH4 + 3 O2
​ ​ ​ 2 CO + 4 H2 O ​

rate without the reaction itself being affected

Saturated Compounds:-
Ni at 200 °C
Vegetable Oil + H Vegetable
Good Amount of Oxygen → Complete
​

Combustion → Clean blue flame → Doesn’t

produce much light Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty
acids that are harmful to health
Lack of oxygen → Incomplete combustion →
Yellow Colour flame and leaves soot(carbon) Oil containing unsaturated fatty acid is good
→ Produces much light for health and is used for cooking

Unsaturated Compounds → Always burn

with a Yellow flame(Incomplete Combustion)

Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) ​ ​

Physical State: Liquid Colourless Solubility in Water: Miscible in water in all proportion

Melting Point: Boiling Smell: Taste: Burning Action on Litmus

−114°C  Point: Sweet Smell Taste Paper: No Change
78°C  (Neutral)

Carbon and Its Compounds 4

 95% of ethanol + 5% of water used as antiseptics for wounds

100% ethanol is called as absolute alcohol

Ethanol + Blue Dye + Methanol → Denatured alcohol which is used in industries only and is
poisonous

Reaction with sodium: 2 Na + 2 CH3 CH2 OH ​ ​ ​ 2 CH3 CH2 O− Na+ + H2  ​ ​ ​

Conc ⋅ H 2 S O 4 170 °C
Dehydration: CH3 CH2 OH CH2 CH2 + HO
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

H2 SO4 acts like a dehydrating agent

​ ​

Ingredient of all alcoholic drink

Useful in medicines like tinctures of iodine, cough syrups and other tonics

Used to manufacture paint, dye, perfume etc

Ethanoic Acid (C2 H4 O2 ) ​ ​ ​

Physical State: Liquid Colourless Solubility in Water: Miscible in water in all proportion

Melting Boiling Smell: Taste: Sour Action on Litmus Paper:

Point: Point: Pungent Taste Change blue litmus to red
17°C  118°C  (Acidic)

When acetic acid is cooled down to 17°C it forms a glacier-like crystal and is hence known
as glacial acetic acid

Reaction with Metal: 2 CH3 COOH + 2 NA ​ ​

2 CH3 COO− Na+ + H2  ​ ​

Reaction with Base:

CH3 COOH + NaOH

​ ​
CH3 COO− Na+ + H2 O
​ ​

2 CH3 COOH + Na2 CO3

​ ​ ​ ​
2 CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO2 
​ ​ ​

Esterification: When a carboxylic acid is reacted with alcohol in the presence of acid as a
catalyst, a fruity-smelling liquid called ester is obtained.

CH3 COOH + CH3 CH2 OH

​ ​ ​ ​
CH3 COOC2 H5 + H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​

Ethanoic Acid + Ethanol ​

Ethyl ethanoate(ester)
Saponification: Ester gets converted into alcohol and sodium salt of acid when treated with an
alkali like NaOH
NaOH
CH3 COOCH2 CH3
​ ​ ​ ​ CH3 CH2 OH + CH3 COONa
​ ​ ​

Used to manufacture cellulose acetate i.e. rayon, acetone, dyes, perfumes

Use to make vinegar (5% - 8% of vinegar)

Widely used as a preservative in pickle

Soaps and Detergents

Soaps: Sodium or Potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acid(fatty acids)

Carbon and Its Compounds 5

 Detergents(Soapless Soap): Sodium salt of long-chain sulphonic acid
Structure of a soap:-

Hydrophilic: Short ionic head — soluble in water

Hydrophobic: Long hydrocarbon chain tail — Soluble in oil

Cleansing Action
Soap or detergent dissolves in water
Soap aligns along the surface of water with an ionic end in water and a hydrocarbon tail
protruding out of water
A unique orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the water
Forming cluster of molecules known as micelle in which hydrophobic tails are in the interior of the
cluster and on the surface of the cluster, ionic ends are present
For the formation of micelles, the cloth needs to be scrubbed mechanically or beaten

Micelles stay as colloids in the solution and do not come together because of ion-ion repulsion.
Hence dirt suspended in the micelle is also easily rinsed away

Soap solution appears cloudy because the ion aggregate forms micelles
Emulsion: Mixing of water and oil with the help of emulsifying agent(soap)

Advantages of Detergents over Soap

Soap does not work well with hard water

Hard Water: Bicarbonates of Ca and Mg or Chlorides and Suplhates of Ca and Mg in water

When soap reacts with hard water it forms scum remains after washing with water
So Detergent made of sulphonic acid whose hydrophobic ends don’t react with Ca Mg

Advantages of Soap over Detergents

Soaps are 100 % biodegradable while detergents are not

Soaps are straight-chain hydrocarbons hence they are easily decomposed by bacteria
Detergents are branched chain hydrocarbons hence bacteria take a longer time to decompose
them

Carbon and Its Compounds 6