According to the Curriculum of HEC

(Recommended for all Universities)

CLASSICAL
MECHANICS
For BS & MSc Aspirants

MUHAMMAD USMAN HAMID

MUHAMMAD ZEESHAN AHMAD
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Objectives of the course:

To provide solid understanding of classical mechanics and enable the students to

use this understanding while studying courses on quantum mechanics, statistical
mechanics, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, space-flight dynamics,
astrodynamics and continuum mechanics.

Muhammad Usman Hamid

University of Sargodha
……………………………………………………………………………………..

For video lectures

@ You tube visit
Learning with Usman Hamid
visit facebook page “mathwath”
or contact: 0323 – 6032785
……………………………………………………………………………………..

Books Recommended

 John R. Taylor. Classical Mechanics, University of Colorado.

 Goldstein H. Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
 Spiegel M. R. Theoretical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
 Mir K.L. Theoretical Mechanics: Ilmi Ketab Khana.
 Virtual University Lecture Handouts on Classical Mechanics.
 Mechanics by HRK.
 Mechanics, Waves and Oscillations by Kaleem Akhtar

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Dedicated
To
Our beloved Teacher
Sir Tahir Nazir
University of Sargodha

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CONTENTS

S.# Name of the Chapters P.#

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND NON 5
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEMS
Introduction, basic definitions. Newtonian Mechanics.
Fundamental laws and principles of Mechanics.
2 KINETICS 20
Work, power, kinetic energy and energy principal,
conservative force fields, conservation of energy theorem,
impulse, torque. Conservation of linear and angular
momentum. Atwood machine, Virial Theorem, Non-
conservative forces. Motion of Particles under different
phenomenon.
3 KINEMATICS 62
Basic definitions, Rectilinear motion of particles. Uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion. Curvilinear motion of particle,
rectangular components of velocity and acceleration,
tangential and normal components of velocity and
acceleration, radial and transverse components of velocity and
acceleration. Projectile motion with air resistance.
4 RESISTED MOTION AND DAMPED FORCED 85
OSCILLATOR
Vertical motion with air resistance. Damped harmonic
oscillator. Resonance frequency. Damped forced oscillations.
5 CENTRAL FORCES AND PLANETARY MOTION 95
Central force fields, equations of motion, potential energy,
orbits. Kepler‟s law of planetary motion. Apsides and apsidal
angles for nearly circular orbits. Motion in an inverse square
field. Escape velocity. Time varying mass system (Rockets)

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6 PLANER MOTION OF RIGID BODIES 108

Introduction to rigid and elastic bodies, translations, rotations.

Linear and angular velocity of a rigid body about a fixed axis,
moments and products of inertia of various bodies including
hoop or cylindrical shell, circular cylinder, spherical shell.
Parallel and perpendicular axis theorem, Degrees of freedom,
instantaneous axis and center of rotation, Motion of the center
of mass, Euler‟s theorem and Chasle‟s theorem, Radius of
gyration of various bodies
7 MOTION OF RIGID BODIES IN THREE DIMENSIONS 198
AND MOMEMNT OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES

General motion of rigid bodies in space. Angular momentum

and moment of inertia. Principal axes and principal moments
of inertia. Determination of principal axes by diagonalizing
the inertia matrix. Equimomental systems, Momental
Ellipsoid.
8 EULER EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A RIGID BODY 245

Accelerated coordinate systems and inertial forces, Rotating

coordinate systems, Velocity and acceleration in moving
system: Coriolis, Foucault‟s Theorem, Centripetal and
transverse acceleration, Dynamics of a particle in a rotating
coordinate system. Force free motion, Free rotation of a rigid
body with an axis of symmetry, Rotating axes theorem.
Euler‟s dynamical equations. Free rotation of a rigid body
with three different principal moments, torque free motion of a
symmetrical top. The Eulerian angles, angular velocity and
kinetic energy in terms of Euler angles, The Eulerian angles,
Angular velocity and kinetic energy in terms of Euler angles,
Space cone, Motion of a spinning top and gyroscopes- steady
precession, Sleeping top

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CHAPTER

GENERAL INTRODUCTION &

1 NON INERTIAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM
What is Mechanics?

Mechanics is the branch of science which studies the state of rest and motion of
objects and laws governing rest, equilibrium and motion. Since material objects
exist in the form of liquids gases and solids there are corresponding types of
mechanics to deal with them.

i. Kinematics
ii. Dynamics
iii. Statics

Kinematics

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which describe the motion of objects

without consideration of their masses and force acting on them. It is the motion of
objects without discussing the causes of motion.

Dynamics/Kinetics

Dynamics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects under
the action of force. It is the motion of objects with discussing the causes of motion.

Statics

Statics is the branch of mechanics concerned with objects at rest or in equilibrium

under the action of forces.

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Classical Mechanics

This is the branch of mechanics in which we study the mechanics of big bodies. It
deals with the motion of physical objects at macroscopic level. It is based upon
Newton‟s Law of Motion. It is also called Newtonian Mechanics because the
bodies obey Newton‟s Law of Motion. The study of bodies on atomic scales falls
in the category of Quantum Mechanics. The problems involving velocities which
are not negligible when compared with the velocity of light or discussed on the
basis of relativity. Galileo and Newtonian provide the base of classical mechanics
in 17th century.

Non – Relativistic Mechanics: Non – Relativistic Mechanics based on the laws of

Newton‟s is concerned with bodies moving at speed and velocities negligibly small
as compared to the speed of light. i.e.

Relativistic Mechanics: Relativistic Mechanics is concerned with bodies moving

at speed and velocities comparable to the speed of light. i.e.

Division of Classical Mechanics

Three major divisions of classical mechanics are the following:

 Mechanics of particles and rigid bodies: It is based on newton‟s law.

Basic concepts and terms are space, time and mass; particle and body;
velocity, momentum and acceleration; force and energy.
 Mechanics of fluid: It is also based on newton‟s law and their extensions
and deal with the behavior of the fluid (liquid and gases) in motion. Its two
well-known branches are hydrodynamics (for fluid) and Aerodynamics (for
gases).
 Mechanics of elastic solids: it deals with the behavior of solids when the
undergo deformation under forces.

Macroscopic Objects: Visible objects through naked eyes are called Macroscopic
Objects. e.g. Star, Table, Horse etc.

Microscopic Objects: Invisible objects through naked eyes are called Microscopic
Objects. e.g. electron, proton, bacteria etc.

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Classical Mechanics by Methodology and Approach

 Newtonian Mechanics or Vector Mechanics: In this type of mechanics

vector quantities such as position vector, velocity, momentum etc. appear as
basic physical entities. This is directly based on Newton Laws of motion.
 Analytic Mechanics or Scalar Mechanics: In this type of mechanics scalar
quantities occupies the central position.

Rectangular Components

The process of splitting a vector into various parts or components is called

“Resolution of vector” and these parts are called components of vector. If we split
a vector in a rectangular plane OXY, such components are called rectangular
components of a vector.

Component Along x-axis is called horizontal component of vector.

Component Along y-axis is called vertical component of vector.

Position vector: It is often convenient to describe the motion of a particle in terms

of its x, y or rectangular components, relative to a fixed frame of reference. In a
given reference system, the position of a particle can be specified by a single
vector, namely, the displacement of the particle relative to the origin of the
coordinate system. This vector is called the position vector of the particle. In
rectangular coordinates, the position vector is simply 𝑟 = 𝑥 ̂ + 𝑦 ̂
The components of the position vector of a moving particle are functions of the
time, namely, 𝑥 𝑥( ) 𝑦 𝑦( )

CLASSIFICATION OF COORDINATES

Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinates: Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be a point on surface S in R3

then (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) are called Cartesian coordinates.

Polar Coordinates: Let (𝑟 ) be a point on the curve in R2 then (𝑟 ) are called

Polar coordinates. Its parametric equations are 𝑥 𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
Where 𝑟 √𝑥 𝑦 and

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Cylindrical Coordinate System ( )

Let (𝑟 𝑧) be a point on surface of cylinder S in R3 then (𝑟 𝑧) are called

Cylindrical Polar coordinates.

Its parametric equations are 𝑥 𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 𝑧 𝑧 .

Where 𝑟 √𝑥 𝑦 𝑟 and and 𝑧

Fix Vary Locus

𝑧 𝑟 Straight Line
𝑟 𝑧 Line
𝑟𝑧 Circle
𝑧 𝑟 Disk
𝑟𝑧 Plane
𝑟 𝑧 Cylinder

Spherical Coordinate System ( )

Let (𝑟 ) be a point on surface of sphere S in R3 then (𝑟 ) are called

Cylindrical Polar coordinates.

Its parametric equations are 𝑥 𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 𝑧 𝑟 .

√
Where 𝑟 √𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑟 and
and

Fix Vary Locus

𝑟 Circle
𝑟 Semi-Circle
𝑟 Line
𝑟 Sphere
𝑟 Cone
𝑟 Plane

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Framework

A framework that is used for the observation and mathematical description of

physical phenomena and the formulation of physical laws, usually consisting of an
observer, a coordinate system, and a clock or clocks assigning times at positions
with respect to the coordinate system. A system of geometric axes in relation to
which measurements of size, position, or motion can be made.

Frame of Reference

The system in which the clock and the meter scale used for the measurement are at
rest. Such coordinate system is called a frame of reference. There are two types of
frame of references

 Inertial frames of reference (Newtonian Frames)

 Non – inertial frames of reference

Inertial Frames of Reference

Inertial frame of reference is that in which the law of inertia (Newton‟s first law of
motion) holds, that is a frame in which a body that is acted upon by zero net
external force moves with a constant velocity.

The law of inertia holds in any frame of reference, which happens to move with a
constant velocity relative to a given inertial frame. Therefore, any frame of
reference, which moves with a constant velocity relative to an inertial frame, is
also an inertial frame. These frames are non – accelerated. i.e. ⃗

Examples

 A frame of reference fixed with respect to the stars is an inertial frame.

 A spaceship drifting in outer space without spinning and with its engines shut
off would be an ideal inertial frame.
 However for all practical purposes, any frame of reference fixed to the earth
such as a railway station or a laboratory can be taken as an inertial frame. Thus
a railway station is an inertial frame and a train travelling at constant velocity
with respect to the railway station is also an inertial frame.

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Non – Inertial Frames of Reference

Non – Inertial frame of reference is that in which the law of inertia (Newton‟s first
law of motion) does not holds, that is a frame in which a body that is acted upon by
zero net external force does not moves with a constant velocity. i.e. velocity
remains change. E.g. person sitting in a moving train.

Newtonian or The Principle of Relativity (Galilean Invariance)

The Principle of Relativity (PR) applies to inertial frames of reference. This

principle states that the laws of Physics take the same mathematical form in all
inertial frames.

Or the basic laws of Physics are identical in all frames of reference which are
moving with uniform velocity (unaccelerated) relative to one another.

Or It is impossible by using any physical law to distinguish between inertial

frames.

GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION (G.T) / NEWTONIAN

TRANSFORMATION

This is the set of equations in classical physics that relate the space and time
coordinates of two systems moving at a constant velocity relative to each other.
The transformation equations which relate the time and space coordinates in
frames S and and are called Galilean Transformations (G.T.) as follows;

𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑧,

Nature of time and Space: According to G.T.

 the concept of time is absolute (invariant) ( )

 the concept of space that is the concept of distance or length is also
absolute (invariant) ( ).

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Absolute (Invariant) Space

Space that is not affected by what occupies it or occurs within it and that provides
a standard for distinguishing inertial system from other frames of references. For
example, Bob on Earth, sitting at his telescope, catches sight of Alice in her rocket
ship streaking at 9/10 the speed of light right towards the sun.

Application of G.T. to Mechanics

On the basis of G.T., it is possible to obtain relations between physical quantities

measured by two inertial observers in relative motion. Some of these are merely
listed below:

(a) If ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ are the velocities of a particle as observed from frames S and
respectively, then ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Where ⃗ is the velocity of relative S. This is the familiar ‘common
sense’ formula of relative velocity.
(b) Acceleration of a particle as measured in S and is the same. That is say
⃗ ⃗
(c) The mass of a particle has the same value in different inertial frames. If
and are the masses of a particle as determined in frames and S
respectively, then .

Hence equation of motion such as ⃗ ⃗ in frame S is transformed into

⃗ ⃗ in frame . Not only this equation but in fact Newtonian
Mechanics has the same form in different inertial frames according to pre-
Einstein relativity.

Covariant

Laws which remain same in all inertial frame of references are called covariant
laws. e.g. Newton law ⃗ ⃗ is covariant in all inertial frame of references.

Invariant (Absolute)

Quantities which remain same in all inertial frame of references are called
invariant quantities. e.g. mass, length, time etc.

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Newton’s 1st law of motion (Galileo’s Law)

An object continues its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line provided
no net force or external force act on it. It is also called Law of inertia. This law
measures the force of an object qualitatively.

The symbolic form of first law of motion is ∑ ⃗ . i.e. ⃗

As the mass of the object is non-zero, therefore the acceleration of the concerned
⃗⃗
object must be zero. i.e. ⃗ . implies . Then ⃗ Constant.

Examples: A ball kicked in a ground, A car moving with constant velocity, A

book lying in a book shelf.

Inertia: It is a property of a body due to which it resists any change in its state
of rest or of its motion. It depends on mass of body. i.e. 𝑟

Newton’s 2nd law of Motion

(Time rate of change of momentum equal to net force)

Newton‟s 2nd law of motion describes the relationship among the force, mass and
acceleration of the given object. We can states the 2nd law of motion as;
Change of motion is proportional to the external applied force and takes place
in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts. Or For any particle
of mass m, the net force F on the particle of mass m times the particle's
acceleration. i.e. ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗.

The second law can be rephrased in terms of the particle's momentum, defined as
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ then ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗) ⃗
That is the rate of change of linear momentum in the direction of applied force
is equal to that force.

Examples

When we apply same force to move a truck and a bicycle, the bicycle will have
more acceleration than the truck, because the mass of bicycle is less than the truck.
An empty shopping cart is much easier to move than a full one, because the empty
one has less mass.

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Newton's 3rd Law of motion

Newton's first two laws concern the response of a single object to applied forces.
The third law addresses a quite different issue: Every force on an object inevitably
involves a second object the object that exerts the force. The nail is hit by the
hammer; the cart is pulled by the horse, and so on. Newton realized that if an
object 1 exerts a force on another object 2, then object 2 always exerts a force (the
"reaction" force) back on object 1.

Newton's third law can be stated very compactly:

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Examples

A fish‟s thrust through the water, A bird‟s fly in the air, A rocket‟s launch, The car
moving on a road, The nail hit by hammer.

Gravitational Mass

Mass of the body define on the basis of gravitational properties is called

Gravitational Mass.

Rigid Body

A rigid body is defined as a collection of particles such that distance between every
pair of its constituent particles remains unchanged whatever the forces acting on it.

Constraint of Rigidity

The defining condition of a rigid body is called the constraint of rigidity. It can be
expressed as (𝑟 𝑟 ) (𝑟 𝑟 ) (𝑟 𝑟 ) where 𝑟 is the position vector
th
of the i particle and is a constant. This definition implies that a rigid body will
not undergo any deformation.

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Question

A constant force ⃗ acting on a particle of mass changes the velocity from ⃗ to

⃗ in time .
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
a) Prove that ⃗
b) Does above result hold if the force is variable? Explain.

Solution

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
By Newton‟s second law ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
∫⃗⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ( ) ⃗

Above result does not hold in general if the force is variable ( ⃗ is not constant),
since in such case we would not obtain the result of integration achieved above.

Question

What constant force is needed to bring a 900 kg mass moving at a speed of

100km/h to rest in 4seconds?

Solution

We shall assume that the motion takes place in a straight line which we choose as
the positive direction of the x – axis. Then we have;

⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
Using formula ⃗ we have

( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
⃗ ⃗ ̂ newtons

Thus the force has magnitude newtons in the negative x direction. i.e.
in the direction opposite to the motion. This is of course to be expected.

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Question

On the basis of G.T. show that the force acting on a particle is independent of the
inertial frame in which it is measured. i.e. ⃗ ⃗ . Or Show that Newton‟s 2nd
Law of motion is Covariant. Or Show that Newton‟s 2nd Law of motion is
invariant under G.T.

Solution

If ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ are the velocities of a particle as observed from frames S and

respectively, then according to Galilean Transformations

𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 ) in G.T.

( ) ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Multiplying on both sides we get ⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗ In inertial frame

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if no net force acts on it. i.e. ⃗

Types of Equilibrium

 Stable Equilibrium/Stability of Equilibrium: In Stable equilibrium the

particle will return to its original position when slightly displaced to either
side.
 unStable Equilibrium: In unStable equilibrium the particle will not return
to its original position when slightly displaced to either side.
 Neutral Equilibrium: In neutral equilibrium the particle will return to its
new position when slightly displaced to either side from its previous
position.

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Condition of Equilibrium State

There are two conditions for equilibrium state;

 Net force acting on a body is zero. i.e. ∑ ⃗ .

 Net torque acting on a body is zero. i.e. ∑ ⃗ .

Keep in Mind

 Theorem: If the force field is conservative with potential ⃗⃗ , then a

Necessary and sufficient condition for a particle to be in equilibrium at a
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
point is that ⃗⃗ . i.e.
 Theorem: A Necessary and sufficient condition that and an equilibrium
point be one of stability is that the potential at the point be a minimum.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
i.e.

Question

A particle is acted upon by the forces

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Find the force needed to keep the particle in equilibrium.

Solution

The resultant of forces is ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Then the force needed to keep the particle in equilibrium is ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

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Stable Equilibrium/Stability of Equilibrium

In Stable equilibrium the particle will return to its original position when slightly
displaced to either side.

Point of Stability

If a particle which is displaced slightly from an equilibrium point P tends to return

to P, then we called P a point of stability or stable point and the equilibrium is said
to be equilibrium. Otherwise we say that the point is one of instability and the
equilibrium is unstable.

Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition that an equilibrium point be one of

stability is that the potential ⃗⃗ at the point be a minimum.

Question

A particle moves along the x – axis in a force field having potential

⃗⃗ 𝑥 then

a) Determine the point of equilibrium

b) Investigate the stability

Solution

a) Equilibrium point occur where ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
( 𝑥 ) 𝑥 𝑥
Thus there is only one equilibrium point at 𝑥
⃗⃗
b) Since , it follows that at 𝑥 , ⃗⃗ is minimum then by using
theorem “A necessary and sufficient condition that an equilibrium point be one
of stability is that the potential ⃗⃗ at the point be a minimum.” 𝑥 is a point
of stability.

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Bounded and Unbounded Motion of a Particle

Dynamic system may be categorized as bounded or unbounded.

 If the sum of the kinetic and binding energies is less than zero, interacting
entities are considered bounded. In this, system lies confined in a particular
region of space. This generally happens when the energy of the particle is
less than or equal to the total potential barrier at infinite separation. In other
words, the particle has less energy than is required to escape the barrier. In
classical mechanics, a bounded system is one where the motion of all the
objects in the system is restricted to some finite region of space.
For example consider an object moving in a Newtonian gravitational
potential (𝑟) . The motion of this object is bounded if it has
negative total energy. In this case, the object will move in a close orbit in the
shape of a ellipse. We can draw an imaginary box of finite size that
completely encloses the orbital ellipse of the object.
 If the sum of the kinetic and binding energies is greater than zero, interacting
entities are considered unbounded. In this, system does not lies confined in
a particular region of space. This generally happens when the energy of the
particle is greater to the total potential barrier at infinite separation. In other
words, the particle has greater energy than is required to escape the barrier.
In classical mechanics, an unbounded system is one where the motion of
all the objects in the system is not restricted to some finite region of
space.
For example consider an object moving in a Newtonian gravitational
potential (𝑟) . The motion of this object is unbounded if it has
positive total energy. In this case, the object will move along a hyperbolic
escape trajectory. And there does not exist any finite sized trajectory. In this
case, the motion is unbounded.

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• Division of Mechanics

• Most Fundamental Concepts

• i) Particles ii) Rigid Bodies

• Fundamental Laws and Principles of Mechanics

• The Newtonian and non - Newtonian Mechanics
• Frames of References

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CHAPTER

2 KINETICS

Kinetics

The branch of Mechanics/Dynamics which deals with the geometry of motion of a

body with reference to the force causing motion is called kinetics.

Conservation Laws of Mechanics

Certain quantities such as linear and angular momentum, under certain

circumstances, remain constant during motion of mechanical system. They are
called constant of motion or conserved quantities. The results expressing
constancy of these quantities play fundamental role not only in mechanical but also
in other areas of theoretical physics.

In mechanics these results follow as consequences of the fundamental laws of

motion and therefore sometimes called conservation axioms. But in other
branches of physical sciences, such as Elementary Particle Physics, where
fundamental dynamics laws are not known, the results expressing conservation of
quantities such as linear momentum, angular momentum and energy are regarded
as fundamental postulates of the theory or fundamental laws of nature. Our belief
in their universal validity is bases on the observation that in the areas of physics,
such as mechanics, electromagnetic theory and thermodynamics, where
fundamental laws are well – founded and well – understood, these conservation
laws are found to be strictly valid.

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Momentum (Linear Momentum)

If a body of mass m is moving with velocity, then the momentum of that body is
equals to the product of mass and velocity of the specific body. Mathematically,
we can write is as ⃗⃗ ⃗. It is a vector quantity. It S.I unit is m −1.

Momentum of system of particles

The total momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the momenta of
the individual particles:

⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∑ ⃗ ∑ ⃗

Where the system consists of n particles and is the mass of ith particle and ⃗ is
corresponding velocity.

Angular Momentum/ Moment of Momentum about Origin

Angular momentum of a particle of mass , position vector 𝑟⃗ and linear
momentum ⃗⃗ is defined as 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗. The angular momentum of a single particle is the
cross product of linear momentum and position vector of concerned particle. It is
also called moment of momentum. It is represented by or

Angular Momentum of System of Particles

The angular momentum L of a system of particles is defined accordingly, as the

vector sum of the individual angular momentum, namely, ∑ 𝑟 ⃗

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Law of Conservation of Momentum (Linear Momentum)

Law of conservation of momentum can be stated as:

If the sum of the external forces on a system is zero, the total momentum of the
system does not change. i.e. ⃗⃗ Constant.

Momentum is always conserved (even if forces are non-conservative).

Proof

⃗⃗
We know that ⃗

⃗⃗
If ⃗ then and hence ⃗⃗ Constant.

Explanation

In simple terms, momentum is considered to be a quantity of motion. This quantity

is measurable because if an object is moving and has mass, then it has momentum.
Something that has a large mass has a large momentum or something that is
moving very fast has a large momentum. The momentum of individual component
may change but the total momentum of system remains conserved.

Example

 A 3000 kg vehicle moving at 30 m/sec has a momentum of 90,000 kgm/sec

as a result of product of the mass and the velocity.
 Two hockey players of equal mass are traveling towards each other, one is
moving at 9 m/sec and the other at 5 m/sec. The one moving with the faster
velocity has a greater momentum and will knock the other one backwards.
 A bullet fired from a gun, although small in mass, has a large momentum
because of an extremely large velocity.

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Torque

Torque is defined as the turning effect of a body. It is trend of an acting force due
to which the rotational motion of a body changes. It is a moment force acting on
the particle about origin. It is also called twist and rotational force on an object.
Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the force vector to the
distance vector, which causes rotational motion of the body. i.e. 𝑟⃗ ⃗
The magnitude of torque depends upon the applied force, the length of the lever
arm connecting the axis to the point where the force applied, and the angle between
the force vector and the length of lever arm. Symbolically we can write it as:
𝑟

Torque is a vector quantity implies that it has direction as well as magnitude. The
SI unit for torque is the newton meter (Nm). The direction of torque can be
approximate using Right Hand Rule.

Principal of angular momentum

Relationship between Torque and Angular Momentum

Or The moment of force or torque about the origin O of a coordinate system is

equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum.

Proof: We know that

𝑟⃗ ⃗ ………(1)

𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ………(2)

( ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)

⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

(⃗ ⃗)

⃗ ⃗

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Principal of angular momentum (Another Way)

⃗⃗
If is the torque about the axis and ⃗⃗ is angular momentum then
or If is then angular momentum then show that the rate of change of angular
momentum equal to the moment of torque or force. i.e. .
Proof
̇
𝑟 𝑟 ̇ 𝑟 ̇ 𝑟 𝑟̈ 𝑟 ( 𝑟 𝑟̇ ) (𝑟 )

Work Energy relation in case of Plane Rotational Motion

The total work done in rotating a rigid body from an angle where the angular
speed is to angle where the angular speed is is the difference in KE of
rotation at and .

Or Prove that ∫

Proof

From work done we have ∫

∫ ∫ ( )( )

∫ ∫ ( )( )

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

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Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

Total angular momentum of the system remains constant if external torque act on
the system is zero. i.e. Constant

Or The time rate change of angular momentum in the absence of some external
forces is zero. Mathematically, we can write . i.e. Constant

1st Proof

We know that

If then and hence Constant

2nd Proof

Let us calculate the time derivative of the angular momentum. Using the rule for
differentiating the cross product, we find

(∑ 𝑟 ⃗) ∑ ( ⃗) ∑ (𝑟 ⃗)

Now the first term on the right vanishes, because, ⃗ and, because ⃗ is
equal to the total force acting on particle , we can write

∑ (𝑟 ⃗)

( ) ( )
∑ (𝑟 (∑ ∑ ∑ )) (2)

( ) ( )
∑ (𝑟 ) ∑ ∑ (3)

Where denotes the total external force on particle , and denotes the
(internal) force exerted on particle by any other particle . Now the double
summation on the right consists of pairs of terms of the form (𝑟 ) (𝑟 )
Denoting the vector displacement of particle relative to particle by 𝑟 , we have
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 . Therefore, because , expression (3) reduces to 𝑟
Which clearly vanishes if the internal forces are central, that is, if they act along
the lines connecting pairs of particles.

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Hence, the double sum in Equation (3) vanishes. Now the cross product (𝑟 ) is
the moment of the external force F. The sum ∑(𝑟 ) is, therefore, the total
moment of all the external forces acting on the system. If we denote the total
external torque, or moment of force, by N, Equation (3) takes the form .

That is, the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a system is equal to
the total moment of all the external forces acting on the system.

If a system is isolated, then , and the angular momentum remains constant in

both magnitude and direction:

∑ 𝑟 ⃗ Constant vector (8)

This is a statement of the principle of conservation of angular momentum. It is a

generalization for a single particle in a central field.

Applications (Examples) of angular momentum

 Planets move around the sun and satellites move around the earth are
examples of angular momentum.
 If a car move with constant velocity then momentum of the car remains
constant.

Examples

A particle moves in a force field given by ⃗ 𝑟 𝑟⃗ where 𝑟⃗ is the position vector

of the particle. Prove that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved.

Solution

The torque acting on the particle is 𝑟⃗ ⃗

𝑟⃗ 𝑟 𝑟⃗ 𝑟 (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗)

Then by theorem “Total angular momentum of the system remains constant if

external torque act on the system is zero. i.e. Constant”

The angular momentum is constant. i.e. The angular momentum is conserved.

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Work

When some external force is applied on an object, work is done by this force in the
direction of force. Also when some work is done by the applied force, energy
transferred from one place to another.

The work done can be defined as a product of force and the displacement in the
direction of applied force. The amount of work done can be expressed as the
following equation:

Work = Applied Force Distance

The SI unit of work is the joule (J), which is defined as the work done by a force of
one newton through a displacement of one meter.

If a force ⃗ acting on a particle gives it a displacement 𝑟⃗, then the work done by
the force on the particle is defined as ⃗ 𝑟⃗.

Since only the component of ⃗ in the direction of 𝑟⃗ is effective in producing the

motion.

The total work done by a force field (vector field) ⃗ in moving the particle from
point 1 to point 2 along the curve C of Fig. is given by the line integral
∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗, Where 𝑟 and 𝑟 are the position vectors of and
respectively.

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Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do the work by the object. It is a measurable
characteristic of a system which may be in the form of kinetic energy or potential.
There exist many forms of energy. The energy neither can be created nor be
destroyed but can be converted from one form to another. In mechanics, energy is
the characteristic that transferred from one particle to another. The SI unit of
energy is the joule; 1 joule can be defined as the energy transferred to an object
by the work done of moving it a distance of 1 meter against a force of 1
newton. The forms of energy include kinetic energy, potential energy, elastic
energy, chemical energy, thermal energy and many others.
Potential Energy/ Potential/Scalar Potential
Energy possess by a body due to its position is called potential energy. It is a work
done by a particle from its existing position to the standard position. It is denoted
by V. Mathematically it is written as ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

Kinetic Energy (T)

Kinetic energy is the energy stored in a body due to its motion. It can be
transferred from one objects to another and transformed into other kinds of energy.
In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy is equal to 1/2 the product of the mass
and the square of the speed. In formula form:
The measuring unit of kinetic energy is the joule. It is denoted by .
The kinetic energy increases with the square of the velocity. If a car is moving with
double velocity then we can say that it has four times as much kinetic energy. As a
consequence of this quadrupling, it takes four times the work to double the
velocity.
If P denotes momentum of the object and m is the mass then we can symbolize the
kinetic energy in the form of momentum as

Angular K.E
K.E possessed by a body due to its rotation about an axis of rotation is called
rotational K.E or angular K.E.

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Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy possessed or acquired by an object due

to a change in its position when it is present in a gravitational field. It is energy that
is related to gravitational force or gravity.

Using Newton‟s Law of universal gravitation between two particles and

⃗ 𝑟⃗

Where vector 𝑟⃗ is directed from to .

If we replace by M and by m, thenpro

⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

Which shows that gravitational potential energy between particles of masses M and
m is given by

(𝑟)

Electrostatic Potential Energy

Electrostatic Potential Energy is the electric potential energy per unit charge. It
results from conservative coulomb forces and is associated with the configuration
of a particular set of point charges within a defined system.

Using Coulomb‟s Law of the force between two charged particles and

⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ) ( )

( )

Which shows that electrostatic potential function is given by

(𝑟)

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Conservative Force Field

A force field is said to conservative if the total work done by the particle moving
along a curve is independent of the path taken by the particle and depend upon the
end points of the curve only.

Necessary and sufficient conditions for a Conservative Force Field

Conservative force fields conserve the following properties:

i. A force field F is conservative if and only if there exists a continuously

differentiable scalar field V such that ⃗ or, equivalently, if and only
if 𝑟 ⃗ ⃗ .
ii. A continuously differentiable force field F is conservative if and only if for
any closed non-intersecting curve C (simple closed curve)
⃗ 𝑟⃗
i.e. the total work done in moving a particle around any closed path is zero.

Examples of Conservative Forces

 Gravitational force is an example of a conservative force.

 Elastic spring force is example of conservative force.
 The work done of a particle moving along a closed path is zero and the
force which causes such motion is conservative.

Physical Significance of Conservative Force

For any conservative force ⃗ we have ⃗ 𝑟⃗ for any closed path (in a simply
connected region). This means that the force is not dissipative and any mechanical
process taking place under its influence is reversible.

The property of reversibility can be described as follows;

If, at a certain moment, the velocities of all moving particles are reversed, then,
following the same physical laws, a reversible mechanical process will retrace its
former sequence of position and accelerations, in reverse order, as though time
were running back.

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Theorem

Show that a necessary and sufficient condition that 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be an

exact differential is that 𝑟 ⃗ ⃗ where ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Proof:

Suppose 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be an exact differential. Then x,y,z are independent

variables. We know that

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

Thus 𝑟 ⃗ ⃗

Conversely suppose that ⃗ . Then ⃗ and so ⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

That is 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be an exact differential.

Question

Show that (𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝑧) 𝑥 𝑧 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝑧 be an
exact differential of a function and find .

Solution

Given that ⃗ (𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝑧) ̂ 𝑧 𝑦 𝑥̂ ( 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 )̂

Clearly ⃗ . Then according to result “ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be an exact

differential iff ⃗ ”
(𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝑧) 𝑥 𝑧 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝑧 be an exact
differential.

To find integrate these terms as needed and arrange to get required answer

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Theorem: If ⃗ , where is single valued and has continuous partial

erivatives, show that the work done in moving the particle from one point
(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) in this field to another point (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) is independent of
the path joining the two points.

Proof: ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ∫ | | ( ) ( )
Integral depends only on points not on path joining the points.

Theorem: If ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is independent of the path C joining any two points, show

that there exists a function V such that ⃗ .

Proof: Let ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ …………….(1)

If ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is independent of the path C joining any two points which we take as

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) and (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) respectively then
( ) ( )
(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) ∫( ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫( ( 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧)
) )

Since ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is independent of the path C joining any two points, thus

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) ∫ [ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑥 (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑦 (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑧]
Let us choose a particular path the straight line segment from (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) to
(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) to (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) to (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) and call (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) the work done along this path

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥 ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑦 ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑧

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧)

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑧 (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧)

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑦 ∫ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) 𝑧 (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧)

( ) ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗

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Theorem:

Prove that If ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is independent of the path C joining any two points in a

given region then ⃗ 𝑟⃗ for all closed paths in the region and conversely.

Proof

Let be a closed curve then

⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ 𝑟⃗

Conversely

if ⃗ 𝑟⃗

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

That is ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is independent of the path C joining any two points in a given

region.

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Theorem

If ⃗ is a conservative field force then there exist a scalar point function V such that
⃗ .

Proof

Consider a particle which is at existing position and move towards the standard
position . At existing position potential energy is ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

At existing position potential energy is

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

∫ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ⃗ 𝑟⃗

Standard
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂) ⃗ 𝑟⃗ Position

𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

Theorem

If the force acting on the particle is given by ⃗ ⃗⃗ then the total work done in
moving the particle along the curve C from to is
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ) ( )

Proof

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ | |

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) ( )

Or

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Work – Energy Theorem

A particle of constant mass m moves in space under the influence of a force field
F. Assuming that at times 1 and 2 the velocity is ⃗ and ⃗ respectively, prove
that the work done is the change in kinetic energy, i.e.,

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Proof: Consider the work done by taking an external force ⃗ , the force ⃗
moves the particle from position 1 to position 2 in the horizontal direction then
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗

⃗⃗
∫ ⃗ ⃗ | | ⃗ ⃗

Hence ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Question

Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle C in the xy – plane, if
the circle has center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force field is given by
⃗ ( 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) ̂ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ̂ ( 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) ̂

Solution

In xy – plane we have ⃗ ( 𝑥 𝑦) ̂ (𝑥 𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑥 𝑦) ̂

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ [( 𝑥 𝑦) ̂ (𝑥 𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑥 𝑦) ̂ ] [ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂]

∫ ( 𝑥 𝑦) 𝑥 (𝑥 𝑦) 𝑦

using 𝑥 𝑦

If C were traversed in Counterclockwise (Clockwise) direction

The value of integral would be ( )

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Conservation of Energy for a System of Particles in case of Conservative force

Principle of Conservation of Energy / Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy describes that the net energy of an isolated
system remains conserved. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it
transforms from one form to another.”

In case of conservative force field, the total energy is a constant. i.e. If is for
kinetic energy and V is for potential energy, then the total energy E is
constant

Proof

Consider a particle move from position 1 to position 2. There will be two cases;

Case – I: Consider the work done by taking a conservative force ⃗ derived from a
potential energy V, then

∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗ ∫ | |

……………(1)

Case – II: Consider the work done by taking an external force ⃗ , the force ⃗
moves the particle from position 1 to position 2 in the horizontal direction then
⃗ ⃗
∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫

∫ | |

……………(2)

From (1) and (2) we get

constant

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Question: A particle of mass m moving along the x – axis under the influence of
a conservative force field having potential V(x). If the particle is located at the
position 𝑥 and 𝑥 at respective times and , prove that if E is the total energy

then √ ∫ ( )
√

Solution: By the conservation of energy

( ) (𝑥) ( ) ( (𝑥)) √ √ (𝑥)

∫ √ ∫ ( )
√ ∫ ( )
√ √

Conservative Systems and Orbits of Particles

A single particle moving in a conservative field of forces may perform an

important type of motion. Suppose the total energy E of the system is a constant of
motion i.e. 𝑟̇ (𝑟)
Where E is some constant denoting total energy of the system.
Suppose the particle‟s motion in such that it returns to the same position,
represented by the position vector 𝑟0, at a later time. Then it must have the same
K.E. and therefore the same speed. It follows that in a conservative system it is
possible for closed trajectories to occur. This fact is very relevant in the study of
Earth‟s motion about the Sun.

Question: Is the force ⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ conservative?

Solution: Let ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and 𝑟⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂ then

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ | | ( 𝑧 𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑥 𝑧) ̂ ( 𝑦 𝑥) ̂
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗ | |
𝑧 𝑦 𝑥 𝑧 𝑦 𝑥

Thus the force ⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is conservative.

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Question

Find the potential energy function associated with the force

⃗ 𝑦𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑦 ̂

Solution

In this case ⃗

𝑦𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑦 ̂ 𝑦𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑦 ̂

̂ ̂ ̂ 𝑦𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂ 𝑥𝑦 ̂

𝑦𝑧 ( ) 𝑥𝑧 ( ) 𝑥𝑦 ( )

( ) ∫ 𝑦𝑧 ∫ 𝑥 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (𝑦 𝑧) …………..(4)

𝑥𝑧 (𝑦 𝑧) …………..(5) partially differentiating w.r.to y

𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑧 (𝑦 𝑧) from (2) and (5)

(𝑦 𝑧) (𝑦 𝑧) (𝑧) (𝑦 𝑧) (𝑧) …………..(6)

( ) 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (𝑧) …………..(7) using (6) in (4)

𝑥𝑦 (𝑧) partially differentiating w.r.to z

𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 (𝑧) (𝑧) (𝑧) using (3)

Hence our required potential function is

𝑥𝑦𝑧

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Question

Find the potential energy function associated with the force

⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂

Solution

In this case ⃗

𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂ ( 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂)

̂ ̂ ̂ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂

𝑥 ( ) 𝑦 ( ) 𝑧 ( )

( ) ∫ ∫𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑦 𝑧) …………..(4)

(𝑦 𝑧) …………..(5) partially differentiating w.r.to y

𝑦 (𝑦 𝑧) from (2) and (5)

𝑦 (𝑧) …………..(6)

( ) 𝑥 𝑦 (𝑧) …………..(7) using (6) in (4)

partially differentiating w.r.to z

𝑧 𝑧

Hence our required potential function is

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

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Question: Discuss whether the following force is conservative, if so, find the
potential energy function associated with the force

⃗ ( 𝑥 𝑦 )̂ ( 𝑧 𝑥𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑦 𝑧 )̂

Solution: For conservative force we will prove ⃗⃗ ⃗

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗ | |
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑧

Thus the force ⃗ is conservative.

In this case ⃗

( 𝑥 𝑦 )̂ ( 𝑧 𝑥𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑦 𝑧 )̂

( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( 𝑥 𝑦 )̂ ( 𝑧 𝑥𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑦 𝑧 )̂

𝑥 𝑦 ( ) 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 ( ) 𝑦 𝑧 ( )

( ) 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 (𝑦 𝑧) …………..(4)

𝑥𝑦 (𝑦 𝑧) …………..(5) partially differentiating w.r.to y

𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 (𝑦 𝑧) from (2) and (5)

(𝑦 𝑧) 𝑧 (𝑦 𝑧) 𝑦𝑧 (𝑧) …………..(6)

( ) 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 (𝑧) ………..(7) using (6) in (4)

𝑦 (𝑧) partially differentiating w.r.to z

𝑦 𝑧 𝑦 (𝑧) (𝑧) 𝑧 (𝑧) 𝑧 using (3)

Hence our required potential function is 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧

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Question: Find the work done by the force field

⃗ (𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑧 ) ̂ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 ̂ ( 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑧) ̂

in moving a particle from the point ( ) to ( ).

Solution: To find work done we will use the formula ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

( )
∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗ ∫( )
| |(( )
)

| 𝑥 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 |(( )
)

Question:

Show that ⃗ ( 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 ) ̂ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂ is a conservative force field. Find the

potential. Also find the work done in moving an object in this field from ( )
to ( ).

Solution: For conservative force we will prove ⃗⃗ ⃗

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗ | | . Thus the force ⃗ is conservative.
𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥𝑧

To find potential we have ⃗

( 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 )̂ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂

( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 )̂ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑥𝑧 ̂

𝑥𝑦 𝑧 ( ) 𝑥 ( ) 𝑥𝑧 ( )

Our required potential function is (𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑧 )

To find work done we will use the formula ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗
( )
∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗ ∫( )
| |(( )
)
( )
| (𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑧 )|( )

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Question

A particle of mass m moves under a force ⃗ 𝑥 where c is a positive

constant. Then

i. Find potential energy function.

ii. If the particle starts from rest at 𝑥 what is its velocity when it reaches
at 𝑥 .
iii. Where in the subsequent motion does it come to the rest?

Solution

i. Given that ⃗ 𝑥

⃗ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

ii. ∫ ⃗ 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑥 since

√
iii. When body moves from 𝑥 to 𝑥 it comes to rest then
∫ ⃗ 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑥
( )
When then it comes to the rest.

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Motion of a Particle under a Constant Force

Let ⃗ be a constant force applied on a particle of mass „m‟. Then

⃗ ⃗ Constant ⃗ Constant
⃗⃗
Since ⃗ Therefore ⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ on integrating

Initially using ⃗ ⃗ we get ⃗ ⃗ . Thus ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗
⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗

𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ on integrating

Initially using 𝑟⃗ we get ⃗⃗ . Thus ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Motion of a Particle under a Time Dependent Force

Let ⃗ ⃗ ( ) be a time dependent force applied on a particle of mass „m‟. Then

⃗( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗( ) ⃗( )
⃗ ⃗ ⃗( ) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ ⃗( ) | ⃗| ∫ ⃗( ) ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗( )

⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗( )

⃗
⃗ ∫ ⃗( ) 𝑟⃗ ⃗ *∫ ⃗ ( ) +

∫ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ∫ ∫ *∫ ⃗ ( ) +

|𝑟⃗| ⃗ | | ∫ *∫ ⃗ ( ) +

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ( ) ∫ *∫ ⃗ ( ) +

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ) ∫ *∫ ⃗⃗( ) +

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Motion of a Particle under a Velocity Dependent Force

Let ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗) be a time dependent force applied on a particle of mass „m‟. Then

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗) …………(1)

∫ ∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗ | | ∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ⃗ ( ⃗) ⃗ 𝑥 ⃗
⃗ ( ⃗⃗)

⃗⃗
∫ 𝑥 ∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

⃗⃗
∫ 𝑥 ∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

⃗⃗
𝑥 𝑥 ∫ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
⃗

⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗(⃗⃗)
⃗⃗

Question

A particle of mass m is projected vertically up with an initial velocity . If the

force due to the friction of air is directly proportional to its instantaneous velocity,
calculate velocity and position of the particle as a function of time.

Solution

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Body move upward, so frictional force and

( ) where are constants.

( )

∫ ∫ | ( )| | |

[ ( ) ( )] * ( )+

* ( )+

Now * ( )+

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Now ( )

∫ 𝑥 ∫ ( ) ∫

|𝑥| | | | |

𝑥 𝑥 . / . /

𝑥 𝑥 . / . /

( )( )

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Question

A particle of mass m is falling under action of gravity near the surface of Earth. If
the force due to the friction of air is directly proportional to its instantaneous
velocity, calculate velocity and position of the particle as a function of time.

Solution

Body move downward, so frictional force and

( ) where are constants.

∫ ∫ | ( )| | |

[ ( ) ( )] * ( )+

* ( )+

Now * ( )+

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Now ( )

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∫ 𝑥 ∫ ( ) ∫

|𝑥| | | | |

𝑥 𝑥 . / . /

𝑥 𝑥 . / . /

𝑥 𝑥 . / . /

( )( )

Question

A mass tied to a spring having force constant oscillate in one dimension. If the
motion is subjected to the force 𝑥, find expression for displacement,
velocity and period of oscillation.

Solution

Given 𝑥

In this case Law of Conservation of Energy holds as Total energy

……………..(1)

Since but ∫ 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 ∫ ( 𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 therefore

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( ) 𝑥

𝑥 ( 𝑥 ) ( 𝑥 )

( .√ 𝑥/ )

Put √ 𝑥 𝑥 √

( ) ( ) √

√
√
√ √ √

with √

∫ ∫

Then √ 𝑥 becomes 𝑥 √

𝑥 √ ( )

√ ( ) √ ( )

We know that

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Question

A particle of mass is at rest at the origin of the coordinate system. At a

force ( ) is applied to the particle. Find the velocity and position
of the particle as a function of time.

Solution

Given ( )

In this case Newton‟s 2nd Law holds. i.e.

⃗⃗
⃗ ( ) ( ) ⃗ ( )

∫ ⃗ ∫( ) ⃗ * +

Initially then ⃗ we have

⃗ * + ⃗ * ( )+

⃗⃗ ( )

( )

∫ 𝑥 ∫* ( )+

Initially then 𝑥 we have

( ) ( )

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Question

A particle having total energy E is moving in a potential field V(r). Show that the
time taken by the particle to move from 𝑟 to 𝑟 is ∫ ( )
√

Solution: T and V are position dependent energies and

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) √

∫ ∫ ( )
∫ ( )
√ √

Question

A block of mass is at rest on a frictionless surface at the origin. At time a

force ⃗ where is a small positive constant is applied. Calculate 𝑥( )
and ( ).

Solution: Given ⃗

In this case Newton‟s 2nd Law holds. i.e. ⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ( )

Initially then ⃗ we have

⃗ ( ) ⃗⃗( ) ( )

( ) ∫ 𝑥 ∫( ) 𝑥

Initially then 𝑥 we have

( ) ( )

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Question

A particle of mass m having initial velocity ⃗ in horizontal direction is subjected

to retarding force proportional to its instantaneous velocity. Calculate its velocity
and position as a function of time.

Solution

In horizontal direction a retarding force is ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ | ⃗| | | ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗

⃗ ∫ 𝑥 ⃗ ∫

|𝑥| ⃗ | | 𝑥 𝑥 ⃗ . /

⃗⃗
( )

Question

A ball of mass m thrown with velocity on a horizontal surface, where the retarding
force is proportional to the square root of instantaneous velocity. Calculate its
velocity and position as a function of time.

Solution
⃗⃗
Since ⃗ √⃗ ⃗ √⃗ ⃗ √⃗ √⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ |√ ⃗| | | √⃗ √⃗
√ ⃗⃗

√⃗ √⃗ ⃗⃗ (√⃗⃗ )

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(√ ⃗ ) ∫ 𝑥 ∫ (√ ⃗ )

√ ⃗⃗
∫ 𝑥 ∫ ⃗ ( ) ∫ ∫

√ ⃗⃗ √ ⃗⃗
|𝑥| ⃗ | | ( ) | | | | 𝑥 𝑥 ⃗ ( )

√⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ( )

Question

A particle of mass m is at rest at when it is subjected to a force ⃗ .

Calculate values of ⃗( ) and 𝑥( ).

Solution
⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ | ⃗| | | ⃗⃗ ( )

( ) ∫ 𝑥 ∫( )

|𝑥| | | ( )

Question

A particle of mass m is at rest at the origin of the coordinate system at ,a

force ⃗ starts acting on the particle. Find velocity and position of the particle
as a function of time.

Solution

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ∫ | ⃗| | |

⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑥 ∫

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Question

Find the displacement and velocity of a particle moving horizontally in a resistive

medium in which the retarding force is proportional to the velocity.

Solution

In horizontal direction a retarding force is ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗

∫ ⃗ ∫ | ⃗| | | ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗

⃗ ∫ 𝑥 ⃗ ∫

⃗⃗
|𝑥| ⃗ | | 𝑥 ⃗ ( ) ( )

Question

A particle falling in a resistive medium in under a retarding force proportional to

the velocity. Find its velocity and displacement.

Solution

In particle falling downward a retarding force is ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
∫ ∫ ( ⃗) ⃗
⃗⃗

Suppose that initially the particle has velocity ⃗ and

Position 𝑦 .i.e. ⃗ ⃗ when 𝑦 𝑦 at

We have ⃗

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⃗⃗
⃗ ( ⃗ ) ⃗ ( )

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) 𝑦 ( )

⃗⃗
Using initial conditions. i.e. 𝑦 𝑦 when We have 𝑦

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑦 ( ) 𝑦

⃗⃗
( )

Equation shows that in the limit (i.e. after the passage of long enough time)
. This velocity is called terminal velocity.

Question

Discuss equilibrium for the particle subject to the force ⃗ 𝑥 .

Solution

Since ⃗

(𝑥) ∫⃗ 𝑥 (𝑥) ∫( 𝑥 ) 𝑥 ∫𝑥 𝑥

(𝑥) 𝑥

Now since ⃗ at 𝑥 , the particle is in a state of equilibrium at 𝑥 .

To see further if the equilibrium is stable or unstable, we calculate

If 𝑥 then 𝑥

We note that at 𝑥 , at 𝑥 , at 𝑥 , then these

results show that the equilibrium is stable for positive displacement and unstable
for negative displacement.

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Non-Conservative / Dissipative Forces

Forces that cannot be expressed in the term of a potential energy function are
called non-conservative forces. We can also state that forces that do not store
energy are called non-conservative or dissipative forces. If there is no scalar
function V such that [or, equivalently, if ], then F is called a
non-conservative force field. Friction is a non-conservative force, and there are
others. It is always opposed to the direction of motion and is not a single valued
function of position alone. Similarly the impulse (time dependent force) is also
non-conservative and cannot be derived from a scalar point function. An example
of non-conservative force, we have , where v is the velocity of the particle,
⃗
then ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ∫
Which shows the integral is not equals to zero. Hence the force is non-
conservative.

Work-Energy relation and Non-conservative Forces

We have already shown that for any general force F: ∫ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

When the force F can be broken into conservative and non-conservative parts

⃗ ⃗( ) ⃗( )

Then we have ∫ ⃗( )
𝑟⃗ ∫ ⃗( )
𝑟⃗

∫ ⃗( )
𝑟⃗ ⃗( )

∫ ⃗( )
𝑟⃗

The work done in overcoming friction is always negative, because ⃗ ( ) is

opposite to the displacement relation above proves that the influence of friction is
dissipative and therefore decrease the total mechanical energy of the system.
Alternatively above can be expressed as

( ) ( ) ∫ ⃗( )
𝑟⃗ ( ) ∫ ⃗⃗( )
⃗⃗
It is interesting to remember that the process in which work is converted into
internal energy (due to friction) are irreversible.

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Impulse

Impulse is a special type of force defined by applying the integral of a force ⃗ ,

over the time interval, t, for which it acts on the body. Impulse is a directional
(vector) quantity in the same direction of force as force is also a directional
quantity. When Impulse is applied to a rigid body, it results a corresponding vector
change in its linear momentum along the same direction. The SI unit of impulse is
the newton second (Ns), and the dimensionally equivalent unit of momentum is the
kilogram meter per second (kgms−1). The particle is located at P1 and P2 at times t1
and t2 where it has velocities v1 and v2 respectively. The time integral of the force F
given by ∫ ⃗ is called the impulse of the force ⃗ .

Impulse for Constant force

When a force acts on a body for a very short time, the product of force and time for
which the force acts is called Impulse. i.e. ..
Impulse for Conservative force
For a variable force impulse is equal to change in momentum. i.e. .
Angular Impulse

The time integral of the torque ∫ is called the angular impulse.

Theorem

Impulse is equal to the change in momentum ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Proof
We have to prove that the impulse of a force is equal to the change in momentum.
By definition of impulse and Newton's second law, we have
⃗⃗
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗ | ⃗| ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Where we use the conditions ⃗( ) ⃗ and ⃗( ) ⃗
The theorem is true even when the mass is variable and the force is non-
conservative.

Theorem Prove that ∫

Proof ∫ ∫ ∫

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Question
A mass of 5000kg moves on a straight line from a speed of 540km/h to 720km/h in
2 minutes. What is the impulse developed in this time?
Solution
Assume that the mass travel in the direction of positive x direction. In SI system
̂
⃗ ̂ ̂
̂
⃗ ̂ ̂

(⃗ ⃗ ) ( )( ̂ ) ̂
̂
Thus the impulse has magnitude in the positive x direction.
Power
The rate of doing work is called power. If an agent does work in time , then
the average power is defined as the ration to total work done to the total time. It is
described mathematically as: 〈 〉
If the power is variable, then the instantaneous power is given by the expression:

Watt
“If an agent does work of one joule of work per second, the power of that agent
will be 1 watt”
Horse Power (unit in British Engineering System)
In british system the unit of power is foot pound per second and is defined as “ the
power required to lift a total mass of 3300 pound per foot in one minute.
1hp = 3300 ft.Pounds/ minute
Question: Prove that ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Proof: As ⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ using ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗

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Atwood Machine
As an example of a two – particle system we discuss the motion of the Atwood
machine. It is a mechanical system consisting of two particles connected by a
string passing over a pulley. It is an idealized mechanical system used to gain
insight about the behaviour of a two – particles system.

Here is assumed that

a) The string is massless and inextensible.
b) The pulley has no inertia and rotates on frictionless bearings.
We first determine the acceleration of each particle by a simple application of
Newton‟s 2nd Law;
𝑧̈ ……………(i)
𝑧̈ ……………(ii)
Where is the tension in the string, supposed to be constant at all points of the
string and 𝑧 𝑧 are the instantaneous distances from the centre of the pulley to the
respective particles. Since the string is inextensible, we must have
𝑧 𝑧 ……………(iii) where is the length of the string.
( ) 𝑧̇ 𝑧̇ 𝑧̈ 𝑧̈ ……………(iv)
Eliminating 𝑧̈ and from (i) and (ii) with the help of (iv) we have
𝑧̈ ……………(v)

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For 𝑧̈ . i.e. the particle moves upwards.

For 𝑧̈ . i.e. the particle moves upwards.
For 𝑧̈ 𝑧̈ . i.e. no motion.
In each case the acceleration remains constant.
To calculate the tension in the string we have from (i)

𝑧̈ ( )

……………(vi)

From this expression it follows that in case of and

the system will be in the state of equilibrium.
On the other hand, if then 𝑧̈ and the acceleration is nearly the same
as in the state of free fall.
In spite of the fact that one particle is accelerated upwards and the other
downwards, the net system acceleration will be downwards, as long as the two
masses are unequal.
To see this we consider the acceleration of the c.m. Regarding the c.m. as a particle
of mass , with acceleration 𝑧̈ we write its equation of motion as
( )𝑧̈

( ) ( )𝑧̈

𝑧̈ ( )

This shows that the acceleration of the system is always ( ) downwards.

Possible Question
Discuss vertical motion of two bodies attached to the end of a string that pass
over a frictionless pulley.

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Virial Theorem
This theorem has to do with time averaged behavior of an isolated system of N
particles. According to this theorem
〈 〉 〈∑ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ 〉

Here the quantity 〈∑ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ 〉 is called the Virial of the system. Where angle
brackets represent the average over time of the enclosed quantity.
Proof
Let us consider a scalar function ∑ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ .………….(1)
where ⃗⃗ and 𝑟⃗ denote the linear momentum and position vector of the ith particle
of the system. Assume that system is bounded for all time. i.e. the system remains
confined with fixed boundaries.

( ) ∑ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ) ………….(2)

Define the time average of a function ( ) over an interval [ ] as follows

̅( ) 〈 ( )〉 ∫ ( ) then (2) in view of this definition becomes
( ) ( )
〈 〉 ∫ ( ) ………….(3)

If the system is periodic and issome multiple of the period (i.e. )

then 〈 〉 . If the system is not periodic, then by the assumption of
boundedness, (3) becomes 〈 〉

Therefore whether the system is periodic or not, we have

〈∑ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ )〉

〈∑ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ 〉 〈∑ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ 〉 ………….(4)

Now ∑ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ∑ ⃗ ⃗ ∑ ( ⃗ )

Where T is the total K.E. of the system, then

( ) 〈 〉 〈∑ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ 〉 ( ) 〈 〉 〈∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ 〉 where ⃗⃗̇ ⃗

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The word "virial" derives from vis or viris, the Latin word for "force" or "energy",
and was given its technical definition by Clausius in 1870.
The significance of the virial theorem is that it allows the average total kinetic
energy to be calculated even for very complicated systems that defy an exact
solution, such as those considered in statistical mechanics; this average total
kinetic energy is related to the temperature of the system by the equipartition
theorem.
However, the virial theorem does not depend on the notion of temperature and
holds even for systems that are not in thermal equilibrium. The virial theorem has
been generalized in various ways, most notably to a tensor form. Definitions of the
virial and its time derivative
Virial of the System
For a collection of N point particles, the scalar moment of inertia about the origin
is defined by the equation ∑ |𝑟⃗ | ∑ 𝑟 where and 𝑟
represent the mass and position of the k particle. 𝑟 |𝑟⃗ | is the position vector
th

magnitude.
The scalar virial G is defined by the equation ∑ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ where ⃗⃗ is the
momentum vector of the kth particle.
Assuming that the masses are constant, the virial G is one-half the time derivative
of this moment of inertia
⃗
∑ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ∑ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∑ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

Virial Radius
In astronomy, the term virial radius is used to refer to the radius of a sphere,
centered on a galaxy or a galaxy cluster, within which virial equilibrium holds.

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CHAPTER

3 KINEMATICS

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics deals with the moving objects without
reference to the forces which cause the motion. In other words we can say those
kinematics are the features or properties of motion of concerned with system of
particles (rigid bodies).
Here some features of rigid body motion are
 Displacement
 Position
 Velocity
 Linear Velocity & Angular Velocity
 Linear Acceleration & Angular Acceleration
 Motion of a Rigid Body (Translation & Rotation)
From everyday experience, we all have some idea as to the meaning of each of the
following terms or concepts. However, we would certainly find it difficult to
formulate completely satisfactory definitions. We take them as undefined concepts.
 Space. This is closely related to the concepts of point, position,' direction and
displacement. Measurement in space involves the concepts of length or distance,
with which we assume familiarity. Units of length are feet, meters, miles, etc.
 Time. This concept is derived from our experience of having one event taking
place after, before or simultaneous with another event. Measurement of time is
achieved, for example, by use of clocks. Units of time are seconds, hours, years,
etc.
 Matter. Physical objects are composed of "small bits of matter" such as atoms and
molecules. From this we arrive at the concept of a material object called a particle
which can be considered as occupying a point in space and perhaps moving as time
goes by. A measure of the "quantity of matter" associated with a particle is called

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its mass. Units of mass are grams, kilograms, etc. Unless otherwise stated we shall
assume that the mass of a particle does not change with time.
Rectilinear Motion
When a moving particle remains on a single straight line, the motion is said to be
rectilinear. In this case, without loss of generality we can choose the x-axis as the
line of motion. The general equation of motion is then
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (𝑥 𝑥̇ 𝑥̈ ) 𝑥̈
Rectilinear Motion of Particles

Rectilinear motion of a body is defined by considering the two point of a body

covered the same distance in the parallel direction. The figures below illustrate
rectilinear motion for a particle and body.
Rectilinear motion for a body

In the above figures, 𝑥( ) represents the position of the particles along the
direction of motion, as a function of time t. An example of linear motion is an
athlete running g along a straight track.
The rectilinear motion can be of two types:
i. Uniform rectilinear motion
ii. Non uniform rectilinear motion

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Uniform Rectilinear Motion

Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of motion in which the body moves with
uniform velocity or zero acceleration.
In contrast, Non uniform rectilinear motion is such type of motion with
variable velocity or non-zero acceleration.
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is a special case of non-uniform
rectilinear motion along a line is that which arises when an object is subjected to
constant acceleration. This kind of motion is called uniformly accelerated motion.
Uniformly accelerated motion is a type of motion in which the velocity of an
object changes by an equal amount in every equal intervals of time. An example of
uniformly accelerated body is freely falling object in which the amount of
gravitational acceleration remains same. ⃗ ⃗
Curvilinear Motion of Particle
The motion of a particle moving in a curved path is called curvilinear motion.
Example: A stone thrown into the air at an angle.
Importance/Purpose: Curvilinear motion describes the motion of a moving
particle that conforms to a known or fixed curve. The study of such motion
involves the use of two co-ordinate systems, the first being planar motion and the
latter being cylindrical motion.
Velocity of Curvilinear motion
If the tangential and normal unit vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ respectively, then the
⃗
velocity will be ⃗ ⃗.

You have already learnt that ⃗ | ⃗|

Acceleration of Curvilinear Motion
If the tangential and normal unit vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ respectively, then the
⃗⃗
⃗ ( )
acceleration will be ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

You have already learnt that ⃗

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Example
 A stone thrown into the air at an angle.
 A car driving along a curved road.
 Throwing paper airplanes or paper darts is an example of curvilinear motion.
Example

For the rectilinear motion of a particle moving with a velocity √ at a

distance x from a fixed point. Show that particle attracted towards the fixed point
with a force (𝑥)

Solution

⃗ √ ( ) ( )

. /
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

………….(1)

Using the fact

( ) (𝑥) and is constant.

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Velocity
Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion
( ), where s is the displacement (directed distance) of the object from the
origin at time t. The function f that describes the motion is called the position
function of the object. In the time interval from to the change in
position is ( ) ( ).
The average velocity over this time interval is
( ) ( )

which is the same as the slope of the secant line PQ in Figure.

Now suppose we compute the average velocities over shorter and shorter time
intervals[ ]. In other words, we let h approach 0.
We define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) ⃗( ) at time to be the
limit of these average velocities:
( ) ( )
⃗( )
This means that the velocity at time is equal to the slope of the tangent line
at P.

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Limiting (Terminal) Velocity

Maximum velocity when the drag force of fluid and applied force are equal and
acceleration equal to zero.
Relative Velocity
If two particles and are moving with respective velocities ⃗ and ⃗ , then the
vector ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ is called the relative velocity of with respect to .
Acceleration
If ( ) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, we
know that its first derivative represents the velocity ⃗( ) of the object as a function
of time. Then‟
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the
acceleration ⃗( ) of the object. Thus the acceleration function is the derivative of
the velocity function and is therefore the second derivative of the position function:
⃗
⃗( ) ⃗( ) 𝑟⃗ ( )

Relative Acceleration
If two particles and are moving with respective accelerations ⃗ and ⃗ , then
the vector ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ is called the relative acceleration of with respect
to .
Cartesian Components of Velocity and Acceleration
Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦 ̂ be a position vector of a particle then
⃗ ⃗
⃗( ) ̂ ̂ and ⃗( ) ⃗( ) ̂ ̂, Then

𝑥 component of velocity , 𝑦 component of velocity

𝑥 component of velocity , 𝑦 component of velocity

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Cartesian Components of Velocity and Acceleration

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦 ̂ be a position vector of a particle then 𝑟

And therefore, velocity of a fluid particle denoted as „ ⃗⃗ ‟.
⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ and ⃗

⃗⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂) ̂ ̂
⃗
⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂) ̂ ̂

𝑥 component of velocity

𝑦 component of velocity

𝑥 component of velocity

𝑦 component of velocity

Resultant Velocity and Acceleration in Cartesian Coordinate Plane

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂

⃗⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂) ̂ ̂ | ⃗⃗ | √( ) ( )

⃗ ( ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ | ⃗| √( ) ( )

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Tangential and Normal/Centripetal Components of Velocity

When we study the motion of a particle, it is often useful to resolve the
acceleration in two components, one in the direction of the tangent and the other in
the direction of the normal. If we write | ⃗| for the speed of the particle, then
⃗ ( ) ⃗⃗( ) ⃗⃗( )
( )
| ⃗ ( )| | ⃗⃗( )|

And so ⃗ with ⃗ and ⃗

Question (Tangential and Normal/Centripetal Components of Acceleration)
Show that acceleration of a particle travels along a space curve with velocity ⃗ is
given by ⃗ . We may use instead .
Solution
⃗⃗
Since ⃗

⃗ (| | ) ( ) ……………(1)

also

( ) ⃗ ⃗⃗
Writing ⃗ and ⃗ for the tangential and normal components of acceleration, we
have ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ where ⃗ and ⃗

Note
Although we have expressions for the tangential and normal components of
acceleration above, it‟s desirable to have expressions that depend only on 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ , and
𝑟⃗ . To this end we take the dot product of ⃗ with ⃗:
⃗ ⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )⃗ ( )
Therefore ⃗ | ⃗ ( )|

Using the formula for curvature, we have

| ⃗ ( ) ⃗ ( )| | ⃗ ( ) ⃗ ( )|
⃗ |𝑟⃗ ( )|
| ⃗ ( )| | ⃗ ( )|

radial and transverse components of velocity and acceleration.

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Circular Motion
Consider an object is revolving along a circular path with constant angular velocity
. The position of the body revolving in a circle is given by:
𝑟⃗ 𝑟𝑟̂
Suppose that the center of the circle is at origin O. Now the magnitude of 𝑟⃗
remains constant and the unit vector 𝑟̂ rotates at a constant rate. A circular motion
is an example of a motion in two dimension. i.e. in a plane. So 𝑟̂ can be written as:
⃗
𝑟̂ ̂ ̂

𝑟̂ ̂ ̂
Where is the angular velocity (speed) which is constant.
Radial and Transversal Components of Velocity and Acceleration
In polar coordinates, the position of a particle is specified by a radius vector r and
the polar angle which are related to x and y through the relations
𝑥 𝑟 and 𝑦 𝑟
Provided the two coordinate frames have the same origin and the x – axis and the
initial line coincide. The direction of radius vector is known as radial direction
and that perpendicular to it in the direction of the increasing is called transverse
direction.
⃗
If 𝑟̂ ̂ ̂ then

angular speed (velocity) ̇

angular acceleration ̈

radial component of velocity 𝑟̇

transversal component of velocity 𝑟 𝑟 ̇

radial component of acceleration 𝑟( ) 𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇

transversal component of acceleration ( ) 𝑟 𝑟̇ ̇ 𝑟 ̈

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Radial and Transversal Components of Velocity and Acceleration

In polar coordinates, the position of a particle is specified by a radius vector 𝑟⃗ and
the polar angle which are related to x and y through the relations
𝑥 𝑟 and 𝑦 𝑟
Let 𝑟̂ and ̂ be unit vectors in the radial and transverse directions respectively as
shown in figure. Then
𝑟̂ ̂ ̂ …………..(i)
̂ ( )̂ ( )̂
̂ ̂ ̂ …………..(ii)
̂
( ̂ )̂
̂
̂ …………..(iii)
̂
( ̂ ̂)
̂
𝑟̂ …………..(iv)
⃗
We know that 𝑟̂ implies 𝑟⃗ 𝑟𝑟̂
⃗ ̂
⃗ (𝑟𝑟̂ ) 𝑟̂ 𝑟 𝑟̂ 𝑟 ̂

radial component of velocity 𝑟̇

transversal component of velocity 𝑟 𝑟 ̇

Let ⃗ be the acceleration then
⃗⃗
⃗ ( 𝑟̂ 𝑟 ̂) ( 𝑟̂ ) (𝑟 ̂)
̂ ̂
⃗ 𝑟̂ ( ) ̂ 𝑟 ̂ ( )𝑟

⃗ 𝑟̂ ( ̂) ( ) ̂ 𝑟 ̂ ( 𝑟̂ ) ( ) 𝑟

⃗ 𝑟̂ 𝑟 ( ) 𝑟̂ ( ) ̂ 𝑟 ̂

⃗ [ 𝑟 ( ) ] 𝑟̂ * ( ) 𝑟+ ̂

𝑟( ) 𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇ and ( ) 𝑟 𝑟̇ ̇ 𝑟 ̈

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Question
A particle moves so that its position vector is given by 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂
where is constant. Then show that
i. The velocity ⃗ of the particle is perpendicular to 𝑟⃗.
ii. The acceleration ⃗ is directed toward the origin and has magnitude
proportional to the distance from the origin.
iii. 𝑟⃗ ⃗ is constant vector.
Solution
𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂

i. 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂)
The velocity ⃗ of the particle is perpendicular to 𝑟⃗.
ii. ⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ ̂) 𝑟⃗
The acceleration ⃗ is directed toward the origin and has magnitude
proportional to the distance from the origin.
iii. 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂)
̂ ̂ ̂
𝑟⃗ ⃗ | | ̂

𝑟⃗ ⃗ is constant vector.
Question
Given a space with position vector 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ) ̂ . Find
unit tangent vector to the curve. Also verify that ⃗ .
Solution
𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ( )̂
⃗ ( )
( ) ̂ ̂ ̂
| ⃗ ( )|

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ | ⃗|
Cearly ⃗ . Prove it by

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Free Vectors
Vectors which are specified by magnitude and direction only are called free
vectors. Few types of such vectors given as follows;
 Equal free Vectors: Any two free vectors are equal if they have the same
magnitude and direction.

 Equal Sliding Vectors: Any two free vectors are equal sliding iff they have
the same magnitude, direction and line of action.

 Equal Bound Vectors: Any two free vectors are equal bound vectors iff they
have the same magnitude, direction and point of action. i.e identical.

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Uniform Force Field

A force field which has constant magnitude and direction is called a uniform or
constant force field. If the direction of this field is taken as the negative z direction
and the magnitude is the constant then the force field will be ⃗ ̂

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

If a particle of constant mass m moves in a uniform field, then its acceleration is
uniform or constant. The motion is then described as uniformly accelerated motion.
Its formula is given by ⃗ ̂.

Accelerated due to Gravity

Near the earth‟s surface an object fall with a vertical acceleration which is constant
provided that air resistance is negligible. This acceleration is denoted by ⃗ and
called the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational acceleration. Its value is
given by ⃗ .
Freely Falling Bodies
If an object moves so that the only force acting upon it is its weight, or force due to
gravity, then the object is often called a freely falling body. If 𝑟⃗ is the position
vector and m is the mass of the body, then using Newton‟s 2nd Law and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
assuming the motion in xy – plane we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂

Equations shows that motion of freely falling body is independent of mass.

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Question
A particle of mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a constant
force of magnitude F. If its initial speed is ⃗ , find the speed, the velocity and the
distance travelled after time t.
Solution

Assume that the straight line along which the particle P moves is the x – axis as
shown in figure. Suppose that at time t the particle is at a distance x from origin O.
If ̂ is a unit vector in the direction OP and is the speed at time t, then the velocity
is ⃗ ̂. Then we have
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂) ̂

Initially using we get . Thus

To find velocity

Since we have

̂ ⃗
̂ ̂ ⃗ ⃗

To find distance

Since we have

𝑥 ( ) 𝑥
Initially using 𝑥 we get .

Thus 𝑥

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Trajectory
The curve traced by a moving particle is called the trajectory or path of the
particle.
Projectile Motion of a Particle
An object fired from a gun or dropped from a moving airplane is often called a
projectile. If a ball is thrown from one person to another or an object is dropped
from a moving plane, then their path of traveling/motion is often called a
projectile.
Position vector of Projectile at any time t
Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal. Derive the expression for the P.V. of the projectile.

Solution
Since ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )̂

initially using
𝑥 𝑥 ( )
𝑥 ( ) initially using 𝑥

initially using

𝑦 𝑦 ( )

𝑦 ( ) initially using 𝑦

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ) ̂ *( ) + ̂

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Range of Flight/ Range of Projectile/ Horizontal Range of Projectile

Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal. Derive the expression for the range of flight.

Solution
Since ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )̂

initially using
𝑥 𝑥 ( )
( ) initially using 𝑥

initially using

𝑦 𝑦 ( )

( ) initially using 𝑦

𝑦 ( ) ( )( ) Using

𝑦 ( ) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

Using 𝑥 𝑦

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Time of Flight/ Time of Projectile/ The Time of flight back to Earth

Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal. Derive the expression for the time of flight.

Solution
Since ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )̂

initially using
𝑥 𝑥 ( )
( ) initially using 𝑥
( ) Using 𝑥

Remember that time of flight depends on which is the vertical

component of the velocity of the projection.

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Path of Projectile is a Parabola

Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal.

We know that and 𝑦 ( ) then using both

equations we have

𝑦 ( ) ( )( ) 𝑦

Which is a Parabola.
Maximum Range of Projectile / Maximum Horizontal Range of Projectile
Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal.

We know that

The range of the projectile will be maximum, when

( )
Thus the projectile will have the maximum range when it will be projected at an
angle of , therefore

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Question
An object of mass m is thrown vertically upward from the earth‟s surface with
speed , find the position at any time, the time taken to reach the highest point
and the maximum height reached.
Solution
Let the position vector of m at any time t be 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ . Assume that the
object starts at 𝑟⃗ when . Since the force acting on the object is ̂,
we have by Newton‟s Law;
⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂

Using ⃗ ̂ at time we have ̂

⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ( )̂
⃗
( )̂ 𝑟⃗ ( )̂
Using 𝑟⃗ at time we have
⃗⃗ ( )̂

Or equivalently

The highest point is reached when ⃗ ( )̂ that is at time

At time the maximum height reached is from 𝑧 as follows

Maximum Height of Projectile Reached

A the highest point of the path the component of the velocity is zero thus using
( ) and we get

𝑦 ( )

𝑦 ( )( ) ( )

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Question
A projectile is launched with initial speed at an angle with the horizontal
acting upon a force due to air resistance equal to where is constant. Find the
position and velocity vector at any time.
Solution
Body move downward, so frictional force ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ( )⃗ ( )⃗ ⃗(𝑥)

⃗⃗ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )⃗ ⃗(𝑥) (⃗ )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⃗ ∫ ⃗ ( )

using initially ̂ ̂

we get ̂ ̂

( ) ( ) ̂
⃗ ( ) ̂

̂) ( ) ( )
⃗ ( ) ( ̂

̂) ( ) ( )
⃗⃗ ( ̂ ( ) required velocity

⃗ ( ) ( )
( ̂ ̂) ( )

̂) ( ) ( )
𝑟⃗ ( )( ̂ ( ( ) )

using initially 𝑟 we get ( ̂ ̂ )

̂) ( ( ) ( )
⃗⃗ ( )( ̂ ) ( ( ) )

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Projectile Motion (of a particle) with air Resistance

Consider a body of mass projected with velocity ⃗ at angle with the
horizontal.

Body move downward, so frictional force ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ where are constants.

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂) ̂ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂)

𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑥 ̂ ( 𝑦) ̂

𝑥 𝑥 () 𝑦 𝑦 ( )

() 𝑥 𝑥 𝑧 𝑧 using 𝑥 𝑧 𝑥 𝑧

𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 𝑧

𝑧 𝑧 using initially we get

∫ 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥

𝑥 using initially 𝑥

( )

( ) 𝑦 𝑦 using 𝑦 𝑦

using integrating factor

( ) ∫ ( ) ∫

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using initially 𝑦

then ( )

( ) ∫ 𝑦 ∫* ( )+

𝑦 ∫ ( )∫ 𝑦 ( )

using initially we get ( )

𝑦 ( ) ( )

( )( )

Time of Flight/ Time of Projectile with Air Resistance

Since we know that 𝑦 ( )( )

Using 𝑦

( )( ) ( )( )

( )( ) ( )* ( )+

( )( )

( ) ( )

( )( )

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

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For ideal condition friction is zero so then

using

for small value of k using

( )

( ) ( )
( )

[( ) ] *( ) +

* + * ( )+

* ( )+ ( )

Range of Projectile with Air Resistance

Since we know that 𝑥 ( )

( ) using 𝑥

* ( )+

* +

* +

using ( )

[ . ( )/ . ( )/ ]

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[ ( ) ( ) ] Ideal condition

𝑘
* ( ) ( )+
𝑣 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛

*( ) ( )+ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠

𝑢 𝑣
𝑅
* + * + 𝑔

𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑅
* + * + 𝑔

(Due to friction)

( )

Question

Show that 𝑥 if force of friction is zero.

Solution

Let 𝑥 ( )

𝑥 * ( )+

𝑥 * + * +

𝑥 * + 𝑥 * +

When force of friction is zero it means k = 0

𝑥 [ ]

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CHAPTER

RESISTED MOTION AND

4 DAMPED FORCE
OSCILLATOR
Motion in a Resisting Medium

In practice an object is acted upon not only by is weight but by other forces as
well. An important class of forces are those which tend to oppose the motion of an
object and reduce the magnitude of successive oscillations about the equilibrium
position. Such forces, which generally arises because of motion in some medium
such as air or water, are often called resisting, damping or dissipative force and
the corresponding medium is said to be a resisting, damping or dissipative
medium. A useful approximated damping force is given as follows;

⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂

Where the descript D stands for the damping force and is the positive constant
called the damping coefficient. Note the ⃗ and ⃗ are in opposite direction.

Friction Force

Friction forces play an important role in damping or retarding motion initiated by

other forces friction force between two bodies results from the interaction between
the surface molecules of the two bodies and involves a very large number of such
iteration. The phenomenon is therefore complex and depends on factor such as the
condition and nature of the surfaces and their relative velocity.

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Some Useful Definitions

 Simple Harmonic Motion and Simple Harmonic Oscillator: SHM occur

when the net force is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean
position and is always directed towards the mean position. The body
executing SHM is called Simple Harmonic Oscillator. The motion of simple
pendulum and the motion of mass spring system is SHM.
Simple Harmonic Motion is an oscillatory motion that occurs whenever a
force acts on a body in the opposite direction to its displacement from its
equilibrium position , with the magnitude of the force , proportional to the
magnitude of the displacement. i.e. ⃗ 𝑥 or ⃗ 𝑥
Where is the constant of proportionality often called the spring constant,
elastic constant, stiffness factor or modulus of elasticity
 Restoring Force: A force that always pushes of pulls the object performing
oscillatory motion towards the mean position.
 Vibration: One complete round trip of a vibrating body about its mean
position is called one vibration.
 Time Period: The time taken by a vibrating body to complete one vibration
is called time period.
 Frequency: The number of vibrations or cycles of a vibrating body in one
second is called its frequency. It is reciprocal of time period.
 Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body on either side
from its mean position is called its amplitude.
 Oscillations/Vibrations: A body is said to be vibrating (oscillating) if it
moves back and forth or to and fro about a point.
 Damped forced oscillations/ Damped oscillations: The oscillations of a
system in the presence of some resistive force.
 Linear frequency: The amount of vibrations completed in unit time is
called linear frequency. Its SI unit is called hertz (Hz).
 Angular frequency: The amount of rotations completed in unit time is called
linear frequency. The linear frequency and the angular frequency are
related as

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Equation of Motion of Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Consider a block of mass m is attached with one end of a string. The other end of
spring is fixed to a support. The block is free to move to and fro over a frictionless
horizontal surface as shown in figure.

The point x = 0 when block is at rest is called mean position because spring is not
exerting any force on the block. The block attached with spring having constant k
takes to and fro motion under restoring force F given as

⃗ 𝑥 ……………….(1)

⃗ ⃗ ……………….(2) by Newton‟s 2nd Law

Comparing (1) and (2) we have

𝑥̈ 𝑥 Or 𝑥̈ 𝑥

This is called equation of motion of simple harmonic oscillator or linear Harmonic

Oscillator. This type of motion is often called Simple Harmonic Motion.

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Damped Harmonic Oscillator

The oscillator which moves in a resistive medium under a restoring force is called
the Damped Harmonic Oscillator and equation of motion of the harmonic
oscillator is given as

𝑥 or 𝑥

We may write it as follows;

𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ 𝑥 using

Remark

 Damped Harmonic Oscillation 𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 represent over damped

motion if . i.e. and in this case equation
𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 has the general solution of the following form
𝑥 ( ) where √
And A,B are arbitrary constants can be found from the initial conditions.
 Damped Harmonic Oscillation 𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 represent critically
damped motion if . i.e. and in this case equation
𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 has the general solution of the following form
𝑥 ( )
And A,B are arbitrary constants can be found from the initial conditions.
 Damped Harmonic Oscillation 𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 represent under
damped or damped oscillatory motion if . i.e. and in
this case equation 𝑥̈ 𝑦𝑥̇ 𝑥 has the general solution of the
following form
𝑥 ( ) ( ) where √
And where √ called the amplitude, and called the phase
angle or epoch, can be determined from the initial conditions.

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Equation of Motion of Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Consider a block of mass m is attached with one end of a string. The other end is
connected with a mass less vane. The block is free to move to and fro over a
frictionless horizontal surface as shown in figure.

Now displace the block towards right through some displacement and release. The
block attached with spring having constant k takes to and fro motion under
restoring force F given as

⃗ 𝑥

The damping force experienced by vane when it moves in resistive medium is

⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 𝑥 ⃗ ……………….(1)

⃗ ⃗ ……………….(2) by Newton‟s 2nd Law

Comparing (1) and (2) we have

𝑥 or 𝑥

We may write it as follows;

𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ 𝑥 using

This is called equation of motion of damped harmonic oscillator . This type of

motion is often called damped Harmonic Motion.

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Simple Pendulum

The metallic bob suspended by a weightless inextensible string is called simple

pendulum. The distance between point of suspension and center of bob is called
length of simple pendulum. The bob at rest when no resultant force acts on it is
called mean position or equilibrium position.

Equation of motion of a Simple Pendulum

Consider a bob of mass m attached with a string. The string is hanged vertically
from a support as shown in figure;

Pull the pendulum from mean position to position A such that string makes a small
angle with vertical. The bob starts moving toward mean position under restoring
force when released. It gets maximum velocity at mean position and does not stop
due to inertia but continues to move towards extreme position B. The velocity of
bob becomes zero at position B due to restoring force.

The path followed by bob when it moves from mean position to position A
is called an arc of circle having radius . The arc length S and chord length x are
approximately equal for small angle.

The forces acting on bob when it is at position A are

 Weight of bob acting vertically downward

 Tension acting along the string

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Resolving weight force into components we get ⃗

The negative sign means direction of ⃗ is opposite to direction of increasing

and for small amplitude we have

⃗ ……………….(1)

⃗ ⃗ ……………….(2) by Newton‟s 2nd Law

Comparing (1) and (2) we have

⃗ ⃗

The relation 𝑟 for circular path gives 𝑥 then

⃗ ( ) ⃗ ( )𝑥 ( )𝑥

𝑥̈ ( ) (Equation of motion of a Simple Pendulum)

Resonance / Resonance Frequency

Resonant frequency is the oscillation of a system at its natural or unforced

resonance. Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer
energy between different storage modes, such as Kinetic energy or Potential
energy as you would find with a simple pendulum. A familiar example is a
playground swing, which acts as a pendulum.

Forced Vibrations

Forced vibration occurs when motion is sustained or driven by an applied periodic

force in either damped or undamped systems. Vibration of vehicles during the
running on uneven roads, vibration of air compressors and musical instruments etc.
are some of the examples for forced vibrations.

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Question
Determine the motion of simple pendulum of length and mass m assuming small
vibrations and no resisting force.
Solution
Let the position of m at any time be determined by s,
the arc length measured from the equilibrium position O.
Let be the angle made by the pendulum string with the

vertical. If ⃗⃗ is a unit tangent vector to the circular path of

the pendulum bob m, then by Newton‟s second law

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ……………….(1)

Resolving force into components we get ⃗

The negative sign means direction of ⃗ is opposite to direction of increasing

and for small amplitude we have
⃗ ……………….(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we have

⃗⃗ ( )

Which has solution √ √

Using initial conditions at we get

√ . Here is time period √

Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

If T is the kinetic energy, V the potential energy and E = T + V the total energy of
a simple harmonic oscillator then we have

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Question

Prove that the force ⃗ 𝑥 ̂ acting on a simple harmonic oscillator is

conservative.

Solution: Given that ⃗ 𝑥 ̂ then

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗ | | . Thus the force ⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ is conservative.
𝑥
Question

Find the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Solution

In this case the potential or potential energy is given as ⃗

𝑥̂ 𝑥̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ 𝑥̂

𝑥 ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) 𝑥

𝑥 using for 𝑥 we get

Question

Express in symbol the principal of conservation of energy for a simple harmonic

oscillator.

Solution

We know that 𝑥

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 after integration

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CHAPTER

CENTRAL FORCES AND

5 PLANETARY MOTION

Central Force Fields

Suppose that a force acting on a particle of mass m is such that

i. It is always directed from m toward or away from fixed point.

ii. Its magnitude depends only on the distance from fixed point.

Then we call the force a central force or central force field. Mathematically it can
⃗
be written as ⃗ (𝑟) . The central force is one of the attraction towards origin if
(𝑟) or repulsion from origin if (𝑟) .

Or If a particle is moving in an orbit under the influence of a force whose line

of action passes through some fixed point, then such a force is called a central
force or central force field and the fixed point is called its centre. The central force
may be attractive or repulsive.

Properties of a Central Force Fields

If a particle moves in a central force field, then the following properties are valid;

i. The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve. i.e. particle moves in
a plane.
ii. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved. i.e. constant.
iii. The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector
drawn from Origin to the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In
other words, the time rate of change in area is constant. This is sometime
called the law of areas.

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Remember

 Differential Equation of Central Orbit in Polar form

 Differential Equation of Central Orbit in Pedal form



Property

The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve. i.e. particle moves in a
plane.

Proof
⃗
Let ⃗ (𝑟) be the central force field then

⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ (𝑟) 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ……………(i)

⃗
Now ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗
⃗ ……………(ii)

Adding (i) And (ii) we get

⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ where ⃗⃗ is a constant vector.

𝑟⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗)

𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

This shows that the position vector of the particle at any time is perpendicular to
the fixed constant vector ⃗⃗ and Thus the path or orbit of the particle must be a
plane curve. i.e. particle moves in a plane.

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Property

The angular momentum of the particle is conserved. i.e. constant.

Or Prove that for a particle moving in a central force field the angular
momentum is conserved.

Proof
⃗
Let ⃗ (𝑟) be the central force field then

⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ (𝑟) 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ……………(i)

⃗
Now ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗
⃗ ……………(ii)

Adding (i) And (ii) we get

⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ where ⃗⃗ is a constant vector.

(𝑟⃗ ⃗) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

This shows that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved. i.e. constant.
That is always constant in magnitude and direction.

Areal Velocity

The area swept by the position vector of a particle in one second is called the Areal
Velocity. It is represented as follows;

⃗ ̇ |𝑟⃗ ⃗|

Its unit is

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Equation of motion for a particle in a Central Force Fields

Since we know that the path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve. i.e.
particle moves in a plane. Choose this plane to be the xy and the coordinates
describing the position of the particle at any time t to be polar coordinates (𝑟 ).
We have ⃗ (𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇ )𝑟⃗ (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ ) then

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ [(𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇ )𝑟⃗ (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ ) ]
⃗
[(𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇ )𝑟⃗ (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ ) ] (𝑟) (𝑟)𝑟⃗

Thus the required equations of motion are

(𝑟̈ 𝑟 ̇ ) (𝑟) and (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ )

Property (many questions covered)

The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector drawn
from Origin to the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In other words,
the time rate of change in area is constant. This is sometime called the law of areas.

Or Prove that for a particle in central force field the areal velocity is constant.

Or Show that 𝑟 ̇ , a constant. Or Show that 𝑟 ̇ ̇.

Proof

From equations of motion awe have (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ )

(𝑟 ̈ 𝑟𝑟̇ ̇ ) (𝑟 ̇ ) ̇ , a constant.

Also we know that |𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗| for a parallelogram

⃗
|𝑟⃗ | ̇ |𝑟⃗ ⃗| 𝑟 ̇ ̇ ̇

̇ combining above both equations.

This proves that for a particle in central force field the areal velocity is constant.
Here ̇ ̇ ̂ is called areal velocity.

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Useful Definitions

 Orbits: The path of planet or satellite is called its orbit. An orbit is a regular,
repeating path that one object in space takes around another one. An object
in an orbit is called a satellite. Orbit comes from the Latin orbita, “course,”
or “track.”
 Solar System: A Solar System is composed of a star and objects called
planets which revolve around it.
 Satellites: The star is an object which emits its own light, while the planets
are the objects that do not emit light but can reflect it. And the objects
revolving about the planets are called satellites.
 Aphelion and Perihelion: The largest and smallest distances of a planet
from the sun about which it revolves are called the Aphelion and Perihelion
respectively.
 Apogee and Perigee: The largest and smallest distances of a satellite around
a planet about which it revolves are called the Apogee and Perigee
respectively.
 Period/Sidereal Period: The time for one complete revolution of a body in
an orbit is called its period. Sometime it is called sidereal period to
distinguish it from other periods such as the period of earth‟s motion about
its axis, etc.

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Determination of the Orbit from the Central Force

If the central force is prescribed. i.e. if (𝑟) is given, it is possible to determine the
orbit or path of the particle. This orbit can be obtained in the form 𝑟 𝑟( ) or
𝑟 𝑟( ) ( ) which are parametric equations in terms of time parameter.

Determination of Central Force from the Orbit

If we know the orbit or path of the particle, it is possible to determine the central
force of the orbit. If the orbit is given by 𝑟 𝑟( ) or ( ) where , then
the central force can be found by using the following equations;

(𝑟) { ( ) } 𝑟 Or ( ) , -

Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion

Kepler‟s Three Laws of Planetary Motion are as follows;

1. Every planet moves in an orbit which is an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
2. The radius vector drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal time. (the law of areas)
3. The square of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of the semi major axes of their orbits.

Remember

 Equation of Conics is ( ) or ( )
 If we have 𝑥 𝑦 a circle. If we have 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑥)
or 𝑦 𝑥 a parabola. If or we have 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑥)
or ( )𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 which is an ellipse if and is a
hyperbola if .

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Question (Inverse Square Law of Attraction)

Prove that if a planet is to revolve around the sun in an elliptical path with the sun
at a focus, then the central force necessary varies inversely as the square of the
distance of the planet from the sun.

Solution

Consider a fixed point O and a fixed line AB distance D from O. Suppose that a
point P in the plane of O and AB moves so that the ratio of its distance from point
O to its distance from line AB is always equal to the positive constant , then the
curve described by P is given by 𝑟 .

Similarly if the path is an ellipse with the sun at a focus, then calling r the distance
from the sun, we have

𝑟 or

Where . Then the central force is given by

( ) , -

(𝑟) replacing by

Proved that if a planet is to revolve around the sun in an elliptical path with the
sun at a focus, then the central force necessary varies inversely as the square of the
distance of the planet from the sun.

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Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion/Law of Orbit

Every planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus.

Proof

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Kepler’s Second Law of Planetary Motion/ Law of Areas

The radius vector drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time. In other words areal velocity of radius vector is a constant of motion.
Proof
From equations of motion awe have (𝑟 ̈ 𝑟̇ ̇ )

(𝑟 ̈ 𝑟𝑟̇ ̇ ) (𝑟 ̇ ) ̇ , a constant.

Also we know that |𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗| for a parallelogram

⃗
|𝑟⃗ | ̇ |𝑟⃗ ⃗| 𝑟 ̇ ̇ ̇

̇ combining above both equations.

This proves that for a particle in central force field the areal velocity is constant.
Here ̇ ̇ ̂ is called areal velocity.

The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector drawn
from sun to the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In other words, the
time rate of change in area is constant. This is sometime called the law of areas.
Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion/ Law of Periods
The square of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes
of the semi major axes of their orbits.
Proof
If and are the lengths of the semi – major and semi – minor axes, then the area
of the ellipse is . Since the areal velocity has the magnitude , the time taken to
sweep over area , the period, is

using √ ( )

Hence the square of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of the semi major axes of their orbits.

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Apsides and Apsidal Angles for Nearly Circular Orbits

Apsides, Also called: apse. either of two points lying at the extremities of an
eccentric orbit of a planet, satellite, etc, such as the aphelion and perihelion of a
planet or the apogee and perigee of the moon. An apsis is the farthest or nearest
point in the orbit of a planetary body about its primary body. The line of apsides is
the line connecting the two extreme values.In physics Angle through which the
radius vector rotates in going between two consecutive apsides is called the apsidal
angle.

Motion in an Inverse Square Field

As we have seen, the planets revolve in elliptical orbits about the sun which is at
one focus of the ellipse. In a similar manner, satellite (natural or man made) may
revolve around planets in elliptical orbits. However, the motion of an object in an
inverse square field of attraction need not always be elliptical but may be parabolic
or hyperbolic. In such cases the object, such as a comet or meteorite, would enter
the solar system and then leave but never return again.

Question

Prove that the speed v of the particle moving in an elliptical path in an inverse
square field is given by ( ) where is the semi major axis.

Solution

From theory (Spiegel book) we have ( ) ( ) where

. And by conservation of energy using we have

( )

Similarly we can show for a hyperbola ( )

While for a parabola

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Example

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Escape velocity / Gravitational Escape

In celestial mechanics, escape velocity or escape speed is the minimum speed
(velocity) needed to escape an object from the gravitational influence of a primary
body (earth), thus reaching an infinite distance from it. It is typically stated as an
ideal speed, ignoring atmospheric friction. This is an application of energy
conservation method, as an illustration of energy conservation methods, we
consider the problem of the gravitational escape of a particle from the earth. The
gravitational potential energy due to earth‟s attraction on a particle of mass m at a
distance 𝑟 𝑟 (earth‟s radius) from the earth‟s center with mass of earth M is

(𝑟) ∫ 𝑟

(𝑟) after simplification

According to the law of conservation of energy (Constant)

Using initial 𝑟 𝑟 we have then

√ ( ) √ when 𝑟

⃗ √ ……..(1)

Now weight of a particle is equal to the gravitational force exerted on it by the

earth. Therefore which gives 𝑟 then

( ) ⃗ √ ⃗ √ 𝑟

The particle will escape to infinity and ⃗ √ 𝑟 is called escape velocity of the
particle.
Remember the magnitude of the escape velocity of an object from the earth‟s
surface using 𝑟 is about .

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CHAPTER

PLANER MOTION
6 OF RIGID BODIES

Rigid Body

A rigid body is defined as a collection of particles such that distance between every
pair of its constituent particles remains unchanged whatever the forces acting on it.
This is a body which cannot be deformed by the external force acting on it.

 When a force is applied to an object/ system of particles, and if the object

maintains its overall shape, then the object is called a rigid body.
 Gap between two fixed points on the rigid body remains same regardless of
external forces exerted on it.
 We can neglect the deformation of such bodies.
 A rigid body usually has continuous distribution of mass.

Rigid Body – I: Those bodies in which angular momentum and angular velocities
have different directions are called rigid bodies of type I.

Rigid Body – II: Those bodies in which angular momentum and angular velocities
have same directions are called rigid bodies of type II.

Elastic Bodies
A body that regains its original dimension and shape when the externally applied
force is removed is an Elastic body.
When a force is applied to a system of particles, it changes the distance be
individual particles. Such systems are often called deformable or elastic bodies.
Examples
 A spring and rubber band are some common examples of elastic bodies.
 A wheel is a common example of rigid body.

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Properties of Rigid Bodies

Following are some of the properties of the rigid bodies.

Degree of freedom

The number of coordinates required to specify the position of a system of one or

more particles is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system. For
example a particle moving freely in space requires 3 coordinates, e.g. (x, y, z), to
specify its position. Thus the number of degrees of freedom is 3.
Similarly, a system consisting of N particles moving freely in space requires 3N
coordinates to specify its position. Thus the number of degrees of freedom is 3N.

Translations/ Translational Motion of Rigid Body

Motion of a rigid body in a straight or curved line on the smooth or rough surface.
A displacement of a rigid body is a direct change of position of its particles.
Translational motion is the displacement of all particles of the body by the same
amount and the line segment joining the initial and the final position of the
particles represented by parallel vectors. Examples of translational motion are
particles freely falling down to earth and the motion of a bullet fired from a gun.

Rotations/ Rotational Motion of Rigid Body

Motion of a rigid body about a fixed line or fixed point (centre of mass) in the
space. Circular motion of a body about a fixed point or axis is called rotation. If
during a displacement the points of the rigid body on some line remains fixed and
all other are displaced through the same angle, then this displacement is called
rotation. A rigid performs rotations around an imaginary line called a rotation axis.
If the axis of rotation passes through the center of mass of the rigid body then body
is said to spin or rotate upon itself. If a body rotates about some external fixed
point is called revolution orbital motion of the rigid body. The example of
revolution is the rotation of earth around sun and motion of moon around sun.
Rotational motion concerns only with rigid bodies. The reverse rotation of a body
(inverse rotation) is also a rotation. A wheel is common examples of rotation.

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Introduction to General Plane Motion

The general plane motion of a rigid body can be considered as:
 Translational motion along the given fixed plane and rotational motion about a
suitable axis perpendicular to the plane.
 This fixed axis is specifically chosen to pass through the center of mass of the rigid
body.
Instantaneous Axis of Rotation
The axis about which the rigid body rotates is called instantaneous axis of rotation,
where this axis is perpendicular to the plane. The line referred to is called the
instantaneous axis of rotation. Rotations can be considered as finite or
infinitesimal. Finite rotations cannot be represented by vectors since the
commutative law fails. However, infinitesimal rotations can be represented by
vectors.
Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
The point where instantaneous axis meets the fixed plane along which the body
performs translation motion is described as the instantaneous centre of rotation.
The Centre of Mass (c.m.) / Centroid of System
The centre of mass (c.m.) or centroid of system of particles is a hypothetical
particle such that if the entire mass of the system were concentrated there, the
mechanical properties would remain the same. In particular expression of linear
momentum, angular momentum and kinetic energy assume simpler or more
convenient forms when referred to the coordinated of this hypothetical particle and
the equation of motion can be reduced to simpler equation of a single particle.
Centre of Mass is a point where an applied force causes the system to move
∑
without any rotation. Its formula is 𝑟⃗ ∑

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The Centre of Gravity

Centre of Gravity is a point where the whole weight of the system acts in the
downward direction.

Motion of Centre of Mass

Motion of centre of mass can be examined by considering the following points:

1. If a system experiences no external force, the center-of-mass of the system

will remain at rest, or will move at constant velocity if it is already moving.
2. If there is an external force, the center of mass accelerates according to
⃗ ⃗.
3. Basically, the centre-of-mass of a system can be treated as a point mass,
following Newton's Laws.
4. If an object is thrown into the air, different parts of the object can follow
quite complicated paths, but the centre-of-mass will follow a parabola.

5. If an object explodes, the different pieces of the object will follow seemingly
independent paths after the explosion. The centre of mass, however, will
keep doing what it was doing before the explosion. This is because an
explosion involves only internal forces.

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Example

Find the center of mass of 3 particles having masses 2,4 and 3 grams are placed at
points with position vectors ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ respectively.

Solution

∑ 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
∑

Center of Mass when body is uniformly (continuous) distributed

When a body of mass M is uniformly distributed then it c.m is

∫ ∫
 Along x – axis ̅
∑
∫ ∫
 Along y – axis ̅
∑
∫ ∫
 Along z – axis ̅
∑

Example

Find the center of mass of rod of length .

Solution

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

Example

Find the center of mass of hollow right circular cone.

Solution

∫ 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑥
∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑥

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Euler’s Theorem

A rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point of the body is equivalent to a rotation
about a line which passes through the (fixed) point.

Proof

Let O be the fixed point in the body, which we take as a sphere S. Further, we take
O at the center of the sphere. Let A, B be two distinct points on the sphere. As the
body moves, the point O (on the axis) remains foxed and A and B suffer
displacement.

Let and be the new locations of the points A and B after an infinitesimal time
interval respectively. We join (A, B) and ( ) by great circular areas. Also
we join ( ) and ( ) by mean of great circular arcs. Let and draw axes
at right angles, which meat at the point C on the sphere. We join C with
by means of great circular arcs.

Consider the spherical triangles and . Obviously

i. each angle is right angle

ii. is the midpoint of
iii. is common to triangle.
iv. (S.A.S) Postulate
v. corresponding sides of congruent triangles

…………………… (1)

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Similarly Consider the spherical triangles and . Obviously

i. each angle is right angle

ii. is the midpoint of
iii. is common to triangle.
iv. (S.A.S) Postulate
v. corresponding sides of congruent triangles

…………………… (2)

And distance between the fixed point on the sphere remain fixed

…………………… (3)

From (1), (2) and (3) we have

Then

The portion of rigid body lying in has moved to .

In this process the point O and C have remained fixed, although the later was at
rest only instantaneously. Therefore the body has under gone a rotation about the
axis OC.

Hence A rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point of the body is equivalent to a
rotation about a line which passes through the (fixed) point.

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Chasle’s Theorem/ Mozzi - Chasle’s Theorem

The most general rigid body displacement can be produced by a translation along a
line (called its screw axis/ mozzi axis) followed (or preceded) by a rotation about
that line.

Or The most general motion of a rigid body is that of translation and rotation.

Or The most general motion of a rigid body is composed of pure translation

followed by a rotation about some base point (fixed point).

Or Let 𝑟⃗ be a position vector of a base point A and ⃗⃗ is angular velocity of any

rigid body then motion ⃗ of rigid body is composed of pure translation
followed by a rotation about some base point. i.e. ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

Explanation:

 A rigid body has six degrees of freedom.

 By Euler‟s theorem, three of these are associated with pure rotation.
 The remaining three must be associated with translation.
 To describe the general motion of a rigid body, think of the general motion
as translation of a fixed point O in the body to a point O′ followed by the
rotation about an axis through O′.

.Proof

Let 𝑟⃗ be a position vector of B from a base point A and ⃗⃗ is angular velocity of

rigid body then

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

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Question (Equation of Axis of Rotation in Screw Motion such that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗)

Explain the term Screw Motion, also show that the general motion of a rigid body
is screw motion.

Solution

The motion which consists of translation and rotation about a line along the
translation is called Screw Motion. Or the motion of an object in which linear and
angular velocities are in the same direction (or Parallel) is called Screw Motion. In
this motion linear velocity of each particle on the axis of rotation is parallel (or
antiparallel) to the angular velocity. In case of screw motion we have ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗.
To prove this consider a rigid body in general motion.

Let 𝑟⃗ be a position vector of B from a base point A and ⃗⃗ is angular velocity of

rigid body then linear velocity of B is as follows

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ……………..(1)

In general ⃗ and ⃗⃗ are not parallel, that we can choose B such that the linear
velocity ⃗ of B is parallel to the angular velocity ⃗⃗ of the rigid body.

⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) taking cross product of ⃗⃗ with (1)

⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) since ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ (⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ (⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ putting ⃗

This is called the Equation of Axis of Rotation in Screw Motion such that ⃗ ⃗⃗

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Question

A particle moves in a plane with constant angular speed (velocity). Show that its
acceleration is perpendicular to its velocity.

Solution
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗

This shows that in rotational motion acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity.

Question

A particle moves in a plane elliptical orbit by the position vector

𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ , then Find velocity and acceleration.

Solution
⃗
𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂

⃗⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂

Question Calculate angular speed of the Earth.

Solution

Time of Earth relation hour sec sec

Rotating angle

Angular speed rad/sec

Question Calculate angular speed of the second hand of a watch.

Solution

Time sec ; Rotating angle

Angular speed rad/sec

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Varignon’s Theorem

The moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the
moments of its components about that point.

Or The moment of the resultant of a number of forces about any point is equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces of the system about the same
point.

Or Torque acting on the system of particle is equal to the sum of all torque
acting on each particle. i.e. ∑

This property was originally established by the French mathematician Varignon

(1654–1722) long before the introduction of vector algebra, is known as
Varignon‟s theorem.

Proof

Fig. shows two forces 1 and 2 acting at point O. These forces are represented in
magnitude and direction by OA and OB. Their resultant R is represented in
magnitude and direction by OC which is the diagonal of parallelogram OACB. Let
O‟ is the point in the plane about which moments of 1, 2 and R are to be
determined. From point , draw perpendiculars on OA,OC and OB.

Let 𝑟 = Perpendicular distance between 1 and .

d = Perpendicular distance between R and .

𝑟 = Perpendicular distance between 2 and .

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Then according to Varignon‟s principle;

Moment of R about must be equal to algebraic sum of moments of 1 and 2

about .

R×d= 1 ×𝑟 + 2 ×𝑟

Now refer to Fig. (b). Join and produce it to D. From points C, A and B draw
perpendiculars on OD meeting at D,E and F respectively. From A and B also draw
perpendiculars on CD meeting the line CD at G and H respectively.

Let θ1 = Angle made by F; with OD, θ = Angle made by R with OD, and
θ2 = Angle made by 2 with OD.

In Fig.(b), OA = BC and also OA parallel to BC, hence the projection of OA and

BC on the same vertical line CD will be equal i.e., GD = CH as GD is the
projection of OA on CD and CH is the projection of BC on CD.

Then from Fig. (b), we have

P1sinθ1 = AE = GD = CH

1cosθ1 = OE

2 sinθ1 = BF = HD

2 cosθ2 = OF = ED

(OB = AC and also OB || AC. Hence projections of OB and AC on the same

horizontal line OD will be equal i.e., OF = ED)

Rsin θ =CD

Rcos θ =OD

Let the length = x.

Then

xsinθ1 = r1, xsinθ = d and xsin θ2 = r2

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Now

Moment of R about = R × (distance between and R)

= R × d = R × xsinθ ( d = xsinθ) = (R sin θ) × x

= CD × x

= (CH +HD)× x ( R sin θ = CD) = (CH +HD)× x

=( 1 sinθ1 + 2 sinθ2) ×x (CH = 1 sin θ1 and HD = 2 sin θ2)

= 1 × x sinθ1 + 2 × x sinθ2

= 1 × r1 + 2 × r2 ( x sinθ1 = r1 and x sinθ2 = r2)

= Moment of 1 about + Moment of 2 about .

Hence moment of R about any point in the algebraic sum of moments of its
components 1 and 2 about the same point.

Hence Varignon‟s principle is proved.

The principle of moments (or Varignon‟s principle) is not restricted to only two
concurrent forces but is also applicable to any coplanar force system, i.e.,
concurrent or non-concurrent or parallel force system.

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The Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of a rigid body is a property which depends upon its mass
and shape, (i.e. the mass distribution of the body) and determines its behavior in
rotational motion. In rotational motion, the moment of inertia plays the same role
as the mass in linear motion.

Formally the moment of inertia of the particle of mass about a line is defined
by where is the perpendicular distance between the particle and the line
(called the axis).

Moment of Inertia of System of particles

The moment of inertia of a system of particles, with masses

about the axis AB is defined as ∑ and for continuous mass
distribution (sum of partition of a function) we may use it as ∫𝑟 where 𝑟
is the perpendicular distance between the particle and the line (called the axis).

In dimensions, the moment of inertia can be expressed as [ ] [ ][ ]

Examples of the Moment of Inertia

 The moments of inertia of a ring of radius about an axis through center is

 The moment of inertia of a hoop of mass and radius about an axis

passing through its center is
 The moment of inertia of the sphere is
 Calculate the moment of inertia of a right circular cone about its axis of
symmetry is
 The moment of inertia of a uniform rod of length about an axis
perpendicular to the rod and passing through an end point is
 The moment of inertia of a uniform triangular lamina of mass about one
of its sides is

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Moment of Inertia in Coordinate System

The moment of inertia of a particle of mass with coordinates (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) relative to

the orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system about axes will be

∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 )

∫(𝑥 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑧 )

∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 )

Product of Inertia

The product of inertia for the same particle w.r.to the pair of coordinate axes are
defined as

∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 ∫ 𝑦𝑧 𝑦𝑧 ∫ 𝑧𝑥 𝑧𝑥

It may be positive, may be negative or may be zero, depending on coordinate

axes. These definitions can be easily generalized to a system of particle and a rigid
body.

Parallel Axis Theorem

The rotational inertia about an axis is equal to the inertia about parallel axis
through centre of mass plus mass time the square of the distance between two
parallel axis.

i.e.

Perpendicular Axis Theorem

The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body about an axis perpendicular to the
body is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about two mutually
perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the body and meeting at the common point
with the given axis.

i.e.

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Question

Find moment of inertia of a thin rod of mass M of length 2a about a line through its
centre and perpendicular to its length.

Or Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform (rigid) rod of length about an

axis perpendicular to the rod and passing through an end point.

Solution

A(-a,0) x dx B(a,0)

-x ………………………O………………………….. x

2a

-y

Consider a rod of length 2a along x – axis. Centre of their rod is origin as shown in
figure.

Moment of inertia about y – axis for total length ∫ 𝑥 ……………..(i)

Consider a small portion of the rod whose mass is and length 𝑥, then linear
mass density is . i.e. 𝑥

() ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 ……………..(ii)

For whole mass of the rod . Then

( )

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Question

Show that moment of inertia of a uniform rectangular plate of sides 2a,2b about a
corner are . Also find same quantities at the centre.

Solution

We know that for a thin rod or strip,

( )

Moment of inertia of plate about y – axis ∫ ……………..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑦

() ∫ ( 𝑦) ……………..(ii)

For whole mass of the plate . Then

( )

Moment of inertia of plate about x – axis ∫ ……………..(iii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥

( ) ∫ ( 𝑥) ……………..(iv)

For whole mass of the plate . Then

( )

Now by using perpendicular axis theorem

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Question

Find moment of inertia of a uniform rectangular plate of mass M and edges of

lengths 2a,2b about a line passing through its centre, parallel to sides 2a,2b and
perpendicular to its plane.

Solution

We know that for a thin rod or strip,

Moment of inertia of a strip of thickness dy at a distance y to the origin is given by

∫ ……………..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑦

() ∫ ( 𝑦) ……………..(ii)

For whole mass of the plate . Then

( )

Moment of inertia of a strip of thickness dx at a distance x to the origin is given by

∫ ……………..(iii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥

( ) ∫ ( 𝑥) ……………..(iv)

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For whole mass of the plate . Then

( )

Now by using perpendicular axis theorem

Moment of inertia perpendicular to the plane

( )

Question

Find moment of inertia of a square plate of mass M and length of each edge is 2a
perpendicular to its plane.

Solution

Since we know that for a rectangular plate we have moment of inertia along x,y,z
axes as follows;

( )

Then using in we have ( )

Question

Find the M.I. of a uniform rod AB of length at the end of its extreme points.

Solution

Consider a uniform rod of length along x – axis as shown in figure

M.I. about y – axis ∫𝑥 𝑧 ∫𝑥 𝑧 in xy - plane

∫ 𝑥 𝑥

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Question
Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform (rigid) rod of length about an axis
perpendicular to the rod and passing through a mid-point.
Solution
y
A(-a,0) x dx B(a,0)
-x ………………………O………………………….. x
2a
-y
Consider a rod of length along x – axis. Centre of their rod is origin as shown in
figure.

Moment of inertia about y – axis for total length ∫ 𝑥 ……………..(i)

∫ 𝑥 𝑥 using

M.I. passing through mid – point

Using parallel axis theorem

Question
Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform (rigid) rod of length about an axis
passing through center without using parallel axis theorem.
Solution

Moment of inertia about y – axis for total length ∫ 𝑥 ……………..(i)

Consider a small portion of the rod whose mass is and length 𝑥, then linear
mass density is . i.e. 𝑥

() ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 ……………..(ii) using

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Question
Find the moment of inertia of diameters through centre and perpendicular to the
centre for semicircular lamina of mass m and radius .
Solution

Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr

M.I. of ring about its diameter 𝑟

M.I. of semi disk about x – axis ∫ 𝑟 ……………..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑟 𝑟

() ∫ 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 ∫ 𝑟 𝑟

using

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Question
Find the moment of inertia of diameters through centre and perpendicular to the
centre for semi elliptical lamina of mass M and semi axes
Solution
About x – axis

∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
For ellipse
∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 ∫ 𝑦 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦
𝑎 𝑏
∫ * √ 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑏
𝑦 √𝑎 𝑥
Using 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎

If 𝑥 then using all these assumptions we have

About y – axis

∫ ∫ (𝑥 𝑧 )

∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦

∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑦

∫ * √ 𝑥 + 𝑦
For ellipse

Using 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
𝑎 𝑏
If 𝑥 then using all these assumptions we have
𝑎
𝑥 √𝑏 𝑥
𝑏

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Question
Find the moment of inertia about an axis through centre and perpendicular to the
plane of the lamina.
Solution
We know that for semi elliptical lamina we have

and (if long Q then find separately)

Using perpendicular axis theorem

( )

Question
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform spherical shell of mass M and radius
about any diameter.
Solution

Spherical shells consist of circular rings of different radii but same thickness.
Moment of inertia of one ring about x – axis diameter 𝑦

M.I of spherical shell about its x – axis diameter ∫ 𝑦

Using . i.e. ( 𝑦) ( )( )

∫ ( ) ( )( )

using

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Question
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform square plate about any axis through its
centre and lying in the plane of the plate.
Or Prove that the moment of inertia about all lines through the centre of mass of
a uniform square lamina and lying in its plane are equal.
Solution

Square plate consists of parallel plates (strips) with thickness 𝑦 with length .

M.I. of one strip about y axis

M.I. of square plate about an axis ∫ ……………..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑦

() ∫ 𝑦 ∫ 𝑦

using

Using parallel axis theorem

( )

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Question

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Question

Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform triangular lamina about one of its
edges (sides).

Solution

Consider a uniform triangular lamina AOB. Let . Consider a strip

of length x and thickness dy at a distance of 𝑟 𝑦.

M.I. of strip about x – axis ∫𝑟 ∫( 𝑦) ……………..(i)

For uniform triangular lamina using 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ( 𝑦) ∫ ( 𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦

∫ ( 𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦 ……………..(ii)
| | | |
Since and are similar, so | | | |
𝑥

( ) ∫ ( 𝑦) 𝑦

∫ 𝑦( 𝑦 𝑦) 𝑦 | |

( )

For whole triangle using

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Question

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Question

Calculate the moment of inertia of a hoop (circular disk, ring) of mass M and
radius r about an axis passing through its center.

Solution

Consider a hoop of radius a and mass M.

Moment of inertia of the small portion of the hoop of mass about an axis
through center and perpendicular to the plane of the ring equals

∫𝑟 ……………..(i)

We consider this hoop to be composed of small masses ( ) each of length .

() ∫𝑟 ( )

𝑟 ∫ ∫

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Question

Find moment of inertia of a uniform circular plate or disk about its any diameter.

Solution

Disk consists of circular rings. Consider one ring of radius r and thickness dr.
Moment of inertia of a rings about its any diameter is 𝑟

M.I. of a disk about its x – axis diameter ∫ 𝑟

𝑟 𝑟

∫ 𝑟 ( 𝑟 𝑟)

⁄
∫ 𝑟 ( 𝑟 𝑟)

similarly

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Question

Calculate the moment of inertia of annular disk of mass M. The inner radius of the
annulus is 1 and the outer radius is 2 about an axis passing through its center.
Solution

Subdivide the annular disk into concentric rings one of which is shown in the fig.
Let the mass of the ring is , and the radius be r, then the moment of inertia of
the ring will be:

∫𝑟 ……………..(i)

The Surface area of the ring is; Area ( 𝑟) 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Since the surface area of the annulus is ( )

Therefore, we can have

( ) ( )

() ∫ 𝑟 (( ) ∫𝑟 𝑟
)

Thus the total M.I of the annulur disk will be

∫ 𝑟 𝑟

( )

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Question

Find the moment of inertia of a uniform circular disk of radius a, and mass M
about the (axis of the disk) line through its centre and perpendicular to its plane.

Solution

Consider a uniform circular disk of radius a and mass M. Consider a ring on

circular disk. Thickness of ring is dr and the distance from the origin is r.

Moment of inertia about z – axis ∫ 𝑟 ……………..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑟 𝑟

() ∫ 𝑟 ( 𝑟 𝑟) ……………..(ii) 𝑟

For whole mass . Then

( )

In case of circular disk then by using perpendicular axis theorem

also

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Question
Calculate the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of height h and radius
about its axis.
Solution

Let M be the mass, the radius and h the height of right circular cone. We regard
the cone as composed of elementary circular cylindrical discs of small thickness
each parallel to the base of the cone. We choose the z-axis along the axis of
symmetry, and consider a typical disc of radius r and width 𝑧 at a distance z from
the base.

Moment of inertia of disc

Moment of inertia of disc 𝑧𝑟 ……………..(i) for our disc

From figure 𝑟 ( )

() 𝑧( ( ))

Moment of inertia for whole cone about z axis ∫ ( 𝑧) 𝑧

using 𝑧 with as 𝑧

For whole mass of the cone . Then

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Question
Calculate the moment of inertia of a right circular cone about its axis of symmetry.
Solution

Let M be the mass, 𝑦 the radius and h the height of right circular cone. We regard
the cone as composed of elementary circular discs of small thickness each parallel
to the base of the cone. We choose the z-axis along the axis of symmetry, and
consider a typical disc of radius r and width 𝑧 at a distance z from the base.

Moment of inertia about z axis ∫ 𝑦 ……………..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑦 𝑧

From figure 𝑦

() ∫ 𝑦 𝑧 ∫ ( ) 𝑧 𝑟 ………..(ii)

For whole mass of the cone . Then

( ) 𝑟 𝑟 ‫الھچپوسالاسہصحکتایکاجاتکسےہ‬

If be the semi vertical angle of the cone then 𝑟 then

In this then by using perpendicular axis theorem

also

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Question

Prove that the moment of inertia of a uniform right circular cone using parallel axis
theorem of mass m, height and semi vertical angle about a diameter of its base
is ( ) ( )

Solution

In the case of M.I about its diameter, we consider the elementary disc of mass
whose moment of inertia about a diameter will be 𝑟 .

We note that the diameter passes through the center (which is also the centroid) of
the elementary disc. Hence by parallel axis theorem, the M.I. of the elementary
disc about a parallel axis (parallel diameter) at the base is given by

( )𝑧 𝑟 𝑧 ( 𝑟 𝑧 ) 𝑟 𝑧( 𝑟 𝑧 )

( 𝑟 𝑟 𝑧 ) 𝑧

From the similar triangles, we have

or 𝑟 ( )

Therefore

( * ( )+ * ( )+ 𝑧 ) 𝑧

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* ( 𝑧) ( 𝑧) 𝑧 + 𝑧

* ( 𝑧) ( 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 )+ 𝑧

Therefore M.I of complete right circular cone about a diameter is given by

∫ * ( 𝑧) ( 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 )+ 𝑧

* +

* +

Since we know that therefore

( )

Since the semi vertical angle of the right circular cone is , So by right triangle
AOB, we have then

( ( ) )

( )

Question

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Question
To find the moment of inertia of a solid circular cylinder of radius a, mass M and
the height of the cylinder about the axis of the cylinder.
Or Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform circular cylinder of height h and
radius a with respect to its longitudinal axis.
Solution

Consider a cylinder of radius a, mass M and the height of the cylinder is .

Consider a small disk of cylinder of thickness dz and z length from the origin.

Moment of inertia about z axis ∫ ……………..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑧

() ∫ 𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 ………..(ii)

For whole mass of the cylinder . Then

( )

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Question
Use the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of a solid circular
cylinder about a line on the surface of the cylinder and parallel to axis of cylinder.
Solution

Suppose the cross section of cylinder as in figure. Then the axis of the cylinder is
passing through the point C, while the line on the surface of cylinder is passing
through A. So, we have to find out M.I of circular cylinder about a line passing
through the point A whose radius is (radius of circular cylinder) and mass is M.
By parallel axis theorem …………..(1)
Since which is the moment of inertia of a solid circular cylinder about an axis
passing from the center of mass is defined by where is the radius of
a solid circular cylinder. Then

( )

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Question
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform circular cylinder of length h and radius a
about an axis through the center and perpendicular to the central axis, namely xx or
yy.

Or Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform circular cylinder of height h and

radius a about an axis through its centre of mass and perpendicular to its axis.
Solution

Consider a cylinder of radius a, mass M and the height of the cylinder is .

Consider a small disk of cylinder of thickness dz and z length from the origin.

Moment of inertia about z axis ∫ ……………..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑧

() ∫ 𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 ………..(ii)

For whole mass of the cylinder . Then

( )

In this then by using perpendicular axis theorem

also

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Let c be the centre of mass of the cylinder if the disc considered in the distance z
from c.

Then moment of inertia about 𝑦 is (by parallel axis theorem)

𝑧 ∫ ∫ 𝑧

∫ ( 𝑧 ) ………..(iii)

By using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑧

( ) ∫ ( 𝑧 ) 𝑧

∫ ( 𝑧 ) 𝑧 | 𝑧 𝑧 |

( )

For whole mass of the cylinder . Then

( )

( )

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Question

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Question

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Corollary

Question

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Question
Find the moment of inertia of a solid homogeneous sphere with respect to any
geometrical axis.
Or Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere of radius a and mass M
about an axis (thez-axis) passing through the center.
Solution

Consider a sphere of radius a, mass M. Consider a circular disk of thickness dz and

z length from the origin. Radius of circular disk is y as shown in figure.

Moment of inertia about z axis ∫ 𝑦 ……………..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑦 𝑧

() ∫ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 ∫ 𝑦 𝑧

∫ ( 𝑧 ) 𝑧 ∫ ( 𝑧 𝑧 ) 𝑧

………..(ii)

For whole mass of the sphere . Then

( )

For a uniform solid sphere, due to symmetry, we have

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Question
A thin uniform hollow sphere has a radius R and mass M. Calculate its moment of
inertia about any axis through its center.
Solution

In order to calculate the moment of inertia of the hollow sphere, we split the
hollow sphere into thin hoops (rings), as shown in Figure. We have already derived
the expression for the moment of inertia of a representative hoop of radius x, which
is 𝑥 of an elementary ring of mass and the radius x.
The volume of the elementary ring is 𝑥
and 𝑥
Moment of inertia of the small ring of radius x 𝑥 𝑥
Moment of inertia for the whole hollow sphere ∫ ∫ 𝑥

∫ 𝑥
To solve the integral, we need to write x in terms of .
From fig we have 𝑥 then the integral becomes,
∫ ( ) ∫

∫ ∫ ( )

For whole mass of the sphere . Then

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Question
Find the moment and product of inertia about the concurrent edges OX,OY,OZ of
a uniform regular block with dimensions 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 .
Solution

Consider a uniform rectangular block of length 2a, width 2b and height 2c as

shown in figure. Consider a small portion in this cuboid of mass and volume
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 then
Moment of inertia about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

Moment of inertia about x axis ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ……………..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

() ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ) ………..(ii)

For whole mass of the sphere . Then

( ) ( ) ( )

Similarly, we have ( ) ( )

Now for product of inertia consider ∫ 𝑥𝑦

∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……………..(iii)

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Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ) ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

………..(iv)

For whole mass of the sphere . Then

( )

Similarly, we have
Moment of Inertia of Rigid Body about any Line through the Origin/ in Space

Consider a rigid body of mass M rotates along line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

as shown in figure. Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) be any point on

the rigid body then a position vector of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧̂

Let ⃗ represents the direction of line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as follows

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Where are direction cosines with | ⃗| then

Moment of inertia about line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ………….(i)

where is perpendicular distance of line.

From figure 𝑟 𝑟 |𝑟⃗ ⃗|

̂ ̂ ̂
|𝑟⃗ ⃗| |𝑥 𝑦 𝑧| ( 𝑦 𝑧)̂ (𝑧 𝑥)̂ ( 𝑥 𝑦 )̂

( 𝑦 𝑧) (𝑧 𝑥) ( 𝑥 𝑦)
∫[( 𝑦 𝑧) (𝑧 𝑥) ( 𝑥 𝑦) ]

∫[ 𝑦 𝑧 𝑦𝑧 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥𝑧 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥𝑦]

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∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

∫𝑥 𝑦 ∫𝑦 𝑧 ∫𝑥 𝑧

This is the required expression for the Moment of Inertia of a Rigid Body about
any Line through the Origin (in space)
Question
Find moment of inertia of a rectangular block about a diagonal. Dimensions of
rectangular block are 2a,2b,2c respectively.
Solution
Consider a rectangular block of length 2a,width 2b and
height 2c as shown in figure. Now by using expression

of M.I about any line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. i.e.

Since we know that M.I and P.I of a rectangular bloc are

( ) ( ) ( )

For direction cosines we have a position vector of line ( ) to

( ) as 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ then

|𝑟⃗| √( ) ( ) ( ) √
Now direction cosines will become

√ √

√ √

√ √

Using all above values we have

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( ) ( ) ( )

[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [
]
( ) ( ) ( )
* + *
√ √
+
√ √ √ √

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
* + *
( )( )
+

* + * +

* + * +

* ( )
+

* +

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Position Vector of Center of Mass of the System of Particles

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ be the position vectors of a system of particles of

masses ∑ respectively [see Fig.].

The center of mass or centroid of the system of particles is defined as that point C
having position vector ⃗⃗ . And 𝑟⃗ is a position vector of each particle about centre
of mass C. then by varignon‟s theorem

Torque acting on the system of particle is equal to the sum of all torque acting on
each particle. i.e. ∑

⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗ ( 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗

⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗
∑ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∑

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Question: Show that ∑ ⃗⃗

Solution

Solution
For this we will use the position vector of the system of particles
∑ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ∑
……………..(1)

By using Head to Tail rule 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

∑ (⃗ ⃗ )
𝑟⃗

(∑ )⃗ ∑ ⃗ ⃗ ∑ ⃗ ∑ ⃗
𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

∑ ⃗
∑ 𝑟⃗ or ∑ 𝑟⃗

Note that ∑ 𝑟⃗ ̇ or ∑ ⃗

Then ∑ 𝑟⃗ ̈ or ∑ ⃗
Uniqueness of the c.m.
∑ ⃗ ∑ ⃗
Let 𝑟⃗ and 𝑟⃗ be p.v. of C and respectively, then from figure

̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ∑ ⃗ ∑ ⃗

̅̅̅̅ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

̅̅̅̅̅ ∑ (⃗ ⃗) ̅̅̅̅̅
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̅̅̅̅̅ is the same point as

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Parallel Axis Theorem / Huygens Steiner Theorem / Steiner Theorem

The rotational inertia about an axis is equal to the inertia about parallel axis
through centre of mass plus mass time the square of the distance between two
parallel axis. i.e.

This theorem also known as Huygens Steiner Theorem or just Steiner Theorem,
named after Christian Huygens and Jakob Steiner.

Importance

This theorem helps us in calculating moment of inertia matrix of a rigid body at

any point in terms of information about the same body at some other point. This
theorem is used to find rotation of Earth about its own axis and sun axis.

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Proof

Consider a rigid body of mass M. Let denotes the moment of inertia of body
about . Let us take its ith particle of mass at a distance of from the central
axis then

∑ ………………(1)

Now using 𝑟 | ̂ ||𝑟⃗ | | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | and 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

| ̂ (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )| | ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

( ) ∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

∑ |( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ )|

∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ̂ ∑ |𝑟⃗ |

∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ∑ 𝑟⃗

∑ ∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ( )

proved

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Parallel Axis Theorem (another Proof)

The rotational inertia about an axis is equal to the inertia about parallel axis
through centre of mass plus mass time the square of the distance between two
parallel axis. i.e.

Importance

This theorem helps us in calculating moment of inertia matrix of a rigid body at

any point in terms of information about the same body at some other point. This
theorem is used to find rotation of Earth about its own axis and sun axis.

Proof

Consider a rigid body of mass M. Let denotes the inertia of body about its
central axis. Let us take its ith particle of mass at a distance of 𝑥 from the
central axis then ∑ 𝑥

Now consider a parallel axis at a distance from the central axis. The rotational
inertia about this parallel axis is given by

∑ ( 𝑥) ∑ ( 𝑥 𝑥) (∑ ) ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑥

( )

proved

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Parallel Axis Theorem (another Proof)

The rotational inertia about an axis is equal to the inertia about parallel axis
through centre of mass plus mass time the square of the distance between two
parallel axis. i.e.

Importance

This theorem helps us in calculating moment of inertia matrix of a rigid body at

any point in terms of information about the same body at some other point. This
theorem is used to find rotation of Earth about its own axis and sun axis.

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Proof

Consider a body whose centre of mass is located at the origin of the prime
coordinate system that is at point (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) relative to the unprimed system.
Consider an infinitesimal particle of mass which is located at (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )
relative to the unprime system and (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) relative to the prime system as
shown in figure. Then

Moment of inertia about x – axis ∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) …………..(1)

By using head to tail rule 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧)

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

( ) ∫[(𝑦 𝑦) (𝑧 𝑧) ]

∫[𝑦 𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧]

∫[(𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑦𝑦 𝑧 𝑧]

∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑦 ∫𝑦 𝑧 ∫𝑧

∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑦( ) 𝑧 ( )

(𝑦 𝑧 )∫ ∫(𝑦 𝑧 )

(𝑦 𝑧 )

(𝑦 𝑧 ) result of parallel axis theorem about x – axis

Similarly

(𝑥 𝑧 ) result of parallel axis theorem about y – axis

(𝑥 𝑦 ) result of parallel axis theorem about z – axis

Respectively.

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Now consider

Product of inertia about x,y – axis ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) …………..(2)

By using head to tail rule 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧)

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

( ) ∫(𝑥 𝑥 )(𝑦 𝑦) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦)

∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

𝑥 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 ∫(𝑦 ) 𝑦 ∫(𝑥 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

𝑥 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑦( ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ∑ 𝑟 ∫𝑟

∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) 𝑥 𝑦 ∫

𝑥 𝑦

Similarly 𝑦𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

In vector form we know that ∫𝑟

∫(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ∫(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )

∫(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ∫(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )

𝑟⃗ ∫ ∫ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∫ 𝑟⃗

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( )

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Parallel Axis Theorem (For discrete mass distribution)

The moment of inertia of a rigid body in the form of discrete mass distribution (set
of particles) about a given axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of the same
body about a parallel axis (to the given axis) through the centre of mass of the
body and moment of inertia due to total mass of the body placed at is centre of
mass, about the given axis. i.e.

Proof: Consider a rigid body of mass M. Let denotes the moment of inertia
of body about . Let us take its ith particle of mass at a distance of from the
central axis then ∑ ………………(1)

Now using 𝑟 | ̂ ||𝑟⃗ | | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | and 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

| ̂ (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )| | ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

( ) ∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

∑ |( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ )|

∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ∑ | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ̂ ∑ |𝑟⃗ |

∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ∑ 𝑟⃗

∑ ∑ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ( )

proved

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Parallel Axis Theorem (For Continuous mass distribution)

The moment of inertia of a rigid body in the form of continuous mass distribution
about a given axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of the same body about
a parallel axis (to the given axis) through the centre of mass of the body and
moment of inertia due to total mass of the body placed at is centre of mass, about
the given axis. i.e.

Proof: Consider a rigid body of mass ∫ . Let denotes the moment

th
of inertia of body about . Let us take its i particle of mass at a distance of
from the central axis then ∫ ………………(1)

Now using 𝑟⃗ | ̂ ||𝑟⃗| | ̂ 𝑟⃗| and 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗

| ̂ (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )| | ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

( ) ∫| ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ |

∫|( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ )|

∫| ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ∫| ̂ 𝑟⃗ | | ̂ 𝑟⃗ | ̂ ∫|𝑟⃗ |

∫( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ∫( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ∫(𝑟⃗ )

∫ ∫ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) ̂ ( )

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Perpendicular Axis Theorem/ Perpendicular Axis Theorem (for a particle)

/Plane Figure Theorem

The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body about an axis perpendicular to the
body is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about two mutually
perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the body and meeting at the common point
with the given axis. i.e.

Or The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body about a perpendicular axis is

equal to the sum of the moment of inertias about the orthogonal axes of the plane.
i.e.

Importance: This theorem helps us in calculating moment of inertia matrix

of a rigid body at any point in terms of information about the same body at some
other point.

Proof

Let us consider a rectangular frame of reference OXYZ. If there is a distribution of

matter in xy – plane. i.e. z = 0, then

Moment of inertia about x – axis ∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫𝑦 ……..(1)

Moment of inertia about y – axis ∫(𝑥 𝑧 ) ∫𝑥 ……..(2)

Moment of inertia about z – axis ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ……..(3)

Adding (1) and (2)

∫𝑦 ∫𝑥 ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

similarly we may write

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Perpendicular Axis Theorem (for discrete mass distribution)

The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body in the form of discrete mass
distribution (set of particles) about an axis perpendicular to the body is equal to the
sum of the moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes lying in the
plane of the body and meeting at the common point with the given axis. i.e.

Proof

Let us consider a rectangular frame of reference OXYZ. If there is a distribution of

matter in xy – plane. i.e. z = 0, then

Moment of inertia about x – axis ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∑ 𝑦 ……..(1)

Moment of inertia about y – axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 ) ∑ 𝑥 ……..(2)

Moment of inertia about z – axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 ) ……..(3)

Adding (1) and (2)

∑ 𝑦 ∑ 𝑥 ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )

Similarly we may write

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Perpendicular Axis Theorem (for continuous mass distribution)

The moment of inertia of a plane rigid body in the form of continuous mass
distribution about an axis perpendicular to the body is equal to the sum of the
moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the
body and meeting at the common point with the given axis. i.e.

Proof

Let us consider a rectangular frame of reference OXYZ. If there is a distribution of

matter in xy – plane. i.e. z = 0, then

Moment of inertia about x – axis ∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫𝑦 ……..(1)

Moment of inertia about y – axis ∫(𝑥 𝑧 ) ∫𝑥 ……..(2)

Moment of inertia about z – axis ∫(𝑥 𝑦 ) ……..(3)

Adding (1) and (2)

∫𝑦 ∫𝑥 ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

Similarly we may write

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Linear and Angular Variables in Scalar Form

When a body moves along a straight line, then we use linear variables. i.e.

Linear displacement (S), Linear Velocity ( ) and Linear Acceleration ( )

When a body moves along a circular path, then we use angular variables. i.e.

Angular displacement ( ), Angular Velocity ( ) and Angular Acceleration ( )

Linear and Angular Velocity of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis/ Linear and
Angular Velocity (Speed) in Scalar Form.

Let a body moves along a circular path, moving in a circle with constant radius
𝑟 from point A to B length of arc will be . i.e. and angle between
two radii is . i.e. then we know that

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Linear and Angular Acceleration of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis/ Linear
and Angular Acceleration in Scalar Form.

Let a body moves along a circular path, moving in a circle with

constant radius 𝑟 from point A to B length of arc will be .
i.e. and angle between two radii is . i.e.
then we know that

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Total Acceleration produced by a body with moves with Angular Speed.

In case of circular motion body moves with a centripetal acceleration which is

towards the centre. We know that also therefore

since body moves with angular speed therefore 𝑟

( )
𝑟

If is a tangential acceleration and since then by Pythagoras Theorem

This is expression of resultant acceleration in case of circular motion.

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Linear and Angular Variables in Vector Form

Since 𝑟 (𝑟 ) therefore

from figure 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟

𝑟 (𝑟 )

| ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗| by Right Hand Rule

̂ | ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗| ̂

⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

Kinetic Energy of Rotation

A rigid body consists of n – particles, each of

mass with position vector of

each is 𝑟⃗ . Then total kinetic energy of body is

Since rotation is angular so 𝑟

We use angular velocity as because it remains same for all particles of a rigid
body. Then

∑ 𝑟 ∑ 𝑟

By using ∑ 𝑟 which is called rotational inertia of a body or moment of

inertia of a body w.r.to axes of rotation. It plays same role in angular motion as
mass in linear motion. So,

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Result Prove that

Proof

In linear motion momentum of force is 𝑟 𝑟( )

In rotational motion momentum of force is

𝑟( ) ( ) 𝑟( ) using 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Angular Momentum of System of Particles

Since we know that moment of linear momentum of a system of particles is called

angular momentum, therefore

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ )

⃗⃗ ∑ *( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗̇ )+ using 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗̇

⃗⃗ ∑ * ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗̇ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ +

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ (∑ ) ⃗⃗̇ ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗̇ (∑ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗̇ ∑ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇

Using ∑ ⃗⃗̇ ⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗̇ ∑ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗̇

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Hence total angular momentum ⃗⃗ of a system of particles is equal to the sum

of angular momentum ⃗⃗ about origin and angular momentum ⃗⃗ about
centre of mass of a system of particle.

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Question

Question

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Question

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Solution

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Question

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Question

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Question

Masses of 1,2and 3kg are located at positions ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

respectively. If their velocities are ̂ ̂ ̂. Find the position and velocity of
centre of mass. Also find the angular momentum of the system with respect to the
origin.

Solution

Given that

𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂
∑ ⃗
Radius vector of centre of mass is given by ⃗⃗ ∑

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗

∑ ⃗⃗
Velocity of centre of mass is given by ⃗ ∑

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗

Angular momentum of system of particles is given by ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ )

⃗⃗ ( )( ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂) ( )( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( )( ̂ ̂ ̂)

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

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Question

Masses of 4,3and 1kg moves under a force such that their position vectors at time t
are 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ respectively. Find the position
vector and velocity of the centre of mass and angular momentum of the system
with respect to the origin at .

Solution

Given that

𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂

⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂
∑ ⃗
Radius vector of centre of mass is given by ⃗⃗ ∑

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ at

∑ ⃗⃗
Velocity of centre of mass is given by ⃗ ∑

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ at

Angular momentum of system of particles is given by ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ )

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ at

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Question

Particle of Masses 1,2and 4kg moves under a force such that their position vectors
at time t are 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ respectively.
Find the angular momentum of the system with respect to the origin at .

Solution Given that

𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂

⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂

Angular momentum of system of particles is given by ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) (𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) ̂ ̂ at

Question

The position vectors and velocities of Masses 2,3and 4kg are respectively ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ . If their velocities are ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ . Find the position and
velocity of centre of mass. Also find the total angular momentum of the system
with respect to the origin.

Solution Given that

𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂

∑ ⃗
Radius vector of centre of mass is given by ⃗⃗ ∑

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗

∑ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Velocity of centre of mass is given by ⃗ ∑

Angular momentum of system of particles is given by ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

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Kinetic Energy of System of Particles

For a system of particles ∑

∑ ( ⃗ ⃗ ) ………………(1)

From figure by Head to Tail rule

⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

( ) ∑ (⃗ ⃗ ) (⃗ ⃗)

∑ (⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗)

∑ ( ⃗ ⃗ )

(∑ ) ⃗ ∑ ⃗ ∑

⃗ ( ) ∑ ∑

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Hence total K.E. ⃗⃗ of a system of particles is equal to the sum of K.E. ⃗⃗ of

centre of mass w.r.to origin and K.E. ⃗⃗ of ith particle w.r.to centre of mass of
a system of particle.

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Remark

 Translational Motion: Motion of a body in a straight line on the plane or

rough surface.
 Rotational Motion: Motion of a body about a fixed axis in the space.

Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body in General (Konig Theorem)

For a system of particles ∫ ………………(1)

From figure by Head to Tail rule

⃗⃗̇
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ̇

Now ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ̇ ) ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ̇ ) ̇ 𝑟̇ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ̇

( ) ∫ ∫* ̇ 𝑟̇ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ̇ +

̇ ∫ ∫ 𝑟̇ ⃗⃗̇ ∫ 𝑟⃗ ̇

̇ ∫ 𝑟̇ ⃗⃗̇ ( ) ̇ ∫ 𝑟̇

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

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Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed Point

Consider a rigid body rotate about a fixed point O. Consider a

point (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) which rotate with the motion of rigid body
then
Kinetic Energy for single particle at of mass is given by

For whole body we get ∫ ∫

∫ …………………..(i)

In case of rotation ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ where ⃗⃗ is angular velocity

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂)

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ | |
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

⃗ (𝑧 𝑦 )̂ (𝑥 𝑧 )̂ (𝑦 𝑥 )̂

(𝑧 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑥 )

() ∫ *(𝑧 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑥 ) +

𝑧 𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝑧 𝑥𝑧 𝑦
∫0 1
𝑥 𝑥𝑦

∫(𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑧 ) ∫(𝑥 𝑦 )

0 1
∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ 𝑦𝑧 ∫ 𝑧𝑥

[ ]

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In terms of matrix we have [ ] * +[ ]

Special Case: When the body rotates about the principle axis then

Product of inertias then

[ ] required expression

Question

Find the K.E of homogeneous circular cylinder of mass m and radius a rolling on a
plane with linear velocity.

Solution

Since we know that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ……………….(i)

In case of cylinder moment of inertia

() ⃗⃗ since 𝑟

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Kinetic Energy in terms of Rotational and Angular Momentum

Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis passing through a fixed point in it with
an angular velocity ⃗⃗ consisting of n – particles of mass where position vector
is 𝑟⃗ moving with velocity ⃗ . Then expressing of kinetic energy is given by

∑ (⃗ ⃗ ) ∑ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

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Radius of Gyration of Various Bodies

Radius of gyration of a body is defined as the distance from the reference axis
at which the given area is assumed to be compressed and kept as a thin strip,
such that there is no change in its moment of inertia. It specifies the distribution
of the elements of body around the axis in terms of the mass moment of inertia, As
it is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a point mass m that
gives an equivalent inertia to the original object m The nature of the object does
not affect the concept, which applies equally to a surface bulk mass.

Mathematically the radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the
object's parts from either its center of mass or the given axis, depending on the
relevant application.

Let ∑ be the moment of inertia of a system of particles about AB, and

∑ be the total mass of the system. Then the quantity K such that

∑ ∑
or √ √
∑ ∑

is called the radius of gyration of the system AB.

Example

Find the radius of gyration, K, of the triangular lamina of mass M and moment of
inertia .

Solution

Since formula for radius of gyration is given by

or √

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The Compound Pendulum

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Question

Difference between simple and compound pendulums.

Answer

 The metallic bob suspended by a weightless inextensible string is called

simple pendulum. The distance between point of suspension and center of
bob is called length of simple pendulum. The bob at rest when no resultant
force acts on it is called mean position or equilibrium position. But a
physical or compound pendulum is a rigid body that oscillates due to its
own weight about a horizontal axis that does not pass through the center of
mass of the body.
 In simple pendulum we have point mass/single mass particle but in
compound pendulum we have not a point mass, we have distribution of
mass. In compound pendulum we first define center of gravity, we define all
particles distribution by centre of mass.

Question

Obtain the equation of motion of compound pendulums.

Answer

𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

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K.E. of rotation ̇

P.E. of rotation ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

P.E. of rotation in component form

By the principal of conservation of energy Constant

̇ ( ̈) ̇

̈ after simplification

Question

Show that length of simple pendulum is equivalent to compound pendulum.

Answer

By equation of motion of simple pendulum we have ̈

For small vibration then ̈

̈ ……………..(1)

By equation of motion of compound pendulum we have ̈

For small vibration then ̈

̈ ……………..(2)

Comparing (1) and (2) we have

which is equal to compound pendulum.

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CHAPTER

MOTION OF RIGID BODIES

IN THREE DIMENSIONS AND
7
MOMEMNT OF INERTIA
OF RIGID BODIES
Relation b/w Angular Momentum and Moment of Inertia
Or Angular Momentum in Terms of Moment of Inertia

Consider a rigid body consisting of n – particles of which rotate

and translate then angular momentum about origin is

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)
Since angular velocity
In case of rotation ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗
remains same for each
⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ )) particle of a rigid body

⃗⃗ ∑ [(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ )𝑟⃗ ]

⃗⃗ ∑ [𝑟 ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ )𝑟⃗ ] ……………..(i)

Consider position vector for each particle is

𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧̂ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 and ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 and ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

() ̂ ̂ ̂ ∑ [(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )( ̂ ̂ ̂)
(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )(𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ )]

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̂ ̂ ̂
{(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )𝑥 } ̂
∑ [ {(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )𝑦 } ̂ ]
{(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )𝑧 } ̂

̂ ̂ ̂
{(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 }̂
∑ [ {(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑦𝑧 } ̂]
{(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥𝑧 𝑦𝑧 𝑧 }̂

̂ ̂ ̂
{𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 }̂
∑ [ {𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑦𝑧 } ]̂
{𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑧 𝑦𝑧 𝑧 }̂

{𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 }̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ∑ [ {𝑥 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 } ̂]
{𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑧 𝑦𝑧 }̂

̂ ̂ ̂

{∑ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ( ∑ 𝑥𝑦) ( ∑ 𝑥𝑧) }̂
[{∑ (𝑥 𝑧 ) ( ∑ 𝑥𝑦) ( ∑ 𝑦𝑧) } ̂]
{∑ (𝑥 𝑦 ) ( ∑ 𝑥𝑧) (∑ 𝑦𝑧) }̂

{ }̂ Product of inertia may

̂ ̂ ̂ [{ } ̂] be positive, may be
negative or zero.
{ }̂

{ }̂
̂ ̂ ̂ [{ } ̂]
{ }̂

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On comparing we have

Inertia Matrix

In matrix form we have * + * +[ ] ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Here * + is called inertia matrix.

Results

 M.I about x – axis then ⃗⃗ ( ) and

 M.I about y – axis then ⃗⃗ ( ) and

 M.I about z – axis then ⃗⃗ ( ) and

is not parallel to

Rotational Kinetic Energy in terms of Inertia Matrix

Since we know that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ but ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ then

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗)

Principal Axes: The axes along which angular momentum and angular velocities
are parallel (coincident) vectors are called principal axes. Or axis relative to which
products of inertia are equal to zero known as principal axes.

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Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia

In Inertia Matrix form we have

* + * +[ ] ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Here * + is called inertia matrix.

In * + the off diagonal elements are zero. i.e.

Then we get principle axes.

1st Principle axes (x – axes)

2nd Principle axes (y – axes)

3rd Principle axes (z – axes)

Then the matrix [ ] is called Principal Moments of Inertia Matrix.

Keep in mind: When a rigid body is rotating about a fixed point O, the angular
velocity vector ⃗⃗ and the angular momentum vector ⃗⃗ (about O) are not in general
in the same direction. However it can be proved that at each point in the body there
exists distinct directions, which are fixed relative to the body, along which the two
vectors are aligned i.e. coincident. Such directions are called principal directions
and the axes along them are referred to as principal axes of inertia. The
corresponding moments of inertia are called principal moments of inertia. Or
inertia relative to the principal axis is called principal moments of inertia.

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Remarks

 Inertia matrix is symmetric.

 Axes of this coordinate system are called Principal Axes.
 The origin of the Principle Axis is called Principal Point.
 The three coordinate planes each passes through the two principal axes is
called Principal Plane.
 Why we use instead of ? Single subscript use in
is used to distinguish the moment of inertia about arbitrary axis.
 Orthogonality of Principal Axes
If the principal axes at each point of the body exist, then their orthogonality
can be proved by stating that axes relative to which product of inertia are
zero are the principal axes.
 Why do not change with time? If Principal axes are attached to the
rigid body then do not change with time. So they are treated as a
constant.

Angular Momentum in Terms of Inertia using Principal Axes

In case of Principal Axes system we have

⃗⃗ …………………(1)

For M.I about x – axis we have ⃗⃗ ( ) then

For M.I about y – axis we have ⃗⃗ ( ) then

For M.I about z – axis we have ⃗⃗ ( ) then

( ) ⃗⃗ …………………(2)

Equating (1) and (2) we have

In Inertia Matrix form we have

[ ] [ ][ ] ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

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Theorem

Show that Products of Inertia for Principal Axis are equal to zero.

Proof

We know that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Also ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

⃗⃗ ∑ [(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ]

⃗⃗ ∑ [𝑟 ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ] ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟 ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗

∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ∑ 𝑟 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ [∑ 𝑟 ] ⃗⃗ …….………..(1)

Consider 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧̂ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

and ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ then 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ) ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )(𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂)

[∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ]( ̂ ̂ ̂)

[∑ (𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 )] ̂ [∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
𝑦𝑧 )] ̂ [∑ (𝑥 𝑧 𝑦𝑧 𝑧 )] ̂

[∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ] ̂ [∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ] ̂
[∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ] ̂ …….………..(2)

Comparing coefficients of ̂ in (2)

∑ (𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑧 ) [∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ]

Comparing coefficients of

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∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑥 ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 )

And ∑ 𝑥𝑦 Also ∑ 𝑥𝑧

Comparing coefficients of ̂ in (2)

∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦𝑧 ) [∑ (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) ]

Comparing coefficients of

∑ 𝑦 ∑ 𝑦 ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 ) ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 )

And ∑ 𝑦𝑧

Hence prove

Theorem

Show that in matrix notation * ⃗⃗̇+ [ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗] [ ][ ⃗⃗̇] where is the inertia matrix.

Proof

We know that [ ⃗⃗] [ ][ ⃗⃗]

Also ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

[ ][ ⃗⃗] ∑ (𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

[ ][ ⃗⃗̇] ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ) ……………..(1)

Now ⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) [∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗ )]

⃗⃗̇ ∑ (𝑟⃗̇ ⃗ 𝑟⃗
⃗⃗
) ⃗⃗̇ ∑ (⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

⃗⃗̇ ∑ ( 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ ))

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⃗⃗̇ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗ )

⃗⃗̇ ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) [ ][ ⃗⃗̇] ……………..(2) using (1)

Now

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ 𝑟⃗ [( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ]

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ 𝑟⃗ [( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ]

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ )(𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗) ∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ )

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ )(𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗) ……………..(3)

Similarly ∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ))

∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ ⃗⃗ [(𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ) ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ]

∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ ⃗⃗ [𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)𝑟⃗ ]

∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗) ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ )

∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ )

∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)(𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗)

( ) ∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ∑ ⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ⃗)

∑ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗) ⃗⃗ ∑ (𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

( ) ⃗⃗̇ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ [ ][ ⃗⃗̇]

*⃗⃗̇+ [⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗] [ ][⃗⃗⃗⃗̇]

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Theorem: For a rigid body, there exist a set of three mutually orthogonal
axes called principal axes relative to which the product of inertia are zero and
angular velocities and angular momentum are oriented along the same direction.
Or Prove that there are three principal moments of inertia (eigenvalues)
relative to the principal axis.

Proof: Since we know that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

* + * +[ ]

……….(1)
Also from general theory of angular momentum ∑

……….(2)

Comparing (1) and (2)

After rearranging we have

( )

( )
( )
This is the homogeneous system of equations which have the non – trivial solution

So | | which is cubic in I gives three principal M.I.

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Determination of Principal Axes by Diagonalizing the Inertia Matrix

How to find the Principal Axes

Since we know that

And for Principal Axes we have ; ;

Then

After rearranging we have

( )

( )

( )

This is the homogeneous system of equations which have the non – trivial solution

So | | this is the required result to find the

Principal Axes and the matrix * + is called

diagonalizable inertia matrix.

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Determination of Principal Axes by Diagonalizing the Inertia Matrix

(another way)

Suppose a rigid body has no axis of symmetry. Even so, the tensor that represents
the moment of inertia of such a body is characterized by a real, symmetric 3 × 3
matrix that can be diagonalized. The resulting diagonal elements are the values of
the principal moments of inertia of the rigid body.

The axes of the coordinate system, in which this matrix is diagonal, are the
principal axes of the body, because all products of inertia have vanished. Thus,
finding the principal axes and corresponding moments of inertia of any rigid body,
symmetric or not, is virtually the same as to diagonalizing its moment of inertia
matrix.

Explanation

There are a number of ways to diagonalize a real, symmetric matrix. We present

here a way that is quite standard.

First, suppose that we have found the coordinate system (principal axes) in which
all products of inertia vanish and the resulting moment of inertia tensor is now
represented by a diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the principal
moments of inertia.

Let be the unit vectors that represent this coordinate system, that is, they point
along the direction along the three principal axes of the rigid body. If the moment
of inertia tensor is "dotted" with one of these unit vectors, the result is equivalent to
a simple multiplication of the unit vector by a scalar quantity, i.e.

(1)

The quantities are just the principal M.I about their respective principal axes.
The problem of finding the principal axes is one of finding those vectors that
satisfy the condition

( ) (2)

In general this condition is not satisfied for any arbitrary set of orthonormal unit
vectors . It is satisfied only by a set of unit vectors aligned with the principal axes
of the rigid body.

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Any arbitrary xyz coordinate system can always be rotated such that the coordinate
axes line up with the principal axes. The unit vectors specifying these coordinate
axes then satisfy the condition in equation (2). This condition is equivalent to
vanishing of the following determinant

| | (3)

Explicitly, this equation reads

It is a cubic in , namely, (4)

In which A,B, and C are functions of the 's. The three roots , and are the
three principal moments of inertia.

We now have the principal moments of inertia, but the task of specifying the
components of the unit vectors representing the principal axes in terms of our
initial coordinate system remains to be solved.

Here we can make use of the fact that when the rigid body rotates about one of its
principal axes; the angular momentum vector is in the same direction as the
angular velocity vector.

Let the angles of one of the principal axes relative to the initial xyz coordinate
system be , and and let the body rotate about this axis. Therefore, a unit
vector pointing in the direction of this principal axis has components
( ).

Using equation (1),

where , the first principal moment of the three ( ), is obtained by solving

eq (4).

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In matrix form

 The direction cosines may be found by solving the above equations.

 The solutions are not independent. They are subject to the constraint

 In other words the resultant vector specified by these components is a unit

vector.

Question
Find the moment of inertia and product of inertia of a homogeneous cube of side
and for an origin at corner with axes directly along the edges and write down the
inertia matrix.
Solution
Since inertias of cube of side are

M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ……..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

() ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ( )

For whole mass of the cube . Then When mass is not given then use
integration in solution
( )

For cubical shape (with equal length and edges),

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Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ( )

For whole mass of the cube . Then

( )

For cubical shape (with equal length and edges),

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ]
Question
Four particles of masses m,2m,3m,4m are located at
( )( )( ) and ( ) respectively. Calculate its
principal moment of inertia.
Solution
Given masses are . Given points for each
masses ( ) ( ) ( ) and ( ) and Required
Principal moment of inertia are . First of all we find all moment of inertia.
M.I. about x axis ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 )
(𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

And in this case

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Product of Inertia ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )
(𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Also ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 )

(𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 ) (𝑦 𝑧 )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

And ∑ (𝑧 𝑥 )
(𝑧 𝑥 ) (𝑧 𝑥 ) (𝑧 𝑥 ) (𝑧 𝑥 )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

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| | ( )[( ) ]

( ) ( )

√ √ √

( √ ) ( √ ) using
Question
A square of side 2a has particles of masses m,2m,3m,4m at its vertices. Calculate
its principal moment of inertia at the centre of square.
Solution

Given masses are . Given points for each

masses ( ) ( ) ( ) and ( ) and Required Principal
moment of inertia are . First of all we find all moment of inertia.
In case of square 𝑧
M.I. about x axis ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∑ 𝑦

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

And in this case

M.I. about z axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 ) or using perpendicular axis theorem

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Product of Inertia ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )
(𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Also In case of square 𝑧

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

| | ( )[( ) ]

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) using

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Question
Find the moment of inertia for a cube of mass M and side and for an origin at
one corner.
Solution
Since inertias of cube of side are

M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ……..(i)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

() ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ( )

For whole mass of the cube . Then

( )

For cubical shape (with equal length and edges),

Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using volume mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ( )

For whole mass of the cube . Then

( )

For cubical shape (with equal length and edges),

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

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[ ]

[ ]

[ ] [ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

| |

( )
| |

( )| |

( ) | |

( ) | |

( )[( )( ) ]
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )

using

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Question
A uniform square plate OABC which has sides of length is cut in half along the
diagonal OB. Calculate Principal M.I. of triangular plate OAB relative to the
corner.
Solution
Consider A uniform square plate OABC
which has sides of length is cut in half along
the diagonal OB as shown in figure.
Since square plate is in xy – plane, so z = 0 and

M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass . Then

( )

( ) and In case of square

By using Perpendicular axis theorem

Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass . Then

( )

( ) . Here

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Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ]

[ ]

[ ] [ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

| | ( )| |

( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )

using

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Question
Find the inertia matrix for a uniform square plate of length about a pair of
adjacent edges taken as OX,OY axes and calculate the principal moments and
principal axes at the origin of the coordinate system OXYZ.
Solution
M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

In case of square

By using Perpendicular axis theorem

Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

Here for xy – plane.

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

using

[ ] [ ]

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Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

| |
| |

√ √

For Directions of Principal Axes

Directions for first Principal Axes
( )

( ) ……………….(1)

( )

Using in (1) also using in previously find axes

( )

( )

( )

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂
Similarly find Directions for second, third Principal Axes

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Question
Find the principal moments and principal axes of inertia matrix for a uniform
rectangular plate of sides at its centre.
Solution
M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

M.I. about y axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about y axis ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about y axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑥 ∫ ∫ 𝑥 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

By using Perpendicular axis theorem ( )

Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(iii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

Here for xy – plane.

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

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solve yourself

[ ( )]

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia solve yourself

| |

For Directions of Principal Axes solve following

equations
( )

( )

( )

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Question
Three uniform rods OA,OB and OC are each of unit length and unit mass relative
to coordinate system OXYZ, the coordinates of A,B and C are respectively ( )
√
( ) and ( ). Show their principal moment of inertia.

Solution

M.I. of rod about x axis ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 )

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

M.I. of rod about y axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 )

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

M.I. of rod about z axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )

( )( ) ( )( ) *( ) ( ) ( ) ( )+

Product of Inertia ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )

√ √
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

∑ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 )

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

√
√
√
*√ + using

[ ]

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

√ √ √ √

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Question
A square of side has particles of masses at its vertices. Calculate
Principal M.I. also find direction of principal axes.
Solution
M.I. about x axis ∑ (𝑦 𝑧 )
∑ 𝑦 for xy – plane z = 0
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

M.I. about y axis ∑ (𝑥 𝑧 )

∑ 𝑥 for xy – plane z = 0

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Using perpendicular axis theorem

Product of Inertia ∑ (𝑥 𝑦 )
[ (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 )]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

In this case

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Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ] [ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

| | ( ) [( ) ( ) ]

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )

using

For Directions of Principal Axes

Directions for first Principal Axes
( )

( ) ……………….(1)

( )

Using in (1) also using in previously find axes

( )

( )

( )

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Put any arbitrary constant we get

;

; since
; multiplying by 5

subtracting and solving

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂

Directions for second Principal Axes

Using in (1) also using in previously find axes

( )
( )
( )
And ;

arbitrary constant

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Directions for third Principal Axes

Using in (1) also using in previously find axes

( )

( )

( )
And ;

arbitrary constant

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂

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Question
Find the principal moments of inertia and the principal axes of a uniform solid
hemisphere about a point on its rim.
Solution
Let M be the mass and be the radius.
Inertia matrix at A

M.I. at the base A

P.I. at the base A

* +

[ ]

[ ] using

Inertia matrix at C

Using parallel axis theorem

( )

P.I. at C due to symmetry

[ ]

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Inertia matrix at O

Using parallel axis theorem

If (𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ 𝑧̅ ) denote the coordinate of the centroid w.r.to 𝑥𝑦𝑧 then

𝑥̅ 𝑦̅

𝑥̅ 𝑧̅

𝑦̅𝑧̅

[ ]

[ ] using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia about O, the rim we have

| | | |

( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )[( )( ) ]
( )( )

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Eigenvector or Directions for Principal Axes about ring O

Directions for first Principal Axes
( )

( ) ……………….(1)

( )

Using in (1) also using previously find axes

( )

( )

( )

Put any arbitrary constant we get

;
; since
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ [ ]

Directions for second Principal Axes

Using in (1) also using previously find axes

( )

( )

( )

Put then
;
; since

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ [ ]

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Directions for third Principal Axes

Using in (1) also using previously find axes

( )

( )

( )

We get

Put then
;
; since

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ [ ]

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Theorem (Inclination of Principal Axes with Coordinate Axes)

Show that for two dimensional Lamina one of the principal axes is in inclined at an
angle to the x – axis then

Solution:

Consider two dimensional plate in xy – plane which rotate with an angle .

Then and

Using the following by Principal Axis theorem

( ) ………..(1)

( ) ………..(2)

( ) ………..(3)

Using and with product of inertia

( ) ( ) ………..(4)

( ) ( ) ………..(5)

( ) ( )

………..(6)

( ) ( )

………..(7)

Subtracting (6) and (7)

( ) ( )

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( ) using

( ) ( )

Question
For a uniform rectangular lamina ABCD with sides of length , find
the direction of principal axis at the corner A.
Solution

Consider a uniform rectangular lamina ABCD with sides of length

as shown in figure. For rectangular plate we have
M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass of the lamina . Then

( )

Similarly

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Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass of the lamina . Then

( ) . Here

For the direction of principal axis at the corner A we use

( ) ( ( ))

Question
Show that in a plane rectangular lamina the direction of the principal axes at a
( )
corner is given by

Solution

M.I. about x axis ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

M.I. about y axis ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )

M.I. about y axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑥 ∫ ∫ 𝑥 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 using ( )

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Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(iii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

using ( )

For the direction of principal axis at the corner A we use

( )

( )

Question
A triangular plate is made up of uniform material and has sides of lengths
√ . Calculate Principal M.I. about the 30 corner and find the direction of
the Principal Axis.
Solution
Consider a triangular plate OAB which has sides of

length √ as shown in figure.

√
M.I. about x axis ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 ) ∫ ∫ (𝑦 𝑧 )
√
M.I. about x axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑦 ……..(i)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

√ √
() ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass . Then

(√ ) √

√
( )
√

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√
M.I. about y axis ∫ (𝑥 𝑧 ) ∫ ∫ (𝑥 𝑧 )
√
M.I. about y axis in xy – plane ∫ 𝑥 ∫ ∫ 𝑥 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

√ √
( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass . Then

(√ ) √

√
( )
√

By using Perpendicular axis theorem

√
Product of inertia ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 ……..(ii)

Now by using area mass density . i.e. 𝑥 𝑦

√
( ) ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

For whole mass . Then

(√ ) √

√
( ) . Here
√

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

√
√
√
* √ +

[ ]

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√ √
* √ + * √ + using

Now for Principal Moment of Inertia we have | |

√
√
| √ | ( )| | exp.by
√

√
( ) | | ( ) ( )( )
√

using

For the direction of principal axis at the corner A we use

√ √
√

√
( )

Question
Find the M.I. of solid sphere about its any diameter.
Solution
Consider a sphere of diameter of length as shown in figure.
Now consider small disk of thickness 𝑧with mass at a distance
𝑧 from the origin and radius of disk is y. then

M.I. about z – axis (diameter) ∫𝑦

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Theorem

Prove that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Proof
⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟 ⃗⃗ 𝑟 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Theorem
Prove that
Proof

𝑟 ( 𝑟)

(𝑟 )

Theorem
Prove that
Proof

Using implies and we have

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Equimomental Systems

Two systems are said to be Equimomental if they have the same moment of inertia
bout any line in space.

Theorem

Two systems are said to be Equimomental iff

i. They have the same mass

ii. They have the same centroid
iii. They have the same moment of inertia at the centre of mass.

Proof

Consider two system satisfy the given conditions. i.e.

i. They have the same mass

ii. They have the same centroid
iii. They have the same moment of inertia
at the centre of mass.

Then we have to show these are Equimomental. Let

M the mass of each system

line through common centroid

any line in space parallel to

perpendicular distance between parallel lines

Moment of inertia of first system about a line with direction cosines ( ) is

For Principal Axis ; So

Now M.I. of first system about a line by using Parallel Axis Theorem

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Similarly M.I. of second system about a line by using Parallel Axis Theorem

Implies

This show that two systems are in Equimomental Condition.

Conversely

Suppose that two systems are in Equimomental. i. e.

i. Same mass

Consider and are the masses of two systems.

Now M.I. of first system about a line by using Parallel Axis Theorem

Similarly M.I. of second system about a line by using Parallel Axis Theorem

by Supposition

ii. Same centroid

Consider and be the centroid of two systems.

line passes through the1st system at

line passes through the 2nd system at

M.I. of about

M.I. of about

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By using Parallel Axis Theorem M.I. of about

Now M.I. of about

M.I. of about

By using Parallel Axis Theorem M.I. of about

using

|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

This shows that systems have same centroid.

iii. Same moment of inertia at the centre of mass.

As both systems are Equimomental and have the same principal axis, therefore
principal moment of inertia remains same for both systems.

Momental Ellipsoid

A surface all of whose cross sections are elliptical or circular is called ellipsoid.
For momental ellipsoid the moment of inertia about any line is equal to .

In this case direction cosines of line are ( ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧)

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Equation of Momental Ellipsoid

We know that the moment of inertia of a rigid body about line a line L having
direction cosines ( ) is given by

……………..(1)
̂ ̂
Let be a vector along a line L and (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be a point on L such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
√ √
and |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| with ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂ then
√

Direction cosines of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are

𝑥√ 𝑦√ 𝑧√
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

Since the direction cosines of line L and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are same so

𝑥√ 𝑦√ 𝑧√

Then equation (1) becomes

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

This is the required equation.

Momental Ellipsoid of the Centre of Elliptical Disk

We know that

( ) by Perpendicular Axis Theorem

For Product of inertia

∫ 𝑥𝑦 ∬ 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 using area mass density formula

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Since is an equation of ellipsoid for elliptical disk, so putting

𝑧 we get

𝑦 ( ) 𝑦 √( )

√( )
Then ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
√( )

√( )
∫ | | 𝑥
√( )

∫ * ( ) ( )+ 𝑥

similarly

Now by using equation of momental ellipsoid

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

𝑥 ( ) 𝑦 ( ) 𝑧 ( ( ))

𝑧 ( )

( )

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Momental Ellipsoid of the Uniform Rectangular Parallalopiped

We know that for a Parallalopiped with dimensions

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

We have

( ) ( )

( )

Now by using equation of momental ellipsoid

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

𝑥 ( ( )) 𝑦 ( ( )) 𝑧 ( ( )) 𝑥𝑦( )
𝑦𝑧( ) 𝑧𝑥( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Question

Write Inertia Matrix of Equation of Momental of the form

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

Solution

Given that 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥

Comparing with

Now inertia matrix will be written as * +

[ ]

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Question

Find an Equimomental system of particles for a uniform rod AB of mass M.

Solution

Consider a uniform rod of length . if be the centre of mass of the rod then let
the mass are located at points A,O,B respectively.

The system of particles will be Equimomental with rod if its moment of inertia
about any line is equal to the moment of inertia about the same line then M.I. about
y – axis (axis passing through the centroid of the rod) is

And the moment of inertia of the system of particles about y – axis is

( ) ( )( )
If both systems are Equimomental then

Hence if we take two particle each of mass at end points of rod and
particles of mass at the centre of the rod then this system
of three particles will be in the Equimomental with the given rod of mass M.

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CHAPTER

EULER EQUATION
8 OF MOTION OF
A RIGID BODY
Coriolis/ Coriolis Force

The Coriolis force is an inertial or fictitious force that acts on objects in motion
within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame. In a
reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of
the object.

Infinitesimal (So Small) Rotation of a Body

Consider the change in the position vector 𝑟⃗ of the point M produced by an

infinitesimal anticlockwise rotation through an angle about the axis of rotation
as shown in figure.
Since we know that (𝑟 ) …………..(1)

Therefore from figure 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 𝑟

( ) 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 | 𝑟⃗| 𝑟̂ | 𝑟⃗| ̂ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗
⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗
In operator form ( ) ( )
⃗
Generalized for a vector ⃗ we have ⃗

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Question (Addition of Angular Displacement and Velocities)

Show that finite rotation of the rigid body do not commute but infinite time
rotation commute. Also show that sum of angular velocities is an angular velocity.

Proof

Consider the rotation of a rigid body about an axis passes through a common point
O. Let a particle P with position vector 𝑟⃗ be displaced through an angle about
the axis specified by the unit vector ̂ . Then the linear displacement will be
𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ …………………(1)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗) ………………(2) where 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

Let the same particle naming Q with position vector 𝑟⃗ be displaced through an
angle about the axis specified by the unit vector ̂ . Then the linear
displacement will be 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ …………………(3)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗ ) where 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗) ( ̂ (𝑟⃗ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗))) using (2)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟 ̂ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗) ………………(4)

If we reverse the order of rotation then

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ ( ̂ 𝑟⃗) ………………(5)

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Comparing (4) and (5) we have 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ (Rotation is not Commute)

If are finite then the sum of angular displacement is not same. In other
words finite displacement do not satisfy the vector law of addition. i.e.

̂ ̂

If the angular displacements are infinitesimal (very very small) then

then from (4) and (5) we have 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ (Infinitesimal Rotation is Commute)
i.e. Angular displacement satisfy the vector law of addition

When the angular displacements are infinitesimal then we have

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

⃗
̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

⃗
̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗ ̂ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Which shows the addition of angular velocities.

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In order to derive the relationship between fixed and rotating frames of reference,
we will study the following theorem;

Rotating Axes Theorem (Find velocity in a moving coordinate system)

Or Rotate of Change of Vector in a Rotating Frame

Or Transformation Equation of the Time Derivative between the Body

Fixed and the Space Fixed coordinates

Or Relationship between the Fixed and the rotating coordinates

If a time dependent vector function ⃗ is represented by ⃗ and ⃗ in fixed and

rotating coordinate system, then

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

Where it is understood that the origins of the two systems coincide at .

Proof

Let 𝑥𝑦𝑧 be a body fixed coordinate system for a rotating body and 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be a
space fixed coordinate system. Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be a position of particles in both
frames.

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For body fixed system;

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ be a position vector in 𝑥𝑦𝑧 system with ̂ ̂ ̂ constant unit

vectors then

⃗
( ) ̂ ̂ ̂

For Space fixed system;

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ be a position vector in 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 system with ̂ ̂ ̂ changing

unit vectors with respect to time then

⃗
( ) (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂)

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) ( ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Using operator form ⃗⃗ ⃗ implies ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) [𝑥( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑦( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑧( ⃗⃗ ̂ )]

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂)

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Hence by replacing 𝑟⃗ with ⃗ we have ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

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Question Show that using operators, the fixed and rotating coordinate systems can
be related as ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where and stands for in the fixed and
rotating coordinates systems.
⃗ ⃗
Solution: Using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ) ⃗ ⃗⃗

Question

Show that the angular acceleration ⃗⃗̇ is the same in both the coordinate systems.
⃗ ⃗
Solution: Using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ) ( ) or ( ⃗⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗̇)

Hence the angular acceleration ⃗⃗̇ is the same in both the coordinate systems.

Question

Show that the centripetal acceleration term ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) can be written as

where is the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation.

Solution:

⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟 ̂

⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) 𝑟 ( ⃗⃗ ̂)

⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) 𝑟 ( )

⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) 𝑟

⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

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Question

A coordinate system OXYZ is rotating with angular velocity ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

relative to a fixed coordinate system both systems having the same origin.
Find the velocity of a particle at rest in the system at the point ( )
as seen by an observer in the fixed system.

Solution

Given that ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and we to find ⃗ at ( )

⃗ ⃗
Using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ as particle at rest in system

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ | | ( 𝑧 𝑦) ̂ ( 𝑥 𝑧) ̂ ( 𝑦 𝑥) ̂
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

( ⃗ )( ) ̂ ̂ ̂

Question

A coordinate system OXYZ is rotating with angular velocity ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

relative to a fixed coordinate system both systems having the same origin.
Position vector of the particle is given by 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ . Determine the
apparent and true acceleration of the particle.

Solution

Given that ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and 𝑟⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

We to find ⃗ and ⃗

For ⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and then ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

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For ⃗⃗

Using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ using 𝑟⃗

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) | |

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) [( )̂ ( )̂
( ) ̂]

⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ (
)̂

⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Again Using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ using ⃗

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) | |

⃗ [( )̂ ( )̂ ̂] [(
)̂ ( )̂ ( ) ̂]

⃗ [( )̂ (
)̂ ( ) ̂]

⃗⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂
( )̂

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Equation of Motion in terms of a Rotating System

Equation of Motion in Space Body and Fixed Body System

Let 𝑥𝑦𝑧 be a body fixed coordinate system for a rotating body and 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be a
space fixed coordinate system. Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be a position of particles in both
frames then

⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

⃗ ⃗ ( 𝑟 𝑟 ) ( 𝑟 𝑟 )

Proof

Let 𝑥𝑦𝑧 be a body fixed coordinate system for a rotating body and 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be a
space fixed coordinate system. Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be a position of particles in both
frames.

For body fixed system;

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ be a position vector in 𝑥𝑦𝑧 system with ̂ ̂ ̂ constant unit

vectors then

⃗
( ) ̂ ̂ ̂

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For Space fixed system;

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ be a position vector in 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 system with ̂ ̂ ̂ changing

unit vectors with respect to time then

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) ( ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Using operator form ⃗⃗ ⃗ implies ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) [𝑥( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑦( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑧( ⃗⃗ ̂ )]

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ this is the relation between velocities of fixed body and space body system

⃗ ⃗
Generalized for a vector ⃗ we have ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗ Put ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
( ) ( (⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)) (⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ( ) ( ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗

⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))
this is the relation between accelerations of fixed body and space body system

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⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

⃗ ⃗ ( 𝑟 𝑟 ) ( 𝑟 𝑟 ) required

Where Coriolis Forces and Centrifugal Forces are Fictitious/Newtonian forces.

Coriolis Force is a negligible force. It moves the body up and down during rotation
of a body about its axis.

Centrifugal force is reactive force of the rotating system which produced by

increasing the centripetal force. It is directed away from the centre of rotation. It is
a frictious force peculiar to a particle moving on a circular path that has the same
magnitude and dimensions as force that keeps the particle on its circular path
(centripetal force) but opposite in direction. Coriolis force is perpendicular to the
velocity of moving particles.

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Coriolis Theorem

Let 𝑟⃗ 𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂ be a position vector in 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 system with ̂ ̂ ̂ changing

unit vectors with respect to time then

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) ( ) (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Using operator form ⃗⃗ ⃗ implies ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂

⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) [𝑥( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑦( ⃗⃗ ̂) 𝑧( ⃗⃗ ̂ )]

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ (𝑥 ̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧 ̂) ( ) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ this is the relation between velocities of fixed body and space body system

⃗ ⃗
Generalized for a vector ⃗ we have ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗ Put ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
( ) ( (⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)) (⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

⃗⃗
⃗ ( ) ( ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ (⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) (⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗))

this is the relation between accelerations of fixed body and space body system

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Equation of Motion of a Particle relative to an observer on Earth’s surface

Assuming the earth to be sphere with centre at O rotating about Z – axis with a
angular velocity ⃗⃗ ̂ neglecting the effect of earth‟s rotation about sun, XYZ
can be taken as inertial frame.

Since the rotation of earth about its axis is with constant angular speed so ⃗⃗̇
The acceleration of Q(origin of moving system) w.r.to O is centripetal, so
⃗⃗̈ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

By Newton‟s Law of Gravitation ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗

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Since
⃗⃗
⃗⃗̈ 𝑟⃗̈ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗) ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

𝑟⃗̈
⃗⃗
⃗⃗̈ ( ⃗⃗̇ 𝑟⃗) ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

𝑟⃗̈
⃗⃗
⃗⃗̈ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)) since ⃗⃗̇

𝑟⃗)) using ⃗⃗̈

⃗⃗
𝑟⃗̈ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗

Where other forces acting on mass like air resistance etc are neglected

Define ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) then

𝑟⃗̈ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇) ( ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗))

Near earth surface ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) can be neglected, so

𝑟⃗̈ ⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇)

Which is required equation to a high degree of approximation.

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Acceleration in a Moving Coordinate System

Let 𝑟⃗ be a position vector in system (in space) then

𝑟⃗ ( 𝑟⃗) ( 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ )( 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

𝑟⃗ ( 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ( 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ………(1)

( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗

( ) 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

So the acceleration of particle relative to the moving system is

⃗
̂ ̂ ̂

And the acceleration of particle relative to the fixed system is

⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
( ) ( ) 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ) ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗)

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Question: Express the components of equation of motion in terms of rotating

coordinate system.

Solution: Rotating coordinate system is a space coordinate system, so we have

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ) ………………(1)

⃗ ⃗
Using rotating axes theorem we have ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗
( ) ⃗ (( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗) ………………(2)

⃗⃗
Now ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ) ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂
Also ⃗⃗ ⃗ | |

⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂

( ) ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )̂
( )̂ ( ) ̂)

̂ ̂ ̂ * ( )+ ̂ * ( )+ ̂
* ( )+ ̂

* ( )+

* ( )+ Required equations

* ( )+

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Foucault’s Pendulum

A freely swinging pendulum that consists of a heavy weight hung by a long

wire and that swings in a constant direction which appears to change showing
that the earth rotates.

The Coriolis effect resulting from the rotation of the Earth was dramatically
demonstrated by Jean Foucault (1819 – 1868) in 1851, using a long pendulum of
67 meter string with a very heavy bob (to reduce the effects of air currents) of
28km hung from a support designed to allow the pendulum to swing (rotated)
freely in any direction (especially in a given vertical plane). His experiments
showed that the plane in which the pendulum oscillates rotates slowly with time.
The effect is very striking because, unlike previous examples, the motion takes
place in a small region of space, and the velocity of the pendulum is not very great.
The gravity force is, of course, much more important than the Coriolis force in
determining the pendulum‟s motion. However, the direction of the small Coriolis
force is out of the plane of oscillation; thus, despite its smallness, the Coriolis force
has a significant effect on the motion of the pendulum.

As shown in Figure, is the angle between the line along which the
pendulum oscillates and a reference polar axis. Foucault showed that the rate of
rotation ϕ of the direction of swing of the bob is related to the latitude λ of the
pendulum on the earth and the angular velocity ω of the Earth‟s rotation by the
expression .

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Statement: Foucault’s Theorem (Foucault’s Formula)

The plane of oscillation of the plane rotates with an angular frequency

Proof

Consider a Foucault‟s Pendulum comprises a bob of mass m suspended by a light

wire of length L from the point P on a high ceiling. The tension force on the bob is
shown as ⃗⃗ and its x and y components are and , for small oscillation the
angle is very small.

Consider a coordinate system OXYZ with origin O at the point of

equilibrium and z – axis coincident with the local vertical; with point of suspension
S on the z – axis. Then the xy – plane will be coincident with the local horizontal
plane. We consider very small oscillation of the pendulum and therefore it is
reasonable to assume that they take place in the horizontal plane.

Let 𝑟⃗ denote the position vector of the bob at any time t. If is the tension ⃗⃗ in the
string then the equation of motion of bob will be

𝑟⃗̈ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………………(1)

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Where the quantities on the L.H.S refer to the body (or rotating) coordinate system
OXYZ, and those on the R.H.S to a fixed (or inertial) coordinate system with O as
origin. Let be the angles which the line segment SP makes with coordinate
axes, then the angles which the tension ⃗⃗ makes with the same axes will be
. The component of ⃗⃗ will therefore be

⃗⃗ ̂ ( )

⃗⃗ ̂ ( )

⃗⃗ ̂ ( )

Let (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) be the coordinates of the point P. now we will use the following
relations from the three – dimensional geometry

Where denotes the distance between the points (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ) and (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ).

Noting that the end points of the string have coordinates ( ) and (𝑥 𝑦 𝑧) we
obtain

Therefore on substitution

We consider very small displacement in the YZ – plane. Then 𝑥 𝑦 and

𝑧 . Under these circumstances ⃗⃗ ⃗, and for the components we can write

(because 𝑧 )

The angular velocity vector ⃗⃗ can be written as ⃗⃗ ( )̂ ( ) ̂ and

⃗ ̂ . Therefore

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̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ | |
𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ 𝑧̇

⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ( 𝑦̇ )̂ (𝑥̇ 𝑧̇ )̂ ( 𝑦̇ )̂

Using in the equation (1) we have

𝑟⃗̈ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗̇ ⃗⃗ ⃗

(𝑥̈ ̂ 𝑦̈ ̂ 𝑧̈ ̂ ) [ ( 𝑦̇ )̂ (𝑥̇ 𝑧̇ )̂ ( 𝑦̇ ) ̂]
(𝑥 ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 ̂) ̂

On equating the coefficients of ̂ ̂ ̂ we have

𝑥̈ ( )𝑦̇

𝑦̈ (𝑥̇ 𝑧̇ ) …………………(2) for all three equations

𝑧̈ ( )𝑦̇

Next we will make use of the assumption that the bob of the pendulum oscillates in
the XY – plane. Because of this assumption 𝑧 and therefore 𝑧̇ 𝑧̈ also
using ⃗⃗ ⃗ equation (2) reduces to the following form

𝑥̈ ( )𝑦̇ 𝑦̈ ( )𝑥̇ ( )𝑦̇

Putting , the motion of the pendulum in the XY – plane is given by

𝑥̈ 𝑦̇ and 𝑦̈ 𝑥̇ …………………(3)

(𝑥̈ ) (𝑦̈ ) ( 𝑦̇ ) ( 𝑥̇ )

(𝑥̈ 𝑦̈ ) (𝑥 𝑦) (𝑦̇ 𝑥̇ ) ( 𝑦̇ 𝑥̇ )

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(𝑥̈ 𝑦̈ ) (𝑥 𝑦) (𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ )
𝑔
̈ ̇ using 𝑥 𝑦 𝜉̈ 𝜉 is called equation of
𝑙
𝑔
S.H.M. with period 𝜋√ 𝑙 and
̈ ̇
the terms 𝑖𝜔𝑧 𝜉̇ is called

( ) Damping Term

( √ ) ( √ )

Where is the angular frequency of the pendulum, in the absence of the

damping term.

Since the roots are imaginary the general solution can be written as

√ √
[ ] …………………(3)

in the absence of the damping term

The angular frequency (which is the same as angular velocity) of the undamped
oscillator is much greater than the angular velocity of earth‟s rotation. i.e.
therefore above solution (3) can be approximated as

[ ] or

𝑥 𝑦 ( )(𝑥 𝑦) using 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

Above equations describe a rotation through an angle . Thus

the plane of oscillation of the plane rotates with an angular frequency . This
result clearly demonstrate the rotation of the earth.

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Euler’s Dynamical Equations of Motion for a Rigid Body Fixed at a

Point/General Motion of a Rigid Body

Consider a rotation of a rigid body (earth, sum, moon or other galaxy system) in
two systems. i. Body fixed system, ii. Space system

Body rotates in the space system. Then the angular momentum of a rotating body
w.r.to the origin is given by

⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
(𝑟⃗ ⃗) ⃗ 𝑟⃗ (⃗ ⃗) 𝑟⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ⃗ ( ) ⃗ ……………(1)

⃗ ⃗
By using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ……………(2)

As we know that ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]

…………………(3)
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
And where I is constant in this case.

⃗⃗
( ) ⃗⃗̇ ( ̇ ̂ ̇ ̂ ̇ ̂) …………………(4)

̂ ̂ ̂
Also ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ | |

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂

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⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ [ ( )] ̂ [ ( )] ̂ [ ( )] ̂ ………(5)

Using (1), (4),(5) in (2)

⃗⃗
( ) ⃗ ( ̇ ̂ ̇ ̂ ̇ ̂) [ ( )] ̂ [ ( )] ̂
[ ( )] ̂

̂ ̂ ̂ [ ̇ ( )] ̂ [ ̇ ( )] ̂
[ ̇ ( )] ̂

On comparing we have

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

These are called Euler Dynamical equations of motion.

Symmetrical Top

A rigid body is called Symmetrical Top if its two Principal Moment of Inertia are
equal. i.e. or .

Spherical Top

A rigid body is called Spherical Top if any three mutually perpendicular axes can
be selected as the Principal Axes. i.e. or .

Remark

 A rigid body is called Oblate Symmetrical Top if .

 A rigid body is called Prolate Symmetrical Top if .
 A rigid body is called Rotator if but .
 The motion of an object in which linear and angular velocities are in the same
direction (or Parallel) is called Screw Motion.

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Force Free Motion of a Symmetrical Top

Free Rotation of a Rigid Body with an axis of Symmetry

Torque Free Motion of a Symmetrical Top

Euler Equation of Motion for Symmetrical Case

Consider a symmetrical top as shown in figure. Symmetrical

Top rotate about z – axis. In the case of principal axis we have

a condition for inertia .

We have to find angular velocity ⃗⃗ by using

Euler Torque Free Equations. i.e.

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

Put in (3) we get ̇

Put in (1), (2)

( ) ̇ ( ) ̇ ( )

̇ ……………..(4) using ( )

( ) ̇ ( ) ̇ ( )

̇ ……………..(5) using ( )

̇ ……………..(6) multiplying (5) by

Adding (4) and (6)

̇ ̇ ( )

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( ) ( )

using

∫ ∫

( )

These are parametric equations of circle of radius √

Since we know that ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ therefore

using √ and

√ this is the equation of cone (Symmetrical Top)

Results

 Angle of the Cone/ Symmetrical Top

In triangle OPQ
√ √
( )

 Time Period of the Cone/ Symmetrical Top

Since ( )
( )

 Frequency of the Cone/ Symmetrical Top

( )
Since
 Kinetic Energy of the Cone/ Symmetrical Top
Since ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

( ) ( ( ) ) using
( )

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 Angular Momentum of the Cone/ Symmetrical Top

Since ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

( ) using

Radius B and Angular Velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗ using Angular Momentum and K.E. of the
Cone/ Symmetrical Top

Since we know that

…………….(1)

…………….(2)

Multiplying (1) by

…………….(3)

…………….(2)

Subtracting (3) and (2) we have

⃗⃗ √ ( )

Multiplying (1) by

…………….(4)

…………….(2)

Subtracting (4) and (2) we have

√ ( )

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Example

A body moves about a point O under no force (torque free). The principal moment
of inertia at O being 3A,5A,6A. Initially the angular velocity has components
about the corresponding principal axis. Show that at time
t, we have if ∫ ( ). Also show that the body
√ √
rotates about the mean axis where

Solution:

Given that the principal moment of inertia are . Initially

the angular velocity has components about the
corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( )

Put in (1)

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

After simplification we get

̇ ……………..(2)

̇ ……………..(3)

̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (2) by and (3) by then adding we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(5)

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Initially using we get

( )

……………..(6)

Multiplying (2) by and (4) by then subtracting we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(7)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(8)

Using in (3)

̇ ̇ ̇ using

̇ ∫ ∫ ∫
( )
√

. / using ∫ ( )
( ) ( )
√ √

Initially using we get

√
. / . / ( )
( ) ( ) √ ( ) √
√ √ √

𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
( ) ( ) after time t 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝜔𝑡 𝑒√ 𝑒 √
√ √ √ 𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
𝑒√ 𝑒 √

( ) ( ) when 𝜔𝑡
√ √ 𝜔𝑡 𝑒 √
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝜔𝑡
√
𝑒 √
( ) ( )
√ 𝜔 𝑒 ∞
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑒 ∞
√

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( )
√

Since

√ ( ) √ ( ) ( ) √
√

( ) √ ( )

( ) since and

Question

A body moves about a point O under no force (torque free). The principal moment
of inertia at O being 6A,3A,A. Initially the angular velocity has components
about the corresponding principal axis. Show that at
time t, we have √ (√ ). Also show that the body rotates about the
mean axis where

Solution:

Given that the principal moment of inertia are . Initially

the angular velocity has components about the
corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( )

Put in (1)

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

After simplification we get

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̇ ……………..(2)

̇ ……………..(3)

̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (2) by and (3) by then adding we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(5)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(6)

Multiplying (2) by and (4) by then subtracting we have

̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(7)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(8)

Using in (3)

̇ ̇ ̇

̇ ( ) using

̇ ̇ *(√ ) +

∫ ∫
(√ )

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( ) using ∫ ( )
√ √

Initially using we get

( ) ( ) √ ( √ )
√ √ √ √

( ) √ ( √ ) after time t
𝑒 √ 𝑛𝑡 𝑒 √ 𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( √ 𝑛𝑡)
( ) √ ( √ ) when 𝑒√
𝜔𝑡
𝑒 √
𝜔𝑡

√ 𝑛𝑡
( ) √ ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( √ 𝑛𝑡)
𝑒
√ 𝑛𝑡
𝑒

( ) √ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑒 ∞
𝑒 ∞

Since

√ ( ) √ ( √ )

( ) √

( ) √ ( )

( ) since and

Hence prove that the body rotates about the mean axis where

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Question

An ellipsoid free to move about its centre is set in rotation at t = 0 with component
of angular velocity ( ). The principal M.I. at the centre are 6A,3A,A. Find
the component of angular velocity after time „t‟ and show that for velocity
is √ .

Solution:

Given that the principal moment of inertia are . Initially

the angular velocity has components about the
corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( )

Put in (1)

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) …………….. (A*)

̇ ( )

After simplification we get

̇ ……………..(2)

̇ ……………..(3)

̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (2) by and (3) by then adding we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(5)

Initially using we get

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( )

√ ……………..(6)

Multiplying (2) by and (4) by then subtracting we have

̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(7)

Initially using we get

( )

√ ……………..(8)

Using (7), (8) in (A*)

̇ ( ) ̇

̇ ̇ √ √

̇ ̇ *(√ ) + ∫ ∫
(√ )

( ) using ∫ ( )
√ √

Initially using we get

( ) ( ) √ ( √ )
√ √ √ √

( ) √ ( √ ) after time t
𝑒 √ 𝑛𝑡 𝑒 √ 𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( √ 𝑛𝑡)
( ) √ ( √ ) when 𝑒√
𝜔𝑡
𝑒 √
𝜔𝑡

√ 𝑛𝑡
( ) √ ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( √ 𝑛𝑡)
𝑒
√ 𝑛𝑡
𝑒

( ) √ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑒 ∞
𝑒 ∞

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( ) √

√ (√ ( √ )) √ (√ (√ ))

(√ )

when

( ) √

√ (√ ( √ ))

√ (√ (√ ))

(√ )

when

The components of velocity are

( ) √

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

⃗⃗ ̂ √ ̂ ̂

| ⃗⃗| √ √

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Question

A circular disk of radius and mass m is supported on a needle point at its centre.
It is set spinning with angular velocity about a line making an angle with the
normal to the disk. Find the angular velocity of the disk at any subsequent time.

Solution:

We know that the principal M.I. of circular disk are .

Initially at t = 0 the angular velocity has components ( ) about
the corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( ) ……………..(i)

̇ ( ) ……………..(ii)

̇ ( ) ……………..(iii)

For symmetrical torque put in (iii)

̇ constant

Initially given that

Multiplying (ii) by and adding in (i) we have

( ̇ ̇ ) ( )( )

𝑦̇ ( )( ) where 𝑦̇ ̇ ̇

𝑦̇ ( ) ( ) 𝑦̇ 𝑦 ( )

𝑦̇ 𝑦 ( )

𝑦̇ 𝑦 using ( )

𝑦̇ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 𝑥 0 . ( )/ 1

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𝑦 𝑥 0 . ( )/ 1

𝑦 𝑥 [ ] if then

𝑦 𝑥 [ ] ……………..(iv)

𝑦 using t = 0

( ) ( )

( ) 𝑥 [ ]

[ ( ) ( )]

( ) ( )

Comparing real and imaginary parts

( )

( )

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Question

A body moves about a point O under no force (torque free). The principal moment
of inertia at O being A,3A,6A. Initially the angular velocity has components
about the corresponding principal axis. Show that at
time t, we have where
√ √
√ .

Solution:

Given that the principal moment of inertia are . Initially

the angular velocity has components about the
corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( )

Put in (1)

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

After simplification we get

̇ ……………..(2)

̇ ……………..(3)

̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (2) by and (3) by then adding

we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

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……………..(5)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(6)

Multiplying (2) by and (4) by then subtracting we have

̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(7)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(8)

Using in (3)
𝑥 𝑎 𝑥
̇ ̇ ̇ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎) 𝑙𝑛 |𝑎 𝑥|

𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 | |
̇ ( ) using
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛√
̇ ̇ [( ) ]

∫( )
∫

( ) using ∫ ( )

Initially using we get √

( ) √ ( ) √

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( √ ) ( √ )

put √

( ) ( )

( )

using
√

Question

A body moves about a point O under no force (torque free). The principal moment
of inertia at O being 7,25,32. Initially t = 0 and the angular velocity has
components about the corresponding principal axis. Show
that ( ) then find after time t.

Solution:

Given that the principal moment of inertia are . Initially

t = 0 and the angular velocity has components about the
corresponding principal axis. In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( )

Put in (1)

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

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After simplification we get

̇ ……………..(2)

̇ ……………..(3)

̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (2) by and (3) by then adding we have ̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(5)

Initially using we get

( ) ……………..(6)

Multiplying (2) by and (4) by then subtracting we have

̇ ̇

On integrating

……………..(7)

Initially using we get

( )

……………..(8)

Using in (3)

̇ ̇ ̇

̇ ( ) using

̇ [( ) ] ∫ ∫
( )

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. / using ∫ ( )
( ) ( )

Initially using we get

. / . /
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ( ))

( ) ( ( )) ( )

( )

( ) using

Question

If . Show that body rotate about its

intermediate principal axes for and ( ).

Solution:

If then ( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
As ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )

As ( ) then also ( )

using

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ | ⃗⃗|

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Question

In the absence of an external torque in a body prove that

i. K.E. is constant for torque free motion

ii. The magnitude of the square of the angular momentum is constant.

Solution:

In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

Multiplying (1) by , (2) by ( ) then adding

̇ ( ) ̇ ( ) ̇
( )

̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

̇ ̇ ̇

[ ]

[ ]

[( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )]

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Constant

Multiplying (1) by , (2) by ( ) then adding

̇ ( ) ̇ ( ) ̇
( )

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̇ ̇ ̇ (
)

̇ ̇ ̇

[ ]

Constant

Constant we may write it

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Question

Show directly from Euler dynamical equations of motion that if ⃗⃗ and

then angular velocity is constant.

Solution:

Given that ⃗⃗ (torque is zero). In the torque free case the Euler equations are

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

Using in (3) we have

̇ ̇ ……………..(4)

Multiplying (1) by , (2) by then adding

̇ ( ) ̇ ( )

̇ ̇ ( )

̇ ̇ ( )

̇ ̇ using

( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ) ̇ ̇

……………..(5)

Adding (4) and (5)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ Constant

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Question

A rigid body is rotating abut a fixed point with angular velocity ⃗⃗. If coordinate
axis coincide with the principal axis then prove that ⃗ ⃗⃗ where T is K.E. and
⃗ is an external torque acting on the body.

Solution:

For a rotating body we have rotational K.E. ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

( )
( ̇ ̇ ̇ )
( ̇ ) ( ̇ ) ( ̇ ) …………..(1)

With external torque the Euler dynamical equations are

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

Using above values we have

( ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
( ( ) )

( ) ( ) (
)

( )

( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

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Question

A circular disk of radius and mass m is set spinning motion with angular velocity
about a line making angle with the normal to the disk in yz – plane. Find
angular velocity ⃗⃗ of the disk at any time.

Solution:

Given that initially at ;

Also we know that principal moment of inertia of a disk is

By perpendicular axis theorem

Using the torque free case of the Euler equations

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

After using given values we have

( ) ̇ ̇

Initially at we have

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Using in (1) and (2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(4)

̇ ( ) ……………..(5)

Taking addition in form ( ) ( )

[ ̇ ( )] [ ̇ ( )]

( ̇ ̇ ) ( )( )

( ̇ ̇ ) ( )( )

( ̇ ̇ ) ( )
̇ using

( ̇ ) ̇

∫ ∫

……………..(6)

Initially at using we have

( )

[ ]

Comparing real and imaginary parts

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

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Question

A circular disk of radius and mass m is set spinning motion with constant
angular velocity about a line making angle with the normal to the disk in yz –
plane. Find torque ⃗⃗ of the body.

Solution:

Given that initially at ;

Also ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗̇ ̇ ̇ ̇

The principal moment of inertia of a circular disk is

By perpendicular axis theorem

Using the Euler Dynamical equations

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

After using given values we have

( ) ( )

( ) and ( )

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂

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Question

A rectangular plate spins at its centre with constant angular velocity about
diagonal. Find torque which must act on the plane in order to maintain its motion.

Solution:

Consider a rectangular plate of dimensions 2a and 2b. Let diagonal AB makes an

angle with x – axis. Then moments of inertia are

About x – axis

About y – axis

About z – axis ( )

From triangle OCB:

Also ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗̇ ̇ ̇ ̇

Using the Euler Dynamical equations

̇ ( ) ……………..(1)

̇ ( ) ……………..(2)

̇ ( ) ……………..(3)

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After using given values we have

( ) and ( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )
√ √

( )

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

( )
⃗⃗⃗

Theorem

A particle moves in an elliptical part with constant angular speed. At what points
the magnitude of the acceleration (a) maximum and (b) minimum? If the major and
minor axes of the elliptical part are 4 and 2 feet respectively determine the
magnitude of these accelerations.

Solution:

For elliptical part we have

Length of the major axis

Length of the minor axis

And its parametric equations are

𝑥 𝑦 where

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Let 𝑟⃗ be the position vector of (𝑥 𝑦) then

𝑟⃗ 𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ ̂ ̂
⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂

⃗
⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ )̂

| ⃗| √( ) ( ) √ ( ) ( )

| ⃗| √( ) ( )

Maximum Acceleration

Using

( )

√( ) ( )

Minimum Acceleration

Using

( )

√( ) ( )( )

Further given that and thus

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The Eulerian Angles

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Tops and Gyroscope

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Example

Gyroscope Motion

Any symmetrical body rotating in an axis such that its axis can freely change its
direction is called gyroscope and that type of motion is called gyroscope motion.
For example motion of spinning bodies.

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Equations of Motion for a Spinning Top having fixed point

Let xyz be a fixed coordinate system in space with origin O. Let 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 be a

moving coordinate system (due to rotation of earth) having same origin, which is at
earth.

The angular velocity due to rotation of 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 is as follows;

⃗⃗

The angular momentum in component form due to rotation of 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 is as follows;

⃗⃗ ( ) where ̇

⃗⃗ ( )
⃗ ⃗
By using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
( ) ( ( ) ) ( )

( ( ) )

⃗⃗
( ) ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ | |

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⃗⃗
( ) ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

( ) ( )

⃗ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

( ) ( )

̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ (
) ( ) ( )

[ ̇ ( ) ] [ ̇
( ) ] [ ̇ ( ) ̇]

………………(1)

Since ⃗ 𝑟⃗ ⃗ ( ̂)

⃗ (( ) ( ) ( ) )

⃗
((| || | ) (| || | ( )) (| || | ) )

⃗ (( ) ( ) ( ) )

⃗ ( )

⃗ ………………(2)

Comparing (1) and (2) and using we have

̇ ( )

̇ ( )

( ̇ ̇) ( )

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Relationship between the time rate of change of Angular Momentum of a

Rigid Body relative to axes Fixed in space and in the body respectively

If the axes of rigid body are choosen as principal axes (rotating) then

The angular velocity due to rotation of 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 is as follows;

⃗⃗

The angular momentum in component form due to rotation of 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 is as follows;

⃗⃗

⃗ ⃗
By using rotating axes theorem ( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
( ) ( ) ( )

( )

⃗⃗
( ) ̇ ̇ ̇ | |

⃗⃗
( ) ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

( ) ( )
⃗⃗
( ) [ ̇ ( ) ] [ ̇ ( ) ]
[ ̇ ( ) ]

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‫ِ‬
‫رحفآرخ(‪)28-28-0202‬‬
‫وخشرںیہوخایشںابںیٹناوراہجںکتوہےکسدورسوںےکےیلآاساینںدیپارکںی۔‬
‫اہلل ی‬
‫اعتٰلآپوکزدنیگےکرہومڑرپاکایمویبںاوروخویشںےسونازے۔(اینیم)‬
‫دمحمامثعناحدم‬
‫کچربمن‪521‬امشیل(وگدےھواال)رسوگداھ‬
‫‪UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA‬‬
‫‪PUNJAB, PAKISTAN‬‬

‫‪308‬‬