The City & Guilds textbook

Book 1

Plumbing
SECOND EDITION
LEVEL 3 APPRENTICESHIP (9189)
LEVEL 2 TECHNICAL CERTIFICATE (8202)
LEVEL 2 DIPLOMA (6035)
T LEVEL OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALISMS (8710)

Stephen Lane
Peter Tanner

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ISBN: 978 1 3983 6161 4
© The City & Guilds of London Institute and Hodder & Stoughton Limited 2022
Chapter 11 © Peter Tanner, The City & Guilds of London Institute and Hodder & Stoughton Limited
First published in 2019
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 Contents
About your qualification v
Acknowledgements vii
Picture credits viii
How to use this book x
1 Health and safety practices and systems 1
Health, safety and welfare legislation and regulation 1
Recognising and responding to hazardous situations at work 16
Personal protection 26
Responding to accidents 33
Electrical safety in the workplace 40
Working safely with heat-producing equipment 47
Working safely with access equipment 54
Working safely in excavations and confined spaces 63
2 Common processes and techniques 69
Using hand and power tools 69
Types of pipework, bending and jointing techniques 80
Preparation techniques 103
Using pipe clips and pipe brackets 109
Pipework installation techniques 114
3 Scientific principles 127
Units of measurement used in the plumbing and heating industry: the SI system 127
The properties of materials 129
The relationship between energy, heat and power 144
The principles of force and pressure, and their application in the plumbing and heating industry 151
The mechanical principles in the plumbing and heating industry 155
The principles of electricity in the plumbing and heating industry 160
4 Planning and supervision 164
The role of the construction team within the plumbing and heating industry 164
Information sources in the building services industry 172
Communicating with others 177
The responsibilities of relevant people in the building services industry 181
Work programmes in the plumbing and heating industry 184
Risk assessments and method statements for the plumbing and heating industry 189
5 Cold water systems 201
Sources and properties of water 201
The types of water supply to dwellings 206
The water treatment process and distribution of water 208
Sources of information relating to cold water systems 212
The water service pipework to dwellings 214
Selecting cold water systems 217
The system layout features of cold water systems fed from private water supplies 223
The components used in boosted (pumped) cold water supply systems from private sources
for single-occupancy dwellings 225
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 240
Backflow protection 240

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 Installing cold water systems and components 256
Replacing or repairing defective components: planned and unplanned maintenance 273
Decommissioning of systems 280
6 Hot water systems 285
Sources of information relating to work on hot water systems 285
Hot water systems and components 294
System safety and efficiency 337
Prepare for the installation of systems and components 340
Install and test systems and components 341
Decommission systems and components 354
Replace defective components 355
7 Central heating systems 361
Understand central heating systems and their layouts 361
Install central heating systems and components 424
Understand the decommissioning requirements of central heating systems and their components 431
8 Rainwater systems 436
Understand layouts of gravity rainwater systems 436
Installation of gravity rainwater systems 446
The maintenance and service requirements of gravity rainwater systems 453
Decommission rainwater and gutter systems and components 456
Perform a soundness test, and commission rainwater and gutter systems and components 457
9 Sanitation systems 460
Sanitary pipework and appliances used in dwellings 460
Install sanitary appliances and connecting pipework systems 498
Service and maintenance requirements for sanitary appliances and connecting
pipework systems 516
The principles of grey water recycling 518
10 Domestic fuel systems 524
Identify the types of fuels used in appliances 524
Factors that affect the selection of fuels 530
Sources of information for fuel supply installation 531
Regulatory bodies that govern the installation of fuel systems 531
Storage requirements for fuels 532
Considerations that could affect the storage requirements of fuels 536
11 Working with electricity 542
Electrical principles 542
Conductors and insulators 544
Resistances in series and parallel 546
Protection against electric shock 550
Electrical supply systems 554
Protective devices 556
Working on electrical systems 558
Installing wiring systems 561

Glossary 569
Index 574
Answers can be found online at: hoddereducation.co.uk/construction

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 About your qualification

About your qualification

INTRODUCTION HOW TO BECOME
TO THE PLUMBING A PLUMBING AND
QUALIFICATIONS HEATING TECHNICIAN
You are completing one of the following To become a fully recognised plumber, you must
qualifications: complete the following:
l Level 2 Technical Certificate in Plumbing l Plumbing and Heating Technician Apprenticeship
(8202-25) (9189).
l Level 2 Diploma in Plumbing Studies (6035-02)
The 8202 Technical Certificate and 6035 Level 2
l Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing and Domestic
Diploma provide the knowledge and practical skills to
Heating (9189)
prepare you for an apprenticeship.
l T Level Technical Qualification in Building Services
Engineering for Construction (8710). The apprenticeship and 9189 Level 3 Diploma
will give you an understanding of suitable on-site
The Level 2 Technical Certificate and Level 2 Diploma
skills and further knowledge required to work in
are for learners who are interested in developing the
the plumbing industry. Once qualified, there are
specific technical and professional skills that can
many specialist qualifications available, such as
support development towards becoming a plumber,
environmental technology systems and designing and
or progression to Level 3 qualifications.
planning complex water systems.
The Level 3 Diploma is the on-programme
qualification for the Plumbing and Heating Technician How to achieve your
Apprenticeship and is designed to provide the
apprentice with the opportunity to develop the qualification
knowledge, skills and core behaviours that are The requirements for successfully obtaining your
expected of a competent Plumbing and Domestic qualification depend on which programme you are
Heating Technician operating in a number of enrolled on.
regulated areas.
6035
T Levels are new Level 3 vocational qualifications
The 6035 diploma is assessed by a range of multiple
available following the completion of GCSEs. They are
choice exams, assignments and practical tests. You
the same size as three A Levels and you will sit them
will be assessed, by one of these methods, at the end
across two years. They offer a mixture of classroom,
of each unit.
workshop and on the job experience through
industrial placements. The Plumbing Engineering For details on which assessments will follow
(356) and Heating Engineering (355) occupational which units, you should consult the City & Guilds
specialisms will offer knowledge and experience qualification handbook. For details on when you will
needed to open the door to skilled employment or complete your assessments, consult your tutor.
further study.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

8202 l Level 3 Diploma in Plumbing and Domestic

Level 2 is assessed using one multiple choice Heating qualification (9189)
examination and one practical synoptic assignment. l Level 2 Maths
l Level 2 English.
For the synoptic assignment, a typical brief might
be to install a cold water supply and hot water The graded EPA will be comprised of the following
distribution pipework connected to all sanitary assessment methods:
appliances. You will need to draw on skills and l multiple choice test
understanding developed across the qualification l design project
content in order to consider the specific requirements l practical installation test
of the particular system and related plumbing l practical application test
principles, and carry out the brief. This includes l professional discussion.
the ability to plan tasks, such as plant, materials
and equipment for an installation, and apply the T Level (8710)
appropriate practical and hand skills to carry them out This Level 3 course, which runs alongside the
using appropriate tools and equipment. apprenticeship programme, offers the opportunity
You will also demonstrate that you are following for learners to gain essential skills that will enable
health and safety regulations at all times by drawing them to enter employment within the plumbing and
upon your knowledge of legislation and regulations. heating sector.

The exam draws from across the content of the The course is a two-year programme. All learners
qualification, using multiple choice questions to: studying a Building Services Engineering for
Construction T Level will complete the core
l confirm breadth of knowledge and understanding
component (350), which introduces the foundational
l test applied knowledge and understanding – giving
industry principles. This component is assessed by
the opportunity to demonstrate higher-level
two written exams and an employer-set project.
integrated understanding through application,
This core component is covered in another Hodder
analysis and evaluation.
Education textbook: Building Services Engineering for
Construction T Level: Core.
9189
Level 3 is assessed using multiple choice tests and You will also choose one or two occupational
practical assignments. These will happen at the specialisms. These include:
end of each phase of learning, with there being four l 355 Heating engineering
phases in total. Learners will also be expected to keep l 356 Plumbing engineering
a work log for the duration of the programme.
Although these specialisms will involve practical
The apprenticeship is assessed separately to the on- work, which you will cover with your tutor in the
programme qualification and is assessed by an end- workshop, and will be assessed by observation of
point assessment (EPA). In order to progress through practical tasks, the key underpinning plumbing
the end-test gateway to end-point assessment, you and heating content needed for these specialisms
must complete the following: is covered across this book and The City & Guilds
Textbook: Plumbing Book 2 (also Hodder Education).

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 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
Michael Maskrey was the author of the previous Giles, Michael Maskrey, Nahom Sirane, Zhaojie Yu;
edition of this book and we are indebted to him for Michael Maskrey and the staff at Stockport College
his work and expertise. and the following models: Michael Maskrey, Jordan
Taylor; Jocelynne Rowan, Steve Owen and Mick
This book draws on several earlier books that were
Gibbons/Baxi Training Centre; Jamie Purser, Graham
published by City & Guilds, and we acknowledge and
Fleming, John Pierce and Sabir Ahmed/Hackney
thank the writers of those books:
Community College; Rob Wellman/National Skills
l Michael Maskrey Academy; models Anup Chudasama, Michaela Opara
l Neville Atkinson and Sami Simela.
l Andrew Hay-Ellis
Contains public sector information licensed under the
l Trevor Pickard
Open Government Licence v3.0.
l Eamon Wilson.
Permission to reproduce extracts from British
We would also like to thank everyone who has
Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
contributed to City & Guilds photoshoots. In
No other use of this material is permitted. British
particular, thanks to: Jules Selmes and Adam Giles;
Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy
Martin Biron and the staff at the College of North
formats from the BSI online shop:
West London and the following models: Vivian
https://shop.bsigroup.com/
Chioma, Jennifer Close, Peko Gayle-Reveault, Adam

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Picture credits
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge Ltd (www.drapertools.com), 2nd © kasinv/stock.adobe.com,
ownership of copyright. The publishers will be glad to make 3rd/4th © Screwfix Direct Limited; Table 2.11 1st © Metabo,
suitable arrangements with any copyright holders whom it has 2nd/3rd © Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig.2.6 © stoleg/stock.adobe.
not been possible to contact. com; Fig.2.7 © Roman Milert/stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.8 ©
Eugene Shatilo/stock.adobe.com; Table 2.12 1st Image courtesy
Fig.1.1 © markus_marb/stock.adobe.com; Fig.1.2 © auremar – of RIDGID®. RIDGID® is the registered trademark of RIDGID,
Fotolia; Fig.1.3 courtesy of Facelift Access Hire; Inc., 2nd Photograph by kind permission of ROTHENBERGER UK
Fig.1.4 © Алина Бузунова/stock.adobe.com; Fig. 1.5 © Health Ltd; Table 2.13 Image courtesy of RIDGID®. RIDGID® is the
and Safety Executive; Fig.1.6 © Lucaz80/stock.adobe.com; registered trademark of RIDGID, Inc.; Table 2.14 1st ©
Fig.1.7 Michael Maskrey; Table 1.3 1st © ambassador806 – bradcalkins/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Anton/stock.adobe.com, 3rd
Fotolia, 2nd © nazar12/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Ricochet64/ © Vladimir Zubkov/stock.adobe.com, 4th/5th © Screwfix Direct
stock.adobe.com, 4th/5th © Distraction Arts/stock.adobe.com; Limited, 6th © Luckylight/stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.19 © Pegler
Fig.1.8 © markobe/stock.adobe.com; Fig.1.9 © jusep/stock. Yorkshire Group; Fig.2.20 © Toolstation Ltd; Figs.2.21–2.24 City
adobe.com; Fig.1.10 Image & lead work by Paul Dooley, Plannet & Guilds; Fig.2.25 Image courtesy of RIDGID®. RIDGID® is the
Plumbing Services Ltd; Fig.1.11 City & Guilds; Fig.1.12 © Health registered trademark of RIDGID, Inc.; Fig.2.26 City & Guilds;
and Safety Executive; Fig.1.13 © Andrei Rybachuk/stock.adobe. Tables 2.17–2.21 & p.92 © Pegler Yorkshire Group; Table 2.24
com; Fig.1.14 courtesy of Snickers Workwear; Figs.1.15 & 1.16 © top row 1st © arbalest/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Dionisvera/
JSP Ltd; Figs.1.17 & 1.18 © Jack Sealey Ltd; Fig.1.19 © JSP Ltd; stock.adobe.com, 3rd © amnach/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Unkas
Figs.1.20 & 1.21 City & Guilds; Fig.1.22 used with permissions Photo/stock.adobe.com, bottom row 1st © cegli/stock.adobe.
from Machine Mart; Fig.1.23 © SPLAV/stock.adobe.com; Fig.1.24 com, 2nd © amnach/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © sompob
City & Guilds; Fig.1.25 © Alex White/stock.adobe.com; wongnuksue/123RF; Fig.2.30 © Hawle Armaturenwerke GmbH;
Figs.1.26–1.28 City & Guilds; Fig.1.30 courtesy of Martindale Fig.2.34 © John Guest; Table 2.27 1st © Wavin Limited, 2nd ©
Electric; Fig.1.31 © Reece Safety Products Ltd; Fig.1.33 courtesy John Guest, 3rd © Trading Depot; Figs.2.35 & 2.36 City & Guilds;
Lincoln Electric, Inc. Unauthorized use not permitted; Fig.1.34 © Table 2.28 top row © Toolstation Ltd, middle row 1st © LisAnn/
Calor Gas Ltd; Fig.1.35 © Monument Tools Ltd; Fig.1.37 1st © stock.adobe.com, 2nd/3rd © Toolstation Ltd, bottom row 1st/3rd
Alan Stockdale/stock.adobe.com, 2nd & 3rd © Jenny Thompson/ Images courtesy of drainageonline.co.uk, 2nd © Toolstation Ltd;
stock.adobe.com, 4th © Hartphotography /stock.adobe.com; Table 2.29 top row 1st/2nd © Images supplied by Polypipe
Fig.1.40 © Ladders-direct.com; Fig.1.41 © Werner UK Building Products, 3rd ©MTG/stock.adobe.com, bottom row
Operations Ltd; Figs.1.42 & 1.45 City & Guilds; Fig.1.51 courtesy 1st/3rd © Images supplied by Polypipe Building Products, 2nd ©
of Facelift Access Hire; Fig.1.52 © www.vpgroundforce.com/gb; Toolstation Ltd; Table 2.30 © Toolstation Ltd; Table 2.31 1st ©
p.66 © markus_marb/stock.adobe.com; Table 2.2 1st © Pegler Yorkshire Group, 2nd © Philmac; Fig.2.43 © Trading
paketesama/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Revenaif/Shutterstock. Depot; Figs.2.44–2.46 © Toolstation Ltd; Fig.2.47 © Screwfix
com; Table 2.3 Images courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www. Direct Limited; Fig.2.48 © Toolstation Ltd; Fig.2.49 © remus20/
drapertools.com); Table 2.4 1st © vvoe/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.50 © Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig.2.51 ©
dp3010/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © aldorado/stock.adobe.com, Toolstation Ltd; Figs.2.52 & 2.53 © Screwfix Direct Limited;
4th/5th Images courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www.drapertools. Table 2.37 © Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig.2.54 © cvetanovski/
com); Table 2.5 1st © vj/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © remedia/stock. stock.adobe.com; Figs.2.55 & 2.56 © Screwfix Direct Limited;
adobe.com, 3rd © Screwfix Direct Limited, 4th © artburger/ Fig.2.59 © Regin Products Ltd; Fig.2.60 © Astroflame Fireseals
stock.adobe.com, 5th Image courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www. Ltd; p.124 Image courtesy of www.cromwell.co.uk; Table 3.7 ©
drapertools.com); Table 2.6 1st modustollens/stock.adobe.com, Jo Edkins except 3rd © Scott Horvath, USGS. Public domain;
2nd/4th © Screwfix Direct Limited, 3rd © Vladimir Liverts/stock. Fig.3.5 © http://corrosion-doctors.org; Figs.3.7 & 3.8 © Phillip
adobe.com, 5th Image courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www. Munn, Midland Corrosion Services Ltd; Figs.3.12–3.14 © S.
drapertools.com); Table 2.7 1st © Alexstar/stock.adobe.com, 2nd Brannan & Sons Ltd.; Fig.3.31 © Tony Zaccarini/Shutterstock.
© maxximmm/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Sergey Sosnitsky/stock. com; Fig.4.2 © Sebastiano Fancellu/stock.adobe.com; Fig.4.3 1st
adobe.com, 4th © cristi180884/stock.adobe.com; Table 2.8 1st © Max Tactic/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Lisa F. Young – Fotolia, 3rd
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Table 2.9 1st Image courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www. com; Fig.4.6 © kemaltaner/stock.adobe.com; Fig.4.7 © Pimlico
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Dmitriy Syechin/stock.adobe.com; Fig.2.1 © David J. Green/ 2nd © adiruch na chiangmai/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © fotofabrika/
Alamy Stock Photo; Fig.2.3 © Rapheephat/stock.adobe.com; stock.adobe.com, right 1st © didesign/stock.adobe.com, 2nd ©
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Ltd; Fig.2.5 Image courtesy of Draper Tools Ltd (www. com; Fig.4.10 © eric/stock.adobe.com; Fig.4.13 © Mile Atanasov/
drapertools.com); Table 2.10 1st Image courtesy of Draper Tools Shutterstock.com; Fig.4.14 © jusep/stock.adobe.com; Fig.4.15 ©
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 Picture credits

Andrei Rybachuk/stock.adobe.com; Fig.4.16 © Image courtesy Fig.8.12 © Burton Wire & Tube Co. Ltd; Figs.8.15–8.17 © Brett
of Snickers Workwear; Fig.4.17 © Vladimir Breytberg/ Martin; Fig.8.19 © Yeoman Shield; Fig.8.20 © Image reproduced
Shutterstock.com; Fig.4.20 © Commissioned by Kingspan by kind permission of Rainclear Systems Ltd. UK; Fig.8.22 ©
Environmental; Figs.5.17 & 5.18 © Tycowaterworks (now part of Brett Martin; Fig.8.23 © www.hunterplastics.co.uk; Fig.8.24 ©
Talis UK); Fig.5.21 © Image provided by Groundbreaker Systems; Images courtesy of drainageonline.co.uk; Fig.8.26 © Kara/stock.
Fig.5.31 © AquaTech Pressmain; Fig.5.36 © KSB; Fig.5.37 © adobe.com; 458 left © Marley Alutec, right © Ed Buziak/Alamy
Whisper Pumps Ltd, www.whisperpumps.com; Fig.5.40 © Stock Photo; Fig.9.11 © Wavin Limited; Fig.9.18 © Screwfix
Rosemount Measurement Ltd. A business unit of Emerson; Direct Limited; Fig.9.20 © Avalon/Photoshot License/Alamy
Fig.5.42 Pressure Switch DS 200 / © by BD|SENSORS GmbH / Stock Photo; Fig.9.21 © steheap/stock.adobe.com; Figs.9.24 &
www.bdsensors.com; Fig.5.43 © AquaTech Pressmain; Fig.5.47 9.25 © Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig.9.26 © Fluidmaster 3”
© www.stevensonplumbing.co.uk/part-2-ballcock-with-float. Adjustable Flapper; Fig.9.28 © Günter Menzl/stock.adobe.com;
html; Fig.5.56 © Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig.5.65 © Paxton Fig.9.29 © Stephen VanHorn/stock.adobe.com; Fig.9.30 ©
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Fig.5.116 © Dyna Pipe; Fig.5.118 © editonepankaj16/stock. mitev/stock.adobe.com; Figs.9.47 & 9.48 © Ultra Finishing Ltd;
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Innovation Limited; Fig.7.57 © Joe Gough/stock.adobe.com; Direct; Figs.9.116 & 9.117 © Toolstation Ltd; p.521 © Screwfix
Figs.7.64 & 7.65 © Pump images supplied by kind permission of Direct Limited; p.522 Image supplied by Polypipe Building
Grundfos Pumps Ltd; Fig.7.68 © Queen soft/Shutterstock.com; Products; p.523 © Wavin Limited; Fig.10.2 © Jimj0will/
Fig.7.69 © Rigamondis/Shutterstock.com; Fig.7.73 © Installation Shutterstock.com; Fig.10.3 © Andrii/stock.adobe.com; Fig.10.5
of underfloor heating by Geotek Heating Ltd.; 7.75 © Benjamin © Jiri Hera/stock.adobe.com; Fig.10.8 © OFTEC; Fig.10.9 ©
Haas/Shutterstock.com; 7.77 © Peter Gudella/Shutterstock. HETAS; Fig.10.13 © Lenscap/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig.10.15 ©
com; 7.78 © Jiri Hera/stock.adobe.com; p.434 © Pump image Biomass Silo Systems; Fig.10.16 © Calor Gas Ltd; Figs.11.5 & 11.7
supplied by kind permission of Grundfos Pumps Ltd; Fig.8.1 © © Peter Tanner; Fig.11.10 © Microgen/stock.adobe.com Fig.11.12
www.hunterplastics.co.uk; Fig.8.2 © Image reproduced by kind © Andrew Hay-Ellis; Fig.11.14 © Toolstation Ltd; Figs.11.18–11.20
permission of Rainclear Systems Ltd. UK; Fig.8.3 © Andy Dean/ City & Guilds; Figs.11.21 & 11.22 © test-meter.co.uk; Figs.11.23,
stock.adobe.com; Fig.8.4 © British Crown copyright, Met Office; 11.25–11.28 & 11.31–11.34 City & Guilds.
Fig.8.7 © www.hunterplastics.co.uk; Fig.8.11 © Toolstation Ltd;
ix

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

How to use this book

Throughout this book you will see the following features:
Industry tips and Key points are particularly useful pieces of advice that can
KEY POINT assist you in your workplace or help you remember something important.
It is vital that fuels are
kept dry and that they
are delivered in good INDUSTRY TIP
condition for optimum
combustion efficiency to While many companies have their own style of working, others employ plumbers for specific
occur. tasks, i.e. those operatives that work on-site and those that work in private houses.

Key terms in bold purple in the text are explained in the margin to aid your
KEY TERM understanding. (They are also explained in the Glossary at the back of the book.)
Corrosion: any process
involving the deterioration
or degradation of metal
components, where
the metal’s molecular
structure breaks down
irreparably.

Health and safety boxes flag important points to keep yourself, colleagues and
HEALTH AND SAFETY clients safe in the workplace. They also link to sections in the health and safety
A fire extinguisher should chapter for you to recap learning.
always be available
when using any form of
soldering equipment.
Activities help to test your understanding and learn from your colleagues’
experiences.
ACTIVITY
What would motivate you Values and behaviours boxes provide hints and tips on good workplace
to improve your work? practice, particularly when liaising with customers.
Make a note and discuss
with your team to see
what motivates them. VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
It is good practice to keep customers informed of any inconveniences that
could be caused by the work that may affect their day-to-day routine.

Improve your maths items provide opportunities to practise or improve

your maths skills.
Improve your English items provide opportunities to practise or improve
your English skills.
At the end of each chapter there are some Test your knowledge questions and
Practical tasks. These are designed to identify any areas where you might need
further training or revision.
Apprenticeship only flagging identifies content that is relevant to
apprenticeship learners only.
x

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 CHAPTER 1
HEALTH AND SAFETY PRACTICES AND SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Plumbers that work on construction sites are at risk from hazards and accidents every day. Construction is one of
the UK’s largest industries and arguably the most dangerous. In the past 25 years, nearly 3000 people have been
killed on construction sites or as a direct result of construction work. Recent years have seen a fall in the fatality
figures, yet accidents continue to be a cause for concern within the industry. While total elimination of accidents is
an impossibility, we can ensure that, by proper health and safety management, this figure is reduced still further.
The overriding factor that you need to remember is that health and safety is everyone’s responsibility.
In this first chapter we will look at the health, safety and welfare of the people that work on construction
sites, and the protection from hazards and harm of the general public. We will investigate the health and
safety legislation that helps to keep us safe, as well as look at the methods we should employ for safe working
at height, and in excavations and confined spaces. We will investigate how we should deal with toxic and
dangerous substances, such as lead and asbestos, solvents, flammable materials and gases, and discuss how we
can keep ourselves from harm by the correct use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following areas of health, safety
and welfare in the construction and building services industries:
● health, safety and welfare legislation and regulation
● recognising and responding to hazardous situations
● personal protection methods and equipment
● responding to accidents and incidents
● electrical safety in the workplace and the home
● safe working practices with heat-producing equipment
● safe working practices at height
● safe working practices in excavations and confined spaces.

1 HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE LEGISLATION

AND REGULATION
Hazards encountered by plumbers in particular include to the architect up to the client and the owner of the
asbestos, strained muscles, broken bones, falls, slips, structure that is being built.
trips and noise. Diseases they risk include dermatitis,
asbestosis and emphysema. KEY TERMS
In many instances, when the work is subcontracted on Hazard: a danger; something that can cause harm.
a construction project, there is confusion as to who is Legislation: a law or group of laws that have come
responsible for safety. However, legislation is very clear into force; health and safety legislation for the
that everyone has duties and responsibilities regarding plumbing industry includes the Health & Safety at
Work Act and the Electricity at Work Regulations.
health and safety, from the worker to each contractor,

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

In this the first section of this chapter we will look at ● to protect others from the risks arising from work
some of the many pieces of legislation surrounding activities
health and safety in the construction industry. ● to control the obtaining, keeping and use of
explosives and highly flammable substances
● to control emissions into the atmosphere of noxious
INDUSTRY TIP
or offensive substances.
● You can access the Health and Safety at Work etc. Sections 2, 3, 7 and 8 of the HASAWA 1974 cover
Act 1974 (HASAWA) at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ more general duties that relate directly to you, your
ukpga/1974/37 employer and the general public.
● You can access the Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 at: www.legislation. The general duties of the HASAWA
gov.uk/uksi/2002/2677/regulation/7/made 1974 – Section 2
● You can access the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
at Work Regulations 1992 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ Section 2 of the HASAWA deals specifically with the
uksi/1992/2966/contents/made general duties of the employer towards its employees.
It states that:
‘It is the duty of every employer, so far as is
Protecting the workforce reasonably practicable, to ensure the health,
safety and welfare at work of their employees.’
and the general public
More specifically, this applies to ensuring that:
General health and safety legislation ● plant and systems are safe and without risk to
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 health
● there is no risk to health in connection with the
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
use, handling, storage and transport of articles and
(HASAWA) is the principal piece of legislation covering
substances
occupational health and safety in the UK.
● information, instruction and supervision with regard
The Act lays down the principles for the management to the health and safety at work of employees is
of health and safety at work, enabling the creation available
of more specifically targeted legislation and codes of ● the working environment for employees is safe,
practice, such as the Control of Substances Hazardous without risk to health, and adequate with regards to
to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 and the Personal facilities and arrangements for their welfare at work
Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations 1992. ● the place of work is maintained in a safe condition
In other words, all other health and safety legislation and without risk to health, and the means of access
has been written as an addition to and because of the to it and egress from it are safe and without risk.
HASAWA 1974.
This legislation also states that employers must have a
The Act covers all people at work (except domestic health and safety policy and, if the company has five or
servants in private employment) whether they are more employees, that policy must be written down. It
employers, employees or the self-employed. It is must be revised as necessary at regular intervals and all
specifically aimed at people and their activities at employees must have access to and be informed of any
work rather than premises or processes. It includes changes made to the policy.
provisions for both the protection of people at work
Every employer must consult with health and safety
and members of the general public who may be at risk
representatives appointed by their employees with a
as a consequence of the workplace activities.
view to making and maintaining arrangements that will
The main objectives of the HASAWA 1974 are: enable co-operation between employer and employees
● to secure the health, safety and welfare of all people in promoting and developing health and safety
at work measures and checking their effectiveness.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

HEALTH AND SAFETY KEY TERM

Every employer must consult with health and safety Comply: act in accordance with; meet the
representatives. These people are appointed by standards of.
employees of an organisation to act on their behalf.
Their role is to make and maintain arrangements that
will enable the employer and employees to promote Duty not to interfere with or misuse anything
and develop health and safety measures, and to provided – Section 8
check their effectiveness.
Section 8 is often referred to as the ‘horseplay section’.
According to the HASAWA:
The general duties of employers and the ‘Employees must not intentionally or recklessly
self-employed to people other than their interfere with, or misuse, anything provided
employees – Section 3 in the interests of health, safety or welfare, for
Every employer must ensure, so far as is reasonably example, the fooling with and the misuse of a
practicable, that people not in their employment who fire extinguisher.’
may be affected by their work are not exposed to risks
to their health and safety. These duties also apply to INDUSTRY TIP
the self-employed.
Every employer and self-employed person must give ● You can access the PUWER Regulations at: www.
to those people who are not in their employment legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1998/2306/contents/made
● You can access the Electricity at Work Regulations
information on the way that aspects of their work
1989 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635/
might affect the health and safety of others.
contents/made
Additional employer responsibilities
In addition, the HASAWA 1974 tells us that any The Provision and Use of Work
employer must: Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 2009
● carry out risk assessments of all the company’s These Regulations lay down the minimum standards for
work activities the use of all work-related tools and equipment, and
● identify and implement adequate control measures are usually used in conjunction with other more specific
● inform all employees of the risk assessments and regulations, such as the Electricity at Work Regulations
associated control measures or similar. The requirements contained within the
● review the risk assessments at regular intervals Regulations are aimed specifically at employers, who
● make a record of the risk assessments if five or more must:
operatives are employed. ● take notice of working conditions and hazards on-

site and at work when selecting equipment

The general duties of employees at ● provide work equipment that is fit for purpose and
work – Section 7 conforms to relevant safety standards
It is the duty of every employee while at work to ● ensure that the work equipment is used only for its
take reasonable care for the health and safety of intended purpose
themselves and others who may be affected by ● maintain all equipment in good working order
their acts or omissions at work, and to co-operate ● ensure that appropriate safety devices are available
with their employer so far as is necessary to enable ● issue operatives with appropriate instructions,
any duty or requirement to be performed or training and supervision to enable them to use the
complied with. work equipment safely
● make sure that all equipment is inspected regularly

and at least after installation or assembly at a new

location.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The Personal Protective Equipment at

Work Regulations 1992 INDUSTRY TIP
Employers have basic duties concerning the provision You can access the Control of Substances Hazardous
and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) at to Health Regulations 2002 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/
work wherever there are risks to health and safety that uksi/2002/2677/pdfs/uksi_20022677_en.pdf
cannot be adequately controlled in other ways.
PPE is defined in the Regulations as all equipment that The Control of Substances Hazardous to
is intended to be worn or held by a person at work Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002
and that protects them against one or more risks to
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
their health or safety. Examples of this would be safety
Regulations, known as COSHH, are intended to protect
helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing,
people from illness caused by exposure to hazardous
safety footwear and safety harnesses.
substances. The Regulations require employers to:
Hearing protection and respiratory (breathing) ● assess the risks to health and safety
protective equipment (RPE) provided for most work ● decide what precautions are needed to prevent ill
situations are not covered by the PPE Regulations health
because other regulations are in force that deal ● prevent or control exposure
specifically with these areas. However, these items ● make sure that the control measures are used and
need to be compatible with any other PPE provided. maintained
The Regulations require that PPE is: ● monitor exposure and carry out health checks if

● properly assessed before use to ensure it is suitable needed

● maintained and stored correctly ● make sure that all employees are properly informed,

● provided with instructions on how to use it safely trained and supervised.

● used correctly by employees. To comply with COSHH, eight steps should be followed
All employers must provide PPE free of charge whether (Table 1.1).
the PPE is returnable or not (this also applies to agency  Table 1.1 The eight steps needed to comply with COSHH
workers not in the employer’s full employment). There
Your employer should assess the
are no exemptions from using or wearing PPE. PPE must risks to health from hazardous
1 Assess the risks
also be provided to members of the public who are at substances used in or created by
risk – for example, site visitors. If PPE is provided it must your workplace activities.
be used. Your employer must not carry
2 Decide what out work that could expose you
precautions are to hazardous substances without
needed first considering the risks and the
necessary precautions.
Your employer must prevent you
being exposed to hazardous
3 Prevent or
substances. Where preventing
adequately control
exposure is not reasonably
exposure
p Figure 1.1 Mandatory helmet sign practicable, then your employer
must adequately control it.
Your employer must ensure that
4 Ensure that control
control measures are used and
measures are used
maintained properly, and that safety
and maintained
procedures are followed.
Your employer should monitor
5 Monitor the
the exposure of employees to
exposure
hazardous substances, if necessary.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Your employer must carry out ● asphyxiants such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen
appropriate health surveillance ● carcinogens such as radon gas or tobacco smoke.
6 Carry out health where the risk assessment has
surveillance shown that this is necessary Routes of entry into the body include:
or where COSHH sets specific ● breathing in vapours, gases, dusts and fumes
requirements. ● eating or drinking substances or foods contaminated
7 Prepare plans and Your employer must prepare by hazardous substances
procedures to deal plans and procedures to deal with
● contact with the skin or absorption into the body
with accidents, incidents and emergencies involving
incidents and hazardous substances, where through the skin, causing harm to internal organs, or
emergencies necessary. via cuts or wounds, causing harm to internal organs
8 Ensure employees ● contact with the eyes by fumes, vapours, liquids and
Your employer should provide
are properly dusts.
you with suitable and sufficient
informed, trained
information, instruction and training.
and supervised
INDUSTRY TIP
Source: Health and Safety Executive (2005) COSHH: A brief
guide to the Regulations You can access the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 2013 at: www.legislation.
COSHH data sheets gov.uk/uksi/2013/1471/contents
There are many forms of hazardous substance for
which manufacturers and suppliers produce COSHH
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and
data sheets. These are an invaluable source of safety
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 2013
information, designed to make you aware of the known
hazards associated with a material or substance, advise The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
you of safe handling procedures, and recommend the Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 2013 apply to
most effective response to accidents. all work activities. They place a legal duty on your
employer, the self-employed and people in control of
work premises to report some work-related accidents,
KEY POINT
diseases and dangerous occurrences by the fastest
There are many forms of hazardous substance,
means possible, usually first by telephone and then
for which manufacturers and suppliers produce
COSHH data sheets. The data sheet is an in writing. RIDDOR applies to all work activities but
invaluable source of safety information and is not all incidents are reportable. Those that must be
designed to make you aware of the known hazards reported are:
associated with a material or substance, advise ● deaths
you of safe handling procedures and recommend ● over-three-day injuries – where an employee or
the most effective response to accidents.
self-employed person is away from work or unable
to perform their normal work duties for more than
Under the COSHH Regulations, hazardous substances three consecutive days. This must be reported
include: within 15 days
● chemicals – classified under ‘Chemicals Regulations’
● injuries to members of the public or people not at
and identifiable by red and white diamond-shaped work where they are taken from the scene of an
warning symbols on the container; care should be accident to hospital
taken with unmarked containers ● certain work-related diseases, for example illnesses
● any substance that has been assigned a workplace
such as cancers which can be linked to hazards that
exposure limit a person may have been exposed to in their work
● dusts in concentrations in air greater than
● dangerous occurrences – where something happens
10 mg/m3 for inhaled dust or 4 mg/m3 of respirable that does not result in an injury, but could have
dust done.
● biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and

parasites

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Gas Safe-registered gas fitters must also report

dangerous gas fittings they find, and gas conveyors/
KEY TERM
suppliers must report some flammable gas incidents. Competent: having the necessary ability, knowledge
or skill (trained, tested and received a certificate).
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The Regulations ensure precautions are taken to avoid
How to report an incident death or personal injury from electricity during work
Call: 0845 300 9923 activities. The main requirements are to:
Email: [email protected] ● make sure that all persons working on or near electrical

Report online at: www.hse.gov.uk/riddor/report.htm equipment are competent

Write to: Incident Contact Centre, Caerphilly ● maintain electrical systems in safe condition

Business Park, Caerphilly CF83 3GG ● carry out electrical work safely

● ensure equipment is suitable and safe to use in

terms of:
INDUSTRY TIP ● strength and capability

● use in adverse or hazardous environments – for

You can access the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 at: example, weather, dirt, dust, gases, mechanical
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635/contents/made hazards and flammable atmospheres
● ensure effective insulation of conductors in a

system
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
● ensure effective earthing of the system
The Electricity at Work (EAW) Regulations place ● ensure that if work is carried out to the earthing
legal responsibilities on employers and employees to system that involves breaking the flow of current,
ensure that fixed electrical equipment and portable other precautions are taken to maintain the earth
appliances are tested (PAT test) and maintained, continuity
and regular inspections carried out to ensure they ● ensure all components of the electrical system are
are safe to use. Verifiable evidence is required in the suitable and safe for use
form of: ● protect against system overload
● documented inspection and testing records, such ● provide suitable means for cutting off the supply of
as portable appliance test (PAT) records and test electrical current to any electrical equipment and
certificates effective isolation of electrical equipment
● evidence that training has been carried out ● ensure that work is not carried out on or near a live
● electrical authorisations conductor unless absolutely essential and suitable
● the control of work activities precautions are taken to prevent injury
● competent persons. ● ensure adequate working space, access and

lighting to all electrical equipment where work is

KEY TERM undertaken.
Portable appliance test (PAT test): the process of
checking electrical appliances and equipment to INDUSTRY TIP
ensure they are safe to use.
You can access the Work at Height Regulations 2005 at:
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/735/contents/made

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Duty holders must also:

● ensure working at height is avoided where possible

● use work equipment or other measures to prevent

falls where working at height is unavoidable

● where they cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use

work equipment or other measures to reduce the

distance of the fall.
The Regulations also include requirements for existing
places of work and means of access for working at
height, collective fall prevention equipment such
as guardrails and working platforms, collective fall
arresters such as nets and airbags, personal fall
protection such as harnesses and work restraints, and
ladders.

p Figure 1.2 Electrical testing

The Work at Height Regulations 2005

The Work at Height Regulations 2005 apply to all work
at height where there is a risk of a fall that may cause
personal injury. They place duties on employers, the
self-employed and any person that controls the work
of others, such as managers, supervisors or building
owners who may use contractors to work at height. As
part of the Regulations, duty holders must ensure that:
● all work at height is properly planned and organised

● those people working at height are competent

● the risks from working at height are assessed and

the correct work equipment is selected and used

● equipment for working at height is regularly

inspected and properly maintained.

KEY TERM
Duty holder: a person who controls, reduces or
eliminates health and safety risks that may arise
during the construction of a building or during
future maintenance. They must also provide
p Figure 1.3 Working at height
information for the health and safety file.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The Manual Handling Operations

Regulations 1992
The Manual Handling Operations Regulations apply to
a wide range of manual handling activities, including
lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling and carrying. In
the Regulations, loads are described as being either
inanimate – for example, a gas boiler – or animate, such
as a person or animal.
The Regulations require employers to:
● avoid hazardous manual handling operations so far

as is reasonably practicable
● assess any hazardous manual handling operations

that cannot be avoided

● reduce the risk of injury so far as is reasonably p Figure 1.4 Good manual handling at work
practicable, including automating or mechanising
the lifting process as much as possible. KEY POINT
Employees have a duty to make full and proper use of The Safety Signs and Signals Regulations apply
any system of work provided for employees by their to all places of work, but do not include signs
and labels used in connection with the supply
employer, to reduce risks of manual handling injuries.
of substances, products and equipment or the
A useful resource is ‘Manual handling at work: a brief transport of dangerous goods.
guide’ on the HSE website.

INDUSTRY TIP INDUSTRY TIP

You can access the Manual Handling Operations You can access the Safety Signs and Signals Regulations
Regulations 1992 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ 1996 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1996/341/made
uksi/1992/2793/contents/made
The Control of Lead at Work Regulations
The Safety Signs and Signals Regulations 2002
1996 The Control of Lead at Work Regulations apply to all
The Safety Signs and Signals Regulations require work that exposes any person to lead in any form
employers to provide specific safety signs whenever whereby the lead may be ingested, inhaled or absorbed
and wherever there is a risk that has not been avoided into the body. This is relevant to plumbers as the lead
or controlled in other ways, including the use of road may be absorbed through the skin when it is being
traffic signs within workplaces to control road traffic handled or the fumes breathed in when they lead weld.
movements. They also place a duty on employers to
An Approved Code of Practice (ACOP), ‘Control of Lead
keep the safety signs in good condition and explain
at Work’, is available and should be used in conjunction
unfamiliar signs to their employees, giving instructions
with the Regulations.
on what they need to do when they see a safety sign.
The Regulations state that the employer must assess
The Regulations apply to all places of work and
the nature and extent of the exposure to lead so that
cover other methods of conveying health and safety
the measures of control will be adequate based on
information, including the use of illuminated signs, hand
that assessment. Where there is ‘significant’ exposure
and audible signals such as fire alarms, fire safety signs
to lead all the Regulations will apply, but below this
and the marking of pipework containing dangerous
level only some of the Regulations will apply.
substances. These are in addition to the traditional
safety signs such as prohibition and warning signs.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

The basic measure to protect employees from

absorbing lead is the prevention of the escape of lead
dust, fume or vapour into the workplace. Personal
hygiene is important in controlling lead absorption, and
the provision and use of adequate washing facilities and
PPE is a basic requirement. Food and drink should not
be consumed in any place that may be contaminated
by lead and the employer should provide alternative
arrangements.
Employees should be given sufficient information and
training regarding hazards, precautions and duties under
the Regulations.
Working with lead and the symptoms of lead p Figure 1.5 Asbestos in poor condition
poisoning will be covered in detail later in this chapter
(see page 22). INDUSTRY TIP

INDUSTRY TIP You can access the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 at:
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/2739/contents/made
You can access the Control of Lead at Work Regulations
2002 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/2676/contents/
Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations
made
1981 (with 2013 amendment)
These Regulations set out what employers need to
The Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 do to address the issue of first aid provision in the
The Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 prohibit the workplace:
importing, supplying and use of all forms of asbestos. ● Managing the provision, i.e. first aid kit, equipment,
They continue the ban introduced in 1985 for blue and room etc.
brown asbestos and, in 1999, for white asbestos. The ● The requirement for training first aiders
ban on the second-hand use of asbestos products, such ● The requirement for appointed persons
as asbestos cement sheets and asbestos boards and ● Making employees aware of these provisions
tiles, also remains in place. ● First aid for the self employed

● Examples of where the Regulations do not apply.

KEY TERM
Confined Spaces Regulations 1997
Prohibit: prevent or forbid by law.
Under the HASAWA 1974, employees are responsible
The ban applies to new use of asbestos. If existing where the work carries a risk when working in confined
asbestos-containing materials are in good condition, spaces. This responsibility is outlined in the Confined
they may be left in place provided that their condition Spaces Regulations 1997. The key duties are:
● to avoid working in confined spaces wherever
is monitored and managed to ensure they are not
disturbed. possible by completing the work from the outside
● to follow a safe system of work, if confined space
Asbestos will be covered later in this chapter (see working cannot be avoided
page 24). ● to put in place adequate emergency arrangements

BEFORE work starts.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● identify hazards early on, so they can be eliminated

INDUSTRY TIP or reduced at the design planning stage and the
remaining risks can be properly managed
You can access the Construction (Design and Management)
● target effort where it can do the most good
Regulations 2015 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/51/
contents/made in terms of health and safety, and discourage
unnecessary red tape.
The aim is for health and safety considerations to be
INDUSTRY TIP treated as an essential part of a project’s development
and not as an afterthought or added extra. This ensures
A summary of the duties of each party and how they are that the responsibility lies firmly with all individuals,
applied is given in Table 1.2. This is taken from the Health
from management at the highest level, the client, the
and Safety Executive (HSE) publication L153 Managing
designer (architect) and the main contractor, down to
health and safety in construction, (published 2015),
available on the HSE’s website at: www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/ the subcontractors, tradespersons and apprentices on-
priced/l153.pdf site.
The CDM Regulations require the appointment of a
principal designer whose job it is to advise the client on
KEY TERM health and safety issues during the design and planning
Health and Safety Executive (HSE): the government phases of construction work. They should:
body in the UK responsible for the encouragement, ● help the client prepare the pre-construction
regulation and enforcement of workplace health, information, and ensure that this is received by the
safety and welfare regulations and government
designers and principal contractor in good time
legislation.
● ensure that the designers fulfil their roles

● plan, manage and monitor pre-construction phase,

Construction-specific legislation co-ordinating any matters relating to health and
The Construction (Design and safety during this phase to ensure that the project is
Management) Regulations 2015 without health and safety issues
● eliminate and control any risks throughout the
The Construction (Design and Management) (CDM)
design work
Regulations 2015 are the principal piece of health
● ensure that there is co-operation and co-ordination
and safety legislation specifically written for the
between all duty holders
construction industry. They came into force on 6 April
● liaise with the principal contractor to share
2015, replacing and updating previous regulations.
information relevant to the planning, management
The main aim of the CDM Regulations 2015 is to and monitoring of the construction phase, and
combine health and safety into the management of co-ordinate any health and safety issues during
large construction projects and to encourage everyone construction
involved to work together to: ● prepare the health and safety file.
● improve the planning and management of projects

from the very start

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

 Table 1.2 CDM roles and duties

CDM duty holders: who are they? Summary of role/main duties

Clients are organisations or Make suitable arrangements for managing a project. This includes making sure:
individuals for whom a construction l other duty holders are appointed
project is carried out. l sufficient time and resources are allocated.
Make sure:
l relevant information is prepared and provided to other duty holders
l the principal designer and principal contractor carry out their duties
l welfare facilities are provided.

Domestic clients are people who Domestic clients are in scope of CDM 2015, but their duties as a client are normally
have construction work carried out transferred to:
on their own home, or the home of l the contractor, on a single contractor project, or
a family member that is not done as l the principal contractor, on a project involving more than one contractor.
part of a business, whether for profit However, the domestic client can choose to have a written agreement with the principal
or not. designer to carry out the client duties.
Designers are those who, as part of a When preparing or modifying designs, to:
business, prepare or modify designs l eliminate, reduce or control foreseeable risks that may arise during construction, and
for a building, product or system the maintenance and use of a building once it is built
relating to construction work. l provide information to other members of the project team, to help them fulfil their
duties.
Principal designers are designers Plan, manage, monitor and co-ordinate health and safety in the pre-construction phase of
appointed by the client in projects a project. This includes:
involving more than one contractor. ● identifying, eliminating or controlling foreseeable risks
They can be an organisation or an ● ensuring designers carry out their duties
individual with sufficient knowledge, ● preparing and providing relevant information to other duty holders.
experience and ability to carry out Provide relevant information to the principal contractor to help them plan, manage, monitor
the role. and co-ordinate health and safety in the construction phase.
Principal contractors are contractors Plan, manage, monitor and co-ordinate health and safety in the construction phase of a
appointed by the client to co-ordinate project. This includes:
the construction phase of a project ● liaising with the client and principal designer
where it involves more than one ● preparing the construction phase plan
contractor. ● organising co-operation between contractors and co-ordinating their work
● ensuring suitable site inductions are provided
● taking reasonable steps to prevent unauthorised access
● consulting workers and engaging in securing their health and safety
● making sure welfare facilities are provided.

Contractors are those who do the Plan, manage and monitor construction work under their control so that it is carried out
actual construction work and can be without risks to health and safety.
either an individual or a company. For projects involving more than one contractor, co-ordinate their activities with others
in the project team; in particular, comply with directions given to them by the principal
designer or principal contractor.
For single-contractor projects, prepare a construction phase plan.
Workers are the people who work for They must:
or under the control of contractors on ● be consulted about matters that affect their health, safety and welfare
a construction site. ● take care of their own health and safety, and that of others who may be affected by
their actions
● report anything they see that is likely to endanger either their own or others’ health and
safety
● co-operate with their employer, fellow workers, contractors and other duty holders.

Source: Health and Safety Executive (2015) Managing health and safety in construction

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Approved Document G: Sanitation, hot water

INDUSTRY TIP safety and water efficiency
Outlines cold water supply, flow and efficiency
You can access the Building (Amendment) Regulations 2013
use within a property. States the daily usage per
at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/1105/contents/made
person. States the requirement for safe working
temperatures and controls for hot water. Outlines
The Building (Amendment) Regulations suitable sanitary appliances within a property.
2013 ● Approved Document H: Drainage and waste
The Building Regulations in England and Wales come disposal
under the Building Act 1984. They set the standards for Outlines the requirements for soil stack and
the design and construction of buildings to ensure the guttering installation and design.
safety, health and welfare of the people who live and ● Approved Document J: Combustion appliances
work in buildings, including provision for those people and fuel storage systems
with a physical disability. Outlines the safe installation and usage of heat
producing appliances, including boilers, chimneys
The Building Regulations are set out in a series of
and flues, and offers advice on safe fuel storage
Approved Documents titled from A to R; these describe
installations, including solid fuel, liquid oil fuels and
the technical detail.
gas-fired heating.
Those documents listed below have specific implications ● Approved Document K: Protection from falling,
for plumbers, heating engineers and building services collision and impact
operatives: Outlines the requirements for stairs, ramps and
● Approved Document A: Structure loading bays. The protection against impacts with
Where the components of a system affect the glazing and use of safety windows and prevention
loading placed on the structure of a building or from being trapped by doors.
excavations are close to the building. Has to be ● Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and
followed when joists are notched or drilled. power
● Approved Document B: Fire safety Outlines the energy efficiency standards for
Where holes in walls have to be made which could properties including boilers, controls and insulation.
reduce the fire resistance of the building between ● Approved Document M: Access to and use of
areas. buildings
● Approved Document C: Site preparation and Outlines the ease of access to and use of buildings,
resistance to contaminates and moisture including facilities for disabled visitors or occupants,
Where holes are made in walls for pipes and fixings and the ability to move through a building easily
which may reduce the moisture resistance or allow including to toilets and bathrooms.
moisture to ingress the building. ● Approved Document P: Electrical safety
● Approved Document D: Toxic substances Outlines electrical safety in dwellings, including
Prevents toxic substances and fumes from entering detailed information about what procedures need
a property. to be in place and who may carry these out, such
● Approved Document E: Resistance to sound as when a professional electrician must be hired.
Where holes in the building fabric may reduce the Details electrical safety to avoid injuries and fires
soundproof integrity of the building or systems may caused by electrical installations, including the
cause a noise nuisance to nearby buildings. design, installation, inspection and testing of any
● Approved Document F: Ventilation electrical works made within a dwelling.
Building ventilation and guidance on air quality
within the building preventing the build up of
condensation.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

● Approved Document Q: Security in dwellings

Outlines security in new dwellings, including INDUSTRY TIP
measures taken to avoid any unauthorised entrance
● You can access the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
to dwellings and flats within a building.
Regulations 1999 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/
● Approved Document R: High-speed electronic uksi/1999/1148/contents/made
communications networks ● You can access the Gas Safety (Installation and
Outlines high-speed electronic communications Use) Regulations 1998 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/
networks, for example the use of physical uksi/1998/2451/contents/made
infrastructures within a building to ensure it may be
connected to a broadband network.
● Approved Document 7: Material and The Gas Safety (Installation and Use)
workmanship Regulations 1998
Outlines materials and workmanship, for example These cover the safe installation, maintenance and
the use of the appropriate materials for a use of gas and gas appliances in private dwellings
construction and how those who are working on and business premises, aimed at preventing carbon
the building must behave in a workmanlike manner. monoxide (CO) poisoning, fires and explosions. The
Regulations state that all gas engineers must be
registered on the Gas Safe Register to prove their
INDUSTRY TIP
competency, and it is the responsibility of landlords
All Approved Documents can be accessed from the index at: to ensure that their tenants’ pipework and appliances
www.gov.uk/government/collections/approved-documents are checked annually and certified safe to use.
Homeowners and other gas consumers are also
recommended by the HSE to have their appliances
Building services-specific legislation serviced and checked annually by a registered Gas Safe
The term ‘building services’ is used to describe those installer.
activities not connected with the construction of the
building but related to the services that are installed The 18th Edition IET Wiring Regulations
within the building as it is constructed. The services in a (BS 7671)
building are: These are the national standard to which all wiring
● water – industrial or domestic – should now conform. All
● gas wiring must be designed to the specifications laid down
● electricity in the Regulations, and any person involved in the
● heating and ventilation design, installation, inspection and testing of electrical
● telecommunications. installations must have a sound knowledge of this
The building services industry has specific legislation to document.
ensure the health and safety of the general public.
KEY POINT
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) The IET Regulations are produced by the Institute
Regulations 1999 of Engineering and Technology (IET), the industry
body that covers electrical installation. The 18th
These relate to the supply of safe, clean, wholesome edition contains many major changes that align it
drinking water to properties and dwellings, specifically with other similar European documents. To find
targeting the prevention of contamination, waste, out more, visit: http://electrical.theiet.org/bs-7671/
undue consumption, misuse and erroneous metering.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Health and safety responsibilities an organisation or an individual with the knowledge,

According to the CDM Regulations, each member experience and ability to carry out the role, which includes
of the construction team has certain responsibilities planning, managing, monitoring and co-ordinating health
towards health, safety and welfare during the planning and safety in the construction phase of a project.
stage, the construction stage and after the building This covers:
● liaising with the client and principal contractor
is completed. The main document to be produced
● preparing the construction phase plan
as a result of the CDM Regulations is the health and
● organising co-operation between contractors and
safety file, which must stay with the building until its
demolition. The main responsibilities are as follows. co-ordinating their work
● ensuring that:

The employer ● suitable site inductions are provided

● reasonable steps are taken to prevent

The responsibilities of the employer are vast and are
detailed in law to comply with government legislation unauthorised access
● workers are consulted and engaged in securing
and regulation. The main duty is to ensure health,
safety and welfare by providing a safe working their health and safety
● welfare facilities are provided.
environment for all employees. This includes providing
safe systems of work, safe handling, storage, training
Principal contractors
and supervision. Employers are obligated to provide an
up-to-date health and safety policy that is accessible These are appointed by the client to co-ordinate the
for all employees and any site visitors. construction phase of a project where it involves more
than one contractor. Their responsibilities include
The employee planning, managing, monitoring and co-ordinating
Under the HASAWA, employees must act with due care health and safety in the construction phase of the
for themselves and anyone else who may be affected project, which covers:
● liaising with the client and principal designer
by their acts or omissions. They must co-operate with
● preparing the construction phase plan
the employer in respect of health and safety matters,
● organising co-operation between contractors and
and must not recklessly interfere with or misuse
equipment that is provided for health and safety. co-ordinating their work
● ensuring that suitable site inductions are provided

The client ● taking steps to prevent unauthorised site access

● consulting workers, and engaging them in securing

The client must demonstrate an acceptable standard
of health and safety by appointing a principal designer their health and safety
● ensuring that welfare facilities are provided.
(see below) to monitor and advise on all health
and safety matters. They must also make suitable
Contractors
arrangements for managing a project. This includes
making sure that: Contractors are those who do the actual construction
● other duty holders are appointed
work and can be either an individual or a company.
● sufficient time and resources are allocated
Their role is to:
● plan, manage and monitor the construction work
● the relevant information is prepared and provided to

other duty holders under their control so that it is carried out without
● the principal designer and principal contractor carry
risks to health and safety
● for projects involving more than one contractor, to
out their duties
● welfare facilities are provided.
co-ordinate their activities with others in the project
team, and comply with directions given to them by
The principal designer the principal designer or principal contractor
● for single-contractor projects, prepare a
These are designers appointed by the client in
projects involving multiple contractors. They can be construction phase plan.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Subcontractors
Subcontractors do not have direct contact with health
and safety issues. However, they must abide by the
law in respect to health and safety and be provided
with relevant safety information and PPE. They must
also complete an initial site induction before they are
allowed on-site alone.

The legal status of health and safety

guidance
Health and safety guidance can be divided into two
distinct groups: mandatory and advisory.

KEY TERMS p Figure 1.6 Managing and working with asbestos

Mandatory: required by law; compulsory.
Advisory: recommended but not enforced. Who enforces health and
safety regulations?
Those that are mandatory (the law) are:
Health and safety law is enforced by the HSE and local
● Acts of Parliament: these create a new law or
authority working in partnership under the Health and
change an existing one. Their implementation is the
Safety Executive/Local Authorities Enforcement Liaison
responsibility of a specific government department;
Committee (HELA). Both employ health and safety
in the case of health and safety acts, this is the
inspectors whose job it is to ensure that the law is
Health and Safety Committee.
complied with.
● Regulations: rules, procedures and administrative

codes set by authorities or governmental agencies The role of the health and safety
to achieve an objective. They are legally enforceable
inspectors
and must be followed to avoid prosecution.
Inspectors have the legal right to enter your workplace
Those that give guidance and advice are: without giving notice, although notice may be given
● Approved codes of practice (ACOPs): documents
where the inspector considers it appropriate. On a
that give practical guidance on complying with normal inspection visit, the inspector would look at
regulations. Although it is not an offence not to your place of work, work activities, management of
comply with an ACOP, in the case of health and health and safety, and check that your employer is
safety ACOPs, proof that their advice has been complying with health and safety law. The inspector
ignored could be seen as evidence of guilt if an may offer guidance and advice or talk to employees,
employer or employee faces criminal prosecution take photographs and samples, serve improvement
under health and safety law. Following an ACOP is notices or take action if a risk to health and safety is
considered good practice. perceived.
● Guidance notes: these are produced by the HSE

to help people interpret and understand what is If a breach of health and safety law is found, the
required by a law, and to comply with it. They also inspector will decide what action to take. The action
give technical advice. Courses of action set out will depend on the severity of the breach. The inspector
in guidance notes are not compulsory, but if the should provide employees or their representatives with
guidance is followed it is usually enough to comply information relating to the breach and any necessary
with the law. action.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

There are several ways in which an inspector may minimum of 21 days, to allow the duty holder time
take enforcement action to deal with a breach of the to appeal to an industrial tribunal.
regulations. These are as follows. ● Prohibition notice: where an activity involves a
● Informal action: where the breach of the law is risk of serious personal injury, the inspector may
comparatively small, the inspector will advise the issue a prohibition notice forbidding the activity
duty holder what action to take in order to conform either immediately or after a specified time period.
with the requirements of the law. If requested, this This notice will not be lifted and work will not
can be given in writing. be allowed to resume until corrective action has
● Improvement notice: more severe breaches will been taken.
receive a direct order to take specific action to ● Prosecution: in some cases, prosecution may
comply with the law. The inspector will discuss with be deemed necessary. Failure to comply with an
the duty holder the improvement notice and resolve improvement or prohibition notice, or a court
points of difference before serving it. The notice will remedy order, carries a fine of up to £20,000 or six
say what has to be done, why and by when. The months’ imprisonment, or both. Unlimited fines
time period to take the corrective action will be a and in some cases imprisonment may be given by
higher courts.

2 RECOGNISING AND RESPONDING TO

HAZARDOUS SITUATIONS AT WORK
We will now look at construction site safety from a HEALTH AND SAFETY
general and personal point of view. We will examine Next time you are tempted to take a risk, STOP and
general site hazards, and how we can either help or THINK safety!
hinder our own health and safety and that of those
around us. Learning to spot a dangerous situation is not difficult
because accidents follow a regular pattern. Every day,
Preventing accidents at work the same set of dangerous conditions build up and the
Accidents do not just happen; they are caused. The same unsafe acts take place. Consequently, the same
first step towards preventing accidents is finding out kinds of accident happen over and over again.
what the causes are. Accident prevention is something
that everyone needs to practise. It means being able to ACTIVITY
recognise and take steps to remove danger, and is the Do any of the things you normally see and do at
responsibility of everyone working, in any way, on a work add up to a source of danger? Write a list
construction site. of potential accidents and, against each one, note
down an action you could take to reduce the risk of
it happening.
KEY TERM
Accident: an unexpected or unplanned event
that could result in personal injury, damage and, Identifying hazards at work
occasionally, death. When an accident occurs, Hazards on-site can be divided into three specific
there are always reasons for it and if there’s a groups:
reason, then there is usually blame.
1 general site and work area cleanliness, which can
lead to trips, slips and falls
2 using equipment and PPE that is inadequate for the
job, non-existent (in the case of PPE) or defective

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

3 personal conduct such as:

● incorrect manual handling methods
KEY POINT
Remember that a hazard is anything that may
● incorrect methods of working at heights, in
cause harm, such as chemicals, electricity, gas,
trenches and on excavations working from ladders, etc. The risk is the chance,
● not taking enough care and attention in no matter how high or low, that somebody could be
dangerous environments harmed by these and other hazards, together with
● using equipment or carrying out activities an indication of how serious the harm could be.
without appropriate training
● taking risks.
Risk assessment step by step
Here are a few examples of things that can lead to 1 Identify the hazards.
accidents in the workplace: ● Work out how people could be harmed by:
● excessive haste or taking shortcuts in order to get – walking around the site
the job done – asking employees what they think
● lack of preparation, and failure to comply with – visiting the HSE website for practical guidance
instructions and rules of safety – contacting trade associations for advice
● lack of concentration due to distraction or lack of – checking manufacturers’ instructions and
interest in the job COSHH data sheets.
● PPE or clothing not used or worn 2 Decide who might be harmed and how.
● inadequate training and supervision ● Identify the groups of people at risk.
● inadequate lighting, heating or noise 3 Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions.
● poor storage of materials ● Consider:
● unsafe methods of handling and lifting – whether you can get rid of the hazard
● defective tools and equipment altogether
● poor weather conditions – if not, how can you control the risks so that
● electrical faults harm is unlikely?
● failure to use guards provided 4 Record your findings and implement them.
● working under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol. ● Ensure a proper check was made by:

In many cases, these can be prevented by following safe – asking who might be affected
working practices, including the use of risk assessments, – dealing with all the significant hazards, taking
method statements and permits to work. into account the number of people who could
be involved
Risk assessments – making sure all precautions are reasonable,
A risk assessment is a detailed examination of any and the remaining risk is low
factor that could cause injury, so that you or your – involving your staff or their representatives in
employer can assess whether sufficient steps have the process.
been taken to prevent harm. Other workers and 5 Review your assessment and update it if necessary.
the general public have a right under health and ● Ensure you review risk assessments every year

safety law to be protected from any harm that may taking into account whether:
be caused by the failure to take reasonable control – more employees have joined the company
measures. Your employer is legally required to assess – new machinery and/or equipment has been
the risks in the workplace and implement measures installed
to control those risks. The law does not expect you to – any fellow workers have spotted any
eliminate all risks, but you are expected to take steps problems
to ensure health and safety as far as is reasonably – anything has been learned from accidents or
practicable. near misses.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

RISK ASSESSMENT RA01: ALL OPERATIONS – CORE ASSESSMENT

Operation/Task: All operations – core assessment Employees at risk: All site personnel

Location/Area: Any Other persons at risk: General public

Assessor: Key responsible personnel: Contract managers and supervisors

Pre-control Post-control
Activity Hazard Risks risk ratings Control measures risk ratings Comments
1* 2** 1x2 1* 2** 1x2
Construction Plant and vehicle movement Contact by Controlled operations with use of This is a general assessment only. See
plant operation Major injury banksman as necessary. also assessments relating to specific
Competent operators to CITB CTA, EPIC items of construction plant.
5 6 30 or CSCS standards where applicable. 2 5 10
Clear and reasonable access/egress for
plant.
Well-maintained construction plant.
Signing and Public, traffic, site traffic Contact by Signing and guarding to Chapter 8 of This is a high-risk activity but methods of
guarding of Major injury Traffic Signs Manual. working and control measures keep risk
works Installation procedures consistent with to a minimum. Consequences can still be
those recommended by Chapter 8 and serious, especially on high-speed roads.
the Traffic Management Contractors’ High level of discipline required. See
7 7 49 2 6 12 other signing specific Risk Assessments.
Association (TMCA).
Competent operators carrying out the
installation.
Additional training for those carrying out
signing etc. on high-speed roads.
Driving around Plant and vehicle Contact by Site speed limit usually 15 m.p.h. See also task specific Risk Assessments.
the site movements, obstruction Major injury High level of personal awareness.
5 6 30 Rotating flashing amber beacon displayed 2 2 4
Contact with
prominently on top of vehicle.
Pedestrian Plant and vehicle movement Contact by Personal awareness of operations on site. See also task specific Risk Assessments.
activity Use of pedestrian only routes where
5 6 30 available/possible. 2 5 10
Wearing high viz clothing to EN471.
All tasks Incompetence Various All site personnel to be competent to High level of awareness and most
perform the tasks they are asked to do. operations of a ‘pass-by’ nature thereby
4 6 24 Compliance with the Site Managers’ rules. 1 5 5 minimising the Laeq values.
Skills/competencies as per Company
Health & Safety Policy.
Noise from operations Hearing damage All construction plant and vehicles
constructed to national standards and
industry norm that includes noise
attenuation.
3 4 12 Noise levels identified on machine when 1 2 2
possible.
Noise Risk Assessment carried out for
various items of plant and hearing.

p Figure 1.7 Example of a risk assessment form

Method statements together by those authorising the work and those

A method statement, sometimes called a safe carrying it out, which gives authorisation for named
system of work, is usually completed after the risk persons to carry out specific work within a nominated
assessment. It is a document that details the work time frame. It lists the precautions that are required
task or process, outlines the hazards involved and to complete the work safely based on a written risk
includes a step-by-step guide on how the work should assessment. It describes the work and how it will
be completed safely. The method statement must also be carried out (more detail is given in the method
detail which control measures have been initiated to statement). On completion of the work, and before
ensure the safety of anyone affected by the task or equipment or machinery is reinstated, it will require
process. Method statements are frequently requested a written declaration from the permit originator that
as part of the tendering process as this allows the normal practice may be returned to.
client to gain an insight into the company and the way
Work affecting the public and their health
it operates.
and safety
Permits to work It is not only construction workers that suffer accidents
When work has been identified as high risk, strict as a result of construction work. Members of the public
health and safety controls are required. In this instance can also be killed and injured. Accidents can often
the work must be carried out against a pre-agreed occur when people are walking close to where buildings
permit to work. A permit to work is a document put are being constructed, refurbished or demolished. It

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

must be remembered that work near to where the

general public have access needs must be planned and INDUSTRY TIP
executed correctly, taking into account people with
These are just a few of the precautions you can take but
pushchairs, people with disabilities and the elderly.
there are many others. For more information, see the HSE
The best way of protecting the public from the dangers website at: www.hse.gov.uk
of construction sites is to restrict access – in other
words, keep them out! Here are just a few pointers to
Safety signs
remember:
● Erect a 2 m high perimeter fence. If parts of it need
Safety signs are used on construction sites where risks
to be taken down for access, make sure these are have not been avoided by other means. Employers
put back at the end of the day. are required to provide and maintain safety signs,
● Lock the site gates and any windows and doors at
and workers need to be trained in the recognition of
night. safety signs and symbols so that they understand their
● If work is being done in an occupied property, clear
meaning. To ensure that the correct number and type
responsibilities need to be established with the of safety signs have been used, an employer must carry
occupier for maintaining the fencing. out a number of simple tasks. They must:
● conduct a risk assessment
● If the work is near a school or residential area,
● ensure fire equipment and emergency exits are
enlist the help of the head teacher or the residents’
association to discourage children and young people clearly indicated
● use signs to prohibit entry into dangerous areas
from entering the site.
● make sure that mandatory requirements, such as
● Young children should be protected from the

dangers of building sites. Steps taken should wearing PPE, are clearly shown
● clearly indicate all first-aid areas and equipment
include:
● use signs to show prohibited behaviour, such as ‘no
● cover trenches, excavations and scaffolds,

removing all ladders smoking’.

● store materials so there is no risk of them The signs used must communicate their message
toppling over clearly and effectively, and many have to conform to
● lock away hazardous substances strict legal and accessibility obligations. Safety signs
● initiate other security methods such as security must comply with the European Council’s Safety
guards. Signs Directive (92/58/EEC), the purpose of which
● Protect passers-by from falling objects from is to encourage the standardisation of safety signs
scaffolds by the use of toe boards, brick guards and throughout the European Union so that safety signs
netting. have the same meaning. Safety signs are divided into
● Use plastic sheeting to retain dust, drips and five separate groups as shown in Table 1.3.
splashes.
● Tie down or remove loose materials from scaffolds.
INDUSTRY TIP
● Ensure that warning and danger signs are posted on

and around the scaffold. You can access more information on the European Council’s
Safety Signs Directive (92/58/EEC) via: www.unece.org/
trans/danger/publi/ghs/pictograms.html

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 1.3 Six groups of safety signs

Category Description Example

Prohibition – ‘Stop!’ Colour: A red circular band with a diagonal cross bar on a white
background; the symbol within the circle to be black.
Purpose: To indicate that a certain behaviour is prohibited.
Meaning: Stop / Do not / You must not

Warning – ‘Danger’ Colour: A yellow triangle with a black border and black symbol.
Purpose: To warn of any type of hazard.
Meaning: Danger / Hazard / Caution / Beware / Careful

Mandatory – ‘Obey’ Colour: A blue circle with a white symbol.

Purpose: Indicates that a specific course of action must be taken.
Meaning: Obey / You must / Carry out instructions shown / Do

Fire equipment – ‘Fire’ Colour: A red rectangle or square with a white symbol.
Purpose: To describe the location of fire-fighting equipment.
Meaning: Location of fire-fighting equipment

Safe condition – ‘Safety’ Colour: A green rectangle or square with a white symbol or text.
Purpose: To provide information about safe conditions.
Meaning: The safe way / Where to go in emergencies / First aid

Occasionally, a sign may be seen that is a mixture of

many different types of signs on one signboard. These
are known as combination signs; an example is shown
in Figure 1.8.

p Figure 1.8 Example of a combination safety sign board

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Identifying hazardous substances corrosive to metals); health hazards (for example, acute
Section 7 of the HASAWA states that: toxicity, skin corrosion/irritation, eye damage/irritation,
respiratory/skin sensitisation); and environmental
‘Every employer must ensure that the exposure
hazards (for example, hazardous to the aquatic
of his/her employees to substances hazardous
environment).
to health is either prevented or adequately
controlled.’
In most cases, hazardous substances can be divided
into six main categories, as presented in Table 1.4.
 Table 1.4 Classifications of hazardous substances
Explosive Flammable Oxidising
Category Description Example
Toxic Cyanide, Poisons and dangerous
asbestos, lead substances that have the
ability to cause death
if ingested, inhaled or
absorbed into the body. Gas under Corrosive Toxic
pressure
Harmful Fluxes, solvents, Harmful substances could be
cleaning fluids, in any form, liquid, solid (dust
chemicals, dust particles) or gas.
Corrosive Hydrochloric Such substances have the
acid, sulphuric ability to cause severe burns
acid, caustic to exposed parts of the body.
soda Caution (used for Dangerous to Longer-term
Irritant Fibreglass roof Can cause irritation of the less serious health the environment health hazards,
insulation, some skin, eyes, nose and throat. hazards, such as such as
skin irritation) carcinogenicity
paints, solvents
and sealants p Figure 1.9 Hazard pictograms
Oxidising Oxygen from Materials are induced to burn
welding bottles fiercely by adding oxygen to
a fire. INDUSTRY TIP
Extremely Petrol, LPG, These have the potential to
flammable acetylene gas, burn fiercely if the substance Use the HSE website to identify the GHS pictograms:
solvent weld is either exposed to a source www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg136.pdf
adhesives and of ignition or subjected
cleaning agents to temperatures close to
its flashpoint, so that it
spontaneously combusts.
Chemicals
There are many chemicals that may be found on
Labels on packaging use the Globally Harmonised construction sites, from new build and refurbishment to
System (GHS) on the classification and labelling of demolition:
hazardous substances and mixtures. This system was ● lead

developed by the United Nations to ensure the labelling ● fluxes

of hazardous substances is consistent around the world, ● solvents (these have many uses on construction

so that they can be easily identified. It uses standard sites, such as cleaning agents)
symbols or pictograms (see Figure 1.8a) alongside ● asbestos

signal words (for example, ‘danger’ or ‘warning’) and ● cadmium (found in plastics like PVCu)

a hazard statement (a standard phrase to describe the ● carbon monoxide (from use of blowtorches, welding,

hazard, for example ‘wear eye protection’). The system generators, gas heaters, etc.)
categorises hazards into classes: physical hazards (for ● welding fumes (from welding metals like steel pipes)

example, explosives, flammable gases, oxidising liquids, ● spray paints

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● cutting oil mists (cutting and threading mild steel ● stomach pains
tubes) ● anaemia (lack of healthy red blood cells)
● jointing compounds. ● loss of weight.
Continued uncontrolled exposure could cause more
KEY POINT
serious symptoms, such as:
The effects on your health from exposure to
● kidney damage
chemicals can range from mild to very severe. In
● nerve and brain damage
some cases, it may be years before the effects are
felt, such as with asbestos. ● infertility.

Employer and employee health and safety

responsibilities when working with lead
If you are exposed to lead or lead compounds, such as
lead oxide, dust, fume or vapour from lead welding or
smelting, while you are at work, your employer must:
● assess the risk to your health, to decide whether

or not your exposure is ‘significant’ and what

precautions are needed to protect you
● put in place systems of work, such as fume and dust

extraction, to prevent or control your exposure to

lead and keep equipment in good working order
● provide washing and changing facilities, and places
p Figure 1.10 Lead work
free from lead contamination where you can eat
Working with lead and drink
● inform you about the risks to your health from
As part of your job as a plumber, you may be asked to
working with lead, and the precautions you should
work with lead, whether it is replacing a lead pipe or
take
installing lead sheet weatherings (sheet lead shaped
● train you to use any control measures and
and positioned on roofs and chimneys to prevent the
protective equipment correctly
rain getting in) and roof work. Lead is a highly toxic
● provide you with protective clothing and arrange for
metal that can enter the body through:
that clothing to be laundered
● absorption – touching and handling lead without the
● measure the amount of lead in the air that you are
use of barrier cream
exposed to and tell you the results; if your exposure
● ingestion – not observing personal hygiene by not
to lead cannot be kept below a certain level then
washing your hands before eating and drinking after
your employer must issue you with respiratory
handling lead
protective equipment
● inhalation – by breathing lead fumes when lead
● arrange to measure the level of lead in your body;
welding or soldering with leaded solder.
this is done by a simple blood test administered by
Lead is a very powerful neurotoxin that damages the a doctor at your place of work; you must be told the
central nervous system and leads to brain and blood results of your tests.
disorders. Lead oxide in the form of a white powder
There are ways you can help yourself too, which include
from the corrosion of lead is particularly dangerous.
the following.
The symptoms of lead poisoning are:
● Make sure you have all the information and training
● headaches
you need to work safely with lead, including
● tiredness
knowing what to do in an emergency such as the
● irritability
sudden uncontrolled release of lead dust or fume
● constipation
into the atmosphere.
● nausea

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Use all the equipment provided by your employer

KEY TERMS
●

and follow its instructions for use.

● Follow good work practices, keeping your immediate Rosin: a natural solid, resin-type material obtained
from pine trees, which, when heated, forms acidic
work area as clean and tidy as possible and taking
particles that can irritate the breathing. This could
care not to take home any PPE such as overalls or lead to occupational asthma.
protective footwear. Zinc chloride: a corrosive substance that can cause
● Wear any necessary PPE clothing and respiratory skin irritation, burns and eye damage if it gets in
protection. the eye.
● Report any damaged or defective equipment to your Sweating: the term sweating a joint refers to the
employer. process of fluxing, heating and soldering the joint
● Eat and drink only in designated areas that are free to create a watertight connection.
from lead contamination.
● Practise a high standard of personal hygiene,
washing your hands, face and nails regularly and
showering before leaving the site when necessary.
● Do not miss medical appointments with the doctor
at your place of work.

Working with fluxes

Flux is a paste compound that helps solder to adhere to
copper tubes and copper-based fittings. There are two
basic types of flux used today in the plumbing industry:
1 Traditional fluxes: these grease-based fluxes
often contain a chemical called rosin (also known
as colophony) or zinc chloride. Caution should
be exercised when using this kind of flux. It is
recommended that you check COSHH data sheets p Figure 1.11 Typical self-cleaning flux
for further information regarding these products.
2 Self-cleaning fluxes: this type of flux is also known INDUSTRY TIP
as ‘active’ flux because of its aggressive nature.
Most are based on zinc chloride or hydrochloric Again, it is recommended that you check COSHH data
acid, both of which can cause burns and severe sheets for further specific health and safety information
skin irritation, so careful handling and use is very regarding these products.
important. Other self-cleaning fluxes may use
natural enzymes as cleaning agents but these are Working with solvents
also known to irritate the skin.
A variety of solvents with differing degrees of toxicity
All flux should be handled with care. Use a brush are used in construction. They are in paints, adhesives,
to apply the paste and always wash your hands epoxy resins and other products.
thoroughly after use.
Generally, exposure to excessive amounts of solvent
The process when the flux has been added, the joint is vapour is greater when solvents are handled in enclosed
heated and the solder is added (if required) is referred or confined spaces. Care should be taken when using
to as sweating the joint. solvent adhesives to solvent weld PVCu pipes and
fittings in confined spaces. Solvents can:
● irritate your eyes, nose or throat

● make you dizzy, sleepy, give you a headache or

cause you to pass out

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● affect your judgement or co-ordination

● cause internal damage to your body
● dry out or irritate your skin.
When working with solvents, follow these basic
instructions:
● avoid contact with the skin

● avoid contact with the eyes

● use only in an open, well-ventilated space

● keep away from naked flames as solvents are

flammable
● store in a well-ventilated, secure area.

Identifying the types of asbestos

Asbestos is a naturally occurring fibrous material
that can cause major illnesses. It has been used as
a building material since the end of the 1940s and,
because asbestos is often mixed with other materials
such as cement, it is hard to know if you’re working
with it or not. The problem is that if you work in a
building built before the year 2000, it is likely that
asbestos has been used during its construction in one
form or another.

KEY TERM
Asbestos: a fibrous silicate material highly
resistant to heat.

There are three main types of asbestos:

1 Chrysotile (white asbestos): a white curly fibre,
chrysotile accounts for 90 per cent of asbestos in
products and is a member of the serpentine group.
It is a magnesium silicate.
2 Amosite (brown or grey asbestos): straight amosite
fibres belong in the amphibole group, and contain
iron and magnesium.
3 Crocidolite (blue asbestos): a member of the
amphibole group, crocidolite takes the form of
blue, straight fibres. It is a sodium iron magnesium
silicate.
Other forms of asbestos include:
● anthophyllite

● tremolite

● actinolite.

p Figure 1.12 Domestic uses of asbestos

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Materials that may contain asbestos All of the commonly available commercial forms of
Asbestos is one of the most dangerous materials that asbestos have been linked to cancerous and non-
you will come across during your work as a plumber. cancerous lung disease. Although asbestos is not used
Many people die each year from asbestos-related in any new builds, continuing sources of exposure are
diseases. asbestos removal and general construction industries.
The delay between exposure to asbestos and the
In the past, it was used extensively for the following development of cancer is generally 20 years or more.
plumbing-specific applications:
● flue pipes Asbestos-containing materials should have been
● gutters and rainwater pipes identified before work begins, but there is always the
● soil and vent pipes risk that some may be hidden on-site and is not found
● pipe insulation (both sprayed on and applied as a until work has started. If you think you have found
paste and wrapped in linen) asbestos, STOP WORK AT ONCE and alert people
● boiler gaskets and fireproof ropes that asbestos may be present. Asbestos is a difficult
● cold water cisterns. substance to identify, so it is better to assume a
material contains asbestos until proven otherwise. Do
It may also be found in: not return to the site until it has been deemed safe to
● Artex do so.
● roof and ceiling tiles

● soffit boards Do not start work if:

● plaster coatings ● you are not sure if there is asbestos where you are

● floor tiles and coverings working

● asbestos sheeting and corrugated roofing. ● the asbestos materials are sprayed coatings, board

or insulation and lagging on pipes and boilers; only

Safe working practices when dealing with licensed contractors should work on these
asbestos ● you have not been trained on non-licensed asbestos

The presence of asbestos alone does not necessarily work – basic awareness is not enough.
mean there is a health risk. Provided that the fibres You should continue only if:
are intact and are not disturbed the risk is relatively ● the work has been properly planned, the right
low. However, once the fibres are loose and enter precautions are in place and you have the correct
the atmosphere the risk increases dramatically; the equipment
asbestos is inhaled into the lungs, which causes certain ● the materials are asbestos cement, textured
types of lung disease. coatings and certain other materials that do not
Lung disease from exposure to asbestos can be divided need a licence; these are listed in HSE’s ‘Asbestos
into three main types: essentials’ (see www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/
1 Asbestosis: a process of widespread scarring of the essentials/)
● you have had training in asbestos work and know
lungs.
2 Disease of the lining of the lungs, called the pleura. how to work with it safely.
This has a variety of signs and symptoms and
is the result of inflammation and the hardening ACTIVITY
(calcification) and/or thickening of the lining tissue. Watch the HSE video about the risks of asbestos at:
3 Mesothelioma: a rare form of lung cancer. www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/videos/index.htm

ACTIVITY If you work with asbestos:

Visit the HSE’s page on the risks of asbestos at: ● use hand tools and not power tools

www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/dangerous.htm ● keep materials damp, not too wet

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● wear a properly fitted, suitable mask (e.g. disposable  Table 1.5 Safe ways to dispose of asbestos
FFP3 type); an ordinary dust mask will not be
1 Hire a specialist asbestos removal Recommended
effective company.
● don’t smoke, eat or drink in the work area 2 Dismantle the asbestos material
● double-bag asbestos waste and label the bags yourself, taking the correct precautions
properly with regard to health and safety,
and hire a licensed asbestos waste
● clean up as you go and use a special (class H)
company to dispose of the waste. Not
vacuum cleaner, not a brush
3 Transport it yourself to a site licensed recommended
● after work, wipe down your overalls with a damp by the Environment Agency. The
cloth, or wear disposable overalls (type 5) asbestos will require double-wrapping
● always remove overalls before removing your mask in strong plastic bags and must be
clearly marked as asbestos waste.
● do not take overalls home to wash
(The site will usually make a charge for
● wear boots without laces, or disposable boot covers this service.) Before you arrive at the
● put disposable clothing items in asbestos waste bags site you will need to telephone ahead
and dispose of them properly to advise them of the type, quantity
and intended time of arrival of the
● do not carry asbestos into your car or home. asbestos you wish to dispose of.

KEY POINT Most licensed sites will accept only certain types and
Remember: do not take chances with asbestos! quantity of ACM. Usually these are:
If you are in any doubt, seek expert advice. ● asbestos produced by the householder from

domestic properties
● cement-bonded asbestos sheeting, pipes, gutters or
Licensed asbestos removal
flues in pieces of 150 mm or less
Asbestos removal requires a licence for all asbestos
● asbestos sheeting that is in pieces of 150 mm or less
contamination situations where the risk of airborne
● a maximum of six small bags.
asbestos particles is high. The Health and Safety
Executive Asbestos Licensing Unit issues the
appropriate documentation. To be granted a licence,
a company must demonstrate the necessary skills,
3 PERSONAL
competency, expertise, knowledge and experience of PROTECTION
work with asbestos, together with excellent health and
safety management systems.
The purpose and use
Licences, which act as a permit to work, are issued for a
fixed time period, after which they have to be renewed.
of personal protective
At this time, the recorded performance of the company equipment
through the HSE and local authority inspectors will be Personal protective equipment (PPE) is designed to
taken into account. create a barrier against workplace hazards. Health and
Waste management will also be covered in Chapter 10, safety law states that:
● your employer must try to make the wearing of PPE
Domestic fuel systems.
unnecessary if at all possible; if not, then:
Asbestos disposal ● your employer must provide you with PPE

● your employer must train you in how to use PPE

In order of safety, there are three ways to dispose of
● you must use the PPE provided by your employer
asbestos and asbestos-containing materials (ACM).
● you must take care of your PPE
These are described in Table 1.5.
● you must report lost or damaged PPE to your

supervisor.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Depending on the type of workshop or site situation, Always wear your personal safety helmet, which you
the wearing of correct safety clothing and safe working will have to adjust to fit your head snugly. Do not add
practices are the best methods of avoiding accidents or paint or stickers to your helmet, as these may reduce
injury. its effectiveness.
All construction operatives have a responsibility to Safety helmets, approved to BS EN 397, are designed
safeguard themselves and others. Making provision to:
to protect yourself often means wearing the correct ● protect the head of a wearer against falling objects

protective clothing and safety equipment. Your by resisting penetration and reducing the shock
employer is obliged by law to provide: absorption by the head and body
● suitable protective clothing for working in the rain, ● be used in temperatures as low as −30°C and as

snow, sleet, etc. high as +150°C

● eye protection or eye shields for dust, sparks or ● have electrical resistance up to 440 V

flying objects ● be resistant against molten metal, marked as MM

● respirators, to avoid breathing dangerous dust and ● be resistant against side squeeze, marked LD, for

fumes lateral deformation.

● shelter accommodation for use when sheltering
Hard hats should be replaced once a year or if they
from bad weather
have been struck by an object.
● storage accommodation for protective clothing and

equipment when not in use Safety footwear

● ear defenders where noise levels cannot be reduced
You need to protect your feet against various hazards,
below 80 dB(A) 8 hour
including damp, cold, sharp objects, uneven ground and
● adequate protective clothing when exposed to high
crushing. Flimsy footwear and ordinary trainers will
levels of lead, lead dust or fumes, or paint
not give the protection required. A good pair of boots
● safety helmets for protection against falls of
with steel toecaps, EN 20345, and steel midsole for
materials or protruding objects
underneath protection is a mandatory requirement on
● industrial gloves for handling rough abrasives, sharp
construction sites.
and coarse materials, e.g. rough cast concrete or
when using toxic or corrosive materials.
INDUSTRY TIP
Safety helmets
Look up the following webpage to see how safe your safety
While on-site there is always a danger of materials or boots are: www.rockfall.com/conformity/standards-and-
objects falling into excavations or from scaffolds, and testing/
there is also a danger that you will hit your head on
protruding objects.
Overalls and work wear
There are numerous types of clothing produced to
wear over your normal clothes for protection from
dust, dirt and grime. Some have protective kneepad
provision, which is especially useful for plumbers, and
are designed to last longer. Plumbers should always
consider flame-retardant work wear where possible.

p Figure 1.13 Safety helmet

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

As well as providing protection, suitable signs must be

displayed where there is a chance of anyone sustaining
an eye injury.

Types of hazard that can cause eye

injuries
Some of the hazards and risks that might be
encountered in the workplace are:
● using hammers and chisels

● handling or coming in contact with corrosive or

irritant substances such as acids and alkalis

● the use of gas or vapour under pressure

● molten metals

● instruments that emit light or lasers

● abrasive wheels

● chipped or broken tools

● work involving welding or soldering

● threading steel pipe.

p Figure 1.14 Plumbers’ trousers All eye protection should be CE approved to the
relevant European standards, including EN 166 and
High-visibility jackets and vests are now a mandatory
EN 172. Eye protection is a requirement by law under
requirement for all construction site workers. The usual
Regulation 4 of the Personal Protective Equipment at
colours are fluorescent yellow or orange.
Work Regulations 1992 when working in a hazardous
area.
Eye protection
There are, on average, 1000 injuries to people’s eyes In the event of an eye injury:
every working day. Some injuries are so severe that ● no medication is to be applied to the eye
● the eye involved should be washed with clean,
they may cause partial or even total blindness. Your
eyes are very vulnerable and an accident or injury can cold water if needed, and covered with clean, dry
completely change your way of life. material (if possible, cover the unaffected eye as
well, to reduce eye movement)
● immediate medical attention should be sought

● a thorough ophthalmic examination should be

carried out within 24 hours.

Respirators (respiratory protective

equipment)
Dust and fumes are a known hazard to health,
especially when inhaled for long periods.
The greatest problem on-site and in the workshop
p Figure 1.15 Impact-resistant goggles
is the dust from common substances such as wood,
The majority of eye injuries would have been prevented cement, stone, silica and plastics. Cutting and grinding
if the correct eye protection had been worn. The of these materials can often produce large amounts
protection that should be provided includes goggles, of dust, which can cause breathing problems such as
visors, spectacles, face screens and fixed shields. asthma and emphysema. In general, the dust is too
fine to be seen with the naked eye, but problems and
symptoms can appear in later years.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Fumes from solvents, paints and adhesives can also Gloves

cause serious health problems, especially if used in There are many instances in construction where the
confined or unventilated spaces. correct hand protection is a necessity. The type of
The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations glove required depends on the type of work. Your hands
1992 make provision for the protection of employees are vulnerable to a wide range of hazards, such as cuts,
at work from dust and fumes, and also persons not blows, chemical attack and temperature extremes,
employed who may be at risk. making it vital you choose the right gloves.
● EN 388 is the classification for gloves designed
As well as providing respiratory protective equipment
to protect the hands against mechanical risks
(RPE), suitable signs must be displayed where there is
associated with the handling of rough or sharp
a chance of anyone coming into contact with dust and
objects, which could cut or graze. A mechanical
fumes from hazardous substances.
hazard does not mean moving machinery.
It is the responsibility of the employer to carry out a ● EN 407 – Protective gloves against thermal hazards:
risk assessment to determine when RPE is required and heat can be convected, conducted or radiated, or it
what type is appropriate to control the exposure to the may be a naked flame. Cold can be anything from
hazardous material. cold water to freezing pipe gases.
● EN 374 – Protective gloves against chemicals
Selecting the correct respirator
and micro-organisms: any substance that would
The selection of the correct RPE must be carried out by irritate, inflame or burn the skin is classed as a
a competent person. The choice will depend upon: chemical hazard. Some substances can cause the
● the nature of the hazard and material
skin to become sensitive over a period of time,
● the amount of dust present
while others have an immediate, painful effect. This
● the period of exposure
type of glove gives protection against chemical
● the weather conditions, if working outdoors
splashes and micro-organism hazards. They are
● whether the respirator is suitable for the user, field
often recommended specifically by the COSHH
of vision, communication, etc. Regulations 2002.
There are many types of RPE available, including:
● disposable face masks

● half dust respirators

● high-efficiency dust respirators

● ventilator visor or helmet respirators

● compressed air line breathing apparatus

● self-contained breathing apparatus.

p Figure 1.17 Gloves for mechanical risk

p Figure 1.16 Disposable dust mask

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The type of hearing protection you use will depend

on the work you are doing. For very noisy situations
or long-duration work, ear defenders would be the
best solution as they offer greater protection than
earplugs.

Manual handling
Manual handling operations are an important part
of the construction industry. They are probably the
biggest cause of back problems and time off work.
Here, we will look at the following safe manual
p Figure 1.18 Gloves for chemical risk handling techniques:
● how to avoid manual handling injuries by using
● EN 12477 is the standard for protective gauntlets
for welders. correct lifting methods
● how to assess your own lifting capability
● EN 421 – Protective gloves against ionising radiation
● how to decide whether a manual handling activity is
and radioactive contamination.
safe
● how to safely lift a load, transport it and put it down
Hearing protection
● ways of reducing the load
The noise level at which employers must make a risk
● ways of avoiding manual handling.
assessment and provide information and training is
80 decibels. There is also an upper noise limit of 87 Often, manual handling and lifting can cause
decibels (taking into account hearing protection), above immediate pain and injury; this type of injury is called
which workers should not be exposed. The British an acute injury. Sometimes the result of an injury can
Standards for ear protection are: take weeks, months or even years to develop. These
● ear defenders BS EN 352–1:2002 types of injuries are called chronic injuries.
● earplugs BS EN 352–2:2002

● ear defenders on safety helmet BS EN 352–3:2002 KEY TERMS

● level dependent ear defenders BS EN 352–4:2001 Acute injury: occurs when manual handling or
● active noise reduction ear defenders BS EN 352– lifting causes immediate pain and injury.
5:2002 Chronic injury: type of injury that can take weeks,
● ear defenders with electrical audio input BS EN months or even years to develop.
352–6:2002
● level dependent earplugs BS EN 352–7:2002. As already mentioned, the Manual Handling
Operations Regulations 1992 control manual
handling and lifting, and require employers to reduce
the risks from manual handling and employees to
adopt the safe working practices set down by the
employer.
Here are some points for you to consider before
attempting any lifting or handling operation.
● Be aware of your own strength and limitations.

● Decide if it is a one-person operation or you require

p Figure 1.19 Ear defenders help.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

● Always use mechanical equipment or aids if

available and ensure you are trained in their use.
KEY POINT
Remember: even a light weight can cause injury,
● Be sure of the weight of the item before lifting.
especially if it’s too big and you can’t see where
● Wear gloves to protect your hands. you are going!
● Wear safety boots to protect your feet.
● Make sure the area around is clear and safe to carry
out lifting and movement. Lifting and handling techniques

KEY POINT INDUSTRY TIP

Manual handling The basic principle of good manual handling when lifting is:
For further information and advice on manual ‘knees bent – back straight’. This is known as the Kinetic
handling, download the HSE’s information leaflet Lifting Technique.
at: www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg383.pdf

The one-person lift

To avoid injury, the principles listed in Table 1.6 should
be followed.
 Table 1.6 Kinetic lifting
Step 1 Think before lifting/handling. Plan the lift. Can handling aids be used? Where are you moving the load to? Will you need
help with the load? Remove obstructions in your way. For a long lift, consider resting the load midway on a table or
bench to change your grip.
Step 2 Adopt a stable position. The feet should be apart, with one foot slightly forward to maintain balance (at the side of the
load, if it is on the ground). You should be prepared to move your feet during the lift to maintain your stability.
Step 3 Get a good hold. The load should be hugged as close to your body as possible. This may be better than gripping it
tightly with hands only.
Step 4 Start with a good posture. At the start of the lift, slight bending of the back, hips and knees is preferable.
Step 5 Don’t flex the back any further while lifting. When you lift the load, your legs and the load should move together to
avoid flexing the back.
Step 6 Avoid twisting the back or leaning sideways. This puts excessive strain on the back muscles, especially while the back
is bent. Keep shoulders level and facing in the same direction as the hips. Turn by moving your feet rather than twisting
your body.
Step 7 Keep the load close to your waist, and close to the body for as long as possible while lifting. Keep the heaviest side of
the load next to your body.
Step 8 Keep your head up when handling. Look ahead, not down at the load, once it has been held securely.
Step 9 Move smoothly. Do not jerk or snatch the load as this can make it harder to keep control and can increase the risk of
injury.
Step 10 Don’t lift or handle more than can easily be lifted. If the load is too heavy, seek advice or get help.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

p Figure 1.21 Two-person lift

Mechanical lifting aids

There are numerous items of small lifting equipment
available to assist with handling materials on-site and
p Figure 1.20 Stages of a one-person lift in the workshop. Use these only if you are qualified to
do so. These range from small brick lifts, slings, barrows
The two-person lift and dumpers through to mechanical forklift trucks.
● A pallet truck (Figure 1.21) can be used on hard
Awkward shaped and very heavy objects should be
areas for moving heavy loads.
moved or carried only with the help of other work
● Barrows are the most common form of equipment
mates. Appoint a team leader and obey his or her
for moving materials on-site.
instructions.
● A sack truck (Figure 1.22) can be used for moving
When an object has been assessed as being too heavy bagged materials, heavy boilers and other heavy
or awkward to lift on your own, team lifting may be pieces of plumbing materials.
employed. The same rules of lifting should be applied.
Try to pick someone of the same height and size so
that the effort of each person is the same.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

p Figure 1.23 Mobile crane

Care should be taken if cranes are on-site, and you

should be aware of where the jib (the lifting hook) is
when you are walking to and from different areas of
the site; the area it covers should be off-limits to all
 non-essential personnel.

4 RESPONDING TO
ACCIDENTS
First-aid provision in the
workplace
People at work can suffer injuries or fall ill at any
time. The most important thing is that they receive
immediate and appropriate attention. First aid covers
the arrangements that should be made to ensure this
happens. It can prevent minor injuries from becoming
major incidents, and can often save lives.

What the law requires

p Figure 1.22 A pallet truck (top) and a sack truck Health and safety regulations require the provision of
adequate and appropriate equipment, facilities and
Most large construction sites will have a hired crane of personnel to enable first aid to be given if an employee
some description, whether it is a fixed crane or a mobile suffers an accident or injury or falls ill at work. While
crane. These are sometimes the only method of getting different working environments have different needs,
heavy equipment and appliances to where they are the minimum first-aid provision in any workplace or on
needed. They are operated by trained personnel only. any construction site should include:
● a suitably stocked and maintained first-aid box; HSE
For very large sites, the crane operator will be guided
by a ‘banksman’, who uses hand signals to the crane advice suggests this should include at least:
operator to guide the load to its destination.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● 24 wrapped sterile adhesive dressings in assorted ● Your employer needs to assess whether there are
sizes any specific risks, such as working with hazardous
● two sterile eye pads substances, dangerous tools or machinery, etc., that
● four individually wrapped triangular bandages could necessitate specific training for first-aiders or
● six safety pins extra first-aid equipment.
● six medium-sized and two large individually ● If there are different parts of your workplace that
wrapped sterile unmedicated wound dressings present different degrees of risk, your employer
● a pair of disposable gloves will need to make sure each area has the relevant
● an appointed person to take charge of first-aid provisions.
arrangements ● Your employer may need to review the accident
● around-the-clock fast access to first-aid equipment record book to find out about types of injury and
● a trained first-aider present at all times during how often they are occurring. This may influence
working hours. the number of first-aid boxes and their exact
location.
● If your workplace or site is spread out over different
floors and buildings, adequate provision must be
made for all locations.
● For shift work or out-of-hours working, your
employer needs to ensure there are enough first
aiders to cover all hours of operation.
p Figure 1.24 A first-aid kit ● If any employees travel or work alone, the employer
should issue a personal first-aid kit to them and
What is an appointed person? provide training on how to use it.
An appointed person is someone your employer ● There are no legal responsibilities for guests and site
chooses to: visitors, but it is good practice to include them in
● take charge when someone is injured or falls ill, first-aid provision.
including calling an ambulance if required
Your employer must inform all employees of the first
● keep stock of the first-aid box and replenish supplies
aid arrangements by putting up notices telling staff
● be available at all times that people are working on-
who the first-aiders are and where they can be found,
site.
as well as where the nearest first-aid box is kept. It is
also good practice to make provision here for people
What is a first-aider? who have reading difficulties or whose first language is
A first-aider is someone who has undergone a not English.
recognised first-aid training course such as a course
given by the Association of First Aiders (AoFA) and
recognised by the HSE. The first-aider must hold a
current First Aid at Work certificate.

What your employer should consider when

assessing first-aid needs
● Your employer is required by law to make an
assessment of significant risks in your workplace,
and to assess the risks of potential injury and ill
health. If a significant number of risks exist, more
than one first-aider may be needed. p Figure 1.25 First-aid sign

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Responding to an accident or an Tending minor cuts and burns

emergency Cuts
In an emergency, time is of the essence. The faster the Minor cuts need treatment to prevent dirt getting into
emergency services arrive at the scene, the greater the the wound, causing infection. Some minor cuts will
chance that lives will be saved. The ambulance service bleed quite a lot, depending on where the cut is and
advises that there is around an eight-minute response how deep it is. The area around the wound should be
time to incidents. Their help and assistance is vital but cleaned thoroughly with soap and warm water. If it is
we also need to help them get to the emergency. If still bleeding, apply direct pressure to stem the flow of
calling for help: blood. It is a good idea to wear protective gloves when
1 Dial 999 and ask for the service that you require: dealing with cuts that are bleeding.
police, fire or ambulance.
The edges of a cut can be held together using butterfly
2 Once you are connected, speak clearly and logically
bandages, and applying an antiseptic cream will help
to the operator. Tell them the nature of the incident,
reduce the chance of infection. The wound can then be
the location and possible entry points to your
covered by a bandage or a sticking plaster. Care should
workplace or site.
be taken when using plasters as some people can suffer
3 Send work colleagues to wait at all the entrances
reactions to the adhesive, which can cause a rash.
for their arrival and to assist the emergency services
when they arrive at the scene so that they can be Burns
directed straight to the incident. If necessary, have
Burns need to be treated immediately. First, cool the
a chain of people to direct them to where they are
area with cold running water. Alternatively, the burn
needed if the site is large.
can be cooled by submersing the affected area in a
4 On no account leave the injured person. Stay with
clean bucket of clean, cold water. Keep the burn in the
them and let the emergency services come to you.
water for at least 10 minutes as this is the single most
5 Stay at the scene until you are not needed. Ask
effective way of stopping the pain. Remove anything
if the injured person should be accompanied to
that could cause constriction (e.g. watches, jewellery)
hospital and, if necessary, go with them.
before the area starts to swell.
6 Ask someone to advise the injured person’s next
of kin, wife/husband, etc., without alarming them Once the burn has cooled sufficiently, it should be
unduly. washed gently with clean water and covered with a
sterile burns sheet or other suitable non-fluffy material.
Dealing with minor injuries If no other materials are available, cling film or a clean
plastic bag could be used. Do not apply any antiseptic
at work cream or ointments as these have the effect of sealing
Even the most cautious person will suffer from minor the heat inside the burn, resulting in a more intense pain.
injuries from time to time. As a plumber you will Do not pierce or pop any blisters that develop as this
experience minor cuts and burns. Here, we will look at could result in the burn becoming infected.
the following minor injuries:
Depending on the severity of the burn, the person
● minor cuts
should be accompanied to the nearest hospital accident
● minor burns
and emergency department or a doctor.
● objects in the eyes

● exposure to fumes.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Make sure you examine every part of the eye by

KEY POINT getting the person to:
Remember: these tips are for minor injuries only.
● look up, then
You should seek expert medical attention if you
● look down
think the wound is more serious or the following
circumstances are present: ● look to the left, and then

● the wound will not stop bleeding ● look to the right.

● the injury is to the eye or ear

If you spot an object on the white of the eye:
● the wound was caused by a rusty or dirty object
● wash it out with clean, cold water from a glass or
● the cut is deep or wide
● the person’s last tetanus injection was more
fresh running water from the tap
than 10 years ago ● tilt the person’s head towards the injured eye and
● the burn is larger than the palm of your hand place a towel or pad on the shoulder
or is situated on the neck, face, groin, foot or ● pour water from the bridge of the nose so that the
back of the hand water runs across the eye to flush the object out
● signs of infection, such as redness of the skin
● if this does not work, then lift the object off with a
or fever, are present
● the person has lost consciousness.
damp corner of a clean tissue or swab
● if this still does not work, seek medical advice.

Objects in the eye

Objects in the eye can be painful and irritating. Loose
objects like an eyelash or a speck of dirt, and even a
contact lens, can float on the white of the eye. Usually,
these can be rinsed off easily but you must never touch
anything that penetrates the eyeball or rests on the
Iris
coloured part of the eye (the pupil and iris) because
Pupil
this may permanently damage the eye. Faced with this
White
situation, the casualty should seek immediate medical
attention.

KEY POINT
Remember:
p Figure 1.26 Parts of the eye
● do not touch anything that is embedded in the eye
● place a pad over the eye
● take the person to the nearest accident and Exposure to fumes
emergency department. Dealing with a person who is suffering from exposure
to fumes is a difficult area. The one thing you do not
The signs to look for are whether the person may be want to happen is that you become overcome with the
suffering from: fumes yourself. You will have to consider the following
● blurred vision points.
● pain or discomfort ● The nature of the fumes:
● redness or watering of the eye ● What are they?
● eyelids screwed up in a spasm. ● Where have they come from?

● Can they be stopped?

The aim of any treatment you give is to avoid
● Can the area be sufficiently ventilated?
permanent damage, so:
● Can I get the person out without falling victim to
● sit the casualty down, facing the light

● stand behind the casualty and very gently part the

the same fumes?
eyelids with a finger and thumb.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

If the person is unconscious, then getting them limb. In most cases, however, the person will be in great
out of the area and into fresh air is absolutely vital. pain and any movement will cause severe pain.
The following should only be carried out if you can
Talk to the person. Ask them questions. They might
minimise your own risk.
have heard the bone snap at the time of the injury.
● Immediately carry or drag the person to fresh air.
Overall, the best approach for limited treatment is as
● Minimise your exposure to the fumes.
follows.
● If the person is not breathing, start cardiopulmonary
1 It is recommended that you check and monitor the
resuscitation (CPR) immediately if you are trained to
person’s airway, breathing and circulation.
do so, and continue it until the person is breathing
2 Treat the person for shock, if necessary.
or help arrives.
3 Ask questions to try to find out how the accident
● Send someone to fetch help as quickly as possible.
happened. This will be vital information when the
emergency services arrive.
Dealing with serious injury 4 Examine around the area for wounds and cuts. Feel
at work along the area carefully for tenderness, swelling and
deformities.
In this section we will examine the best way of dealing
5 Check the injured limb for a pulse. No pulse
with those injuries that are more serious, such as:
indicates a more serious problem that could
● fractures
require immediate surgery. If this is the case, seek
● unconscious co-workers
emergency help IMMEDIATELY.
● electric shock.
6 Lightly squeeze the person’s fingers or toes. A lack
of sensation may indicate a spinal injury or nerve
Fractures and breaks
damage. Again, if this is the case seek emergency
A fracture is a break or crack in the bone. There are two help IMMEDIATELY. Stay with the person at all times
types of fracture: until the emergency services arrive at the scene, and
1 a simple fracture, where the skin is intact and try to reassure them.
there is no wound present; there may be a swelling
around the area of the fracture If you have not completed a first-aid or CPR course,
2 a compound fracture, where the bone causes a you MUST seek immediate medical attention for
wound or the breaking of the skin; the bone may or the person to ensure that no more damage is
may not be visible with this kind of injury. inadvertently done.

You cannot always tell if the bone is broken, but if you Dealing with unconscious people
are in any doubt always assume that it is. There are
A person can faint or fall unconscious for many reasons:
some signs to help you and a few rules to observe to
● after strenuous work or exercise
ensure that the injured person is kept comfortable until
● shock or emotional upset
the emergency services arrive:
● excessive heat
● Check for deformity of the limb by comparing it with
● the side effects of drugs or medication
the opposite side of the body, i.e. left arm, right arm.
● a blow to the head (concussion)
● Look for an open wound, which may indicate a
● a fit or seizure.
hidden fracture.
● Check for pain. The injured person will be able to Fainting involves loss of blood to the brain, leading
tell you where the pain is, if they have any. Check by to dizziness, nausea, cold sweats and a partial or
gently feeling along the area. The person will almost complete loss of consciousness, which usually is brief
certainly complain of discomfort. and the person makes a full recovery in a matter of
● Check for swelling. minutes. The real danger here is not the period of
unconsciousness, but the damage that can arise from
In a few cases there may be no pain associated with the
the resulting fall.
fracture and the person may be able to move the injured

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

More serious unconsciousness comes from a blow

KEY TERM
to the head (called concussion), a fit or a seizure. In
these cases, recovery can take much longer and have Amp (and milliamp): unit of electrical current, the
measurement of ampere.
underlying health implications later. The watchwords
here are ‘always seek immediate medical advice’.
It is vital to know how to deal with a person who
What should you do? has had direct contact with a live electricity power
source, how to isolate them from the power supply and
1 Try to break the victim’s fall.
administer CPR.
2 Loosen any items of clothing that might restrict the
flow of blood, such as neck ties and shirt buttons. If you see someone who is in direct contact with
3 Lie the patient on their back and raise their legs to electrical current, they need immediate help. The victim
encourage blood to flow to the brain. may be unable to move because of muscle spasms, or
4 Make sure they are breathing and that their airway they may be unconscious. Helping such a person is very
is clear. If they are not breathing, start artificial dangerous. If you touch them, you may get caught by
respiration STRAIGHT AWAY! the current yourself and become a second victim.
5 If they are breathing, place them in the recovery
First, you should try to turn off and unplug the appliance
position (see page 39).
or, better still, turn off the power at the electrical
ATTEMPT THE FOLLOWING ONLY IF YOU HAVE BEEN consumer unit (fuse box). If you cannot turn off the
TRAINED TO DO SO. power, try to get a long piece of dry wood (a broom
1 Opening and maintaining the airway is your first handle will do) or any non-conducting material, and try to
priority, to ensure there are no obstructions, like the break the contact between the victim and the electricity.
tongue, that could prevent normal breathing. To do
Do not move the victim if there is any suspicion of neck
this, place one hand on the casualty’s forehead and
or spinal injuries, unless there is an immediate danger.
gently tilt their head backwards, then lift their chin
Keep them lying down and check for a pulse and their
using only two fingers.
breathing.
2 Look, listen and feel for the victim’s breathing for
no more than 10 seconds. Is the chest rising and If the victim is not breathing, apply mouth-to-mouth
falling? Can you feel their breath against your resuscitation. If the victim has no pulse, begin CPR if
cheek? If breathing is normal, you can place the you are trained to do so.
victim in the recovery position. If breathing is not Once a pulse and breathing have been established,
present, you will need to start cardiopulmonary cover the victim with a blanket to maintain body heat,
resuscitation (CPR) immediately (see below). keep their head low and get medical attention. Stay
with the victim until help arrives.
Dealing with electric shock
Electricity is one of the most dangerous elements that Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
we have to deal with. It is indiscriminate, you can’t see There are many instances where a person may need
it or smell it, but if you touch it, it could kill you. The cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), from exposure
measure of shock’s intensity lies in the amount of current to fumes to a blow on the head and electrocution, but
(measured in amperes) that is forced through the body, what is CPR and how is it administered?
and not the voltage. Any electrical appliance used on a
house wiring circuit of 230 V can transmit a fatal current. CPR is a manual method of maintaining a heartbeat and
air supply to a person who has collapsed, is unconscious,
While any amount of current over 10 milliamps is not breathing and has no pulse. The idea of CPR is
(0.01 amp) is capable of producing painful to severe to keep blood pumping around the body to maintain a
shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA (0.1 to supply of oxygen to the brain so that brain damage does
0.2 amp) are lethal. not occur, until the person can breathe by themselves.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

How do I perform CPR?

If someone is with you, you must send them to
telephone for an ambulance immediately. If you are
alone, telephone for an ambulance and then quickly
return to the victim.
1 Check for a pulse or other signs of circulation.
2 Carefully place the victim on their back on a firm STEP 1 Place the arm that is nearest to you at a 90° right angle.
surface.
3 Kneel next to the victim’s chest.
4 Remove or open the clothes around the victim’s
chest area so that the rib cage and sternum are
visible.
5 Place the heel of one hand directly above the
sternum, close to the point where the lower ribs meet.
6 Place the other hand on top of the first hand and
interlock the fingers. Keep the fingers off the chest STEP 2 Move the other arm and rest the back of their hand against their
so that only the heel of the hand is touching, cheek. Then take hold of the knee furthest away from you and pull it up
until the foot is flat against the floor.
otherwise you risk further injury to the victim.
7 Move forward until you are directly above the
sternum, straighten your arms and lock the elbows.
You must push down about 4–5 cm for an adult
on every chest compression, but you must release
after every downward movement.
8 Start the 30 chest compressions at a speed of
100–120 times a minute, followed by two rescue
breaths.
STEP 3 Pull the knee towards you, keeping the person’s hand pressed
9 After the two rescue breaths, return to the chest against their cheek, and position the leg at a 90° angle.
and repeat the cycle.
10 Continue the 30:2 ratio until emergency help or a
defibrillator arrives.
Continue CPR until:
● breathing, coughing or movement is seen

● the ambulance service paramedics arrive and you

are asked to stop, or

● you are too exhausted to carry on.
STEP 4 Make sure that the airway stays open by tilting the head back and
lifting the chin. Check the casualty’s breathing once more.
The recovery position
Why use the recovery position?
Placing someone in the recovery position will ensure
their airway remains open and clear. It also enables any
vomit or other fluids to flow away from the casualty’s
airway so that they do not choke.

Recovery position for adults

STEP 5 Monitor the casualty’s condition and try to reassure them until help
This is the best position for a casualty who is arrives. You must not leave them unattended for more than three minutes.
unconscious but still breathing. p Figure 1.27 The recovery position

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Recording and reporting All accidents MUST be entered in the accident book
and the following information must be recorded:
accidents and near misses ● name, address and occupation of the injured person

at work ● signature of the person making the entry, address,

occupation and date

All accidents and incidents on-site should be properly
● when and where the accident happened
recorded in the company’s accident book and, if
● brief description of the accident, its cause and what
necessary, reported.
injury occurred
It is important that you have a basic understanding of ● whether the accident is of such a nature that it has
accident reporting in terms of what the law says and to be reported to the HSE.
what you should do.
All accidents that cause death or major injury to an
Every accident should be reported – an accident report employee or member of the public must be reported
book should be on every site or place of work, usually to the HSE or your Local Authority Administrator for
with the site manager or whoever is in charge of the site Health and Safety. A major injury is specified as certain
or workshop. Make sure that you report any accident fractures, amputations, loss of sight or anything that
that you are involved in as soon as possible. Serious requires hospital treatment for more than 24 hours.
injuries are reportable under RIDDOR (see page 5).
All accidents, whether fatal or otherwise, are
Obviously, some accidents are more serious than others. investigated. Those involved in this investigation
Any accident that results in death, major injury or more may include:
than three days’ absence from work is called a ‘reported ● the employer
accident’. Any accident of this type should be reported ● an investigator from an insurance company, acting
to the HSE as soon as possible. Accidents where persons on behalf of the employer or employee
require hospital treatment must be recorded at the ● a safety representative, usually from a trade union
place of work, even if no treatment was given there. ● a health and safety inspector from the local

authority or HSE.

5 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
IN THE WORKPLACE
During your work in the building services industry you
will encounter many types of specialist equipment,
some of it directly related to your job and some of it
not. This part of the chapter covers how to work safely
with or around the main types of equipment you will
find on-site.

Electrical hazards on
p Figure 1.28 Accident report book
construction sites and in
There is no set place to keep an accident book, but it
the home
needs to be kept in a place that is accessible and often Electrical hazards occur through:
● faulty installations
is kept where first aid is available. Employers must
● lack of maintenance
make employees aware of where the accident book
● faulty or misused electrical equipment
is kept.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

● trailing cables Methods of safe electrical supply on

● buried or hidden cables construction sites
● inadequate fuse and over-current protection
To comply with the EAW Regulations, employers are
● cables too close to pipework
required to maintain their electrical systems at work
● overloading electrical sockets and outlets
in a safe condition. According to the HSE, periodic
● using electrical equipment in wet or damp situations.
inspections and testing should be completed as part of
Electric shock is a major hazard; the severity of the this maintenance. More than 1000 electrical accidents
shock will depend on the level of current and the and incidents at work are reported to the HSE every
duration of the contact. year and around 30 people, across all sectors of
● At low levels of current (about 1 milliamp) the effect industry, die from their injuries. The HSE reports that
may be only an unpleasant tingle but enough to many deaths and injuries arise from:
cause loss of balance or a fall. ● the use of poorly maintained electrical equipment
● At medium levels of current (about 10 milliamp) the ● work near overhead power lines
shock can cause muscular tension or cramp so that ● contact with underground power cables during
anything grasped is hard to release. excavation work
● High levels of current (about 50 milliamps and ● work on or near 230 V domestic electricity supplies,
above) for a period of one second can cause and
fibrillation of the heart, which can be lethal. ● fires started by poor electrical installations and
● Electric shock also causes burning of the skin at the faulty electrical appliances.
points of contact.
Electric shocks are caused by a contact between a live Electricity supply
conductor and earth. An electric current will always The supply of electricity to homes and construction
attempt to earth itself, therefore if anything comes sites will normally be provided by either:
between the flow of current and earth, the current ● a public supply from a local electricity company

will pass through it depending upon its resistance ● a site generator, where the use of the public supply

to the flow of current. The human body, because it is not practicable or is uneconomic.
contains 70 per cent water, is a very good conductor of
electricity that offers very little resistance to the flow The supply of electricity to a construction
of electric current. site
To maintain site safety, the supply of electricity to
Some materials are poor conductors and will therefore
a construction site or workshop should always be
offer greater resistance to the flow of electric current.
distributed by means of a reduced voltage system. This
Some of these materials, like PVC, are used to shield
system ensures that the correct voltage is supplied to
the electricity and are called insulators.
where it is required:
Electric cables consist of a copper wire (an excellent ● woodworking machines in a workshop require
conductor) and a PVC outer cover or sheath (an excellent a 400 V 3 phase supply (Industrial/commercial
insulator). The result is a safe electric cable that can be voltage)
used as an electrical supply for tools and equipment. ● site office lighting requires a voltage of 230 V

Electric shock is not the only problem because electricity 1 phase supply (domestic voltage)
● site portable power tools and site lighting require a
can produce great amounts of heat, depending upon the
size of the current and, if the current passes through a 110 V 1 phase supply (safe site voltage).
flammable material, it can ignite the material, causing a Each site voltage has its own colour coding, as shown in
fire or explosion. Table 1.7.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 1.7 Colour coding for site voltage It is recommended that fixed installations (the wiring
to sockets, lights and fixed equipment) are inspected
AC operating Voltage
voltage colour coding Use and tested periodically by a competent electrician.
25 V Violet Lighting in damp
conditions KEY POINT
50 V White Lighting in damp BS 7671 is the British Standard for the
conditions requirements for electrical installations. This is
110 V Yellow General site voltage the national standard in the UK for low-voltage
electrical installations. It is also used as a
230 V Blue Domestic and site offices
national standard by Mauritius, St Lucia and
400 V Red Fixed machinery several other countries that base their wiring
regulations on BS 7671.
The reduced voltage system must comply with
the EAW Regulations 1989, and the distribution
units, sockets and plug adapters should comply Formal visual inspections and tests
with BS 4363:1998 (Specification for distribution During formal electrical inspections, the system will be
assemblies for reduced low voltage electricity supplies checked and tested to ensure that:
for construction and building sites). ● the polarity (live and neutral) of the system is

To avoid plugs designed for one voltage being correct

● all the fuses, miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) and
connected to sockets of another voltage, there are
different positions for the connecting pins in the plugs RCDs are correct and working
● all the cables and cores are effectively terminated
and sockets.
● the equipment is suitable for its environment.
The voltage used on construction sites for site lighting
and portable power tools is 110 V, colour-coded Working in domestic properties
yellow. A 110 V 1 phase supply is much safer than When you are working in domestic properties, there
230 V and so the risk of serious injury from an electric are things that you can do to help prevent electrical
shock is much reduced; 1 phase simply refers to the hazards and accidents from occurring:
fact that there is only one live conductor, phase ● Be aware of any concealed cables in solid and stud
meaning live. walls. Use a cable finder and check the wall before
However, 230 V (colour-coded blue) for general site using drills and chisels.
use is not allowed unless it is through a residual ● Do not install pipework too close to electrical

current device (RCD), which disconnects the supply cables. Heating pipework can cause the cable to
immediately in the event of a fault or shock condition overheat and faulty cables can arc across to the
occurring. pipe causing a potential electric shock hazard.
Pipework must be a minimum of 25 mm away
Electrical installations in the from electrical cables and 150 mm from electrical
workplace and domestic properties apparatus.
● Take care when lifting or replacing floorboards.
All electrical installations should comply with
BS 7671 and be maintained to prevent danger. The There may be cables underneath.
● Do not overload sockets and outlets with too
HSE recommends that this includes an appropriate
system of visual inspection and, where necessary, many appliance connections as this can cause the
periodic testing. Electrical risks can be controlled by system to overheat, sometimes with disastrous
a simple system of looking for visible signs of damage consequences. As a general rule, one socket =
or faults. This will need to be reinforced by thorough one plug unless a recognised, independently fused
testing of the system as necessary. multi-socket is used.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

● Look out for damaged cables, sockets and fittings. ● discovery of inappropriate electrical supply
Report any problems to the customer or your ● discovery of incorrect fuses being used
supervisor. ● the misuse of portable equipment can be monitored
● an increased awareness of hazards linked to
Portable power tool safety electricity.
All portable power tools, such as drills, jig saws, circular ACTIVITY
saws and angle grinders, should be of the double Check the electrical power tools you use to see
insulated type, which simply means that the power when they were last tested.
tool has two levels of protective insulation built in to
the appliance. The symbol for double insulated tools is Type of Formal visual Combined inspection
equipment inspection and testing
shown in Figure 1.29.
Construction sites 110 V equipment
Stationary Monthly 3 months
equipment
IT equipment Monthly 3 months
Movable Monthly 3 months
equipment
Portable Monthly 3 months
equipment
Hand-held Monthly 3 months
equipment

p Figure 1.29 Double insulated symbol

Visual inspections of power tools
Power tools must be subjected to safety tests; these
Before using any portable electrical appliance, you
are as follows.
should always carry out safety checks:
● User checks – should be performed before use.
● Is there a recent PAT label attached to the
● A formal visual inspection – to be scheduled in
equipment?
accordance with your maintenance schedule and
● Are there overheating or burn marks on the plug,
Health and Safety Policy.
cable, sockets or the equipment?
● Combined inspection and test – to be carried out by
● Are any bare wires or conductors visible?
a competent person, usually an external contractor
● Is the cable covering undamaged and free from cuts
(portable appliance testing).
and abrasions?
● Is the cable too long, or too short?
Portable appliance testing
● Is the cable a trip hazard?
The ‘Inspection and Testing of In-Service Electrical
● Is the plug in good condition (not cracked and the
Equipment’ (portable appliance testing, or PAT) was
pins are not bent)?
introduced to enable companies and organisations
● Are there any taped or other non-standard joints in
to comply with the EAW Regulations. To meet
the cable?
these regulations it is necessary to have in place a
● Is the outer covering of the cable where it should be
programme of inspection and electrical safety testing
(i.e. no coloured wires are visible)?
of portable appliances.
● Is the outer casing of the equipment damaged or
Records should be kept of all inspections and tests loose?
made and these should be up to date at all times. PAT ● Are ‘trip-out’ devices working effectively (i.e. RCD
testing helps to ensure: adapters)?
● earlier recognition of potentially serious equipment

faults, such as poor earthing

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

When using portable electrical power tools, you should Battery-powered cordless tools
always: In recent years, the use of battery-powered cordless
● wear or use PPE or clothing that is appropriate for
tools such as drills and jig saws has become
the work you are doing widespread both on construction sites and in
● switch off the tools before connecting them to a
domestic use. Voltages tend to be from 9 V to 36 V.
power supply Cordless tools offer many benefits over their mains-
● if a power cord feels too warm or if a tool is
powered cousins:
sparking, have it checked by an electrician or other ● often the tools are smaller and lighter, giving greater
qualified person flexibility of use
● disconnect the power supply before making
● no extension cables to cause trip hazards
adjustments or changing accessories such as blades ● much less risk from electric shock.
and drill bits
● remove adjusting tools before turning on the tool On the downside:
● inspect the cord for fraying or other damage before ● the power packs tend to wear out quickly and are

each use costly to replace

● tag defective tools clearly with an ‘out of service’ ● most are not as powerful as their mains

tag and replace immediately with a tool in good counterparts

running order ● power packs require constant recharging

● use clamps, a vice or other device to hold and ● there is still an electric shock risk from the battery

support the piece being worked on, when practical charger.

to do so; this will allow you to use both hands for Cordless tools are still subject to health and safety
better control of the tool and will help prevent inspection and testing with regard to:
injuries if a tool jams ● PAT testing of the battery charger
● use only approved extension cords that have the ● disposal of spent battery packs in line with local
proper size flex for the length of cord and power authority guidelines as they contain nickel-cadmium
requirements of the electric tool that you are using; and should not be disposed of in domestic waste
this will prevent the cord from overheating ● leaking batteries, which contain acid; do not allow a
● fully unwind any extension cable being used; a leaking battery to come into contact with your skin
coiled extension cable is likely to overheat, which ● not burning spent battery packs as they are liable to
could cause a fire explode
● for outdoor work, use outdoor extension cords ● storage restrictions, as set storage temperatures
marked ‘w-a’ or ‘w’ exist for most cordless power tools.
● suspend power cords over aisles or work areas to

eliminate tripping hazards Procedures for portable electrical

● pull the plug, not the cord, when unplugging a tool;
tools that fail inspections
pulling the cord causes wear, and may adversely
From time to time, electrical tools fail inspections and
affect the wiring to the plug and cause electrical
tests. If this should happen, on no account must the
shock to the operator
tool be used. The tool should be labelled as faulty and
● keep the work area free of clutter and debris that
taken to the stores or for repair. A record of the fault
could be a tripping or slipping hazard
must be logged on the maintenance and inspection
● keep power cords away from heat, water, oil, sharp
documents.
edges and moving parts; these can damage the
insulation and cause a shock A checklist like the one shown below can help you
● ensure that cutting tools such as drill bits and blades identify the hazards related to maintenance of
are kept sharp, clean and well maintained portable tools. This will help you to take the necessary
● store tools in a dry, secure location when they are preventive measures. Depending on the power source,
not being used. different checklists may be necessary:

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

General questions Yes No All electrical circuits must be properly switched off,
Is there a maintenance plan? isolated and, whenever possible, locked in the off
Are portable tools periodically tested and
position.
labelled with the date of test? You must then prove that the circuit is dead by the use
Are instructions and operating manuals of an approved voltage indicator. Volt sticks and neon
available?
screwdrivers are NOT suitable for this purpose.
Are damaged tools labelled ‘Do not use’?
Are maintenance records kept of all tools that
are used on the site?
Are all tools used at the workplace in good
condition and clean?
Are all tools properly lubricated?
Are blades, bits and other cutting parts sharp
and well fixed, and not worn, cracked or loose?
Are tools stored in a dry and safe place?
Are blades removed when tools are being
transported, stored or not in use?
Are maintenance workers trained in safe working
procedures?
Electric power-operated tools Yes No
Are tools disconnected from the power source? p Figure 1.30 Voltage proving meter and unit
Are the cables or plugs damaged?
Have the electrical tools been subjected to
unsuitable conditions (wet or dusty)?
Are flexible extension cables in safe condition?
Are there signs of overheating?
Do all tools have safety guards on their blades,
bits, rollers, chains, gears, sprockets and other
dangerous moving parts?

Safe isolation procedures for

electrical supplies
Plumbers often need to work on electrical supplies for
repair or replacement of equipment such as electric
showers and immersion heaters. You should bear in
mind, however, that to work on electrical installations p Figure 1.31 MCB safety lock
you must have proved your competency and have
gained Part P (BS 7671) certification. To safely isolate an electrical supply, you must do the
following.
The correct isolation of electrical supplies and systems 1 Identify the circuit or equipment to be isolated.
is vital if accidents are going to be avoided. 2 Make sure it is convenient to isolate the supply.
In domestic properties, the type of electricity supply 3 Select approved voltage indicator and test on
is 230 V, single phase. The EAW Regulations require proving unit.
that LIVE WORK IS NOT ATTEMPTED unless it is 4 Using the approved voltage indicator, verify that the
impracticable to work on the circuit when it is dead. circuit or equipment is live.
5 Isolate supply at consumer unit by switching off the
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) or spur by removing
the fuse.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

6 Using an approved voltage indicator: All gas, water and central heating copper pipework
a First, check the indicator is working on a known should be bonded to the main electrical equipotential
live supply by testing live/neutral, live/earth, bonding system. In other words, copper pipework must
neutral/earth. be earthed. When we cut into a copper pipe to make a
b Then use the indicator to check that the circuit tee connection, for instance, we in effect disconnect all
you wish to work on is dead. pipework after the cut from the earth system and, if a
c Then re-check that the indicator is still working fault to earth already exists, then all the pipework after
on the known live supply. the cut could become live.
7 Lock off the isolator (RCD, MCB) using an approved
lock or keep the fuse you have removed in a safe KEY TERM
place. To be absolutely sure that no one can put the Equipotential bonding: a system where all metal
fuse back in, the safest place is in your pocket! fixtures in a domestic property, such as hot
8 Place a notice or sign at the consumer unit advising and cold water pipes, central heating pipes, gas
that the circuit is off and must not be turned back pipes, radiators, stainless steel sinks, pressed
on. steel enamelled washbasins and steel and cast
iron baths, are connected together through earth
bonding so that they are at the same potential
INDUSTRY TIP voltage everywhere.

Read the following webpage on safe isolation. The page can The reason for temporary continuity bonding before
be downloaded for future reference. removing or replacing metal pipework is to provide
www.electricalsafetyfirst.org.uk/media/1201/best-practice- a continuous earth for the pipework, to prevent an
guide-2-issue-3.pdf electric shock in the event of any electrical fault.
Installing temporary continuity bonding clips before we
Temporary continuity bonding make the cut will ensure that, once the pipe has been
severed, any bonding applied to the pipework will not
Temporary continuity bonding involves the use of two
be interrupted and the pipework will not become live.
crocodile clips joined by 10 mm2 earth cable. This is
Once the connection has been made, the clips can be
called a temporary continuity bonding clip.
removed safely.

Copper tube Copper tube

Temporary continuity bonding clips

p Figure 1.32 Use of temporary continuity clips

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

6 WORKING SAFELY WITH HEAT-PRODUCING

EQUIPMENT
Part of a plumber’s work involves the use of heat-  Table 1.8 The four main types of gases you may come across in
producing tools, such as blowtorches and possibly your work, along with cylinder colour and thread direction
welding and brazing torches. Invariably these will use Bottled gas Cylinder colour Thread direction
bottled gases, both flammable and non-flammable Propane SIGNAL RED Left-hand thread
types. Using bottled gas of any kind can be dangerous MAPP YELLOW Left-hand thread
and requires special consideration. Acetylene MAROON Left-hand thread
Oxygen BLACK Right-hand thread
Identifying bottled gases
The types of gases you may come across are described Many companies operate a written permit to work
below. system when using fuel gases. This is known as hot
● Propane (C3H8) is a highly flammable, liquid work. The permit details the type of work to be
petroleum gas (LPG) that is heavier than air, which done, how and when it is to be carried out and the
makes it especially dangerous when working in precautions to be taken. Anyone carrying out hot work
trenches and confined spaces as any leaks would must have public liability insurance.
collect at low ground. Propane has a distinctive
smell like rotten eggs. It is used for soldering Training
processes. Oxy/fuel gas equipment should not be used unless you
● MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene propane) have received adequate training in:
gas is also used for soldering processes but has ● the safe use of the equipment

a much hotter flame than propane. Usually only ● the precautions to be taken

supplied in small cylinders for plumbing work, ● the use of the correct type of fire extinguishers

MAPP gas has a distinctive garlic smell. ● the means of escape, raising the fire alarm and

● Acetylene (C2H2) is used in conjunction with oxygen calling the fire brigade.
when undertaking welding and brazing processes.
Plumbers usually use oxyacetylene sets only when Safe storage, transportation and
lead welding. Acetylene is a colourless, odourless handling of bottled gases
gas. When contaminated with impurities it has a ● Oxygen cylinders should be stored at least 3 m
garlic-like odour. Acetylene burns with a sooty flame away from those containing acetylene or LPG, or
that produces lots of carbon when used without separated by a wall.
oxygen. It is lighter than air. ● Gas cylinders should preferably be kept on a
● Oxygen (O2) in the form of bottled liquid oxygen
hard surface (not soft ground) in a secure, open-
is a very powerful oxidising agent and organic air compound. The enclosures must be properly
materials will burn rapidly in the presence of labelled.
oxygen. Used in conjunction with acetylene, oxygen ● If stored in a storeroom, oxygen cylinders must not
hardens the flame, increasing the temperature. be kept in the same storeroom as LPG or acetylene
Although oxygen itself is not flammable, it can cylinders.
induce other materials to combust fiercely. NEVER ● Acetylene and LPG cylinders should always be kept
use oxyacetylene near jointing compounds or grease upright, even if they are empty.
as oxygen reacts violently in their presence and can ● Oxygen cylinders can be stacked horizontally a
spontaneously combust. maximum of four cylinders high, and wedged to
prevent rolling.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Vertically stacked cylinders should be secured ● Acetylene cylinders must always be transported and
against falling. used in the vertical position. If they have been left in
● Always keep full cylinders separate from empty ones. the horizontal position they must be stood upright for
● Cylinders should be shielded from direct sunlight approximately 12 hours to allow them to settle before
or other heat sources to avoid excessive internal they are used.
pressure build-up as this could lead to a gas leakage ● Cylinders should be transported only on purpose-
or, in extreme cases, bursting of the cylinder. designed trolleys of the correct size. Three-wheeled
● Gas cylinders must be treated with care and not trolleys are safer than two-wheeled.
subjected to shocks or falls. ● Trolleys for transporting cylinders should be
● NEVER lift oxyacetylene or LPG bottles by their manufactured to BS 2718.
control valves.
● When they are transported around a site, cylinders Equipment used with oxy/fuel gases
should be secured upright to avoid any violent As well as the bottles themselves, there are several other
contact that could weaken the cylinder walls. pieces of equipment that we need before we can start
● When they are unloaded from a vehicle they should using our oxyacetylene bottle set. The main components
not be dropped to the ground. of oxy/fuel gas equipment are shown in Figure 1.33.

A pressure regulator fitted to the

outlet valve of the gas cylinder,
used to reduce and control gas
A flashback arrester to protect cylinders
pressure. Most modern regulators
from flashbacks and backfires. Flashback
work with a two-stage system: the
arresters (also called flame traps) must be
initial stage dispenses the gas at a
fitted into both oxygen and acetylene gas
set rate from the storage cylinder;
lines to prevent a flashback flame from
the second stage handles the pressure
reaching the regulators.
reduction. On a two-stage system,
the device has two pressure gauges.
One gauge tells how much gas is
remaining in the cylinder, and the
other tells the pressure of the gas
being released.
A control valve to shut off or isolate
the gas supply, usually situated at the top
of the cylinder. It has a square key to open
and close the valve. As a general rule, when
using oxyacetylene, both the oxygen and Cylinders of oxygen and fuel gas
acetylene bottles should have their own key, (propane or acetylene).
which should be left on the bottle during the
welding process so that the bottle can be
isolated quickly in an emergency.

Non-return valves to prevent

oxygen reverse flow into the fuel
line and fuel flow into the oxygen
line. The valves can be used to
Flexible hoses to convey the gases from prevent conditions leading to
the cylinders to the blow pipe. Hoses between flashback, but should always be
the torch and the gas regulators should be used in conjunction
colour-coded: red for acetylene and blue for with flashback arresters.
oxygen. Fittings on the oxygen hose
have right-hand threads (non-flammable gas), A blow pipe or other burner device
while those on the acetylene hose where the fuel gas is mixed with
have left-hand threads (flammable gas). oxygen and ignited.

p Figure 1.33 Oxyacetylene set

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Assembly of the gauges, hoses and blow

KEY TERM
pipe
Flashback: where the flame burns in the torch
body, accompanied by a high-pitched whistling ● Make sure that each regulator is the correct type
sound. It will occur when flame speed exceeds for the cylinder it is to be attached to and that the
gas flow rate so that the flame can pass back regulator is designed for the pressure of the cylinder.
through the mixing chamber into the hoses. ● Open the oxygen valve assembly briefly before
Most likely causes are incorrect gas pressures attaching the oxygen regulator. This is to eliminate
giving too low a gas velocity, hose leaks or loose the potential for a dust explosion.
connections.
● NEVER open the acetylene control valve to ‘blow-
out’ as this could cause a fire.
Oxyacetylene equipment safety ● Inspect the regulator and cylinder valve for the
checks presence of any oils or grease. If present, DO NOT
USE.
Before using welding equipment, it is wise to check its
● Make sure the adjusting screw on the regulator has
condition and operation. As well as normal equipment
not been damaged.
and workplace safety checks, there are specific
● Wipe the connection seats with a clean cloth.
procedures for oxyacetylene.
● Connect the gauges to the cylinders. Typically,
You should check that:
oxygen hoses are blue and acetylene hoses are
● flashback arresters are present in both oxygen and
red. Remember that the acetylene hose will have
acetylene lines
left-hand threads and the fitting will be a male type,
● the hoses are the correct colour, with no sign of
to prevent accidental switching of the two hoses/
wear or damage, as short as possible and not taped
gauges. Tighten them with the correct size of open-
together
ended spanner. Take care not to damage the brass
● the regulators are the correct type for the gas being
threads and do not over-tighten or the brass thread
used
could snap.
● a bottle key is in each bottle
● Make sure that the flashback arresters and non-
● the bottles are securely fastened by chains to the
return valves are in good condition and fitted to the
bottle trolley and the trolley is in good condition.
gauges.
It is recommended that oxyacetylene equipment ● Inspect the torch. Check that the inlet connection is
be checked at least annually. Regulators should in good condition for a tight connection. Check for
be taken out of service after five years. Flashback obvious physical damage to the torch.
arresters should be checked regularly in line with the ● Make sure the acetylene regulator is turned off by
manufacturer’s instructions; it may be necessary to turning the regulator handle anti-clockwise out a
replace some types if flashback has occurred. few turns, then turn on the gas valve on top of the
cylinder. Only turn the control valve half a turn.
Assembling and purging the This allows the bottle to be turned off quickly in
oxyacetylene equipment an emergency. Never allow acetylene gas pressure
Before assembling the equipment, you must: to exceed 15 PSI. At higher pressures acetylene
● check that all cylinders have been handled properly
becomes unstable and may ignite spontaneously or
● check that there are no physical signs of damage to
explode.
the cylinder 1 After turning on the acetylene cylinder control
● check the valve assembly on each cylinder for
valve, open the regulator valve by turning the
damage handle clockwise. This should be done very
● inspect the chains or other device used to secure
slowly, while watching the low pressure gauge.
the acetylene and oxygen cylinders. Open only until the pressure indicated is
between 5 and 8 PSI.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

2 Open the gas valve on the blow pipe handle until

you hear gas escaping. This is to purge the air
KEY POINT
Make sure that you purge both acetylene and
from the acetylene hose. Then observe the low
oxygen lines (hoses) prior to igniting the torch.
pressure gauge to see if the pressure remains Failure to do this can cause serious injury to
steady during flow, to ensure you have the personnel and damage to the equipment.
regulator set correctly.
3 Close the acetylene valve on the torch.
4 Check for leaks by using suitable non-greasy leak To extinguish
detection fluid. 1 Close the acetylene blow pipe valve first, then close
● Turn the oxygen regulator pressure off by turning the oxygen blow pipe valve.
the regulator handle a few turns anti-clockwise 2 Turn off both acetylene and oxygen control valves
then proceed with the following steps to adjust the on the cylinders.
oxygen pressure. 3 Turn the acetylene regulator handle anti-clockwise
1 Open the oxygen cylinder control valve all the until it is loose.
way. 4 Open the acetylene blow pipe valve to release the
2 Open the regulator valve slowly, watching pressure off the regulator.
the low pressure gauge as you do so, until the 5 Close the acetylene blow pipe valve.
pressure reads between 25 and 40 PSI. 6 Turn the oxygen regulator handle anti-clockwise
3 Open the oxygen valve on the blow pipe to allow until it is loose.
the air to vent out of the hose until the hose is 7 Open the oxygen blow pipe valve to release the
purged, about three to five seconds for an 8 m pressure off the regulator.
hose. 8 Close the oxygen blow pipe valve.
4 Close the blow pipe valve.
5 Check for leaks by using suitable non-greasy leak What to do in the event of leakage
detection fluid. If you smell acetylene:
● Make sure that you purge both acetylene and ● NEVER use an open flame to check for leaks

oxygen lines (hoses) prior to igniting the torch. ● use commercial leak detector solution that is

Failure to do this can cause serious injury to compatible with oxygen and acetylene to check all
personnel and damage to the equipment. equipment connections before starting work
● NEVER use a leaking cylinder.

Safe lighting and extinguishing If the cylinder leaks:

procedures for oxyacetylene ● close the cylinder valve
equipment ● label the bottle as ‘leaking’

● remove the cylinder to an outdoor location and post

To light
‘no smoking’ and ‘keep clear signs’
1 Open the acetylene blow pipe valve a quarter turn ● call the gas supplier to collect the cylinder as soon
and light the acetylene with a friction-type lighter. as possible.
2 NEVER LIGHT THE OXYACETYLENE TORCH WITH
MIXED GAS. Safe use of liquid petroleum gas
3 Adjust the acetylene flame to the desired velocity.
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is the generic name for the
4 For welding mild steel, open the oxygen blow pipe
family of carbon-based flammable gases that are found
valve and adjust to neutral flame (equal amounts of
in coal and oil deposits deep below the surface of the
acetylene and oxygen).
earth. They include:
5 For brazing or bronze welding, open the oxygen ● methane
blow pipe valve and adjust to a slightly oxidising ● ethane
flame (slightly more oxygen than acetylene). ● butane

● propane.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Of these, generally only two – butane and propane – Precautions with LPG
are commercially available as bottled LPG. Plumbers The main dangers caused by LPG are fire/explosion,
regularly use propane when soldering copper tubes carbon monoxide poisoning, asphyxiation and extreme
and fittings. cold, but there are others, as described below.
● LPG (propane or butane) is a colourless liquid, which

easily evaporates into a gas when exposed to the

outside air. One litre of liquid propane creates 250
litres of gas.
● It has no smell. Its distinctive odour is added to help

detect leaks.
● It can burn or explode when it is mixed with air in

the correct ratios and if it comes into contact with a

source of ignition.
● It is heavier than air, so tends to sink towards the

ground. It can flow for long distances along the

ground, and can collect in drains, gullies, cellars and
trenches.
p Figure 1.34 Commercial p Figure 1.35 A modern ● LPG is supplied in pressurised cylinders to keep it
propane cylinder  plumber’s blowtorch liquefied. The cylinders are strong and not easily
damaged, but the control valve at the top can be
Commercially available propane vulnerable to damage if knocked.
Propane has many uses, from camping to industrial ● Leaks can occur from valves and pipe connections,
processes, and is available in a variety of cylinder mostly as a gas.
types and sizes. The colour of propane bottles is ● If the gas is drawn from the cylinder too quickly, the
signal red. Propane turns from its liquid state to a control valve is likely to freeze.
gas, in other words it boils, at −42°C, whereas butane ● LPG liquid can cause cold burns if it comes into
boils at −4°C. This means that propane can be used contact with the skin.
when the outside temperature is much colder – a ● LPG equipment should be used in a well-ventilated
distinct advantage when working on a construction space to prevent the build-up of carbon dioxide
site in the winter. (CO2). Take particular care when using in a confined
dry space, such as a loft.
LPG regulators, hoses and blowtorches
Most blowtorches that we use today require a The basic rules of LPG storage
regulator to control the amount of gas that flows ● LPG cylinders should be used and stored in an
from the cylinder and a hose that connects from upright position.
the regulator to the blowtorch. The regulator should ● They should be stored in well-ventilated places,
have an adjustable pressure setting control. High- away from sources of heat, sources of ignition and
pressure hoses are usually coloured orange and are combustible materials.
manufactured to BS 3212. ● Cylinders must not be stored or used below ground
There are many different types of blowtorch available. level or in high-rise flats where LPG gas is prohibited
Most have a range of interchangeable aeration nozzles by law.
of differing sizes so that the correct nozzle can be ● Cylinders should preferably be stored in a lockable
chosen for the type of work. Some blowtorches cage outdoors, away from entry and exit points
connect straight onto a small propane or MAPP 400 g into buildings, and away from inspection chambers
gas cylinder. and drains.
● Do not keep LPG cylinders near to any corrosive,
toxic or oxidant material.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Propane cylinders may be used indoors in The fuel can be removed naturally as the resulting fire
commercial and industrial premises only on a consumes it, mechanically by removing the fuel or
temporary basis, i.e. blowtorch use etc., but the chemically by rendering the fuel incombustible.
cylinders must always be stored outdoors.
Similarly, if we remove the oxygen, the fire will
● When connecting hoses and blowtorches, always
extinguish itself because the fuel has nothing to react
check for leaks with a suitable leak-detection fluid.
with. There are several ways that we can ‘suffocate’ a
● Always turn the cylinder off at the control valve
fire: using foam, powder or CO2.
when it is not in use.
Without a source of heat or ignition, fire can neither
Fire safety start nor continue. Take away the heat and a fire will
An important part of learning and understanding fuel die. If we douse a wood fire with water, the water
gases such as propane and acetylene is awareness of turns to steam, which effectively removes the heat
what they produce as an end result: fire. from the fire as the heat is transferred from the wood
to the water.
Fire is one of the most destructive elements known
to man and it is something that plumbers risk on an Understanding these simple processes is the basis for
almost daily basis when we solder, braze and weld. But all fire-fighting techniques and the fire extinguishers
what is combustion? What are the circumstances that we use, as the methods we employ to effectively fight
are needed before combustion and the resulting fire fires involve removing the heat, removing the fuel or
takes place? How can we control it and reduce the risk suffocating the flames.
of it occurring? And what do we do if a fire breaks out?
Fire safety in the plumbing
Combustion
industry
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a substance
The use of soldering and welding equipment presents
(the fuel) reacts violently with oxygen to produce heat
plumbers with the potential to cause fires in homes,
and light. The fuel can be a solid such as wood, a liquid
factories and commercial properties. You should take
such as petrol, or a gas such as propane. Oxygen is
precautions to eliminate as much as possible the fire
known as an oxidiser or an oxidising agent. To create
risk from your everyday work. You can do this by:
combustion or fire, we need a third element in the form
● always carrying a dry powder or CO2 fire
of heat or an ignition source. These three elements –
extinguisher with you when soldering or welding
fuel, oxygen and heat – combine into what is known as
● always using heatproof mats when soldering next to
the fire triangle.
wall coverings and skirting boards
● moving furniture and carpets away from the

soldering area
● never pointing your blowtorch directly at
EN

HE

combustible materials
YG

AT

● when soldering joints under a suspended floor,

OX

before you solder checking to make sure there is

FUEL nothing that could catch fire
p Figure 1.36 The fire triangle ● never replacing floorboards etc. after soldering

activities until you are sure there is nothing

All three need to be in place for combustion to happen.
smouldering underneath the floor; wait at least
Take any of the three away and combustion will not
an hour
take place.
● when lead welding on a flat roof, damping off the
If we remove the fuel then combustion will not occur substrate before welding begins.
simply because there is nothing for the fire to consume.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Classes of fire and fire extinguisher

There are six classes of fire (as shown in Table 1.9),
each involving a different source of fuel. Because of
this, each class of fire requires a different class of fire
extinguisher, although some extinguishers can be used
on more than one class of fire.
 Table 1.9 The six classes of fire

Class A SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic

Class B FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS such as paraffin, petrol, oil
Class C FLAMMABLE GASES such as propane, butane,
methane
Class D METALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium
Class E Fires involving ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Class F Cooking OIL and FAT, etc.

There are four classes of fire extinguisher. Each fire

extinguisher is coloured red but has a different coloured
panel on it to show its content (see Figure 1.37).

Table 1.10 explains where each of these can be used. p Figure 1.37 Types of fire extinguisher

 Table 1.10 The uses of different classes of fire extinguisher

Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class F

Water Special wet
Foam Foam chemical fire
extinguisher
Powder Powder Powder Powder Powder
CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2

Fighting small localised fires ● Sweep from side to side. Move slowly towards the
The following steps describe the correct procedure for fire, keeping the hose or nozzle aimed at the base of
dealing with small fires. the fire. If the flames appear to be out, release the
handle and watch closely. If the fire reignites, repeat
There is a simple way to remember the steps to take the process.
when using a portable fire extinguisher. Start by
standing at least 3 m back from the fire, then follow Keep in mind
the acronym P.A.S.S. ● Before you use an extinguisher to fight small fires,
● Pull the pin on the extinguisher. The pin is there
make sure everyone has left the area and that the
as a safeguard and locks the handle. Pulling it out fire service has been called by dialling 999.
enables it for use. ● Always have an exit route behind you. Never let the
● Aim low. The hose or nozzle should be pointed at
fire get between you and your escape route.
the base of the fire to be effective. ● Call the fire service to inspect the fire area, even if
● Squeeze the lever above the handle. This will shoot
you are sure you have extinguished the fire.
the extinguishing substance from the hose or nozzle.
Keep in mind that most small extinguishers will run
out of their extinguishing agent in 10 to 25 seconds.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

on finding defects, a ‘Do not use’ notice must be

7 WORKING SAFELY ●

displayed and the defects reported as soon as

WITH ACCESS possible to your supervisor.
Aluminium and GRP stepladders have several
EQUIPMENT advantages over their wooden counterparts.
● They are lighter than timber steps, very strong, rot-
Most work in the construction industry is carried out proof, and will not twist, warp or bend.
above ground level. Some of this work can be done ● The treads are not less than 76 mm deep and are
at a normal working height of up to 1.5 m without non-slip and horizontal when the steps are open.
the assistance of steps and ladders, but there will be ● The working top is not less than 100 mm deep.
occasions when you will be required to work at heights ● The back is attached with a single hinge extending
above normal working level. the full width of the back of the stepladder. This
There are various types of equipment that can ensures stability when the steps are open.
assist you when required to work at height. Each of ● The locking bar clips in place when fully opened.

these types of equipment is designed for a specific ● The feet are made of a non-slip material.

purpose and use and should not be used outside of its When working with stepladders, the following
limitations. These are: precautions should be observed.
● stepladders
● Never use a stepladder that has been painted or
● ladders
repaired.
● roof ladders
● Never stand on the top platform of a stepladder.
● trestle scaffolds
You are at a safe working height when your knees
● tower scaffolds (mobile and fixed)
touch the top platform.
● tubular scaffolds (fixed)
● Never stand side-on to work. Always face the job.
● mobile elevated working platforms (MEWPs) and
● Use stepladders only on firm, level ground.
mobile mini tower scaffolds. ● Use only the right size ladder for the job. Never be

tempted to place the steps on, say, a pile of bricks,

Stepladders to gain extra height.
These are used for internal work but can be used outside ● Always use in accordance with the manufacturer’s

if there is a firm base to stand them on. They are instructions.

manufactured from either timber, aluminium or glass- Top cap
reinforced plastic (GRP) in various sizes and heights, and (non-climbing)

consist of a set of stiles supporting flat steps spaced at

approximately 250 mm intervals. A back supporting
frame is hinged to the top and secured at the bottom
with a cord or a metal locking bar. When the steps are Rear
side rails
extended the locking bar ensures the correct working (non-climbing)
angle and this prevents the steps from collapsing.
Timber stepladders are susceptible to damage, warping Steps

and twisting, whereas the aluminium and GRP-type Spreaders

stepladders are much lighter and stronger, as well as
rot-proof. Stepladders must not be used if they are
broken, damaged, have been repaired or have missing
parts. The points to remember are:
● timber stepladders must not be painted as this may Anti-slip
shoes/feet
hide defects
● aluminium ladders must not be used near overhead

electric power lines p Figure 1.38 A stepladder

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Ladders Types of ladder

Ladders are used to gain access to scaffolds or light There are several types of ladder available.
work at high levels. All ladders that are manufactured Pole ladders are generally made of timber. The stiles
and supplied in the UK and the European Union are cut from one tree trunk sliced down the middle. This
should be constructed to identical standards and ensures strength and durability. Pole ladders are used on
be classified correctly. These requirements apply fixed ladder installations for access to scaffolds and can
to all portable ladder types, including stepladders, be up to 12 m in length. Some pole ladders have wire
platform steps and extension ladders. Ladders are reinforcement to provide extra strength. They have a
manufactured to BS EN 131. Class 1 rating and will safely support a maximum load of
175 kg. They are made to BS EN 131.
INDUSTRY TIP Single-section ladders are usually made to Class 1
standard from lightweight aluminium. These ladders are
Look at the following website to get more details about the
individual types of ladders: https://ladderassociation.org. often called standing ladders.
uk/standards Multi-section ladders are often called extension
ladders. They consist of two or three sections that
All ladders are now made to BS EN 131 and all have can be slid apart to give the required height. They are
a 150 kg minimum capacity. Each class indicates the available as two or three extensions and in various
safe working load that a ladder is designed to support, ‘closed’ lengths of 2.5 to 3.5 m. A double extension
which includes the weight of a single person plus their ladder can give a length of up to about 8 m and should
equipment. This is referred to as the ‘maximum static be suitable for most two-storey properties. Three-
load’. section ladders can give lengths up to about 10 m.
The standards detail factors such as dimensions, On smaller ladders, the ladder may be extended by hand
markings, and testing requirements such as deflection, and secured with stay locks, which rest on a selected
torsion, rigidity, straightness, loading and performance. rung. On larger ladders, the sections are extended by
means of a rope loop and pulley system running down
the side of the ladder.

Fly section

Base section

Rope and
pulley system
Slide rail

Rung locks
Rung

Anti-slip shoes/feet

p Figure 1.39 An extension ladder p Figure 1.40

A timber pole
ladder p Figure 1.41 A roof ladder

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Multi-section ladders can be made of timber, Ladder safety check before use
aluminium and GRP. Ladders, roof ladders and crawlboards should NOT be
Roof ladders: this type of ladder should always used if they have any of the following defects:
be used when working on a pitched roof. It should ● broken, missing or makeshift rungs

ALWAYS be accessed from a scaffold, not a ladder. The ● broken, weakened or repaired stiles

roof ladder has two wheels at the upper end, which ● broken or defective ropes, guide brackets, latching

allow it to be pushed up the roof without damaging hooks or pulley wheels

the slates or tiles. On the other side to the wheels, the ● they are painted; paint can hide defects on wooden

ladder is formed into a hook, which fits over the top ladders
ridge of the roof and stops the ladder from slipping ● they have missing safety feet.

down the roof.

Raising and lowering ladders
Crawlboards are used for working on fragile roofs. Ladders should be raised with the sections closed.
They help to spread the weight across the roof to Extension ladders with long sections should be raised
lower the risk of the roof giving way. They are used one section at a time and slotted into position before
for access only and are not intended for carrying the ladders are used. TWO people are required to raise
tools or materials. They should be used with and lower heavier-type ladders. The following is a
extreme care. step-by-step procedure for raising heavier-type ladders.

STEP 1 Lay the ladder flat. STEP 2 One person stands on the bottom rung of the ladder and holds the
stiles to steady the ladder as it is lifted.

STEP 3 The second person stands at the other end of the ladder and lifts STEP 4 This is continued until the ladder is upright. When erected, the
the ladder over their head, moving hand over hand, walking towards the correct safety angle is 75° or a ratio of 4 up to 1 out.
foot, raising the ladder as they go.
p Figure 1.42 Raising heavier-type ladders

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

To lower the ladder from the upright position, the

above process is reversed.
Lighter ladders can be raised by one person, but the
bottom must be placed against a firm stop before
lifting is commenced.

KEY POINT
Remember: ladders must extend at least 1 m
above the working platform.

Tying ladders
Ladders must have a firm and level base on which to
stand and, if more than 3 m long, they must be fixed
at the top or, if this is not possible, at the bottom. If p Figure 1.44 Tying and lashing ladders
neither way is possible, a person must foot the ladder.
They must hold both stiles and pay attention all the Lifting and carrying ladders
time. This prevents the base from slipping outwards To lift and carry ladders over short distances, rest them
and the ladder from falling sideways. on the shoulder before lifting vertically by grasping the
rung just below normal reach. The correct balance and
KEY TERM angle must be found before moving.
Foot a ladder: stand with one foot on the bottom When moving ladders more than a few metres, they
rung, the other firmly on the ground. should be lowered and carried on the shoulders by two
people, one on either end.

At least
1m

Lashing

p Figure 1.45 Carrying a ladder

Storing ladders
75º ● ALWAYS store ladders in a covered, well-ventilated
4:1
area, protected from the weather and away from
too much dampness or heat.
● NEVER leave ladders leaning against a wall or
p Figure 1.43 A correctly erected ladder building. Ladders can fall if stored vertically, so take

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

particular care. If possible, secure the top – with a Tower scaffolds

bracket, for instance. There are two types of tower scaffold:
● NEVER hang a ladder vertically from a rung. 1 Static – stationary, remains in one place and cannot
● DON’T store a ladder anywhere a child might be be moved
able to climb it. 2 Mobile – can be moved to a different location when
● STORE the ladder horizontally; a rack or wall bracket needed.
is ideal. Always support on the lower stile and every
1 m (maximum). Both kinds of tower scaffold can be either tailor-made
● KEEP wooden ladders clear of the ground to avoid for a particular job and constructed in situ (in place), or
contact with damp. made by a manufacturer with standard sections that
fit together (proprietary). You must be certificated and
Safe working with ladders registered to erect all types of fixed scaffolding.
● Ladders MUST extend at least 1 m above the
Static tower scaffolds
working platform.
● NEVER stand ladders on uneven, soft or loose
ground. Guardrail
● NEVER support a ladder on a fragile surface.
Working platform
● NEVER stand a ladder on a box, drum or other
unsteady base. Vertical standard
● NEVER use a makeshift ladder. Toe board
● NEVER use a ladder that is too short.
Load-bearing couplings
● NEVER climb ladders with slippery, icy or greasy
rungs. Access ladder lashed
● NEVER wear soft-soled shoes or footwear with to scaffold
slippery soles.
● NEVER try to carry too much equipment up a Diagonal bracing
ladder.
● NEVER over-reach when working on a ladder. Horizontal ledger

● TAKE CARE when raising to avoid overhead

Horizontal transom
obstructions such as electric cables.
● ALWAYS ensure the ladder is at the correct angle of
75° (1 in 4), projecting above the working platform
by at least 1 m and securely fixed.
● OVERNIGHT SAFETY: ladders should be lowered
and stored in a safe place overnight. If this is not Base plate
Sole plate
possible, a scaffold board at least 2 m long should Foot ties
be firmly lashed to the rungs to prevent access. Plan bracing

p Figure 1.46 A correctly erected static tower scaffold

Scaffolds
Scaffolds are a much safer way of working at height but This type of scaffold is constructed from individual
extreme care must still be taken. You need to be aware tubular scaffold components using standard scaffolding
of your surroundings at all times and take care with clips, and strengthened by braces and ledgers
tools and equipment. (horizontal scaffold tubes that the boards rest on).

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Access to the tower via a ladder may be from the ● Working platforms above 2 m high must have toe
inside or outside of the tower, but care must be taken boards fitted at least 150 mm high.
to ensure that the tower is not destabilised by leaning ● Working platforms above 2 m high must have
ladders on the outside. guardrails between 920 mm and 1150 mm high.
● Access ladders must be lashed vertically, preferably
Scaffold towers should be designed to carry a load of on the inside of the tower.
150 kg/m² spread over the whole working platform, ● The minimum base measurement for any tower is
in addition to their own weight. A special design will 1.25 m.
be required for any tower that may be subject to ● When erected indoors, the height of any tower
extra loadings from wind or materials on the working must not be greater than three and a half times its
platform. smallest base measurement.
Proprietary static tower scaffolds ● When erected outdoors, the height of the tower
These towers are constructed with steel interlocking must not be greater than three times its smallest
sections that simply slot together. The sections are base measurement.
pre-formed H-shaped welded units to give strength. ● Towers higher than 6.4 m must be tied to the
These scaffolds are easy to erect but are often building or have adequate outriggers fitted.
expensive and not as versatile as other static towers. ● ALWAYS use towers on firm, even ground – NEVER
on sloping ground.
Static tower scaffold requirements ● NEVER place steps on the working platform.
● Tubes must be straight. ● NEVER ‘sheet out’ a tower.
● Tubes and fittings must be undamaged and free
from corrosion. KEY TERM
● The ground that the tower is to be erected on must Sheeting out: sheeting out a tower scaffold
be firm and even. means covering the outside of the scaffold with
● Base plates must be used. Adjustable base plates tarpaulins. This can be extremely dangerous as the
can be used on ground that has different levels. tarpaulins act like the sails on a ship and could
easily blow the scaffold over.
● Sole plates must be used to provide even weight
distribution if the tower is to be used on soft
ground. Mobile tower scaffolds and proprietary
● Any couplers must be load bearing. mobile scaffolds
● Horizontal members must be fixed to uprights, with These scaffolds are useful for light work of a short
the exception of transoms (diagonal strengthening duration, such as installing boilers and flues. They are
tubes) under the working platform. usually manufactured from aluminium for lightness.
● Towers must have diagonal and plan bracing This scaffold should be used only where the ground
built in. is sufficiently firm, level and smooth to maintain
● Foot ties or plan bracing must be fitted as low as stability. All wheels on mobile types must be the
possible. lockable type and kept locked when the scaffold is in
● Working platforms must be close boarded. use. The scaffold should only be moved by exerting
● Overhang boards must not exceed four times the force on the bottom of the tower and never pulled
thickness of the boards and must not be less than from the top.
50 mm past the support.
Tower scaffolds should never be moved with persons
still on them.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Outriggers
ACTIVITY
If the base of a scaffold measures, say, 2 m × 1.5 m,
calculate the maximum height of the tower scaffold.

Mobile tower scaffold requirements

The requirements for mobile tower scaffolds are
the same as for static tower scaffolds, but with the
following additions:
● c astors must only be fitted to standards (vertical

uprights)
● castors
 must be of a swivel type fitted with a locking
device
● castors
 must fitted by a method that prevents the
Outriggers wheel from falling out if not in contact with ground.

Tubular scaffolds
Independent scaffold
Lockable
wheels This is a scaffold that, apart from the necessary
building ties, stands completely free of the building. The
main applications for this scaffold are:
p Figure 1.47 A correctly erected mobile tower scaffold ● access for stonework on masonry buildings

● access to solid or reinforced concrete structures

If extra working height is required, then the base
● maintenance and repair work.
measurement can be increased by the use of
outriggers. These are tubes or special units that The independent scaffold consists of two rows of
connect to the bottom of the tower at the corners, standards joined together by ledgers, which in turn
giving a greater overall base measurement. Outriggers are joined by transoms. The standards must always be
also help to stabilise a scaffold tower, as well as giving upright and slightly towards the building. The inner row
extra working height. must be as near to the building as possible, but never
more than 375 mm away from the wall. It is essential
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS to include triangulation by cross-bracing at every lift to
ensure rigidity.
Working out the height of a tower scaffold
Only load-bearing couplers should be used between
If the base of the scaffold measures, say, 3 m × 2 m,
take the shortest measurement and multiply by 3. So: the standards and ledgers, and on through ties. The
ground should be firm and level, and base plates
2m×3=6m
should be used under every standard. If this scaffold
This means the tower scaffold can be erected safely does need to be placed on soft ground, wooden sole
to 6 m high. plates 225 mm × 38 mm thick should be used. While
it is called an independent scaffold, it does need tying
to the building to prevent movement and for stability.
This scaffold would usually be tied through door and
window openings.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

1.070 m
Putlog scaffold
This is also known as a dependent, or bricklayers’,
Standards
scaffold and is similar to the independent scaffold
Working platform
Toe board but has only one row of standards, with the inner row
replaced by the brickwork. This means that the inside
Ledgers
ledgers and ledger bracing are not required.
1.8 m The remaining scaffold functions in the same way as
the independent scaffold.
The scaffold can be erected to existing brickwork, but
Transoms is usually erected along with new building work. The
Tube wedged in window
for tying in working platform is supported by putlogs and not
transoms. The putlog, in turn, is supported by the new
Wall
brickwork by allowing the spade (flat) end of the putlog
Sole plate
to rest flat on the brickwork. Putlogs should never be
removed or the scaffold will be in danger of collapse.
p Figure 1.48 Independent scaffold, side view Putlog scaffolds should be tied to the building at least
every 4 m vertically and 6 m horizontally.

Standards Access to tubular scaffolds

Working platform
It is usual to access a scaffold from a ladder, and
Toe board
Putlogs
provision must be made so that this can be done
easily and safely. A suitable gap should be left in the
At least
75 mm handrail and toe board to allow operatives to access
the scaffold. The ladder should be secured both at the
top and bottom, and extend at least 1 m (approx. five
rungs) above the platform.
Ledgers
The final rung of the ladder from which the operative
Putlogs
steps onto the platform should ideally be just above the
1.8 m
surface of the platform. The gap left between the ladder
and the guardrail should not be more than 500 mm.

Horizontal tie
Guardrails and toe boards
Tube wedged in window
for tying in The risk of falling materials causing injury should
be minimised by keeping platforms clear of loose
Wall
materials. Access platforms more than 2 m high must,
Sole plate therefore, have guardrails, brick guards and toe boards.
They provide a method of preventing materials or
p Figure 1.49 Putlog scaffold, side view other objects from rolling or being kicked off the
edges of working platforms, so must be fixed at all
open edges of the working platform.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Brick guard Guardrails Toe board Working platform

760 mm

150 mm

p Figure 1.50 Guardrails and toe boards

Working platforms However, if used improperly or poorly maintained,

This is the level at which the work will be carried out. these devices can cause serious injury or death. For this
The following points should be noted. reason, you need to be properly trained in their use.
● The loading of materials must be spread as evenly
Safety checks that should be carried out before use are
as possible. as follows.
● The mid and top chains, railing and gate enclosures
● Working platforms must be kept free from ice, snow,

grease and other hazards. must be in the closed position before elevating the
● Gaps between boards should be kept as small as
device.
● To prevent movement of the MEWP after it has
possible.
● Boards must be at least:
been moved into the final work position, the control
● 150 mm wide if they are 50 mm thick
panel must be turned off.
● The maximum operating weight capacity must
● 200 mm wide if they are between 32 mm and

38 mm thick. not be exceeded (including personnel, equipment,

● Boards must rest evenly on their supports.
supplies and tools).
● Personnel must not work on MEWPs when exposed
● No board must project more than four times its

thickness beyond its end support, and no less than to high winds or storms, or when the equipment or
50 mm. materials are covered with ice or snow.
● MEWPs must not be used as cranes.
● All board ends should be bound with a steel strap to
● No MEWP must travel with personnel in the
prevent splitting.
● Split or damaged boards must not be used.
basket while it is elevated, unless the equipment
is designed for this activity and operations are
Mobile elevated working platforms conducted in accordance with the regulations and
Mobile elevated work platforms (MEWPs) include standards.
● MEWPs must be operated on stable, flat and
cherry pickers, scissor lifts and vehicle-mounted booms.
MEWPs can provide a safe way of working at height. structurally sound flooring or ground only.
● Where moving vehicles are present, the work area
They:
● allow the worker to reach the task quickly and easily
must be marked with warnings such as flags or
● have guardrails and toe boards, which prevent a
roped-off areas, or other effective means of traffic
person falling control must be provided.
● Unstable objects, such as barrels, boxes, loose brick,
● can be used indoors or out.
tools and debris, must not be allowed to gather on
Your employer should: the floor of the MEWP.
● choose the right MEWP for the job

● identify and manage the risks involved with working

from MEWPs.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Many types of ground are, to some degree,

self-supporting but this should not be relied upon when
working in a trench. It is vital that precautions are taken
to ensure that excavations are adequately supported.

Working in trenches and

excavations
Plumbers are fortunate in that the need for working in
trenches and excavations is limited. Most of the outside
work below ground is done by others on construction
sites, such as groundworkers and the services providers
such as the gas company or the water authority. The
services – i.e. water, gas, building drainage – that
plumbers may have to deal with are relatively shallow,
but there is still a need to understand the planning
and working practices of working in trenches and
excavations.

Trenches and excavations

The maximum depth that a trench or excavation
can be dug without support is 1.2 m. On the average
p Figure 1.51 MEWP in use person, 1.2 m would be around waist height. The
significance here is that the chest would be above
Using safety lines, harnesses and ground level and so breathing would not be restricted in
the event of trench collapse.
nets
Equipment that prevents falls, such as safety harnesses, After this depth, the trench sides should be either:
● battered – a method by which the sides of the
restraints and safety nets, should be used only as a
last resort when the risk cannot be eliminated by other trench are sloped away from the trench bottom; the
means. They should be used only by operatives trained angle of the slope would be decided by the type of
in their use, and must be inspected and tested at ground but usually 45° is considered adequate
● benched – benching or stepping back simply means
regular intervals.
that the sides of the trench are cut into steps away
from the trench side
8 WORKING SAFELY ● shored up – supported using a proprietary trench

support system.
IN EXCAVATIONS AND The general requirements for safe trench and
CONFINED SPACES excavation design are as follows.
● The ladder used to gain access should be secured in

Every year construction workers are killed and injured position to the trench supports, and in long trenches
when the excavations and trenches they are working access should be spaced at regular intervals.
in collapse suddenly. Deaths have occurred in both ● The spoil from the trench should be at least 1 m

shallow and deep excavations, so it is important that away from the edge of the trench to prevent trench
any excavation work is properly planned, managed, collapse; 1 m3 of earth can weigh as much as a
supervised and carried out to prevent accidents. tonne and the added weight against the weak edge
of the trench could cause collapse or earth slide.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● The edge of the trench must have a 2 m-high ● Be aware of where the access points and ladders
barrier placed around it, at least 1 m away from the are. This could be vital in an emergency situation.
edge, to stop people from falling into the trench. ● Be aware of plant and vehicles approaching the
It must also have a toe board to stop tools and trench.
materials from being accidentally kicked in.
● Vehicle stops must be used to prevent vehicles and Working in confined spaces
plant getting too near the edge and to stop a build- A confined space is a place that is considerably
up in the trench of poisonous carbon monoxide enclosed, where there is a risk of death or serious injury
fumes. from hazardous substances or dangerous conditions,
● The use of propane gas is prohibited as the gas is such as lack of oxygen or being overcome by fumes.
heavier than air and any leak could gather at the
trench floor. During plumbing installations and maintenance, you
● Trenches and excavations must have a secure ladder may be required to work in:
● tanks and cisterns
(or several if the trench is long) for fast emergency
● trenches
evacuation.
● sewers
● Warning notices and signs should be placed at
● drains
regular intervals along the trench length.
● flues

● ductwork
Proprietary trench support systems
● unventilated or poorly ventilated rooms
In order to support the walls of an excavation and
● under floors and in small roof spaces
prevent trench collapse, a preliminary trench is dug
● drainage systems
and its walls shored up by means of a trench box or
● plant rooms
trench shield placed inside the trench. A series of piles
● cylinders.
are driven into the soil below the trench box or trench
shield as the excavation is made deeper. All of these constitute a confined space and precautions
need to be put in place to ensure your health and
safety.

What are the risks of working in

confined spaces?
Every year, a number of people are killed or seriously
injured working in confined spaces in the construction
industry, from those involving complex plant to
unventilated or poorly ventilated rooms.
Those killed include not only people working in the
p Figure 1.52 Trench support sheets and braces confined space but those who try to help them without
the proper training and equipment. Dangers occur
Trench safety because of:
Safety when working in trenches and excavations is ● lack of oxygen

crucial. There are many things you have to be aware of ● poisonous gas, fumes or vapour

to maintain your own personal safety. ● liquids and solids suddenly filling the space

● Always wear the correct PPE. Arguably the most ● fire and explosions

important piece of PPE is the high-visibility (hi-viz) ● residues left behind, which may give off fumes,

jacket or vest, followed by your hard hat. vapour or gas

● Never work in an unsupported trench deeper than ● poor lighting conditions

1.2 m and never work ahead of the trench supports. ● hot working conditions.

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 Chapter 1 Health and safety practices and systems

Legal duties and obligations relating

to working in confined spaces
SUMMARY
The Management of Health and Safety at Work It is no coincidence that this chapter is the longest
Regulations 1999 require that a suitable assessment in the book, such is the importance of health and
of the risks for all work activities is carried out so safety in the modern construction industry. We, as
that decisions can be made as to what measures are plumbers and apprentices, have a duty of care towards
necessary for safety. ourselves, those we work with and those we come
For work in confined spaces, this means identifying the into contact with. The ultimate responsibility of how
hazards present, assessing the risks and determining we behave, how we work and how we respond to
what precautions to take. In most cases the assessment accidents and incidents rests with us. By taking notice
will include consideration of: of health and safety and following the rules that
● the task are in place to safeguard us, we too can reduce the
● the working environment likelihood of accidents and, ultimately, save lives. The
● tools and materials key message that we must always remember is: health
● the suitability of those carrying out the task, and safety is everyone’s responsibility.
including pre-existing medical conditions
● the risk of lone working (if relevant)

● arrangements for emergency rescue.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Test your knowledge c Prohibition

d Fire and first aid
1 As a plumber, who should provide your PPE?
6 Fires containing flammable liquids fall into
a The client which class?
b The HSE a Class A
c Your employer b Class B
d Yourself c Class C
2 Which of the following regulations specifically d Class D
enforces the use of power tools in the
7 What colour are the lead and plug of a 110 V
workplace?
power tool?
a COSHH
a White
b RIDDOR
b Yellow
c IPAF
c Blue
d PUWER
d Red
3 When replacing damaged guttering on a two-
8 What is the maximum depth a trench should be
storey dwelling, what method of access would
dug before supports are used?
be the safest?
a 1.0 m
a Pole ladder
b 1.2 m
b Mobile tower scaffold
c 1.6 m
c Stepladder
d 2.0 m
d Trestles and boards
9 Toe boards are required to be fitted on a mobile
4 What is the purpose of a health and safety site
tower when the working platform exceeds what
induction?
height?
a To ensure that all operatives are aware of the
a Required on all mobile towers
safety procedures on-site
b When exceeding 1.5 m
b To provide details of the pay and working
conditions for employees c When exceeding 2.0 m
c To inform staff of the type of plumbing work d When exceeding 3.0 m
that they will do on the job 10 Which of the following defines a major injury?
d To encourage better relations between the a An injury on-site that results in first-aid
HSE and construction workers treatment
5 What type of safety sign is shown below? b An injury requiring five or more stitches
c An injury that results in hospital treatment
d An injury that results in more than 24 hours’
hospitalisation
11 Which of the following is NOT a colour of an
LPG cylinder?
a Maroon
b Black
a Mandatory c Red
b Hazard d Blue

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 Test your knowledge

12 When would be the correct time to display a 18 Which one of the following is NOT a confined
warning sign on-site? space?
a In the hours of darkness a Under a suspended floor
b Only times when the public have access b Outside toilet
c All the time c Loft area
d Only when there are more than five workers d Duct work
on-site 19 When referring to a fire and combustion, which
13 What is the maximum recommended weight an of the following statements is correct?
adult male can lift from ground level? a Fire square
a 25 kg b Fire circle
b 15 kg c Fire line
c 10 kg d Fire triangle
d 5 kg 20 Which item would be used to gain access
14 Which of the following installations would across a fragile roof area?
require the need for an excavation to take place? a Crawling boards
a Installing the mains service pipe to a b Extension ladder
property
c Mobile scaffold tower
b Installing pipework under a suspended floor
d Trestle
c Installing underfloor heating pipework in a
21 On inspection, the body of a power tool has a
new build property
crack in it. What would be the correct course of
d Installing pipework below a screed action to take?
15 Which of the following tools will offer the LEAST a Replace the tool immediately
hazards in a customer’s property?
b Replace the tool after the job is finished
a Battery
c Report the situation at the next toolbox talk
b 240v
d Replace the tool at the end of the day
c 110v
22 Which of the following items is most likely to
d 50v contain asbestos?
16 What is a method statement meant to promote? a A washbasin
a List the appropriate welfare facilities for site b A hot water cylinder
b Inform the workforce about health and safety c An old boiler
legislation
d Electrical wiring centre
c Request employees to suggest appropriate
23 Under the COSHH regulations, what should
work methods
happen?
d Inform employees of the approved way of
a Employees need to carefully record exposure
working on-site
to hazardous substances
17 Under the Manual Handling Regulations, what
b Employees to limit their exposure to
should be completed before a lift is undertaken?
hazardous substances
a Handling assessment
c Employers to control employees’ exposure to
b Risk assessment hazardous substances
c Weight assessment d Customers to warn engineers about
d Lift assessment hazardous substances in the property

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

24 Which of the following is important when 32 You find a fellow worker on the ground who
choosing your PPE? needs to be put into the recovery position
a It must be cleaned before use quickly. Outline the procedure to position the
patient into the recovery position.
b It must be made in Britain
33 You are asked to drill a series of holes in a
c It must be BBA approved
masonry wall. State what PPE you will be
d It must be suitable for its purpose required to wear and what it will be protecting
25 What would be the greatest danger when you from.
soldering in a loft area? 34 You need to inspect some lead weathering
a Rodents around a chimney. Why would it be important to
b Fire use a roof ladder?
c Dust from insulation Answers can be found online at
d Impact to the head www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
26 What is the overriding duty of Section 2 of the
HASAWA? Practical task
27 What is the purpose of a permit to work? Complete a suitable risk assessment for the
28 What is the most dangerous type of asbestos? following task.
29 Give six examples of locations in which asbestos Maintenance needs to be carried out to clear
may be found within a building. blocked gutters at your training centre/place of
30 What is the correct term for safe manual lifting? work. The gutters are 6 m from the ground and an
extension ladder has been provided. Consideration
31 You are required to use an oxyacetylene welding
needs to be given to your safety and that of others
kit for a specialised installation. Write out the
who may be present.
correct method to assemble the cylinders to the
blowtorch.

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 CHAPTER 2
COMMON PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
A plumber’s job is to install the systems of hot and cold water, central heating, sanitation and gas in a
professional, efficient and organised manner, using materials safely, economically and correctly. This involves
planning and setting out the work, and using installation techniques that not only satisfy the requirements of
the customer and protect their property, but that also comply with the relevant regulations, British Standards
and codes of good practice.
In this chapter, we will explore the wide variety of tools we use, the range of materials available, creating
watertight joints and the correct methods of working we need to install them.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● how to use hand tools
● types of pipework, bending and jointing techniques
● preparation techniques
● how to use pipe clips and pipe brackets
● pipework installation techniques.

 Table 2.1 Common types of screwdriver head

1 USING HAND AND Flat blade

POWER TOOLS For use with slotted screws.

Care should be taken to ensure the correct
blade size for the screw slot.
A wide range of tools are used in plumbing for the
Phillips head
different tasks and installations customers require. You
Originally designed in the 1930s to
must know how to use them correctly and safely, as
intentionally ‘ride out’ of the screw head, to
well as how to keep them in good working order to prevent over-tightening.
ensure a long working life. Pozidriv head
Similar to the Phillips head but has an eight-
Hand tools pointed star shape for better grip.
Not compatible with Phillips screws.
Screwdrivers Hexagon head (Allen key)
There are many different types of screwdrivers, Mainly used in the gas industry for
some with specialist applications and uses, such as appliance servicing and installation.
insulated electrical screwdrivers and long-bladed types.
Star head
A plumber should have a wide selection of screwdrivers
Not often used except in specialist
available. The common head types are shown in installations and appliances. Also known as
Table 2.1. Torx screwdrivers.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Each screwdriver has a particular use and, when used  Table 2.2 The primary types of hammer used by plumbers
correctly, should give long-lasting service. Claw hammer
Used for driving nails into, and
HEALTH AND SAFETY extracting nails from, wood.
Problems often occur and accidents happen if The head is made from forged
screwdrivers are mistreated or used improperly. steel and the handle is made
from wood, fibreglass or steel.
● A screwdriver is not a chisel and should not be
used as such. The claw splits down the
● Use the correct screwdriver for the screw – for
middle, forming a ‘V’ shape
that, when used in conjunction
example, a Pozidriv screw needs a Pozidriv
with the handle, gives leverage
screwdriver, not a Phillips screwdriver. for taking out nails.
● Never over-tighten the screw as this can damage
the screw head, making it difficult to withdraw Club/lump hammer
the screw in future. Used for heavy hammering
● Choose the right-sized blade for slotted screws; work, mainly with cold chisels
using too small a blade will result in the and bolster chisels.
screwdriver slipping out of the head, causing May also be used in light
damage. demolition work.
● Keep fingers behind the blade.
● Use an insulated screwdriver when working with
electricity.

Chisels
Hammers
Again, there are two types of chisel a plumber will use
There are two primary types of hammer used by
(see Table 2.3). Both have very different uses.
plumbers. These are described in Table 2.2.
1 Cold chisels are used for breaking and cutting
masonry and concrete. These include:
● bolster chisels

● plugging chisels

● flat chisels.

2 The second type are wood chisels.

 Table 2.3 Types of chisel used for plumbing
Cold chisels
Bolster chisel
A bolster chisel is used for cutting masonry, brick and concrete.
It can also be used when lifting floorboards, e.g. for cutting out the tongue from
tongue and groove floorboards.
Often called a floorboard chisel.

Plugging chisel
Mostly used for cutting out and removing the mortar joints in brickwork and
masonry.
Flat chisel
A general-purpose tool for cutting, breaking and cutting brickwork, masonry, stone
and concrete.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Wood chisels
There are many different types of wood chisel, including flat-bladed and bevelled-
edge chisels.
Mainly used by plumbers for notching joists.
Care should be taken as the blades can be extremely sharp.

 Table 2.4 Types of spanner used for plumbing

HEALTH AND SAFETY
Here are some important points to remember about Adjustable spanner
the safe use of chisels. A general-purpose
● Eye protection must be worn when using any type spanner, used for
of chisel because of the risk of flying debris. tightening compression
joints, radiator valve
● Always keep the cutting blade sharp and well
unions, nuts and bolts.
ground.
● Watch out for ‘mushrooming’ on the heads of
Three pairs of spanners
of varying sizes are the
cold chisels. This is where the metal begins to
optimum number for a
fold over and split due to being repeatedly hit
plumber’s toolbox.
with a hammer. Mushrooming should be removed
This tool should be kept
by grinding on a grinding wheel.
oiled and clean.
● Always wear gloves when using cold chisels.
They help to protect the hands from cuts and Open-jawed spanner
abrasions. These are mostly used
● Always keep fingers away from the cutting for boiler and appliance
blade, especially when using very sharp wood servicing.
chisels. A small set is
recommended for the
toolbox.

Spanners Ring spanner

Mostly used for boiler
A plumber’s toolbox should contain a variety of and appliance servicing.
spanners. Different types will be needed depending on
the type of work. Types of spanners include those listed
in Table 2.4.
Box spanner
The main tool for
INDUSTRY TIP fixing taps to sanitary
ware in sizes 13 mm
Always adjust the spanner to fit correctly across the flats. for monobloc mixers,
This will avoid ‘rounding off’ the nut head and slipping off ½-inch for sink and
the nut and hitting your hand. washbasin taps and
¾-inch for baths. These
are used to tighten the
back nut of the tap.
INDUSTRY TIP Immersion heater
spanner
Immersion heater spanners come in three main designs; box A specialist tool for
(as pictured), flat and cranked. installing and removing
immersion heaters
from hot water storage
cylinders and vessels.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Handsaws
There are four main kinds of handsaw that a plumber would find a use for and that should be included in their
toolkit. These are described in Table 2.5.
 Table 2.5 Types of handsaw used for plumbing
Hacksaw
Used to cut copper tubes, plastic waste pipes, gutters, soil pipes and low
carbon steel pipes.
Not suitable for cutting wood.
Always ensure the correct type of blade is fitted, that the teeth are facing
forwards and the tension of the blade is not loose.

Junior hacksaw
An essential saw for the toolkit.
This small saw is used to cut small copper tubes and plastic pipes.
Excellent for cutting tubes in position in tight situations where access is
difficult. When replacing the blade, always ensure the teeth of the blade face
forwards.

Universal hard point saw

A general-purpose wood saw that is used for lifting and cutting floorboards,
building platforms and stillages.
May be used for cutting plastic pipes.
The teeth have tungsten steel hard points so that they remain sharp for
longer.

Floorboard saw
A saw made specifically for cutting and lifting floorboards in position.
It has teeth on the end of the saw for cutting through floorboards while they
are still in position.

Pad saw
Often called a ‘keyhole saw’ or ‘drywall saw’.
A long, narrow saw used for cutting small, awkward holes and shapes in
building materials, such as wood and plasterboard.
There are two types of pad saw: the fixed-blade type and the retractable-
blade type.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Grips and wrenches Pliers

Grips and wrenches are tools that are used almost Pliers are two-handled, two-jawed hand tools used
every day by plumbers. They are essential tools for mainly for gripping, twisting and turning. The jaws
tightening and gripping. There several different types, meet at the tip, which means they can grip with
as described in Table 2.6. precision. Some types are also made for cutting cable
 Table 2.6 Types of grips and wrenches used for plumbing and wire. Some of the main types of pliers used by
plumbers are described in Table 2.7.
Water pump pliers
These are a plumber’s  Table 2.7 Types of pliers used for plumbing
general-purpose grips. General-purpose pliers
Three pairs should be
A useful addition to the
available in the toolbox:
toolbox, these general-purpose
175 mm, 250 mm and
pliers are used to grip and
300 mm.
tighten small nuts and bolts.
Footprints
They can also be used to cut
Another general-purpose thin wire and electrical flex.
grip used by plumbers
Long nose pliers
for tightening fittings and
unions in low carbon Long nose (or needle nose)
steel pipework. pliers are useful both for
gripping small items and for
Care should be taken
reaching into small, deep
when using these as they
spaces.
can easily trap fingers if
used incorrectly. They are used to tighten small
nuts and bend wire. They often
Stillsons (Pipe wrench)
include a wire cutter.
Stillsons are used when
Circlip pliers
installing low carbon steel
pipe. Circlip pliers have a specific
use for removing the circlips
They are available in
from tap spindles and shower
many sizes, ranging from
valves.
10-inch to 36-inch.
Mainly used in maintenance
Basin wrench
and repair operations.
This is used for tightening
Wire cutters
and loosening tap
connections in hard- Used for cutting electrical
to-reach areas such cables and flex.
as behind wash hand These are a useful addition to
basins, baths and kitchen a plumber’s toolbox.
sinks. It has a spring
loaded/interchangeable
jaw and can have a Spirit levels
telescopic handle.
Spirit levels are used to ensure that appliances and
Mole grips
pipework are installed level and plumb. They use a
Mole grips are a locking
type of pliers.
bubble positioned between two markers. Electronic and
They give a high
laser spirit levels are also available. The most common
clamping force and can ones used by plumbers are described in Table 2.8.
be locked to allow hands-
free gripping.
KEY TERMS
Level: when pipework is perfectly horizontal.
Plumb: when pipework is perfectly vertical.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 2.8 Types of spirit level used for plumbing

Plumbing-specific tools
Torpedo level (Boat level) So far we have looked at the more common hand tools.
A small, 300 mm level As well as these, there are many ‘plumbing-specific’
with a magnetic strip on
the bottom, which makes hand tools that plumbers must have in their toolkits,
it easier to level appliances such as:
such as boilers. ● pipe-cutting tools:
Spirit level ● pipe slices
Two sizes, 600 mm and ● adjustable copper pipe cutters
1200 mm, are advisable ● plastic pipe cutters
for levelling large
● pipe-bending tools:
appliances such as baths
and wash hand basins. ● scissor benders

● tripod benders

● bending springs

– internal
– external
● pipe-soldering equipment:

● blowtorch, hose and gas governor

● brazing torch

● socket-crimping tools

● manual pipe-threading equipment.

We will look at each of these in turn.

Pipe-cutting tools
 Table 2.9 Types of pipe-cutting tool used for plumbing
Pipe slices
An essential tool for cutting copper tube.
The pipe slice can be used in tight situations where junior hacksaws and adjustable
pipe cutters cannot.
Non-adjustable sizes are available to suit copper pipe: 15 mm, 22 mm and
28 mm. There are also sizes available to cut plastic waste pipe: 32 mm and
40 mm. Always ensure the cutting wheel, wheel spring and rollers are lubricated
and free from dirt.

Adjustable pipe cutters

An essential tool that can be adjusted to cut many sizes of copper tube.
Periodic maintenance of this tool is recommended, such as changing the cutting
wheel and regular oiling.

Plastic pipe cutters

This tool can be used to cut all forms of plastic pipe.
It gives a clean cut, which is essential when jointing push-fit pressure plastic pipe
and waste pipe.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Pipe-bending tools ● Microbore scissor bender: a small version of the

Types of pipe-bending tool used for plumbing include: scissor bender, for microbore tubing of sizes 6 mm,
● Scissor-type benders: these bending machines,
8 mm and 10 mm.
also known as handi-benders, are excellent for
precision bending of copper tube.

p Figure 2.3 Microbore scissor bender

Pipe-soldering equipment
Types of pipe-soldering equipment used for plumbing
include:
● Blowtorch with separate governor, hose and LPG
p Figure 2.1 Scissor-type benders bottle: the traditional plumber’s blowtorch.
They are light in weight and portable. For bending The governor can be pre-set or adjustable, and the
copper tube in sizes 15 mm and 22 mm. nozzles on the blowtorch are interchangeable with
● Tri-pod bending machines: these are static varying sizes for different tube sizes.
bending machines for bending copper tubes from These are not as controllable as other torches.
sizes 15 mm to the larger sizes up to 42 mm. ● Soldering and brazing torch: this type of

Particular attention should be paid to the bending blowtorch is much more portable and gives a hotter
roller to prevent excessive rippling of the tube, flame that is far more controllable.
which can occur when the roller is not tight against It can be used with propane and MAPP gas, but gas
the bending guide. usage tends to be high.

p Figure 2.2 Example of rippling in copper pipe

If the roller is too tight, then throating of the copper
tube will occur.
● Internal bending springs: not used as much since p Figure 2.4 Soldering and brazing torch
the development of the scissor bender, the internal
bending spring can be used to bend half-hard copper
grade R250 or soft copper grade R220. These can be
used to adjust existing pipework.
It is recommended that the tube be annealed first
before bending to prevent excessive rippling.
● External bending springs: used in the same way
as internal springs but the spring is placed on the
outside of the tube.
Usually used with microbore soft copper grade
R220 of sizes 8 mm and 10 mm. p Figure 2.5 Ratchet stocks and dies

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Manual pipe-threading equipment  Table 2.10 Other hand tools used for plumbing
Although not strictly plumbing tools, manual pipe- Files and rasps
threading equipment may be used occasionally when Essential for filing the
installing low carbon steel (LCS) pipe. Ratchet stocks ends of tubes to remove
internal and external
and dies are tools used for on-site threading of BSP burrs.
mild steel pipes, whether in situ or mounted in a Three types should be
pipe vice. included in the toolkit:
1 flat files
2 half-round files
INDUSTRY TIP 3 rat-tail files.
Allen keys
When using threading tools, plenty of oil should be applied
These small hexagonal
as this helps to lubricate and cool the cutting heads. keys are used mainly in
Threading tools have a reversible action. This allows the maintenance tasks, e.g.
cutting head to be removed from the pipe and also cleans for repairing and servicing
the newly cut threads of all cut steel and excess oil (known shower valves.
as ‘swarf’). Tap reseating tool
British Standard Pipe (BSP) and British Standard Pipe A widely used plumber’s
Threads (BSPT) relate to the type of thread used on tool for repairing the seats
of taps by grinding the
screwed low carbon steel pipes and fittings. Although the
seat to a smooth surface.
pipe is measured in mm, it is universally referred to in
This ensures that the tap
imperial measurements, e.g. ‘x-inch BSPT’ (meaning x-inch washer sits properly on
British Standard Pipe Thread). See the following BSPT page the tap seat, preventing
for further information: www.bspt.co.uk taps from dripping.
Radiator spanner
A specialised spanner for
KEY TERMS inserting radiator valve
tails into radiators and
Rippling: an unwanted, wavy pattern made on the convectors.
inside face of a machine bend when the bending
arm roller is not tight enough.
Throating: a slight indentation that the bending Hand tool safety and
machine makes when the bend is formed.
Annealing: a process that involves heating the
maintenance
copper to a cherry-red colour and then quenching A large number of accidents occur every year in the
it in water. This softens the copper tube so that construction industry because of the unsafe use
the copper can be worked without fracturing, of manual and power hand tools, such as using a
rippling or deforming. screwdriver as a chisel or a lever.
BSP: British Standard Pipe.
Most accidents involving tools result from:
BSPT: British Standard Pipe Thread; the type of
● using the wrong tool for the job
thread used on screwed low carbon steel pipes
and fittings. ● using the tool incorrectly

● not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE)

● not following approved safety guidelines

Other hand tools ● poor maintenance.
As well as the tools we have already looked at, there
The most common tools involved in accidents are:
are others a plumber may need. These are general tools
● chisels
that are useful additions to the toolkit and include
● saws
those listed in Table 2.10.
● screwdrivers

● files

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

●
snips
hammers
Power tools
wrenches, grips and pliers.
●
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Power tools for use on-site should be 110 V, which
HEALTH AND SAFETY is colour-coded yellow for easy identification, or
l Hand tools are an important part of your job. they should be battery operated. You should not use
They must be treated, cared for and used in a 230 V; 110 V is a safer voltage.
professional manner. By following these safety
rules, many hand tool injuries can be avoided.
Apart from the hand tools we have looked at, a
l Don’t forget that, under the Health and Safety
at Work etc. Act 1974, you have a duty of care plumber needs certain power tools to help with
to yourself, your employer and others who may installation processes. Here, we will take a brief look at
be affected by your acts or omissions. You the essential power tools and accessories, including:
can access this act at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ ● power drill
ukpga/1974/37/section/7 ● circular saw

● jig saw
The safety rules to follow when using hand tools are as ● reciprocating saw
follows. ● portable pipe threading machine
● Know the purpose of each tool in your toolbox, and ● hydraulic machine bender
use it for the task it was designed for. ● hydraulic crimping kit
● Never use any tool unless you are trained to do so. ● portable pipe freezing kit.
● Inspect tools before each use and replace or repair if

they are worn or damaged. Power drills

● Always clean your tools when you have finished
Power drills come in three basic types, as described in
using them. Table 2.11.
● Always keep the cutting edges of chisels and saws
 Table 2.11 Types of power drill
sharp.
● Always keep any moving parts free from dirt and Rotary hammer drill
make sure they are well oiled. This type of drill has a standard
● Select the right size tool for the job.
chuck so accessories such as
metal drills and hole saws can
● When working on ladders or scaffolding, be sure
be used.
that you and your tools are secure. Falling tools
could injure people working or passing below. SDS hammer drill
● Do not put sharp or pointed tools in your pockets. This type of drill uses the secure
drill system (SDS) bayonet-type
Use a sheath or holster instead. fixing to secure the drill bits into
● Do not throw tools, as they are easily damaged. the chuck.
● Do not use a tool if the handle is missing or has This type of drill is necessary
splinters, burrs or cracks, or if the head of the tool is when using core bits.
loose. Cordless drill
● Do not use cold chisels that have mushroomed heads. Typical voltages are from 14.4 V
● When using tools such as jig saws, chisels and drills, to 36 V.
always wear PPE such as safety goggles, face masks These drills are available in
many forms, from screwdriver-
or gloves. type drills to large-voltage SDS
● Worn, damaged or defective tools should be taken types.
out of service and not used until they have been
repaired or replaced.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Circular saw
INDUSTRY TIP
Circular saws are very useful tools for lifting floorboards
When purchasing power tools it can be advantageous to and notching joists. Care should be taken to ensure the
purchase the same make, as in many instances the same blade guard is in place and that the blade is securely
battery will fit many tools. fastened.

Jig saw
INDUSTRY TIP Jig saws are used for cutting out sinks and wash hand
basins in worktops in kitchens and bathrooms. Always
The chuck on a rotary hammer drill should be kept well oiled ensure the blade guard and blade are securely in place.
to prevent breakdown.
Reciprocating saw
Reciprocating saws are a useful addition to the toolkit;
the reciprocating saw should not be used where
accuracy is required. Different blades can be used to
cut different materials, such as wood, plastic, metal, tile
and stone.

Hydraulic low carbon steel bending

machines
Hydraulic low carbon steel bending machines use
pressure from hydraulic oil to bend steel pipe.
p Figure 2.6 Circular saw

INDUSTRY TIP
The oil level of hydraulic low carbon steel bending machines
should be checked periodically and topped up as necessary.

Pipe threading machines

 Table 2.12 Types of pipe threading machine
Hand-held electric pipe threader
This is an easy to use hand-held
p Figure 2.7 Jig saw electric pipe threading tool for
threading mild steel BSP pipes, in
situ with a pipe clamp or mounted
in a pipe vice.
Threads ½-inch to 2-inch BSP
pipe.
Pipe threading machine
Used on-site, these electric floor-
mounted tools will cut, de-burr
and thread LCS pipe easily and
p Figure 2.8 Reciprocating saw quickly.
They need regular maintenance.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Copper pipe socket crimping tool ● Power tools should be PAT tested every three
months (see Chapter 1, Health and safety practices
and systems, page 43).
INDUSTRY TIP
● Always wear safety goggles or safety glasses when
This type of jointing is becoming more common due to the using power tools.
speed and the reduction of hazards in the process. ● Always check the tool, the cord and the plug before
use for any signs of wear or damage.
 Table 2.13 Copper pipe socket crimping tool ● Always check to make sure the tool is the correct
voltage for the power supply.
Copper pipe socket crimping tool
● Never drag the tool or the power cord across the
A fairly new tool, used for
crimping press fit-type fittings floor.
onto copper tubes. ● Never lift or lower a power tool by its cord.
● Never use a tool that is damaged or not working
properly. Damaged tools should be taken out of use,
tagged and sent for repair.
● Use a dust mask in dusty conditions and wear
KEY TERM hearing protection if the tool is being used for an
Crimping: the process of pressing the fittings into extended period of time. Remember: prolonged use
a copper pipe using a ‘press fit’ or crimping tool. of hammer-type power tools can cause vibration
injury.
● Make sure the work area is clean and free of debris
Pipe freezing kits that might get in the way, and always make sure the
work area has plenty of light.
HEALTH AND SAFETY ● Make sure all appropriate safety guards are in place
Gloves should always be worn when using pipe and never remove a safety guard.
freezing kits because of the risk of frostbite.
● Always turn off and unplug the tool before any
adjustments or change of blades takes place.
Pipe freezing kits create a plug of ice to hold back water ● Never use power tools in wet or damp conditions.
while maintenance and repair tasks are undertaken. ● Make sure extension cords are the correct type, and
There are generally two types available: don’t use cords designed for inside use outside.
1 electric freezing kits ● Make sure cutters or blades are clean, sharp and
2 freezing kits using refrigerants. securely in place. Never use bent or broken blades or
cutters.
Power tool safety and ● Never over-reach when using a power tool, and
maintenance always take care when using power tools at height.
● When using hand-held power tools, always grip with
both hands.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
● Always unplug, clean and store the tool in a safe,
Remember: power tools have the potential to
seriously risk the health and safety of those on-site if
dry place when the job is finished.
not properly checked and maintained.
Drills bits, core drills and
As with hand tools, power tools need regular inspection
and maintenance. There are certain points that should
hole saws
There are many types of drill bits that should be
be followed.
included in a plumber’s toolkit. Each one has a specific
job, as detailed in Table 2.14.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 2.14 Drill bits, core drills and hole saws used for plumbing
Masonry drill bits
The tip of this drill bit is made from tungsten carbide steel to enable the bit to
penetrate masonry, concrete and stonework.

Wood drill bits

Also known as a spur point or dowel bit, these have a central point and two raised
spurs that help keep the bit drilling straight.
Metal drill bits
Also known as twist bits, these can be used on timber, metal and plastics. Most twist
bits are made from high speed steel (HSS), which is suitable for drilling most types of
material. When drilling metal, the HSS stands up to the high temperatures.

Spade bits
Also known as flat bits, these are for power drill use only. The centre point locates the
bit and the flat steel on either side cuts away the timber. These bits are used to drill
fairly large holes in floorboards and joists.

Core drills
These are diamond impregnated and are used for drilling very large holes through
masonry, stone and concrete. Used in the installation of boiler flues and large pipes
such as waste and soil pipes.

Hole saws
Hole saws are ideal for drilling holes in equipment and appliances such as cold water
storage cisterns and acrylic baths, which have no tap holes. Some hole saws can also
be used on metal, wood and plastic.

2 TYPES OF PIPEWORK, BENDING AND

JOINTING TECHNIQUES
In this part of the chapter, we will take a brief look at
the pipe materials that plumbers use in their everyday
Copper tubes to BS EN 1057
installation work. We will see how the different Copper tube has been used in the UK since the
methods of jointing, bending and installation practices 1940s and today still accounts for around 60 per
dictate the methods of working we need to employ. We cent of all new installations. The type of copper
will look at: used in the manufacture of tubes is phosphorus
● copper tubes and fittings
de-oxidised copper, with a minimum copper content
● low carbon steel pipes and fittings
of 99.90 per cent.
● the various types of plastic pipes and fittings.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

De-oxidised copper tube can be safely soldered, up to 28 mm outside diameter (OD), are supplied in
welded or brazed. The density of copper is 8900 kg/m³. coils. The length of the coils is between 10 and 50 m,
It has a melting point of 1083°C and its coefficient of depending on the diameter.
linear expansion is 0.0000166 per °C (between 20°C
Copper tubes are generally used in buildings for the
and 100°C).
following services:
The standard for copper tubes for water, gas and ● domestic hot and cold water supplies under

sanitation installations is BS EN 1057, which is pressure, usually up to mains pressure (typically up

available in three tempers, as outlined in Table 2.15. to 4 bar but can be up to 10 bar in some parts of
the UK) or head pressure from a storage cistern
KEY TERM ● central heating systems (with radiators/convectors)

● underfloor heating systems

Temper: the temper of a metal refers to how hard
or soft it is. ● natural gas installations for heating and cooking

● oil installations for heating

 Table 2.15 Grades of copper tubes to BS EN 1057 ● sanitary pipe work in rare installations

● medical gases (when de-greased).

Grade Description
R220 This is softer copper tube, fully annealed and Copper tube is available chromium plated for situations
supplied in coils. It is thicker walled than other grades where there are aesthetic considerations and plastic
of copper tube. Used for underground water services coated in various colours where protection from
(sizes 15, 22, 28 mm) and microbore central heating
systems (sizes 6, 8 and 10 mm). corrosion is necessary.
R250 This is the most widely used grade of copper tube
for plumbing and heating applications. Commonly Bending copper tube
supplied in straight lengths of 3 or 6 m, in sizes 15,
22, 28, 35, 42 and 54 mm. It is known as half-hard
tempered. INDUSTRY TIP
R290 This grade is hard tempered, thin walled and totally
unsuitable for bending. Not normally used in the UK. Practice and master forming copper pipe using your pipe
benders. This is an important skill for the professional
plumber.
INDUSTRY TIP
Bending copper tubes becomes easy with practice. The
R250 grade of copper, although commonly supplied in 3 or
6 m lengths, can be supplied in shorter lengths or 1 or 2 m two methods used to correctly bend copper tubes are:
lengths, but this will reflect in the price of the material. 1 machine bending – the preferred method of bending
copper tubes
2 spring bending – using a bending spring; not so
KEY POINT widely used now since scissor benders have become
During your time as a plumber you will come available.
across many materials, and each will have its own
unique working properties, including different Here, we will look at each method and investigate its
melting points and expansion rates. It is important advantages and disadvantages.
that we recognise these properties so that we can
choose the correct material for a given installation. Bending copper tube using a
You will come across other such properties as you bending machine
work through this book.
Bending copper tubes using a bending machine is an
economical method of installation, especially where lots
Tubes supplied in half-hard (R250) and hard drawn
of bends or changes of direction are required. There are
(R290) condition are supplied in straight lengths of 3 or
many types of bending machine available for copper
6 m. Tubes in the soft, fully annealed (R220) condition,

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1
90o bends from a fixed point using a scrap piece of tube

tubes up to 42 mm diameter, all of which are worked

by hand. For larger diameters, ratchet-action machines
Required bend
are required. The most useful type of machine for 15
and 22 mm tube is the portable type or scissor bender Fixed point

(see page 75 of this chapter), which is light in weight 1 Measured length

and requires no adjustment before use.
The advantages of machine bending over spring
bending are:
● bends can be formed quickly Bending point

● multiple bends can be formed easily

● bends can be formed close to the end of the tube Guide

Tube stop 2
● bend radius, quality and accuracy are consistent.

Producing accurately positioned bends depends on

determining the bending point and the position of the
3
tubeo in the machine. Figures 2.9–2.14 demonstrate this.
90 bends from a fixed point using the 4 diameters back method

Scrap tube
Former Position of
Required bend 4 finished bend
Fixed point p Figure 2.10 90° bends: method 2
1 Measured length
4 diameters of pipe
size back from the 2 Place a mark at
2 bending point 1 Measured length the centre of the
bend and place a
second mark to
make a cross
Bending point
3 Start of the bend
mark on former Bending mark

Guide 3 Place the centre

Tube stop of the X mark
against the
bending former

Position of
Former 4 finished bend
4 Position of
finished bend
p Figure 2.9 90° bends: method 1
p Figure 2.11 45° sets

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Off-set measurement 1
Fixed point
1
To find the correct off-set angle, the size of the off-set
should be deducted from the 600 mm and the 600 mm
folding rule opened to the measurement, i.e. off-set Fixed point to centre of obstruction
50 mm. 600 – 50 = 550 The bench mark on the first bend is determined by
Off-set measurement Angle required adding 1/4 of the diameter of the obstruction to the
50 mm measurement from the fixed point to the centre of the
obstruction Bending mark

Fixed point to centre

600 mm rule of obstruction Add 1/4 dia
2 of obstruction
Bend tube to the angle set by the rule
2 To find the correct angle for the first bend, multiply the
diameter of the obstacle by 3 and close the folding rule by
this amount then position the tube in the machine so that
the bending mark and the centre of the angle align

Then form the

first bend to the
angle of the rule

3 Remove tube from machine and mark for the

second bend measuring from inside edge of tube
using a straight edge
Bending mark 3 Making sure that the bend clears the obstruction, place a
Straight edge straight edge over the tube and mark the bending marks
Off-set
on both sides
measurement

Bending mark

Bending marks

4 Re-position tube in the machine so that

the mark forms a tangent to the former 4
Position tube in the machine so that
the bending mark touches the former edge

5 Re-position the rule to give the correct 5 Bend until the top of the
angle for the second bend tube is level and in line
with the former mark
Re-position tube in the
machine so that mark
forms a tangent

Reverse tube in the

former and position as
before then bend until
the top edges are in line

p Figure 2.12 Off-set bends p Figure 2.13 Passover bends

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Required passover 3
Close folding rule down to twice the passover
measurement to obtain the angle for the second bend
Passover measurement Required passover
1st bend
2 × passover
measurement
1Passover measurement Required passover
1st bend
Close a folding rule down to the passover measurement Angle for second bend
to obtain the angle for the first bend
1
Passover measurement
Close a folding rule down to the passover1stmeasurement
bend
Passover measurement Angle required 4
to obtain the angle for the first bend
Mark for the second bend by measuring
1 from the inside edge of tube
Passover
Close measurement
a folding Angle
rule down to the passover required
measurement
to obtain the angle for the first bend Bending mark
600 mm rule Passover
2 measurement
Passover measurement Angle required Straight edge
Bend tube to the angle required
600 mm byrulethe folding rule
2
Bend tube to the angle required by the folding rule
600 mm rule
5
2
Re-position tube in the machine so that
Bend tube to the angle required by the folding rule mark forms a tangent to the former

3
Close folding rule down to twice the passover
measurement to obtain the angle for the second bend
3
Close
2 folding rule down to twice the passover
× passover
measurement to obtain the angle for the second bend
p Figure 2.14 Partial passover bends
3
2 × passover Angle for second bend
Close folding rule down to twice the passover
measurement to obtain the angle for the second bend
Rippling or throating of tube
measurement KEY TERM
Angle for second bend
in machine-made
4 × passover
2
measurement
Mark for the second bend by measuring
bends Throat: the inside face.
from the inside
Bending edge ofare
machines tube designed to give a 4 diameter
4 Angle for second bend With scissor (handy) benders, rippling occurs with
bend and
Bending
Mark formark
so that the former and the bending guide
the second bend by measuring use. This is because the bending former, being made
supports the throat
from the inside and sides of thePassover
edge of tube tube against
measurement of aluminium, stretches over time and, because the
collapse.
4
Bending markRipples will occur
Straight in the
edge throat (inside of
Mark for the second bend by measuring Passover
pressure roller is fixed, it cannot be tightened or
the bend) of a bend if the pressure of the roller on
from the inside edge of tube measurement repositioned to give the correct bending pressure.
the guide is insufficient or inedge
Straight the wrong place. The
Bending mark If ripples appear when using fixed-position ‘handy
correct pressure point is slightly in front of the bending
Passover
5 benders’, the pressure point can be readjusted by
position, where the tube touches the former before the
measurement
Re-position tube in the machine
Straightso that
edge inserting a thin piece of strip steel (the thickness of a
actual bending
mark forms process
a tangent to theoccurs.
former
5 hacksaw blade) between the guide and the roller to
Re-position tube in the machine so that cure the problem.
KEY POINT
mark forms a tangent to the former
5If pressure is exerted too far forward of the
bending tube
Re-position point, then
in the ripples
machine will occur. If the roller
so that
mark forms a tangent
is tightened to the former
too much the pressure point will
be too far back and the tube will be excessively
‘throated’ or made oval in section.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS INDUSTRY TIP

Read the key point on pipe gain, then work out how
much gain a 15 mm and 22 mm copper pipe would As a rule, the bend radius should be four to five diameters
make on a 90 degree bend. of the tube. When using a bending spring, the desired
15 mm = radius should be four to five times the diameter of the tube
being formed.
22 mm = For example, for 15 mm copper the bend radius should be
between 60–75 mm.

KEY POINT
One advantage that a spring bend has over a machine-
Pipe gain made bend is that the bend radius can be varied
When bending copper tube using a bending because it is not fixed by a bending former. This allows
machine, the tube appears to gain length. This
the tube centres to be carried around bends. In other
is called pipe gain or stretch and we have to take
it into account when precision bending. Gain or words, the radii of the bends can be enlarged so that
stretch will naturally occur whenever copper pipe the aesthetic appearance of the bends is enhanced
is formed into a radius around the former. The and the gap between the tubes remains even (see
smaller the angle, the smaller the gain. The pipe Figures 2.16–2.18).
gain on a 90° bend is 1.5 times the diameter of
the pipe. Let’s say we have to put a 90° bend on Measure
1 Measured length (end to centre)
a piece of 22 mm copper tube so that the finished forward 2
Measure back tube dia's
measurements are 150 mm end to centre and 2 4 tube dia's 3
250 mm end to centre. The length of pipe needed
appears to be 400 mm but, because the bend
cuts the corner, we can deduct a certain amount of
pipe. If pipe gain is 1.5 times the diameter and the 2nd mark 1st mark 3rd mark
diameter is 22 mm, we can deduct 33 mm, so the Start of bend
Bending length
actual pipe length needed for the bend is 367 mm.
Pipe gain occurs only with 90° bends (Figure 2.15).
4 Anneal the copper tube between the second
and third marks to soften the tube so that rippling
and creasing does not occur

p Figure 2.15 Pipe gain occurs only with 90° bends

Bending copper tube using a Completed bend

bending spring
Bending springs are used to support the walls of the
tubes against collapse while the bend is being formed.
The British Standard for bending springs is BS 5431:1976 p Figure 2.16 Bending a 90° bend by spring
and they are available for copper grades R220 and R250.
It is important that the correct-sized spring is used or
wrinkling and even snapping of the tube may occur.

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1 Measured length of the amount and thickness of the tube. Remember,

2 3
when setting out:
● for a spring 90° bend, there is gain of the tube in

the same way as when the bend is formed with a

Measure back 2 dia's Forward 1 dia machine
● allowances have to be made for the ‘gain in material’

4 Anneal the copper tube between the second and third marks to ● the bend must first be pulled in the correct position
soften the tube so that rippling and creasing does not occur in relation to the fixed point.

6
First mark on centre line of tube
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Back 1/2 dia
Setting out, step by step
Off-set required 5 2nd bending point 1 Decide on bend radius, which is usually taken as
four times the diameter of the pipe (4D), although
Yorkshire Copper Tube recommend 5D. It could
p Figure 2.17 Bending an off-set by spring be any radius determined by a drawing.
The length of the pipe taken up by a 90° bend
can be calculated using the formula:
INDUSTRY TIP
Radius (R) × 2 × π (3.142)
4
Remember to anneal the copper, which is a process of
heating and cooling the pipe to soften it, before attempting 2 Assuming that a 15 mm pipe is to be bent to a
to bend the copper tube, as this will prevent the tube from radius of 4D and we need to find out how much
rippling, creasing or snapping. pipe will be taken up by the bend:
Radius of bend is 4D = 4 × 15 = 60 mm
Using the formula:
R2 Tube centre spacing 60 × 2 × 3.142
4
Length of bend = 94.26 mm (95 mm)
3 Mark off the required distance from the end of
R1 the tube to the centre line of the bend (the end-to-
centre measurement).
4 Then divide the calculated length of pipe by three
(95 mm / 3 = 31.6 or 32 mm).
5 From the original measurement, mark 32 mm
R1 = 4 times dia of pipe forward and 64 mm back.
R2 = R1 + tube centre spacing
For two 22 mm diameter tubes at 80 mm centres:
6 The bend can then be pulled, ensuring that it
R1 = 4 × 22 = 88 mm is kept within the three 32 mm measurements;
R2 = 88 + 80 = 168 mm this will keep the centre of the bend the correct
distance from the fixed point.
So, set out inner bend as before then for outer bend
Measure back distance for outer bend = 168 mm
Measure forward distance = 84 mm (both from first mark)

p Figure 2.18 Concentric spring bends Jointing copper tube

There are generally four methods of jointing for copper
Setting out spring bends tubes:
Spring bends should be limited to copper tube R250 up 1 capillary fittings:
to 22 mm diameter as bending tubes by hand over this a integral solder ring
diameter, although possible, is very difficult because b end feed

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

2 compression fittings:
a type A – non-manipulative
b type B – manipulative
3 push-fit fittings
4 press-fit fittings.

Capillary fittings to BS EN 1254:1998

p Figure 2.19 Integral solder ring
Capillary fittings use the principle of capillary action to
draw solder into the fitting when they are heated by a
blowtorch. There are two different types:
1 Integral solder ring: this type of fitting has a band
of lead-free solder housed inside a raised ring on the
fitting socket, so extra solder is not needed.
2 End feed: this type of fitting needs solder to be fed
at the end or the mouth of the fitting. It does not
have solder in the fitting. p Figure 2.20 End feed

How to complete a soldered fitting, step by step

STEP 1 Cut and de-burr the tube. STEP 2 Clean the end of the tube and the inside STEP 3 Apply flux to the end of the tube only.
of the fitting with either wire wool or emery Do not apply the flux to the inside of the fitting.
cloth. Insert the tube into the fitting. Twist the tube
slightly when inserting it. This ensures an even
spread of flux on the tube and fitting.

STEP 4 Apply heat to the fitting and wait 10 STEP 5 While the fitting is still hot, use a clean
seconds. If the fitting is an integral soldered ring cloth to wipe any excess solder off the fitting.
type, then solder will appear at the mouth of the Try not to disturb the fitting as you may cause a
fitting. If the fitting is an end feed type, then apply leak. When the fitting has cooled down a little,
solder to the mouth of the fitting, ensuring that the clean off any excess flux with a damp cloth.
solder flows all around the socket. Do not use too
much heat or the fitting and flux will turn black and
the fitting will not solder.
p Figure 2.21 Completing a soldered fitting

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Fluxes and solders used with capillary if excess flux is not removed after soldering has
fittings been completed. They are, however, suitable for use
As we have already seen, integral solder ring fittings in potable water systems, because they dissolve in
have a bead of lead-free solder inside the fitting and contact with water and are flushed out when initial
so solder is not required for this type of joint. End flushing of the system takes place.
feed fittings, however, require that solder be added 2 Traditional flux paste: usually made from zinc
during the soldering process to the mouth of the chloride and/or zinc ammonium chlorides. Some
fitting. For hot and cold water pipework installations fluxes contain other active ingredients such as
this solder MUST be lead-free to comply with the amines. Cleaning of the tube and fitting is required
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999. with this type of flux and will not dissolve in water.
There are several types of lead-free solder available, It will remain in the pipe after the soldering process
the most popular being a mixture of tin and copper has been completed and will not flush out during
to BS EN ISO 9453:2020 (known as number 23 tin- commissioning, so it should be used sparingly.
based solder), which has a melting point of 230°C to
240°C and is suitable for making end feed capillary Compression fittings to BS EN
joints on all domestic plumbing, heating and gas 1254:1998
systems. Compression-type fittings are mechanical fittings that
The use of leaded solder is permitted for use on gas and require tightening with a spanner to make a watertight
central heating installations, but there is always a risk joint. There are two different types:
that this solder will be used on the wrong system and, if 1 type A – non-manipulative compression fittings
this occurs, the plumber risks a hefty fine and a criminal 2 type B – manipulative compression fittings.
record if prosecuted.
Fitting type A: non-manipulative
Fluxes are used to clean oxides from the surface of compression fittings, step by step
the copper and to help with the flow of solder into the This type of fitting consists of three main parts: the
fitting. There are two basic forms of flux available: fitting body, a metal ‘O’ ring called an olive, and
1 Active fluxes: otherwise known as ‘self-cleaning’ the back nut. It is called ‘non-manipulative’ simply
flux because it cleans the copper tube and the because neither the tube nor the fitting need working,
fitting during the soldering process. Cleaning of or ‘manipulating’, to make the joint. When the nut is
the tube and fittings beforehand is not necessary. tightened, the olive is slightly compressed onto the
Some types of active flux are known to contain copper tube. To make a type A fitting, follow the steps
hydrochloric acid, which can be harmful if not used shown in Figure 2.22.
correctly and can promote corrosion in copper tubes

STEP 1 Cut and de-burr the tube. STEP 2 Take apart the fitting, and slip STEP 3 Assemble the fitting and tighten by hand.
the nut and olive over the tube. Then, using an adjustable spanner, turn the nut
clockwise 1.5 to 2 turns to fully tighten the joint.
p Figure 2.22 Making a type A fitting

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Do not over-tighten the joint as this will crush the olive Push-fit joints rely on a stainless steel grab ring and
onto the tube too much and may cause the fitting to leak. a sealing ring to make a watertight joint. There are
a number of different makes available and all use a
This joint does not require any jointing paste or PTFE
similar method of jointing. When a piece of copper
tape to make the joint. This should be used only if the
tube is pushed into the joint it passes through a release
joint shows signs of leakage.
collar and then through a stainless steel grip ring. This
Fitting type B: manipulative compression has a number of teeth that grip on to the tube, securing
fittings, step by step it in place. It can only be released using a de-mounting
tool. When the tube is pushed further into the joint
Unlike type A fittings, type B fittings require that
it passes through a support sleeve, which helps to
the end of the tube is worked, or more specifically
align the tube and compresses a pre-lubricated EPDM
flared, with a special tool called a swaging tool,
‘O’ ring between the wall of the fitting and the tube.
before a successful joint can be made. This type of
When the tube has passed through the ‘O’ ring and has
fitting is made for jointing soft copper tube (type
reached the tube stop, a secure joint is made.
R220) for below-ground water services. The parts
of the fitting are the fitting body, the compression The pressures and temperatures that apply to push-fit
nut, the compensating ring and the adapter piece. fittings are listed in Table 2.16.
To complete a type B compression joint, follow the
steps shown in Figure 2.23.  Table 2.16 The pressures and temperatures that apply to push-
fit fittings

Push-fit fittings for copper tube Temperature not exceeding Max. working pressure
Push-fit fittings for copper tube are made from either 30°C 16 bar
copper or DZR brass, and are available in sizes 10 mm 65°C 10 bar
to 54 mm. They can be used on hot and cold water 90°C 6 bar
services above ground, and central heating systems.
To complete a push-fit joint, follow the steps shown in
Figure 2.24.

STEP 1 Cut and de-burr the copper tube. Slip the STEP 2 Insert the plain end adapter into the STEP 3 Locate the flared end of the copper tube
compression nut and the compensating ring over socket. onto the tapered face of the adapter piece, screw
the end of the tube and swage open the end using the compression nut on the fitting body and
the special type 1882 swaging tool. tighten with a spanner.
p Figure 2.23 Completing a type B compression joint

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

STEP 1 Cut the tube using a tube cutter (not a STEP 2 De-burr the end of the tube so that it is STEP 3 Mark the socket insertion depth to
hacksaw). The tube needs to be round and free free from any burrs or sharp edges. provide a visual marker that the tube has been
from damage. pushed fully into the socket. Bear in mind that
the X dimension will have been taken off the
overall length of the pipe (see page 117).

STEP 4 Keep the fitting and tube in line. Push STEP 5 Push the tube firmly, with a slight
the tube through the release collar to rest twisting action, until it reaches the tube stop
against the grab ring. with a ‘click’.

p Figure 2.24 Completing a push-fit joint

Press-fit fittings for copper tube A press-fit fitting consists of the fitting body, a rubber
Press fittings are available to suit tube sizes from seal and a stainless steel grab ring.
12 mm to 108 mm, and can be used for systems
operating up to 16 bar pressure at 20°C and 6 bar INDUSTRY TIP
pressure at 110°C. They are ideal for use where using
a blowtorch is not possible. There are several different Press-fit fittings require a special electrical press tool,
fitting types available, which allow press-fit fittings to which crimps the fitting onto the tube to make a secure
joint. The fittings are packaged in separate, sealed plastic
be used on hot and cold water installations, central
bags. They should be kept in them to prevent the lubricant
heating systems, chilled water installations, solar hot
from drying out.
water systems and gas installations (using a special
yellow rubber ‘O’ ring).
To complete a press-fit joint for sizes up to 35 mm,
follow the steps shown in Figure 2.26.

p Figure 2.25 Electrical press tool

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

STEP 1 Cut the tube with, preferably, a tube STEP 2 The tube must be fully inserted into the STEP 3 Insert the tube into the fitting all the
cutter and de-burr the pipe. Care should be socket. To ensure this, use a socket depth gauge way to the tube stop. The fitting depth mark
taken to ensure the tube is cut square. to mark the depth of the socket onto the tube or, previously made on the tube will help as a guide.
alternatively, measure and mark using a rule.

STEP 4 Place the jaws of the press-fit tool over STEP 5 A 90° angle between the tool and the STEP 6 Press the trigger on the press-fit tool
the bead of the fitting, making sure the jaws of socket must be maintained when making the to start the jointing process, making sure that
the tool are well lubricated. joints. fingers are kept away from the jaws.

p Figure 2.26 Completing a press-fit joint

Fittings recognition key element of a successful installation. There are four

fittings that are used more than all others. These are
Fittings recognition is a part of a plumber’s job. couplings, equal tees, elbows and reducers. Table 2.17
Choosing the right fitting for the right application is a shows these four fittings in each of the jointing types.
 Table 2.17 Copper tube fittings recognition
Equal tees (all three
Couplings connections equal size) Elbows Reducers

End feed

Integral solder
ring

Compression

Push fit

Press fit

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

As well as the fittings mentioned above, there are other  Table 2.19 Tap connectors
common fittings that may be used on a regular basis. Straight tap connector Bent tap connector
These are:
● reducing tees, which come in three different forms:

1 reduced end – where one end is reduced

2 reduced branch – where the branch is reduced
3 reduced end and branch – where one end and  Table 2.20 Cap ends
the branch are reduced – and two reduced ends
(sometimes called pendant tees), where both Compression End feed
cap end Push-fit cap end capillary cap end
ends are reduced
● tap connectors – used for connecting to taps and

float-operated valves:
● straight tap connector

● bent tap connector

 Table 2.21 Connectors and manifolds
● cap ends – used for blanking off the ends of the

tube; also known as stop ends Tank connector Flexible connector Manifold
● tank connectors – used for making connections to

tanks and cisterns

● flexible connectors – often used instead of tap

connectors on sanitary ware

● central heating manifolds – a specialist fitting used

in microbore central heating systems. Low carbon steel pipes to

BS EN 10255:2004 (formerly
INDUSTRY TIP
BS 1387:1985)
When ordering tees with a mixture of end and branch Low carbon steel pipe is used occasionally in domestic
sizes, care should be taken to ensure that the correct installations but its use should be restricted to wet
configuration is quoted. The method to use when ordering central heating systems, gas installations and oil lines.
tees is to quote the largest end, then the smallest end, and
It must not be used to supply hot or cold water supplies
the branch last.
for domestic purposes because of the risk of rusty
water being drawn from the taps. Often referred to
as mild steel pipe, low carbon steel pipes are usually
supplied painted red or black and it can also be
galvanised coated. Its carbon content is low.
It is available in three grades, each grade being
identified by a colour code, as shown in Table 2.22.
In the photograph above, the tee would be ordered as:
 Table 2.22 Carbon steel pipe grades and colour codes
22 mm × 22 mm × 15 mm
Grade Colour code
 Table 2.18 Reducing tees Light Brown
Medium Blue
Reduced Two
Heavy Red
Reduced Reduced end and reduced
end branch branch ends
The grades of low carbon steel have identical external
diameters but the pipe wall thickness will vary
according to the grade – heavy grade having the
thickest pipe wall and light grade the thinnest.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Medium-grade pipe is the most common grade used in Low carbon steel pipe is available in 3 m and 6 m
plumbing installations but heavy grade may be used where lengths, may be supplied with threaded ends or plain
a long system life is expected. Heavy-grade pipe can also ends, and is referred to by imperial pipe sizes, which are
be used below ground. Light-grade pipe is seldom used, specified as nominal bore. The common pipe sizes for
except in some dry sprinkler installations for fire prevention. domestic purposes are shown in Table 2.23.
 Table 2.23 Common low carbon steel pipe sizes
Thread size/fitting size 1/
8”
1/ ”
4
3/
8”
1/
2”
3/ ”
4 1” 11/4” 11/2” 2”
Nominal diameter mm 6 8 10 15 20 25 32 40 50

Measured length length

Measured
Bending low carbon steel pipe
There are two methods of bending low carbon steel pipe:
1 By hydraulic bending machine: this method uses
a hydraulic bending machine (see page 78 of this
Measured length length
Measured
chapter) to bend the pipe. It uses an oil to exert
Nominal diameter
Nominal of
diameter of
hydraulic pressure. The oil, being incompressible, the pipe.
thePoint
pipe.APoint A
exerts great force on the pipe through the bending
former to bend the pipe when the handle of the
machine is pumped. Steel is very tough to bend
and tends to ‘spring’ back once the bend is formed.
Because of this, bends should be over-bent about 5°
to allow for the bend springing back slightly. This is
the method used in domestic installations.
2 By heat: mainly used on industrial installations. This
involves the use of oxyacetylene torches to heat the
Required bend bend
Required
steel almost to white hot to soften the pipe. This
allows the steel pipe to be bent easily by hand.
Here, we will look at how to bend a 90° bend and an
off-set bend using a hydraulic bending machine.

Bending a 90° bend, step by step

1 Mark a line on the pipe at the required distance
from the fixed point to the centre line of the
required bend (Figure 2.27).
2 From this measurement, measure back towards the
fixed point 1 nominal bore (the internal diameter) of
the pipe to point A.
3 Place point A at the centre of the correct size
p Figure 2.27 Bending a 90° bend
bending former on the bending machine.
4 Pump the handle of the bending machine until an
angle of 90° + 5° (allowance for springing back) has INDUSTRY TIP
been achieved. Make sure you are standing to the
side of the machine. NEVER stand in front of it while You may find it easier to judge the angle of the bend by
bending is taking place. making a template from a welding rod bent to 90° or by the
use of a steel set square. The template can be placed on the
bending machine so that you can see where to stop the bend.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Bending an off-set bend, step by step Point A

1 Measured length
1 Mark a line at the required measurement for the
first bend onto the pipe.

2 Place the pipe in the machine but this time do

2
not make any deduction. The mark goes directly
on the centre of the former. The measurement A
(Figure 2.28) is from the fixed end of the pipe to the
centre of the set.

Point B is just
touching the
3 Make the first bend to the required angle and check 3 edge of the pipe
the angle using the template. Required
measurement

4 Take the pipe from the machine and place a 4

straight edge against the back of the pipe. Mark Point B in the middle
of the former
the measurement of the second bend at point B
(Figure 2.28).

5 Put the pipe back into the machine and line the 5
Second bend completing
mark up with the centre of the former. the off-set
6 Bend the second bend and check with the template.

p Figure 2.28 Bending an off-set bend

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

INDUSTRY TIP KEY POINT

Male threads are external threads; female threads
With the off-set bend, you may find it easier to make a are internal threads.
welding rod template bent to the required angle (say 45°).
This can be used for both the first and second bends.
Remember to over-bend both bends by 5° to allow for There are two types of fittings that use threads. Fittings
spring back. for low carbon steel pipe are made from steel and
malleable iron to BS EN 10242 (formerly BS 143)
and BS 1256. Steel fittings, although stronger than
Jointing low carbon steel malleable iron, tend to be more expensive. Malleable
iron fittings fall into two groups:
pipe 1 Blackheart fittings with tapered female threads
There are three ways to joint low carbon steel pipe. are identified by a square-edged bead around the
These are: mouth of the fitting. These fittings are quite brittle
1 threaded joints and susceptible to splitting if over-tightened.
2 compression joints 2 Whiteheart fittings with parallel female threads
3 welded joints. are identified by a rounded bead around the mouth
We will look at the first two only, as welded joints of the fittings. These fittings are slightly softer, and
are generally used only on larger pipes in industrial therefore more flexible, and tend to stretch if over-
applications and installations. tightened.

Threaded joints INDUSTRY TIP

Low carbon steel pipes can be jointed using threads
to BS 21, which are cut into the end of the pipes All threads are BSPT, which stands for British Standard Pipe
using either manual stocks and dies or electric Threads.
threading machines (see page 78 of this chapter).
There are two kinds of thread, as follows.
1 Tapered threads: a standard thread cut onto the
ends of pipes and blackheart malleable, male fittings
to ensure a watertight, gas-tight or steam-tight
joint. The tube tightens the further it is screwed into
the fitting.
2 Parallel threads: a screw thread of uniform
diameter used on fittings such as sockets.

Threads taper towards the end of the tube Threads remain parallel throughout the length of the tube

p Figure 2.29 Tapered thread (left) and parallel thread (right)

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 2.24
Couplings Equal tees Elbows M/F elbows

Unions Nipples Bushes

When cutting a thread onto a length of pipe, the length Compression joints
of the thread should be such that, once the joint is There are a number of different manufacturers of
made, one and a half to two threads should be visible compression joints for low carbon steel pipes. They
when the joint is completed. incorporate a rubber compression ring to ensure a leak-
There are a variety of jointing compounds that can free joint. They tend to be rather expensive but can
be used with threaded joints. Jointing compounds are save time on installation costs. They are often referred
used to make leak-free joints. Each one has a specific to as transition fittings.
use, although some are universal and can be used on a Low carbon steel compression fittings can be used on
number of different installations. Jointing compounds new installations, pipe repair and pipework extensions
include those listed in Table 2.25. on the following installations:
 Table 2.25 Jointing compounds ● water (hot and cold water, central heating systems)

● gas (natural gas, LPG)

Linseed oil-based Can be used in conjunction with
compounds (boss hemp on wet central heating ● oil
white, hawk white and systems and compressed air lines. ● compressed air.
templars paste) Must not be used on natural gas
installations. They have several advantages to screwed fittings:
Unsintered A thin, white (or yellow if used on ● very versatile connection suitable for connecting
polytetrafluoroethylene gas) tape that can be used on most LCS pipe to different pipe materials, such as copper
(PTFE tape or string) installations, including hot and
and lead
cold water, central heating and gas
installations. ● quick and easy to make joints

● no special tools necessary

PTFE-based jointing A compound specially made for use
compounds (boss on hot and cold water supplies. Not ● no threads on steel pipe required.
green) suitable for natural gas installations.
Hematite paste A truly universal compound that
can be used on many installation
Plastic pipe
types, such as oil, gas, hot and cold Plumbers should understand the properties of the types
water, central heating, compressed of plastics they use to prevent mistakes being made
air lines and vacuum lines.
during their installation. Plastics have revolutionised
Manganese paste These are specialist compounds for modern plumbing systems but it is all too easy to use
Graphite paste use with high temperature hot water
and steam installations. plastics for what they are not designed. There are two
Gas seal paste A specialist compound for use with
main types of plastics used in plumbing:
natural and liquid petroleum gas
installations.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

1 those plastics that can be used for hot and cold Compression fittings made from brass
water supply and central heating services (plastic These require a pipe insert, which can either be made
pressure pipe), such as: of copper or nylon. The insert is placed inside the pipe
● polyethylene (PE) to strengthen the wall of the pipe so that the fitting
● polybutylene (PB-1) does not blow off under mains pressure.
2 those plastics that can be used for sanitation,
drainage and rainwater systems, such as:
● polyvinyl chloride

● acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

● polypropylene.

Plastic pressure pipe: polyethylene (PE)

PE is used extensively in the plumbing industry for p Figure 2.30 Pipe inserts must be used when using brass
mains cold water pipes. Two grades are used below compression fittings on plastic pressure pipe
ground on cold water services:
To make a compression joint on MDPE pipe using brass
1 medium-density polyethylene (MDPE),
compression fittings, follow the steps below.
manufactured in accordance with the requirements
1 Measure and cut the pipe to the required length,
of BS EN 12201-2; it is blue in colour
ensuring that the cut is square. A plastic pipe cutter
2 high-density polyethylene (HDPE); this was used
should be used to do this.
until the mid-1980s for mains cold water pipes until
2 De-burr the pipe inside and out.
superseded by MDPE; it is still manufactured but is
3 Slip the compression nut and the olive over the pipe.
not used as extensively as MDPE; coloured black, it
4 Put the pipe insert inside the pipe. Make sure that
is available in grades A, B, C and D.
the nut and olive are in place before you do this as
MDPE is a hard-wearing plastic for water pipes, gas placing the insert inside the pipe makes slipping the
pipes and fittings. It is available in a variety of colours. olive over the pipe difficult.
It is resistant to shock (and subsequent fractures) and 5 Put the pipe inside the fitting body and hand tighten
has good performance in freezing weather conditions. the nut.
It is, however, susceptible to ultraviolet (UV) and direct 6 Now, using a suitable spanner, fully tighten the
sunlight, and it is recommended that a maximum of fitting 1 to 1.5 turns.
150 mm of pipe is showing when it enters the building.
It must not be used above ground except for temporary Compression fittings made from plastic
installations. These are known as ‘Philmac’ fittings, and give the
MDPE piping and pipe fittings are available in sizes ability to connect MDPE to MDPE or MDPE to most
of 20 mm to 63 mm; 25 mm is the most common forms of pressure pipe, including copper tube and
pipe size used for cold water services for domestic lead pipe.
properties. It is supplied in coils of 25 m to 150 m.
KEY POINT
Jointing medium-density polyethylene For more information on Philmac fittings, visit the
(MDPE) pipe website at: www.philmac.co.uk
MDPE pipe can be jointed in a variety of ways. The
most common types of fitting are: Push-fit fittings made from plastic
● compression fittings made from brass
These fittings are the simplest form of jointing for
● compression fittings made from plastic
MDPE. They simply push onto the pipe to make a
● push-fit fittings made from plastic
secure, watertight joint. No tightening is needed. The
● fusion welded.
fitting contains a stainless steel grab ring to grab and

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

hold the pipe, and a neoprene rubber seal. A pipe Polybutylene pipe is usually coloured white or
insert made of nylon is required inside the pipe. grey, but older PB pipe (known as Acorn) is usually
coloured brown. It can be used on hot and cold water
Fusion welded installations, wet central heating systems and underfloor
Large underground water mains use fusion-welded heating. It is available in sizes 10 mm, 15 mm, 22 mm
fittings, where the fitting and the pipe are welded and 28 mm, in straight lengths of 3 m, and coils of
together by heat created by electricity. A special fitting 25 m, 50 m and 100 m lengths. The pipe sizes are
is used that has an electrical element inside the fitting compatible with copper tubes to BS 7291-2:2010.
body, which when subjected to electricity, generates
heat, which melts the fitting and the pipe together. The benefits of using polybutylene pipe
In recent years, polybutylene pipe has become very
Polybutylene (PB-1) popular with both installers and architects for new-
Polybutylene is the latest plastic to be manufactured build installations. There are many reasons for this:
into pipe for pressurised plumbing systems. Polybutylene ● It does not affect the taste or colour of the water.
is very flexible, allowing it to be cabled easily and quickly ● There is minimal internal resistance, thereby
through timber joists during the installation process. increasing flow rates.
It has a high temperature and pressure resistance, low ● It is very flexible, even at very low temperatures.
noise transmission, low thermal expansion and low ● It is highly resistant to stress.
thermal transmission. Its internal bore is very smooth, ● It is non-corrosive.
giving it good flow rate characteristics and it does not ● It involves safe installation processes; no flame is
suffer from corrosion or scaling. It is, however, micro- needed or chemicals such as flux required during
porous, allowing air to be leeched through the walls of installation, and it therefore presents no risk to
the pipe. installers.
● It has high resistance to frost damage.
INDUSTRY TIP ● It is not affected by water hardness or softness.
● It is not affected by chemical central heating
When PB-1 pipe was first introduced in the late 1980s, inhibitors or anti-freezes.
central heating systems suffered failure due to increased ● It is unaffected by micro-biological growth.
black oxide sludge created by excess air in the system. This
● It has high impact strength.
has since been cured with the introduction of barrier pipe,
● It is suitable for heating and cooling applications.
which has an impermeable barrier placed in the walls of
the pipe. Barrier pipe is not needed for hot and cold water ● There are a multitude of coil lengths for economical
installations. installation with minimal waste.
● It has a low environmental impact in terms of soil,
water and air pollution.

Bending polybutylene pipe

Polybutylene pipe can be bent by hand without the
use of a bending machine. However, the use of cold
forming bend fixtures is recommended. These are
pre-formed metal braces, which hold the pipe in a 90°
position.
Alternatively, it is possible to brace the bend using pipe
clips, ensuring the radius of the bend is not less than
p Figure 2.31 Polybutylene (PB-1) pipe those shown in Table 2.26.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

 Table 2.26 Bend radii for polybutylene pipes Standard type A non-manipulative type
Diameter of pipe – mm 10 15 22 28 compression fittings to BS EN 1254:1998
Radius dimension A – mm 80* 120* 160* 224* As polybutylene is manufactured to the same pipe sizes
*Depending on the pipe manufacturer as copper tubes, type A compression fittings can be
used. Again, if using a compression fitting, a pipe insert
must be pushed inside the tube. This is because the
polybutylene pipe is too soft to support the olive being
A
crushed onto it. The pipe insert (or liner) supports the
pipe wall.

p Figure 2.32 Bending polybutylene pipe

Jointing polybutylene pipe

Polybutylene pipe can be joined in two ways:
p Figure 2.34 Pipe insert
1 push-fit fittings
2 standard type A non-manipulative type compression The different types of push-fit fittings for
fittings to BS EN 1254:1998. polybutylene pipe
Push-fit fittings There are many different manufacturers of
polybutylene pipe and each one has its own type of
These have a stainless steel grab wedge to hold the
push-fit fitting. The general arrangement is almost
pipe firm, and a neoprene rubber ‘O’ ring to make a
always the same. Each one has:
watertight joint.
● a fitting body
A pipe insert usually made from either plastic or
● a rubber ‘O’ ring to make the joint
stainless steel (depending on the pipe manufacturer)
● a stainless steel grab ring or grab wedge to hold and
must be placed inside the pipe before the joint is
lock the pipe into the fitting body
made. The procedure for making a push-fit joint on
● a spacer washer between the ‘O’ ring and the grab
polybutylene pipe is as follows.
ring.
1 Cut the pipe using a scissor-type plastic pipe cutter. Most of the fittings are de-mountable, which means
This ensures a clean cut to the pipe end. Do not use they can be taken off the pipe and reused.
a hacksaw.
 Table 2.27 Common styles of push-fit fitting
2 Push the pipe insert into the pipe. Most pipe
manufacturers put marks on the pipe at fitting Hep2O Speedfit
depth distance. This helps to visually ensure that
the pipe is pushed fully into the joint.
3 Lubricate the end of the pipe with silicone spray
lubricant.
4 Push the pipe fully into the fitting until the fitting
stop is felt. Polyplumb
Fitting depth marks

p Figure 2.33 Pipe showing fitting depth marks

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Plastic pipe for sanitation, drainage at higher temperatures. Sizes available are 50 mm,
and rainwater 40 mm, 32 mm and 21.5 mm.
3 Chlorinated unplasticised polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and acrylonitrile (CuPVC): used for solvent weld cold water service
butadiene styrene (ABS) pipes in the late 1970s. Fittings are still available for
Polyvinyl chloride is available in four different types: repairs, but pipe is increasingly difficult to find. It has
1 Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVCu) to BS a tendency to snap, especially at low temperatures
4514:2001; BS EN 1401-1:2019; BS EN 1329- and if mishandled.
1:2020: used mainly for push-fit and solvent weld 4 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) to
soil and vent pipes, below-ground drainage, solvent BS 1455-1:2000: these pipes and fittings are
weld waste and overflow pipes, gutters and rainwater usually used for soil and waste pipes and, because
pipes. It has good resistance to UV light but can suffer of their toughness, can also be used for mains
from photodegradation, especially in light colours cold water pipes. ABS degrades quickly when
such as white and grey. It has a high coefficient of exposed to UV light. It possesses extremely good
linear expansion. Sizes available are 110 mm, 50 mm, impact strength and high mechanical strength,
40 mm, 32 mm and 21.5 mm for soil/vent pipes and which makes it suitable for plumbing pipework and
waste and overflow pipes. Gutters and rainwater pipes installations. The jointing methods used, pipe sizes
are available in a variety of sizes and styles, which are and clipping distances are the same as for PVCu.
discussed in Chapter 8, Rainwater systems, page 429.
2 Modified unplasticised polyvinyl chloride Jointing methods for PVCu, MuPVC and ABS
(MuPVC) to BS 4514:2001; BS EN 1401-1:2019; PVCu can be jointed using:
BS EN 1329-1:2020: used for solvent weld waste ● solvent weld – used on soil/vent pipes, waste pipes
and overflow pipes. It is more durable than PVCu and overflow pipes
and performs better than other plastics, especially ● push-fit – used on soil and vent pipes.

Making a solvent weld joint on PVCu, MuPVC and ABS soil/vent pipes, step by step

STEP 1 Cut the pipe square using a hacksaw. STEP 2 Wipe the pipe to remove excess dirt and STEP 3 Clean inside the socket and the pipe
swarf. spigot with solvent cleaner.

STEP 4 Apply solvent weld cement inside the STEP 5 Insert the pipe into the socket and twist STEP 6 Wipe off excess cement using a dry
socket first and then to the spigot. This will fully into the socket. cloth.
allow a little more time to make the joint before
the cement begins to dry out.
p Figure 2.35 Making a solvent weld joint

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Making a push-fit joint on PVCu, MuPVC and ABS soil/vent pipes, step by step

STEP 1 Cut the pipe square using a hacksaw. STEP 2 Chamfer the pipe using a file or a rasp. STEP 3 Wipe the pipe to remove excess dirt and
swarf.

STEP 4 Lubricate the end of the pipe using STEP 5 Check that the seal is in the correct STEP 6 Push the pipe all the way into the fitting
silicone grease. Do not use liquid soap as this position in the fitting. and mark the pipe at the end of the fitting using
can adversely affect the rubber seal. a pencil.

KEY TERMS
Spigot: another name for the plain end of a pipe. If the fitting we buy
has a plain pipe end, we call this a spigot end.
Chamfer: to take off a sharp edge at an angle. If we chamfer a pipe
end, we are taking the sharp, square edge off the pipe.

STEP 7 Withdraw the pipe 10 mm from the fitting.

This is to allow for expansion of the pipe. Fittings must
be supported by a pipe bracket to prevent the fitting
from slipping.

p Figure 2.36 Making a push-fit joint

Fittings for PVCu soil/vent and waste pipe

installations
Fittings for PVCu and MuPVC soil/vent and waste pipes
are of the same size. This means that the two systems
are interchangeable. Table 2.28 lists some of the more
common types of soil pipe fitting.

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 Table 2.28 Common soil pipe fittings WC siphons and push-fit waste and overflow pipe. It is
90° bends 45° bends Junctions Sockets
the waste pipe we will look at here.
Polypropylene waste pipe manufactured to BS EN
1451–1:2017 and BS 5254 is flexible, tough and
resistant to most acids and alkalis. It melts at a
relatively low temperature of 160°C and starts to soften
at 100°C. For this reason, its use as a waste pipe is
Boss pipes Strap boss Access pipes limited to waste water below 100°C. It is also adversely
affected by direct sunlight and cannot be solvent
welded. It is jointed by the use of push-fit fittings, which
have a rubber sealing ring inside the fitting.

Polypropylene push-fit waste pipe fittings

Boss pipe Pipe clips Waste pipe Polypropylene pipe is supplied in 3 m lengths and in various
adapters manifolds colours, including white, black, grey and brown. Some of
the most common fittings are shown in Table 2.30.
 Table 2.30 Polypropylene push-fit waste pipe fittings
90° bends 90° swivel bends 45° bends

PVCu 82 mm, 110 mm and 160 mm soil pipe is

available in 2.5 m, 3 m and 4 m lengths in a variety
of colours. The pipe and fittings are manufactured to Swept tees Sockets Reducers
BS EN 1329–1:2000. The pipe has a socket on one
end and a chamfered spigot on the other.

Solvent weld waste pipe fittings

 Table 2.29 Solvent weld waste pipe fittings
90° knuckle bends 90° bends 45° bends
Proprietary fittings
Proprietary fittings are those that will connect tubes and
pipes of different materials such as copper and lead or
lead and medium-density polyethylene (MDPE). There are
several different types of proprietary fittings, including
leadlocks and Philmac. These are described in Table 2.31.
Tees Sockets Reducers
 Table 2.31 Proprietary fittings: leadlocks and Philmac
Leadlocks Leadlocks are specially made to
connect lead pipe to copper tubes.
These, however, promote galvanic
corrosion between the copper and
the lead, and so should be used
PVCu waste pipe is manufactured to BS EN 1455 and only as a temporary connection.
is available in 3 m lengths in sizes 21.5 mm (overflow
pipe), 32 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm. Philmac Philmac fittings are truly universal
because they will connect almost
all known pressure pipes and tubes
Polypropylene (PP) together by the use of special inserts
Polypropylene is a common plastic in plumbing that fit into a generic fitting body.
systems. It is used to manufacture cold water cisterns,

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

3 PREPARATION Pre-installation activities

TECHNIQUES on new and existing
installations
The successful installation of a domestic hot and cold Working on-site requires two completely different
water system or a domestic central heating system is styles of working, depending on whether you are in a
the result of a series of processes. These involve design, new-build house or an occupied dwelling. While many
planning, installation, commissioning and maintenance of the working practices we use on-site can be used
activities, all of which you will be involved in during in an occupied dwelling, care and attention to detail is
your career as a plumber. absolutely crucial when you are in someone’s home.
Installation processes, however, are not just about There are three concerns when working in an occupied
successful installations. Much of a plumber’s work dwelling:
involves other tasks, including repair, maintenance, 1 protecting the customer’s property
removal, replacement and decommissioning of existing 2 protecting the building fabric
installations. 3 installing in accordance with the customer’s wishes
Much of the work we do involves the need for skills while maintaining the quality of the installation
other than the bending and jointing of tubes and against the regulations in place.
fittings – for example, the installation of a central Many instances have occurred in the past where a good
heating system may involve taking up floorboards and installation has been marred by carelessness by the
the making good of any holes made in brickwork. plumber and a failure to liaise with the customer. This
often results in disputes, withholding of money owed
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS and, occasionally, court action.

Remember: you have a responsibility to KEY TERM

also protect your customers’ property and
Liaise: establish a co-operative working
possessions, such as caring for furniture, fixtures
relationship.
and decorations. Following this code of practice
will help you build a good reputation and a
successful career as a plumber. Working in private houses
Many customers complain about the lack of
In this section of the chapter, we will look at the information given to them. In many cases, this is down
processes that are involved when working on new to poor customer liaison. So, before an installation takes
and existing installations. We will also investigate the place, ensure you have covered the following points.
associated skills we need for some of those jobs that ● The customer knows what day and time you will

are outside a plumber’s skill base, and look at how be arriving, or agree a start time with the customer
we can care for and protect customers’ valuables and and stick to it.
possessions. ● Walk around the house with the customer, pointing

out any existing damage to furniture, fixtures,

carpets and wall coverings. This will prevent any
INDUSTRY TIP
misunderstandings regarding damage and marks
While many companies have their own style of working, already in place.
others employ plumbers for specific tasks, i.e. those ● Point out which carpets and pieces of furniture will

operatives that work on-site and those that work in private need to be removed before you begin work, and ask
houses. the customer to remove them.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Let the customer know when any of the services, i.e. through walls. In this part of the chapter, we will look
water, gas or electricity, or appliances such as the WC, at the procedure for lifting floorboards, notching and
are going to be turned off or taken out of service, and drilling joists, and chasing walls to allow the installation
ensure that they have collected enough water for the of pipework.
period of temporary decommission; or, if working on
a central heating system, ensure they have access to Lifting floorboards using power
other forms of heat, especially during cold weather. tools, step by step
1 Decide on the boards to be lifted, and mark them
INDUSTRY TIP with a pencil.
2 Locate the position of the joists. This can be done
If you are going to be working outside, politely ask the by searching for the row of nails holding the board
customer to move their car before you begin work so that it to the joist.
does not get damaged. 3 Mark the centre of the joist where the board is to be
● Cover with dust sheets all furniture, carpets and
cut. If this is not possible, a cut can be made inside
fixtures that cannot be removed in the area where you the joists and a supporting noggin (or cleat) fitted
are going to work.
before the board is replaced. Number the boards as
● Before work begins, agree with the customer the
this makes replacement easier.
position of radiators, boilers and all visible pipework.
When fitting sanitary ware, make sure you are fitting the
appliances in the position that the customer wants. 1
● Keep the customer informed about any problems that 2
3
arise that may need them to make a decision.

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS  Figure 2.37 Step 3

Early-morning arrivals are not always welcome. 4 Using a nail punch, punch the floorboard nails below
the surface of the board.
It is good practice to keep customers informed of
5 Set the depth on the circular saw just less than the
any inconveniences that could be caused by the
depth of the board. This is to ensure that any cables
work that may affect their day-to-day routine.
or services already installed are not damaged.

The blade of the circular saw just

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH above the thickness of the
floorboard
Clear and open communication with your customer
will always be appreciated. Make sure you explain
to them any unforeseen problems that arise, and
allow them to discuss possible solutions so they feel
well informed about any changes that may incur  Figure 2.38 Step 5
extra costs or impact the schedule.
6 Run down the length of the boards to be lifted with
the circular saw to cut the tongue of the board.
7 Now, using the marks on the joist previously made,
Preparation of the work carefully cut across the board at the joist using the
area: lifting floorboards, circular saw.
8 The board can now be lifted using a bolster chisel to
notching and drilling joists, prise it up.
and chasing walls
Much of the work in occupied and existing dwellings
involves installing pipework under floors, in walls and

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Lifting floorboards using hand tools, 8 When replacing the board, the edges need to be
step by step supported by a wooden noggin (or cleat). This can
be done as shown in Figure 2.40.
Follow points 1 to 4 of the previous method.
5 Break the tongue of the board. This can be done by Noggins supporting the free edge of the opening
either carefully driving the bolster chisel through the
tongue with a claw hammer or cutting down it with
a hand floorboard saw.
6 Now, using the marks on the joist previously made,
carefully cut across the board at the joists using a
hand floorboard saw.
7 The board can now be lifted using a bolster chisel to
prise it up.  Figure 2.40 Step 8

Lifting chipboard flooring, step by Notching and drilling joists

step Many installations require the notching and drilling of
Chipboard flooring is quite different to timber floorboards. timber joists to accommodate tubes and fittings under
It is laid in large sheets measuring 2 m × 0.6 m and the floor. If these operations are not carried out correctly,
glued at the tongue and groove joint. The boards break it could result in a weakening of the joist and, in some
very easily if mishandled. When part of a board is lifted, extreme cases, structural damage to the property.
unlike timber boards they require support at every edge, Holes or notches that are made too close together,
including the edges where there are no joists. Lifting holes drilled too near the end of a joist, and holes or
chipboard flooring is best done with a circular saw. notches incorrectly positioned too near to the centre
1 Decide on the boards to be lifted, and mark them of the joist span can weaken joists to the point where
with a pencil. they become useless as structural supports.
2 There is no need to mark the joists with chipboard
as the long joints indicate where the joists are. All KEY POINT
that is needed is to mark the area of the board that The strength and the stiffness of the joist must
needs lifting. not be compromised.

Notches must be made as shown in Figure 2.41.

5
× 0.2
an
Sp

×
an
Sp
7
 Figure 2.39 Step 2 0.0
3 Using a nail punch, punch the nails below the
surface of the board. ep
th
d
4 Set the depth on the circular saw just less than the 2 5× an
0.1 Sp
depth of the board. This is to ensure that any cables
or services already installed are not damaged.
5 Run down the length of the boards to be lifted with
the circular saw to cut the tongue of the board.
6 Now, using the marks previously made, carefully cut
across the board using the circular saw.
7 The board can now be lifted using a bolster chisel to p Figure 2.41 Notching measurements
prise it up.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Finding out where notches can be made 2 The span of a joist measures 3 m long and
in a joist, step by step 250 mm in depth. Using the calculations shown
1 Measure the span of the joist from wall to wall. above as a guide, calculate:
2 Multiply the span measurement by 0.07. This will a the area where notches can be made
give a measurement equal to 7 per cent of the span. b the maximum depth of those notches.
3 Measure from the wall the 7 per cent measurement 3 The span of a joist measures 3.6 m long and
and mark it on the joist. No notches must be made 300 mm in depth. Using the calculations shown
within this mark. above as a guide, calculate:
4 Now, multiply the span measurement again by 0.25. a the area where notches can be made
This measurement is equal to 25 per cent of the b the maximum depth of those notches.
joist’s span.
5 Measure from the end of the joist again, find the Holes drilled or cut into joists follow a similar
25 per cent distance and mark it on the joist. procedure. A hole must not begin within 25 per cent of
6 All notches must be within the 7 per cent and measurement of the span measured from the end of
25 per cent marks. the joist and must stop at a point equal to 40 per cent
To put this into practice we must look more closely at of the span, again measured from the end. The size of
the calculation: the hole must not exceed a measurement equal to
25 per cent of the depth of the joist when measured
Length of span of the joist = 4 m
from the centre line. This is illustrated in Figure 2.42.
7% of the span = 4 × 0.07 = 0.28 = 280 mm
0.4
25% of the span = 4 × 0.25 = 1 = 1 m an×
Sp
. 4
Therefore, notches in the joist must start 280 mm from × 0
an ×
the end of the joist and must finish 1 m from the end Sp an
Sp
of the joist. All notches required must be made within a 5
× 0.2
distance of 720 mm. This can be done from both ends an
Sp
5
of the joist, so two sets of notches can be made. 0.2

D
The depth of the notch must not exceed 12.5 per cent e
ntr n
(or 1/8) of the depth of the joist. So, if the above joist Ce Spa
line D
measured 250 mm in depth, then the depth of any ntr
e
an
Ce Sp ×
notches must not exceed: line
1.25
depth
Depth of the joist = 250 mm lea
st
1.25 ×
At × D
depth 3
12.5% of the depth = 250 × 0.125 = 31.25 mm Holes must be st least 3 diameters (centre to centre)
l e aat
At ×holes
apart and no D must be within 100 mm of a notch
3
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Holes must be at least 3 diameters (centre to centre)
apart and no holes must be within 100 mm of a notch
1 The span of a joist measures 4.5 m long and
200 mm in depth. Using the calculations shown p Figure 2.42 The positioning of cut or drilled holes in joists
above as a guide, calculate:
a the area where notches can be made
b the maximum depth of those notches.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Chases cut in walls must be cut to no more than the

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS following depths:
Again, to understand this fully we must look at the
● horizontal chases must not be deeper than one-
calculation. Let us take the above joist measurement
once more: sixth of the wall thickness
● vertical chases must not be deeper than one-third
Length of span of the joist =4m
of the wall thickness.
25% of the span = 4 × 0.25 = 1 m
40% of the span = 4 × 0.4 = 1.6 m
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
Therefore, holes drilled or cut in the joist must start
1 m from the end of the joist and must finish 1.6 m
It is advisable not to cut chases in walls in a room
from the end of the joist. All holes required must be containing carpets and furniture but, if this is
made within a distance of 600 mm. Again, this can unavoidable, ensure that all furniture and carpets
be done from both ends of the joist, so two sets of are either placed to the far side of the room or
holes can be made. covered with dust sheets, and that all doors out
To calculate the size of the holes: of the room are closed. Using an angle grinder on
Depth of the joist = 250 mm masonry, concrete and stone produces excessive
amounts of dust and this must, wherever possible,
25% of the depth = 250 × 0.25 = 62.5 mm be prevented from escaping from the room you
This measurement must be measured equally either are working in. If possible, open a window to
side of the centre line of the joist. No holes can allow some of the dust out.
be drilled in a joist within 100 mm of a notch and
circular holes must be at least three diameters of the
hole size apart measured centre to centre.
INDUSTRY TIP
ACTIVITY Be wary of installing hot and cold water pipes in a wall
The span of a joist measures 4.5 m long and where they are going to be concealed or tiled over. It is an
200 mm in depth. Using the calculations shown offence under the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
above as a guide, calculate: to bury pipework carrying hot and cold water in any wall,
a the area where holes can be made floor or ceiling where that pipework will, eventually, be
b the maximum size of those holes. inaccessible. All valves should be easily accessible, but
ultimately even surfaces like tiles could be removed if
deemed necessary to repair pipework and fittings.
KEY TERM
Centre to centre: measuring from the centre line
of one pipe to the centre line of another, so that
HEALTH AND SAFETY
all the tube centres are uniform. This ensures that
● Always wear the correct PPE. Cutting chases in
the pipework will look perfectly parallel because
walls will require the use of safety goggles (not
all of the tubes will be at equal distance from one
glasses), gloves, overalls and a very good dust
another.
mask of the correct type to stop the plumber
from breathing in the dust.
● Always check the angle grinder beforehand to
Cutting chases in walls ensure that:
Occasionally, it may be necessary to cut a chase in a ■ it is in good condition and carries an in-date

wall to conceal pipework; for example, burying pipes PAT test certificate
■ the correct masonry cutting wheel is installed
for a downstairs radiator. This will involve the use of an
■ the wheel is secure and the wheel guard is in
angle grinder to, first, cut the outline of the chase onto place.
the wall and then carefully removing the unwanted
masonry from between the cuts. Caution should be
exercised.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Associated trade skills: Sources of information

making good the building Information regarding the planning of installations,
installation of materials and components, and
fabric maintaining the integrity of structural components of
During the installation process, there will be many the building can be found in the following documents
occasions where the building fabric will need to be and these should be consulted wherever possible:
worked on. Holes will need to be drilled or broken ● statutory regulations – Building Regulations, Water
through with a hammer and chisel, chases will need to Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations, IET Regulations,
be made to accommodate pipework, and floorboards Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations, etc.
will need to be lifted and replaced. Unless it is specified ● industry standards – British and European Standards
in the contract that these will be repaired by other ● manufacturer technical instructions
tradespersons on-site, they will have to be repaired by ● building plans – architects’ plans, schematic
you, the plumber. drawings and sketches, etc.
● specifications.
Making good involves having a few basic skills of
another associated trade such as a bricklayer, plasterer
and joiner. We have already seen the methods of Storing tools and materials
lifting and replacing floorboards (see page 104 of this The storage of tools and materials is an important
chapter); here, we will look at making good the holes aspect of any job. For the plumber on-site, the safe
we have made in walls. storage of tools becomes a major concern, since theft
By far the easiest holes to repair are those made by of tools and materials costs the construction industry
drills and masonry bits. These will require pointing millions of pounds per year. Here are some points to
with a 4:1 (four parts sand to one part cement) mortar remember regarding delivery and storage of tools and
mixed to fairly stiff consistency. A pointing trowel materials.
should be used for this. Larger holes may need the ● When working on a large housing site, make sure

replacement of broken or half bricks. Any new bricks that all tools and materials are locked away in a
used should match the existing wall bricks. The finished secure lock-up when not in use. Materials that are
wall should be pointed with a pointing trowel and left in uncompleted houses uninstalled are not
cleaned with a soft brush. covered by theft insurance. Materials should not be
left in the open and all unused materials should be
Patching plaster can be a tedious task. The type of returned to the store.
plaster used will depend on the wall surface. Sand and ● Ensure that materials such as sanitary ware, boilers
cement rendering will need a smooth-finish plaster and and radiators are stacked to a safe height and are
plasterboard will need a plasterboard-finish plaster. The covered to prevent damage.
two are very different: board finish dries much faster ● Have a materials requisition system in place so that
and so is harder to ‘skim’ to a smooth finish. materials can be booked out of the stores for use
and any unused materials can be booked back in.
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS This ensures that a close check can be kept on the
stock of pipes, tubes and fittings, which can help to
Making good a customer’s home so it is as you prevent theft and over-ordering.
found it always leaves a lasting impression. You ● Keep large pieces of equipment and tools in a
will be remembered as a professional. At the end separate part of the store. This can help to prevent
of the making-good procedures, make sure the
accidental damage to fragile materials such as
area is cleared of all waste materials and cleaned.
washbasins and WC pans.
● Keep a file of all delivery and advice notes so that

a check can be made against the stock of materials

delivered and the materials used.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

● When undertaking work in a private dwelling, the an airing cupboard, they can be arranged in banks, so
delivery and storage of materials should be agreed that all the pipe clips are in a neat line.
with the customer so that they can be delivered at
The use of machine-made bends over elbows should
a convenient time and stored in a place that will
be considered wherever possible, as these not only
cause as little disruption as possible to the day-to-
provide a visually attractive installation but also aid
day activities of the household.
better flow rates. The finished pipework should be as
● Partially installed items, such as baths, washbasins aesthetically pleasing as possible, with even spaces
and WCs should be protected from damage. Any between the pipe clips and supports, and even gaps
protective tape or plastic coverings on sanitary ware between different lines. The tube should be installed
should be removed before installation so that they plumb and level, or installed with the correct fall where
can be visually checked for any damage that may this is needed.
have occurred in transit.
KEY TERM
4 USING PIPE CLIPS Aesthetically pleasing: beautiful in appearance,
good-looking, in keeping with the rest of the
AND PIPE BRACKETS surroundings.

Much thought should be given to the positioning of Finally, make sure that when the pipework is in position
pipework because not all of the pipes we install can it is wiped down with a damp cloth. This will seem a
be hidden. The golden rule is that visible pipework menial task but it will ensure that any flux that has run
needs to be as neat as possible. A pipe that is not down the pipe during soldering operations is removed.
plumb or level looks unsightly and the eye is drawn Where possible, remove any setting-out marks and
to it immediately. Most people believe that surface- fingerprints from the wall with a damp, soapy cloth.
mounted pipework is an eyesore and customers will
invariably ask the plumber to hide pipes wherever Types of pipe clip available for
possible. There are occasions, however, because of the copper tubes
constraints of regulations and approved good practice, As we have already seen, copper is relatively easy to
where this cannot be done and surface-mounted joint and bend, and can produce an installation that not
pipes are the only solution. In these cases, the correct only looks good but is also economical in terms of tube
positioning, marking and installation of pipework is usage and installation costs. By adopting a systematic
essential. approach to copper tube installation, fabrication and
planning, savings can be made on labour costs and
Positioning of pipework material usage. A big part of installing copper tubes is
The routes taken by surface-mounted pipework should the planning of pipework routes, ensuring that surface-
be well planned to take the shortest practicable mounted pipework, once installed, looks neat, and is
route but not be intrusive, and there should be as well clipped, unobtrusive and performs to the design
little marking out as possible so as not to deface criteria.
the customer’s decorations. The area must be well The correct clipping of copper tube is essential. It
protected by dust sheets and coverings. prevents excessive noise and fittings failure from
Select an appropriate pipe clip. Large, sturdy pipe vibration, movement and water hammer, and can
clips in a domestic dwelling would look obtrusive and assist in preventing accidental or intentional damage
plastic pipe clips used on large commercial/industrial of the pipework. There are many different types of
installations would not stand up to every knock. If a pipe clip available for copper tubes and each one has a
number of pipes are to be installed in one place, say, in specific use.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

For most domestic installations, plastic stand-off pipe

clips are preferred, the most common type being the
interlocking clip lock type where several banks of pipes
of different sizes can simply be clipped together. This
ensures a uniformity that is often hard to accomplish
with single, individually fixed pipe clips because, once
assembled, all of the pipe clips have exactly the same p Figure 2.43 Interlocking clip lock
tube centres and, provided the first clips are installed
correctly, the others will be perfectly aligned. Single
plastic pipe clips are also available for single runs of
tube, and double pipe clips are a good idea when
installing hot and cold pipework or flow and returns for
radiator installations and central heating systems, as
these also ensure uniform tube centres.
p Figure 2.44 Nail-on clip
Nail-on clips are also available, but should be used with
caution with copper tubes as the expansion of copper
can loosen the clips making the copper tube vulnerable,
especially in places where the pipework is hidden, such
as under a suspended timber floor.
When fixing copper tubes to a skirting board, the
use of copper saddle clips is recommended as the p Figure 2.45 Copper saddle clips
copper is fixed close to the skirting, which makes the
tube a little less noticeable. Again caution should be
exercised with saddle clips as they are not suitable for
fixing to masonry or plastered walls. This can create
corrosion of the copper due to the reaction between
the copper tube and the wall surface, and can also
encourage condensation on the tube surface. p Figure 2.46 Strip brass school board pipe clip

For installations that require a more rigid fixing, such

as light commercial/industrial installations, strip brass
school board clips or cast brass school board clips
should be used. These types of tube brackets give more
resistance to tube movement and subsequent damage.
p Figure 2.47 Brass munsen ring
Industrial installations require a very secure type of
fixing. Brass munsen rings fastened with 10 mm tapped
rod and back plates are the strongest types of bracket
available for copper tube installations. As well as being
screwed to the building fabric, munsen rings can also be
hung from the ceiling in banks of pipes using a special
metal slotted channel. p Figure 2.48 Brass back plate

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Table 2.32 shows the clipping distances of the common Clipping distances for PVCu pipes
sizes of copper tube. Clipping distances for PVCu soil and waste pipes are
 Table 2.32 Clipping distances for copper tubes listed in Table 2.34.
Horizontal distance Vertical distance  Table 2.34 Clipping distances for PVCu pipes
Tube size between the clips between the clips
Maximum
10 mm 0.8 m 1.2 m Maximum support
distance between
distance
15 mm 1.2 m 1.8 m expansion joints
22 mm 1.8 m 2.4 m Vertical Horizontal
28 mm 1.8 m 2.4 m Pipe size –
35 mm 2.4 m 3.0 m soil
42 mm 2.4 m 3.0 m 82 mm 2m 0.9 m 4m
54 mm 2.7 m 3.0 m 110 mm 2m 1m 4m
160 mm 2m 1m 4m
Types of pipe clip available for low Pipe size –
carbon steel tubes waste
32 mm 1.2 m 0.5 m 2m
Low carbon steel pipe is a very rigid material, and is
heavier than most types of pipes and tubes. The clips 40 mm 1.2 m 0.5 m 2m

and fastenings need to be capable of carrying the weight 50 mm 1.2 m 0.9 m 2m

of the material. Because of this, the clips available tend
to be very robust. The types of clips and fastenings for Clipping distances for polypropylene
low carbon steel pipe are limited. For fixing to walls, cast push-fit waste pipes
steel school board clips are recommended.
Clipping distances for polypropylene push-fit waste
Since most low carbon steel is used in industrial pipes are listed in Table 2.35.
installations, the use of munsen rings and tapped rod is  Table 2.35 Clipping distances for polypropylene pipes
recommended; these can be used with backing plates
or, if being hung from a ceiling, with anchor bolts. Maximum
Maximum support distance between
distance expansion joints
Vertical Horizontal
Pipe size –
polypropylene
waste pipe
32 mm 1.2 m 0.5 m 2m
40 mm 1.2 m 0.5 m 2m
p Figure 2.49 Anchor bolt
50 mm 1.2 m 0.6 m 2m
The clipping spacings for low carbon steel are listed in
Table 2.33. Clipping and supports for
 Table 2.33 Clipping distances for low carbon steel polybutylene pipe
Pipe size Horizontal Vertical Unlike copper tubes and low carbon steel pipe,
½” 1.8 m 2.4 m
polybutylene is very flexible. It can sag if not clipped
correctly and, if the pipework is visible, this can look
¾” 2.4 m 3m
unsightly. Because of its flexible qualities, polybutylene
1” 2.4 m 3m
pipe should be clipped at the distances shown in
1¼” 2.7 m 3m
Table 2.36.
1½” 3m 3.6 m
2” 3m 3.6 m

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 2.36 Clipping distances for polybutylene pipes Nails are usually described by their head shape and
Pipe diameter Horizontal spacing Vertical spacing
their dimensions in mm, e.g. 150 × 4 is 150 mm long
and 4 mm in diameter. Some of the different nail types
10 mm 0.3 m 0.5 m
you may use from time to time include:
15 mm 0.3 m 0.5 m
● Masonry nails: used for making fixings to masonry.
22 mm 0.5 m 0.8 m
Normally made of hardened zinc.
28 mm 0.8 m 1.0 m
● Copper nails: used by plumbers to fix sheet lead.

They are made of copper to prevent corrosion

If the pipework is adequately supported or is run
between the lead and the nail and, because they
in concealed spaces, such as through joists on a
do not rust, they have a long life.
suspended timber floor, pipe clips need not be fitted,
● Floor brads: used to fasten floorboards.
provided that:
Generally, these are 50 mm long.
● the pipe is not part of an open vent connected to a
● Galvanised clout nails: used for fixing slates and
heat source or an appliance, such as a boiler or hot
roof tiles.
water storage cylinder, where the pipework is liable
● Round bright wire nails: used generally for rough
to become hot
joinery work where strength is more important
● the pipe is not part of a distribution pipe or circuit
than appearance.
where poor pipe alignment may affect the venting
● Oval bright wire nails: suitable for joinery work
of air
where appearance is important. The head is lost
● no hot water or heating pipe will come into contact
when driven into the timber.
with a cold water supply pipe
● there is no risk of the pipe coming into contact with
Screws
sharp or abrasive edges.
There are many types of screws available for different
applications:
Fixings for masonry, timber and
● brass wood screws
plasterboard ● turn-threaded wood screws
In this section of the chapter, we will take a brief ● steel countersunk screws
look at the various fixings for brickwork, concrete, ● chipboard screws
stone, timber and plasterboard that we use during our ● mirror screws
working life. ● self-tapping screws.

Fixings can be classified into four distinct types: Screws can be made from steel, stainless steel and
1 nails – for both masonry and timber brass, and come with a range of screw head types (see
2 screws the section on screwdrivers on page 69). They can be
3 heavy-duty fixings coated with corrosion protection such as bright zinc
4 plasterboard and lightweight fixings. and black japanned coatings. Screws are specified by
their length in mm or inches, and gauge. The most
Nails common lengths used in plumbing range from 15 mm
There are many different types of nails that are used for fixing copper saddle clips to skirting boards, to
for a variety of jobs. It is not important that we know 50 mm × 10 mm for fixing radiator brackets.
every type of nail but it would be beneficial for us to
become familiar with some types, such as floor brads
and oval nails.

p Figure 2.50 Masonry nail p Figure 2.51 Copper nail p Figure 2.52 Round bright p Figure 2.53 Oval bright
wire nail wire nail

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Screw length and gauge wall before it is plasterboarded and skimmed with the
plaster top coat. When working in existing properties,
 Table 2.37 Screw types
this is not always possible without damaging the wall’s
Countersunk screw: used for general work. The surface and decoration. In this situation, plasterboard
head sinks flush, or a little below the wood surface.
fixings are the only option.
Crosshead/Pozidriv screw (countersunk): used for
general work but, unlike the countersunk screw, KEY TERM
needs a crosshead screwdriver, which does not slip
out of the screw head. Ideal for pipe clips. Noggin: a term often used on-site to describe a piece
of wood that supports or braces timber joists or
Raised countersunk screw: used for fixing
decorative fittings with countersunk holes. The
timber-studded walls. They are particularly common
head is designed to be visible. in timber floors as a way of keeping the joists rigid
and at specific centres, but they can also be used as
Round head screw: used for fixing copper saddle
supports for appliances such as wash hand basins
clips.
and radiators that are being fixed to plasterboard.
Mirror screw: used for fixing mirrors and bathroom
fittings such as bath panels. The chromed cap There are several different types, as described below:
threads into the screw head to hide the screw. ● Collapsing cavity fixings: these are probably the
Coach screws: these usually come with purpose- strongest plasterboard fixing. They can be used to
made wall plugs. They are used for fixing heavy
constructions such as boilers. Can be tightened with
hang sanitary ware, radiators and many other types
a spanner but some have Pozidriv screw heads. of appliance.
Chipboard screw: used for securing chipboard and First, a hole is made large enough to pass the fixing
medium-density fibreboard (MDF). Various types of through. Then, the fixing is tightened, collapsing the
head are available. fixing on to the plasterboard.
● Self-drill plasterboard fixings: these are used to
Heavy-duty fixings hang small appliances and radiators. The body of
There are a number of heavy-duty fixings that the fixing is self-drilling and is simply screwed into
plumbers use occasionally. These are: the wall using a screwdriver. The hanging screw is
● Coach bolts – these are not usually used by then screwed into the fixing body.
plumbers but can be useful for building structures ● Rubber nut fixings: because of their lack of
and platforms for carrying heavy loads like cold strength, rubber nut fixings can be used only as
water cisterns and hot water cylinders. They are lightweight fixings. As the fixing is tightened, the
usually made from galvanised steel. rubber compresses onto the plasterboard.
● Rawlbolts – these are also known as heavy-duty ● Spring loaded toggle bolts: also known as
expansion anchors. They are easy to use, with good butterfly bolts, the spring toggle is an excellent
load-carrying capacity, and can be used in concrete, plasterboard fixing that can be used to hang
brickwork and stone for fixing heavy appliances and radiators and other small appliances.
large-diameter pipework. First, a hole large enough to pass the toggle through
is made in the wall. Then, as the bolt is pushed
through the hole, the spring opens the toggle,
allowing it to be drawn up against the wall and
creating the fixing.
p Figure 2.54 Rawlbolt

Plasterboard and light structure fixings

These are used where the wall is lightweight, such as
a plasterboard stud wall. Plasterboard is extremely
difficult to fix to. Generally, if a fixing is required, it p Figure 2.55 Collapsing p Figure 2.56 Self-drill
is better to ask a joiner to put a wood noggin in the cavity fixing plasterboard fixing

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Plastic wall plugs

INDUSTRY TIP
Plastic wall plugs are used in conjunction with screws
to fasten appliances, sanitary ware and many other If you are using a plastic wall plug in a tiled surface, make
pieces of equipment to masonry, concrete and sure the wall plug is inserted beyond the tile and into the
stone walls. They are available in different sizes to masonry. Otherwise there is a high chance the tile will crack
match screw gauge and are colour coded for easy when the screw is tightened in position.
identification. The wall must be drilled with a masonry
drill bit of a specific size for the colour of the plug (see
Table 2.38). Installing rawlplugs (to hang a radiator
bracket), step by step
 Table 2.38 Rawlplug size to hole diameter
1 Mark and drill the hole using the correct size drill to
Screw gauge/ Plug length Hole diameter the correct depth for the plug.
Colour size mm mm
2 Insert the plug into the hole and push it slightly
Yellow No. 4–10 25 5
below the wall's surface.
Red No. 6–12 35 6
3 Using the correct size screw, fasten the radiator
Brown No. 10–14 45 7 bracket to the wall using a screwdriver.
Orange No. 8–12 25 6.5
Grey No. 8–10 35 5.5
White No. 8–12 35 6.5
Blue No. 10–14 35 8

p Figure 2.57 Rawlplugs: hanging a radiator

5 PIPEWORK INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Installation activities on new positioning and consultation with the customer will
most likely resolve the problem.
and existing installations:
marking out, positioning Installation fixes
The installation of plumbing, heating, sanitation and
and installation of pipework gas systems can be broken down into a series of stages,
As already stated in Section 4, the positioning known as fixes. These are described below.
of surface-mounted pipe clips requires careful
consideration. Pipework that is neither level nor plumb First fix
is an eyesore. Many customers specifically ask for the The first fix involves everything plumbing related in
pipework to be hidden. However, there are situations the first phase of construction. It is now that joists are
where hiding pipework is not possible because of notched and holes drilled ready for the installation of
the constraints of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) the pipework. Prefabrication of pipework can help here,
Regulations 1999. Where this becomes an issue, careful especially when repetitious work, such as the same
house type or the same bathroom layout is expected.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

First fixing is basically installing the pipework for the adjusted showers, are noted down and the list of snags
hot and cold water supply, heating system, sanitation passed over to the plumber for rectification.
system and gas installation that would otherwise not
be seen, such as the pipework under floors or in walls. KEY TERM
This stage requires very careful planning to avoid issues Rectification: putting something right, correcting.
later on in the build. All too often plumbers have had
to return to their work because pipes positioned during
the first fix are in the wrong place for the appliance Installing plastic pressure pipe:
they are supplying. polybutylene
Whether you are installing copper or plastic pipework, Building Regulations Document A and BS 8558
it is a good idea to install some extra fittings that A allows for joists to be notched or drilled for the
will help to make maintenance much easier once the installation of pipes and cables. On new buildings,
system has been commissioned and is in use: one of the major benefits to plumbers offered by
● single and double check valves – these protect polybutylene pipe is during the installation process,
against contamination and backflow of water as its flexibility allows the pipe to be installed through
● service valves – these are mandatory prior to a holes drilled in the centre of the joists rather than
float-operated valve, but are not required elsewhere placed in notches. This is known as cabling and has
in a system. It is considered good practice to fit several advantages for the building structure:
them to aid maintenance of systems. ● The integrity of the joist is maintained with little or

no loss of strength.
At the end of the first fix stage, the systems should be
● Because the pipe is supplied in coils, longer runs of
pressure tested in accordance with the Water Supply
pipe without joints are possible, which means less
Regulations to make sure there are no leaks. This will be
likelihood of damaging leaks.
discussed on page 119.
● It allows the floorboards to be fitted before

Above-ground sanitation systems are quite easy to installation takes place, giving the building added
install and most of the work can be completed at strength and rigidity.
first fix stage using either push-fit or solvent cement ● Pipes are less likely to be damaged by nails when

pipework. the floor is laid.

Second fix
INDUSTRY TIP
This is the process of installing the sanitary appliances,
boiler, radiators, etc., and connecting them up to the You can access the Building Regulations 2010 Approved
first-fix pipework. It is at this stage that shower valves Document A: Structure at: www.gov.uk/government/
are fitted, and any shower doors and the like installed. uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/429060/
BR_PDF_AD_A_2013.pdf
Final fix
The final fix is where tap heads are fitted, and WC seats The benefits to the installer are:
fitted and adjusted. Sealing in sanitary appliances with ● faster installation leads to savings on installation

waterproof sealant often takes place at this stage. Not costs

all plumbers perform a separate final fix, preferring ● push-fit joints ensure there is no fire risk

instead to complete this task during second fix. ● the use of a bending machine is not required as the

pipe is flexible enough to be bent without pipe wall

Snagging collapse, with a minimum radius of eight diameters
When the systems are completed and commissioned, of pipe
then the clerk of works will inspect the work to ensure ● testing can begin immediately after the installation

that it complies with the customer’s requirements. Any is completed.

problems found, such as loose tap heads and incorrectly

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Positioning of pipework Prefabrication of pipework

The routes taken by surface-mounted pipework should Prefabrication of pipework often takes place on large
be well planned to take the shortest practicable housing contracts where many houses will be built
route without being intrusive. There should be as of the same type and style. Pre-forming pipework
little marking out as possible so as not to deface can often save time in this situation as the pipes can
the customer’s decorations. The area must be well be bent beforehand to fit a particular part of the job,
protected by dust sheets and coverings. saving time and installation costs, and can be of benefit
where hot working, i.e. the use of blowtorches, is
Select an appropriate pipe clip. Large, sturdy pipe clips
forbidden. It can also be used where making joints in
in a domestic dwelling would look too noticeable and
the fitted position may be difficult.
plastic pipe clips used on large commercial/industrial
installations would not stand up to the knocks. If a Prefabrication of pipework involves precise marking,
number of pipes are to be installed in one place, for cutting and forming, with measurements taken either
example in an airing cupboard, they can be arranged in on-site or from a drawing and then fabricated in a
banks, so that all the pipe clips are in a neat line. workshop and delivered to site ready for use. In this
way, many units can be made at once and stored on-
The use of machine-made bends over elbows should be
site ready for installation.
considered wherever possible, as these not only provide
a visually attractive installation but also aid better flow On-the-job working will also involve some
rates. The finished pipework should be as aesthetically prefabrication of pipework. Precise measurements,
pleasing as possible, with even spaces between the pipe cutting and bending are essential if the pipework is to
clips and supports, and even gaps between different look good. Consider the drawing in Figure 2.58.
lines. The tube should be installed plumb and level, or
with the correct fall where this is needed. INDUSTRY TIP
Finally, make sure that when the pipework is in position The X dimension is the measurement from the insert
it is wiped down with a damp cloth. This might seem a point of the pipe to the centre line of the component. The
menial task but it will ensure that any flux that has run X dimension is taken off to give you the cut length of the
down the pipe during soldering operations is removed. material. It may be taken off both ends of the pipe.
Where possible, remove any setting-out marks and
fingerprints from the wall with a damp, soapy cloth.
The pipework is to be fabricated on-site from one piece
of tube from elbow 1 to elbow 2 using measurements
taken on-site.

Elbow 1 Elbow 2

500 mm

Bend 3 Bend 4
900 mm

400 mm
Bend 1 Bend 2

920 mm 450 mm

p Figure 2.58 Pipework layout drawing

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Method X
Tube stop
When calculating and marking out tube for one-piece bending, there
are several pieces of information we require:
● the ‘X’ dimension of any fittings X
● the distance to the centre of the clip The 'X' dimension is measured
from the tube stop to the
● the measurements of the space where the tube is going to be installed
centre of the socket at 90º
● the pipe gain of any machine bends.

Look again at the drawing in Figure 2.58. We can see that the tube has to fit in an alcove. Elbows will be
required at elbow 1 and elbow 2 simply because the wall has sharp corners at those points. All other changes of
direction can be achieved using machine-made bends. For this example, we will assume that:
The ‘X’ dimension of a 15 mm elbow = 12 mm
Distance to the centre of the clip = 15 mm
Total up the amount of tube required for the one-piece bend, as follows.
From elbow 1 to bend 1
The distance is 900 mm and because pipe clips are present at elbow 1 and bend 1, the distance is the same.
However, because we need to make an end feed elbow joint, we have to deduct the ‘X’ dimension of the elbow:
900 − 12 = 888 mm
So, measurement 1 = 888 mm. Therefore, bend 1 can be marked and bent at this distance.
From bend 1 to bend 2
The distance here is 920 mm, but the bends are fixed between clips either side, so deduct the distance to the
centre of the clip each side:
920 − (15 + 15) = 890 mm
Therefore, bend 2 can be marked and bent at this distance.
From bend 2 to bend 3
The distance here is 400 mm and because there are clips at both bends, the distance between the bends does
not change.
Bend 3 can be marked and bent at the distance of 400 mm.
From bend 3 to bend 4
The distance here is 450 mm and because there are clips at both bends, the distance between the bends does
not change.
Bend 4 can be marked and bent at the distance of 450 mm.
From bend 4 to elbow 2
The distance is 500 mm and because there is an elbow at the end, 12 mm should be deducted for the ‘X’ dimension:
500 − 12 = 488 mm
Therefore, length of pipe:
888 + 890 + 400 + 450 + 488 = 3116 mm or 3.116 m
There are four machine bends on the 15 mm pipe and, as we have seen, these have a pipe gain of 21.5 mm
each. Therefore:
21.5 × 4 = 86 mm. This can be deducted from the total length:
3116 − 86 = actual tube length = 3030 mm or 3.030 m

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Many of the appliances we fit arrive on-site

prefabricated. Boilers, hot water storage cylinders
Protection of the building
and some sanitary ware can be manufactured ‘pre- fabric and its surroundings
plumbed’ so that only the final connections have to be
made when the unit is put in position. HEALTH AND SAFETY
Soldering is a fire risk on any job. Ensure you take
Prefabrication techniques can be carried out on most the proper precautions, such as using a heatproof
fixed pipework types, including copper, low carbon soldering mat or heat-dissipating spray gel.
steel, and plastic soil and waste pipes. The techniques
will differ depending on the material used.
INDUSTRY TIP
Sleeving of pipework through walls
Pipes passing through masonry, stone and concrete A solder mat ‘deflects’ the heat from a flame. Hold the
should be sleeved by a piece of tube one size larger blowtorch at an angle so that the heat is deflected.
than the pipe being installed, to allow for expansion
and pipe movement, and to prevent damage to the
pipe by building movement. The sleeve should then
be sealed with an approved sealant to prevent the
ingress of rain, insects and vermin. Where gas pipes are
sleeved, the sleeve should be sealed only on the inside
of the wall; the outside part of the sleeve should be
sealed only to the building fabric and NOT the pipe.
The pipe and sleeve should be left open.  Figure 2.59 Soldering mat

So far in this chapter we have seen how a customer’s

Working on existing installations: in
personal belongings should be protected from dust and
situ working damage from the installation process, but there are other
Working on existing installations is challenging. There ways that we can protect the building and its surroundings.
is always a risk of disturbing joints and causing further ● When soldering is taking place in the building, the
problems. Situations often occur where it is necessary risk of fire is ever present. To protect the building
to cut into existing pipework and it should be treated fabric, a heatproof soldering mat should be used. It
with care. Problems can occur when connecting to should be remembered, however, that these will not
old imperial-sized pipework when the pipe sizes differ protect if the flame is directly on the mat. A shallow
from new metric fittings and tubes. In situ installation angle should be applied to the blowtorch, if possible,
operations include: to deflect the heat away from the wall/floor/ceiling/
● cutting in fittings, such as isolation valves and tees skirting board. There are three different types of
into an existing hot or cold water pipe mat available that will resist temperatures of 600°C,
● capping off existing pipework 1000°C and 1300°C.
● removing existing bath, washbasin and sink taps ● One other way we can protect against heat is to
● changing WC pans and cisterns, and other bathroom use heat-dissipating spray gel. This offers protection
equipment against the scorching of wallpaper and paint, and
● boiler swaps on existing central heating installations. loosening of existing joints, and it also reduces the
risk of fire by protecting surfaces and dissipating heat.
KEY TERM ● When drilling walls, to prevent blowing the surface

In situ: in situ, in plumbing terms, simply means of the backside of the wall you are drilling, first, drill
pipework or appliances that are already in place. a small pilot hole and drill from both sides. This will
They are already ‘in situation’, hence the term ‘in ensure that the wall surface around the hole is not
situ’. damaged.

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

Before drilling a wall, check it first with a cable/pipe

KEY TERMS
●

detector to ensure that there are no services already

in the wall. Blowing: this describes the outside surface of a
brick being damaged when drilling a hole from the
inside.
INDUSTRY TIP Fire stop: a barrier is placed where the pipe passes
through a floor, ceiling or wall to prevent the
When removing old equipment, where there is a risk of spread of fire and smoke.
spillage of dirty water, such as removing old radiators, to
prevent the spillage turn the radiator upside down so that
the valve tails are at the top.
Testing and commissioning
procedures
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS Testing of installations is the first time we see whether
the installation is watertight. For pressure systems and
When working outside the building, protect the
sanitary systems, testing procedures are set out in the
customer’s garden by the use of walk boards
across flowerbeds and protective sheeting across
relevant British Standards and Regulations.
grass lawns. Do not dig ladders into lawns.
Pre-testing checks
Always remember to protect those carpets that
Before commissioning takes place:
cannot be removed during simple maintenance
● walk around the installation; check that you are
operations such as these.
happy that the installation is correct and meets
installations standards
● check that all open ends are capped off and all
Fire stopping valves isolated
Where pipes (including soil and vent pipes) pass ● check that all capillary joints are soldered and that

between floors, the holes around the pipe must have a all compression joints are fully tightened
fire stop installed to prevent the spread of smoke and ● check that sufficient pipe clips, supports and

fire. This can be done in two ways: brackets are installed, and that all pipework is
1 by the use of an intumescent collar – this is a collar secure.
that is placed around the pipe that expands in the
presence of heat to stop the spread of fire Testing procedures
2 by the use of intumescent sealant – this is sealant Testing procedures differ depending on the type of
that acts in the same way as an intumescent collar. pipework installed. The process involves filling the
Correctly used, these techniques will help to contain system with water to a specific pressure, letting it stand
fire in the room where it started, reducing damage. for a period of time to temperature stabilise and then
checking it for pressure loss. Here, we will look at those
different testing procedures.
Hot and cold water systems testing is detailed in BS
EN 806 and The Water Regulations, but is commonly
followed in BS 6700; central heating systems testing is
detailed in BS 5449; above-ground sanitation systems
should be tested in accordance with Document H of
the Building Regulations.

p Figure 2.60 Intumescent collar

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Copper tubes and low carbon steel pipes: ● Test type B: slowly fill the system with water,
systems installed in copper tube and low carbon pump the system up to the required pressure
steel pipes should be tested to 1.5 times normal and maintain the pressure for a period of 30
operating pressure. They should be left for a period minutes. Note the pressure after this time. The
of 30 minutes to allow for temperature stabilisation test should continue without further pumping.
and then left for a period of one hour with no visible Check the pressure after a further 30 minutes. If
pressure loss. the pressure loss is less than 60 kPa (or 0.6 bar),
● Plastic (polybutylene) pressure pipe systems: the system has no visible leakage. Visually check
these are tested rather differently to rigid pipes. for leakage for a further 120 minutes. The test is
There are two tests that can be carried out. These successful if the pressure loss is less than 20 kPa
are known as test type A and test type B and are (0.2 bar).
detailed in BS EN 806 and The Water Regulations, 1
but are commonly followed in BS 6700: Y 2
● Test type A: slowly fill the system with water
3 4
and raise the pressure to 1 bar (100 kPa). Check
and re-pump the pressure to 1 bar if the pressure
drops during this period, provided there are no
leaks. Check for leaks. After 45 minutes, increase
the pressure to 1.5 times normal operating
pressure and let the system stand for 15 minutes.
Now release the pressure in the system to one-
third of the previous pressure and let it stand X
0
for a further 45 minutes. The test is successful if 0 10 20 30 60 120 180
there are no leaks. Key
1 Pumping X Time (minutes)
1 2 Pressure drop < 60 kPa (0.6bar) Y Pressure
3 Test pressure
Y
4 Pressure drop < 20 kPa (0.2bar)

2  Figure 2.62 Pressure test B chart

● Above-ground sanitation systems: these should

be tested in accordance with Document H of the
Building Regulations. They should be tested to a
3
pressure of 38 mm water gauge (w/g) for a period of
three minutes with no pressure loss.
X
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Commissioning
Key
1 Pumping X Time (minutes) Commissioning is the part of the installation where
2 Test pressure 1.5 times maximum working Y Pressure the system is filled and run for the first time. It is when
pressure
3 0.5 times maximum working pressure we see if it works as designed. The first task is to fill
the system and check for leaks at the appliances. This
 Figure 2.61 Pressure test A chart
is best carried out in stages so that sections of the
installation, i.e. cold water, hot water, central heating,
INDUSTRY TIP can be filled and tested separately. At each stage of the
You can access the Building Regulations 2010 Approved filling process, the system should be checked for leaks
Document H: Drainage and waste disposal at: www.gov.uk/ before moving on to the next section.
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/442889/BR_PDF_AD_H_2015.pdf

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 Chapter 2 Common processes and techniques

INDUSTRY TIP INDUSTRY TIP

If the word ‘commissioning’ is used on-site, it is referring to Always complete the benchmark certificate and hand it over
a system or appliance being tested to make sure it is working to the customer.
correctly and according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Common tests are temperature, flow and pressure.
Building Regulations Compliance
certificates
Once the systems have been filled they should be
drained down and flushed through with clean water, Since 1 April 2005, the Building Regulations
then refilled. The water levels in WC cisterns, cold have demanded that all new builds, retro-fit and
water storage cisterns, and feed and expansion cisterns refurbishment installations must be issued with a
(if fitted) should be checked for compliance with the Building Regulations Compliance certificate. This is
relevant regulations. to ensure that all Building Regulations relevant to the
installation have been followed and complied with.
Gas installations should be checked for tightness, This includes:
and central heating systems should be run up to full ● the heating installation
operating temperature before being drained down while ● the sanitation system
they are still hot. Refill the system and add inhibitor ● the hot and cold water systems
before running the system again. ● the gas installation

Check the flow rates at all taps to see if they deliver the ● any electrical controls.

flow rates demanded by the manufacturer’s literature, and Certificates are issued by Local Authority Building
check the operation of all controls, including thermostats Control.
and motorised valves. Set the temperature of any cylinder
thermostats and let the water reach full temperature. Handover to the customer
Using a thermometer, check the temperature of all When the system has been tested, commissioned
radiators and the temperature of the hot water. and benchmarked, it can then be handed over to the
customer. The customer will require all documentation
Benchmarking regarding the installation:
At this stage of the installation, it is time to benchmark ● all manufacturers’ installation and servicing
the system. Here, the boiler and any hot water instructions for boilers, electrical controls, taps,
cylinder installed are checked for compliance with the sanitary ware and any other equipment fitted to the
manufacturer’s instructions, including: installation
● hot water flow rates ● the benchmarking certificate
● flow and return temperatures ● the Building Regulations Compliance certificate.
● hot water temperature

● operation and types of control

The customer must be shown around the system and
● gas rates.
guided as to how to use any controls, thermostats
and time clocks. Isolation points on the system for
The benchmark certificate should then be signed by the gas, water and electricity should be pointed out
commissioning engineer. and a demonstration given of the correct isolation
procedure in the event of an emergency. Explain to
KEY TERM the customer how the systems work and ask if they
Benchmarking: this is now a compulsory have any questions. Finally, point out the need for
requirement to ensure that systems and appliances regular servicing of the appliances and leave emergency
are installed in accordance with the regulations and contact numbers.
the manufacturer’s instructions. It also safeguards
any guarantee against bad workmanship.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Decommissioning of systems ● checking and repairing float-operated valves and

setting water levels in cisterns
Decommissioning a system or an appliance simply
● cleaning out cold water cisterns of all sediment
means taking it out of service. This falls into two
as required
categories:
● routine boiler maintenance
1 Temporary decommissioning: this is where a
● checking and re-washering taps as required
system or an appliance is taken out of service
● routine testing of above-ground drainage
for a period of time for repairs, replacement or
systems
maintenance. The customer must be kept informed
● checking the operation of any safety valves
of when the system is being shut down, the
● checking the operation of all external controls
expected length of time of the decommission and
and isolation valves, including:
the expected reinstatement time. If the period of
– stop taps
time is considerable, ensure that the customer has
– gate valves
access to vital services, i.e. gas, water and electricity.
– isolation valves
2 Permanent decommissioning: this is where a
– motorised valves
system or appliance is permanently disconnected
– thermostats.
and/or removed. This will involve disconnection
2 Breakdowns, repairs and emergencies: these are
and making safe of any services. Pipes should be
unplanned maintenance activities that can occur at
cut back and capped and, if necessary, tested for
any time and include:
soundness. All electrical disconnections should be
● burst pipes
made by a qualified operative or an electrician.
● boiler breakdowns

● running overflows

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS ● blockages

● dripping taps
With temporary decommissioning, the key to ● WC cistern problems.
good customer service is information: keep the
customer informed and aware of any disruptions
KEY TERM
to services such as water and electricity.
Maintenance: preserving the working condition of
appliances and services.
Maintenance activities
Maintenance falls into two categories:
1 Planned preventative maintenance: on larger Drawing symbols of
installations, it may be necessary to have a plumbing valves and
planned maintenance schedule so that systems
and equipment can be serviced and checked at appliances
regular intervals to ensure optimum performance. Working drawings for plumbing and heating
Maintenance activities should be recorded in a installations often contain symbols that represent
logbook, together with the results of any tests pipes, valves and appliances. It is important that these
performed. Planned preventative maintenance symbols are recognised for systems to be installed
operations include: properly. All symbols shown will be in accordance with
BS EN ISO 19650-1/2 2018 and BS EN 806-1:2000.

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 valve valve

Gate valve Stop valve

Safety/relief Drain valveChapter 2Radiator

Common processes andmotorised
techniques
valve 3-port
Service valve Double check valve valve valve

Pump Water meter

Single check Motorised zone
valve valve Radiator 3-port motorised
valve valve
Gate valve Stop valve

M
Safety/relief Drain valve Expansion Float-operated
Service valve Double check valve valve Pump Water meter vessel valve

 Figure 2.63 Plumbing symbols drawings

Making good
Single check Motorised zone
Inside the property, using off-the-shelf filler for small
holes is acceptable. If plastering is damaged, being able
valve
As part of an valve
installation, thereRadiator
will be times where Expansion Float-operated
3-port motorised to smoothlyvalve
vessel finish the surface again is an important
plumbers need to ‘make good’.valve This is the process
valve
skill. The surface will need to be gently rubbed down
of repairing or bringing something up to a finished
using abrasives, removing any loose parts, and then
standard or restoring it to its previous condition.M This
filled, left to dry and then re-rubbed down, leaving a
can include: Drain valve
Safety/relief
smooth surface.
●valve
filling in holes in masonry or wood
Pump Water meter
● painting If plasterboard requires repairing, it should never be
● minor brickwork rubbed down using abrasive paper, but can be re-filled
● minor plastering and minor carpentry. using a plaster mix and trowel.
It is always useful to pick up methods of work from Asking other trades on site to help or advise is regularly
other trades that
Radiator 3-portmay help. Making
motorised good, although
Expansion Float-operated undertaken. Being able to finish jobs off to a high
valve valve vessel
seemingly a minor job, is a very important part valve of an standard is an important part of any installation.
installation and will lead to customer satisfaction and
repeat work alongM with increased skills.
If a small amount of brickwork has been damaged or
SUMMARY
Pump Water meter
requires replacing externally, you will need to match During this chapter, we have explored the tools
the replacement bricks to the existing. The brick will required, the materials we use and the installation
need to be secured in position using a mixture of sand practices we need to master to enable us to install
and cement mortar, commonly in a 4:1 ratio. If there is good, working systems that not only meet the
just a small hole in some masonry, filling it with mortar requirements of the regulations, but also satisfy the
isExpansion Float-operated
quite acceptable. External surfaces need to be treated customer’s needs and expectations. Good working
vessel valve
differently to internal surfaces as they are exposed to practices at the start of your plumbing career will
the elements and it is a requirement to ensure moisture serve you well as you broaden your experience, gain
cannot enter a building. knowledge and improve your skills.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Test your knowledge 6 Which of the following plastic pipe materials

is commonly used for the distribution of
1 Which of the following would be the most underground mains cold water supplies?
suitable masonry drill bit to use to make a hole a Polybutylene
in brickwork for a brown plastic plug?
b ABS
a 5.5 mm HSS bit
c PVCu
b 7.0 mm HSS bit
d MDPE
c 5.5 mm SDS bit
7 Which of the following is not a common size for
d 7.0 mm SDS bit PVCu soil pipes?
2 What is the purpose of the tool shown below? a 65 mm
b 82 mm
c 110 mm
d 160 mm
8 What is the maximum diameter of hole that can
be drilled in a joist?
a 10% of the depth of the joist
b 20% of the depth of the joist
a To install a sacrificial anode c 25% of the depth of the joist
b To remove an immersion heater d 30% of the depth of the joist
c To remove a tap back-nut 9 When installing 28 mm copper pipe in the
d To tighten a compression nut horizontal plane, what is the recommended
3 Which of the following is the British Standard clipping distance?
for the manufacture of copper pipes used in the a 1.8 m
plumbing and heating industry? b 2.4 m
a BS EN 806 c 2.7 m
b BS 1710 d 3.0 m
c BS 1212 10 Which of the following is the maximum
d BS EN 1057 recommended clip distance for 40 mm plastic
4 What is the minimum total length of pipe waste pipe in the vertical position?
required to machine bend 15 mm copper pipe a 0.5 m
to 90°? b 0.9 m
a 60 mm c 1.2 m
b 95 mm d 2m
c 100 mm 11 Which colour identifies wholesome water when
d 115 mm installing MDPE pipework?
5 LCS pipe is given a colour band to indicate its a Yellow
grade. What grade is indicated by a blue band? b Orange
a Light c Green
b Medium d Blue
c Heavy

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 Test your knowledge

12 Which power tool is commonly used to remove c Hammer drill with masonry drill
the ‘tongue’ from a floorboard? d Rotary drill with a spade bit
a Jig saw 19 What creates the watertight joint in a push fit
b Circular saw waste pipe fitting?
c SDS drill a Olive
d Reciprocating saw b PTFE tape
13 Which Building Regulation outlines the criteria c Neoprene O ring
for cutting a notch in a joist? d Solder
a Approved document P 20 What is the maximum size hole that can be
b Approved document H drilled into a joist?
c Approved document A a 1/3rd of the joist width
d Approved document J b 28 mm
14 Which type of joint uses an olive to create the c 5% of the span of the joist
watertight joint? d 1/4 of the joist depth
a Compression 21 What is the maximum clipping distance for a
b Press fit 15 mm vertical copper pipe?
c Push fit a 1.2 m
d Solder b 1800 mm
15 What type of screw is used to secure a c 1.7 m
floorboard back in position? d 2400 mm
a Countersunk 22 The centre to centre distance of two tees is
b Round head 300 mm. The X dimension of the fittings is
c Coach 12 mm. What is the cut length?
d Mirror a 300 mm
16 What material would a cavity fixing be used on? b 276 mm
a Wood c 324 mm
b Masonry d 288 mm
c Plastic 23 Which of the following is important when
replacing a hacksaw blade?
d Plasterboard
a The blade must have 24tpi
17 When forming a right angle bend in low carbon
steel, what angle would you most likely form the b The handle must be cleaned
pipe to in the hydraulic bender? c The teeth must face forward
a 45 degree d The butterfly nut must tighten anti-
b 95 degree clockwise
c 30 degree 24 Which tool is a slip or guide used with?
d 75 degree a Scissor type bender
18 Which one of the following methods is the most b Adjustable spanner
effective way of cutting a hole for a condensing c Blowtorch
boiler flue in a masonry wall? d Water pump pliers
a Pneumatic drill with chisel bit
b SDS drill with diamond core bit

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

25 Where might a plumber use a ‘mirror’ type 29 Give three statutory regulations relevant to the
screw? installation of a central heating system.
a Pipe clip 30 A joint made on copper pipe, which uses an
b Securing a toilet pan electrically operated tool to compress a fitting
incorporating a rubber seal onto the pipe, is
c Securing a bath panel
known as what?
d Replacing a floorboard
31 List the three grades of low carbon steel pipe
26 Complete the table below to indicate which
and state their potential use.
gauge of screw is suitable for each plastic
32 You are asked to install a new WC in a
rawlplug type.
customer’s property. Your boss has asked
Yellow you for a list of common tools that would be
required for this installation. List the tools and
Red what they would be used for.
Brown 33 State the two types of flux available to plumbers
and describe any potential dangers or hazards.
Grey
34 What are the five common ways in which
White copper pipework can be connected together?
Blue Answers can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction
27 Calculate the maximum depth of notch if
preparing to install copper pipe in a joist that is Practical activity
300 mm deep. Practise your copper pipe fabrication by producing
28 What grade of copper tube is most commonly the pipe bends shown in the diagram below, to the
supplied in coils and used for microbore heating dimensions given.
installations?
400 mm centre to centre

100 mm end to centre

35 mm off-set at 30º

125 mm centre to start of bend

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 CHAPTER 3
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION
Plumbing contains a lot of science. The laws of physics and chemistry are involved in one form or another in
almost everything that we do, from the installation of cold water systems and hot water systems to central
heating and drainage. It is the science behind these laws that gives us the theory to enable us to design and
install these systems correctly and efficiently. In this chapter, we will be investigating some of the laws of
physics and chemistry that we use in our day-to-day activities.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● units of measurement used in the plumbing and heating industry

● properties of materials

● the relationship between energy, heat and power

● the principles of force and pressure, and their application in the plumbing and heating industry

● the mechanical principles in the plumbing and heating industry

● the principles of electricity in the plumbing and heating industry.

Before we begin, it is important that we familiarise ourselves with the SI units of measurement so that we can use
these as reference points during this chapter.

1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT USED IN THE

PLUMBING AND HEATING INDUSTRY: THE SI
SYSTEM
The SI system of measurement is a universal, unified, KEY TERM
self-consistent system of measurement units based
Derived units: combinations of the seven base
on the m/k/s (metre/kilogram/second) system. We units by a system of multiplication and division
will use these measurement units as reference points calculations. There are 21 derived units of
throughout this chapter. The international system is measurement, some of which have special names
commonly referred to throughout the world as SI after and symbols.
the initials of ‘Systeme International Unite’. The units
can be categorised into two main groups:
1 base units
2 derived units.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

SI base units In plumbing, we may come across many different

imperial units that are still in use. An example of an
q Table 3.1 SI base units imperial/metric conversion that we still use today is
Measure of: Base SI unit Symbol shown in Table 3.3.
Length metre m q Table 3.3 Copper pipe imperial and corresponding metric sizes
Mass kilogram kg
Imperial Metric
Time second s
½ inch 15 mm
Electric current ampere A
¾ inch 22 mm
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
1 inch 28 mm
1¼ inch 35 mm
SI derived units 1½ inch 42 mm
2 inch 54 mm
q Table 3.2 SI derived units
Measure of: Unit Symbol Before 1973, copper pipe was manufactured in
Area (length × width) square metre m2 diameters by the inch and its subdivisions.
Volume (length × width Table 3.4 gives some of the common conversion factors
cubic metre m3
× height)
that are still in use in the UK.
Volume of liquid (length
litre l q Table 3.4 Common conversions
× width × height × 1000)
Velocity metre per second m/s Imperial Actual measurement Metric
metre per second
Acceleration m/s2 1 inch [in] 2.54 cm
squared
1 foot [ft] 12 in 0.3048 m
kilogram per cubic
Density kg/m3 1 yard [yd] 3 ft 0.9144 m
metre
cubic metre per 1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km
Specific volume m3/kg
kilogram 1 int. nautical mile 2025.4 yd 1.853 km
Force (mass (kg) 1 sq inch [in2] 6.4516 cm2
newton (kg m/s2) N
× acceleration (m/s2))
1 sq foot [sq ft] 144 in2 0.0929 m2
Pressure pascal Pa
1 sq yd [yd2] 9 sq ft 0.8361 m2
Energy, work, quantity
joule J 1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9 m2
of heat
Power watt W 1 sq mile [mile2] 640 acres 2.59 km2
Electric potential volt V 1 cu inch [in3] 16.387 cm3
Electric resistance ohm Ω 1 cu foot [ft3] 1728 in3 0.0283 m3
1 fluid ounce [fl oz] 28.413 ml
1 pint [pt] 20 fl oz 0.5683 l
Using unit conversion tables 1 gallon [gal] 8 pt 4.5461 l
Despite efforts to adopt the metric system in the 1 ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35 g
1970s, it is obvious that there are still many imperial
1 pound [lb] 16 oz 0.4536 kg
units in use in the UK today. We still measure distances
1 stone 14 lb 6.3503 kg
in miles rather than kilometres and often buy our food
1 hundredweight [cwt] 112 lb 50.802 kg
in pounds rather than kilograms. It is therefore helpful
1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t
to know how to convert from one type of unit to
another.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

ACTIVITY 2 A customer has requested that you quote for a

new bathroom suite installation and sends you a
There may be instances during our work when
plan of the existing bathroom. The measurements
we have to convert from one unit to another. The
are in feet and inches.
following example shows how to use the conversions
8 ft
in Table 3.4.
A plumber has to travel 25 miles to work every day
but claims 35p per kilometre in travelling expenses.
How much does he claim?
Now, try these examples:
1 A plumber is asked to replace a cold water cistern 11ft
in a roof space with a new like-for-like cistern. The
capacity of the cistern is quoted on the existing
cistern as a 25-gallon nominal capacity. What size
cistern in litres is required?

a Convert the dimensions into metres.

b What is the area of the room in square metres?

2 THE PROPERTIES OF When we talk about a material’s relative density, we are

basically comparing the mass of that material against
MATERIALS water or air (see Table 3.5). In both cases the water and
air have a relative density (or specific gravity) of 1.
There are many materials that you, as a plumber, q Table 3.5 Relative densities of common substances used in the
will deal with in your working life. Each one will have plumbing industry
different characteristics, such as weight, melting
Solids
point, density and strength. It is important that we
Substance Relative density Mass/m3
know and understand the materials we work with to
Water (1 m3 of
ensure that the correct material is used for a given water has a mass 1 1000 kg
application. Here, we will investigate some of the many of 1000 kg at 4°C)
different materials we use, together with their working Copper 9 9000 kg
properties and their uses. Steel 7.48–8.0 (depending
7480–8000 kg
on the grade)
Relative density of solids, Lead (milled) 11.34 11,340 kg

liquids and gases Lead (cast)

Brass
11.30
8.4
11,300 kg
8400
Relative density is the ratio of the density of a
uPVC 1.35 1350 kg
substance to the density of a standard substance
Polypropylene 0.91 910 kg
under specific conditions. For liquids and solids, the
standard substance is usually distilled water at 4°C.
For gases, the standard is usually air at the same INDUSTRY TIP
temperature and pressure as the substance being
measured. Another phrase for relative density is ‘specific gravity’ and
this usually refers to gases.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

q Table 3.6 Gases’ specific gravity Metals can be subdivided into four specific groups, as
Gas
described below.
1 Pure metals: these are the metals that are derived
Gas Specific gravity
directly from the ore and contain very little in the
Air 1
way of impurities. Table 3.7 lists the more common
Natural gas 0.7 Lighter than air
metals and the ores from which they are extracted.
Propane 1.5 Heavier than air
2 Alloys: an alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.
Butane 2.0 Heavier than air This type of mixed metal is used extensively in
Hydrogen 0.069 Lighter than air the plumbing industry. Alloys used include brass
(copper/zinc), bronze (copper/tin), gunmetal (copper/
tin/zinc), lead-free solders (nickel/tin or copper/tin)
Principal applications of and steel (iron/carbon).
solid materials 3 Ferrous metals: those metals that contain iron,
The solid materials used in the plumbing industry can such as steel and cast iron. These corrode easily
be classified into three distinct groups: because of the formation of ferrous oxide, otherwise
1 those made from metals known as rust.
2 those made from plastics 4 Non-ferrous metals: these metals do not contain
3 those made from ceramics and fireclays. iron and are known as pure metals. Non-ferrous
metals include copper, lead, tin, zinc, aluminium
Metals and nickel. Non-ferrous metals do not rust but can
Metals are one of the main materials used in the corrode over time.
plumbing industry. They can be found in the form of
pipes, tubes and fittings, and in the manufacture of KEY TERM
boilers, radiators and other heating appliances, as well Corrosion: any process involving the deterioration
as sundry items such as solder, screws and nails. or degradation of metal components, where
the metal’s molecular structure breaks down
irreparably.

q Table 3.7 Origin of common metals

Metal Ore Country Type

Iron Pyrite England Ferrous
Marcasite Mexico
Haematite Brazil
Magnetite Australia
Copper Copper North America Non-ferrous
Malachite Chile
Chalcopyrite Cyprus
Turquoise Canada
Azurite Germany
Aluminium Gibbsite Brazil Non-ferrous
Bauxite Jamaica
Cryolite India
Australia
Guinea

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Metal Ore Country Type

Lead Galina England Non-ferrous
Cerussite Germany
Australia
North America
Zinc Sphalerite Australia Non-ferrous
Zincite Canada
China
Peru
North America

Tin Cassiterite Malaysia Non-ferrous

Thailand
China
Indonesia
Bolivia
Russia

Plastics are reversible and it can be reheated, reshaped

Just as plumbers should know their metals, they and frozen repeatedly. This quality also makes
should also know their plastics if mistakes during thermoplastics recyclable. There are many different
installation are to be avoided. There are many different types of thermoplastics, some of which are used
plastics that plumbers use in their day-to-day work for extensively in plumbing systems. Each type varies in
installing hot and cold water supplies, central heating, melting temperature (crystalline organisations) and
guttering and rainwater pipes, and above-and below- density. Table 3.8 lists the plastics commonly used
ground drainage systems. in the plumbing industry and describes what they
are used for.
There are two basic types of plastics: thermoplastics 2 Thermosetting: thermosetting plastics, such as
and thermosetting. polyester and epoxies, are rigid plastics, resistant
1 Thermoplastics: a thermoplastic is a type of to higher temperatures than thermoplastics.
plastic made from polymer resins that becomes Once it has set, a thermosetting plastic cannot be
liquid-form when heated and hard when cooled. remoulded. Its shape is permanent and it does not
When frozen, however, a thermoplastic becomes melt when heated.
brittle and subject to fracture. These characteristics

q Table 3.8 Common plastics used in the plumbing industry

Type of plastic Uses Characteristics
uPVC Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride is used extensively for: Not suitable for hot water
CuPVC cold water mains installations.
cold water installations (chlorinated unplasticised polyvinyl chloride) Can be solvent welded.
solvent-welded and push-fit soil and vent pipes
solvent-welded waste and overflow pipes
underground drainage pipes
gutters and rainwater pipes.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Type of plastic Uses Characteristics

Polyethylene MDPE (medium-density polyethylene) is used for: Cannot be solvent welded.
MDPE underground cold water mains (coloured blue) Degrades under direct sunlight.
HDPE cold water storage cisterns
underground gas pipes.
HDPE (high-density polyethylene) is used for:
underground cold water mains (coloured black).
Polypropylene Used for: Cannot be solvent welded.
push-fit waste and overflow pipe Slightly greasy to the touch.
cold water storage cisterns. Degrades under direct sunlight.
Polybutylene Used for: Cannot be solvent welded.
push-fit hot and cold water installations
central heating installations.
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Used for: Can be solvent welded.
water supply – potable water for apartments, offices, commercial Degrades severely under direct
installations sunlight.
solvent-welded waste and overflow pipes.

Ceramics and fireclays Italian tiles usually have biscuit that is cream in
Ceramics and fireclays are used mainly for sanitary colour, and Turkish and Spanish tiles have a dark
appliances and tiles. There are three varieties that red biscuit.
plumbers may use widely in their work:
1 Vitreous china: this is a clay material with an Principal properties of solid
enamelled surface used to manufacture bathroom materials
appliances such as WCs and cisterns, wash hand
Solid materials are made up of many molecules. How
basins and bidets, as well as soap dishes and other
these molecules are arranged and how they behave
sundry bathroom items. It is made from very
under certain conditions will determine their properties.
watery clay, known as ‘slip’, which is then spray
A solid material is assessed by its:
enamelled and fired in a kiln at high temperature.
● strength – tensile, compressive and shear
2 Fireclay: this is used primarily for heavy-duty
● ductility
appliances, such as Belfast sinks, London sinks,
● malleability
cleaners’ and butler’s sinks and shower trays, where
● hardness
there is greater risk of damage and a higher water
● conductivity – heat and electricity.
temperature may be needed. Like other clays, this
clay is highly malleable in its raw form. It can be
Tensile strength
moulded, extruded and shaped by hand. It is also
used in the manufacture of building products such Broadly speaking, the tensile strength of a material
as chimney pots. is a measure of how well or badly it reacts to being
3 Ceramic tiles: these have many applications and pulled or stretched until it breaks. Some materials,
are used extensively in bathrooms, kitchens, floors such as plastics, will stretch or elongate before
and swimming pools. The origin of the tile can be breaking; others, such as metals, will also deform in
identified from looking at the reverse of the tile. a similar way but not by as much, and hard materials
This is known as the ‘biscuit’ of the tile. Tiles made such as concrete and brick will not deform at all but
in the UK usually have a white-coloured biscuit, will simply snap.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Compressional stress

 Figure 3.2 Compressive strength

Tensional stress

 Figure 3.1 Tensile strength IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

In the SI system, compressive strength is measured
INDUSTRY TIP using the unit newton per square metre (N/m² or Pa
– pascal).
Think of a munsen ring attached to a ceiling holding
pipework in position which will give a downward pulling/
stretching force. INDUSTRY TIP
Think of feet under a bath and the amount of force under
A tensile strength test is also known as a tension test each leg placed on the floor, or a cold water storage cistern
and is the most fundamental type of mechanical test resting on the joists in a loft.
that can be performed on a material. The tests are
simple and relatively inexpensive. By simply pulling on
a material under specific conditions, how the material
Shear strength
will react to being pulled apart will quickly become Shear strength is the stress state caused by a pair of
apparent. The point at which the material fractures is opposing forces acting along parallel lines of action through
its tensile strength. the material. In other words, the stress caused by sliding
faces of the material relative to one another – for example,
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS cutting paper with scissors or ripping a substance apart.
Tensile strength is measured in units of force per unit
area. In the SI system, the unit is newton per square
metre (N/m² or Pa – pascal).

Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the maximum stress a material
can sustain when being crushed. Hard materials, such
as concrete or cast iron, will shatter under compressive
Shear stress
stress, while others, like plastics and some metals, may
 Figure 3.3 Shear strength
distort in shape. This is called barrelling.
Compressive strength is calculated by dividing the
INDUSTRY TIP
maximum load by the original cross-sectional area of
a specimen in a compression test, and is measured in Think of a radiator or boiler attached to a wall. The wall
units of force per unit area. is offering an upward force and gravity is pushing the
appliance down. The two opposing forces are happening
where the screws are holding the appliance to the wall.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Ductility of a material Diamond is the hardest material, which explains why it

Ductility is a mechanical property that describes by how is used on many cutting edges.
much solid materials can be pulled, pushed, stretched q Table 3.9 The Mohs hardness scale
and deformed without breaking. It is often described
Material Hardness scale
as the toughness of a material to withstand plastic
Talc 1
deformation. In materials science, ductility specifically
refers to a material’s ability to deform under tensile Gypsum 2
stress. This is often characterised by the material’s Calcite 3
ability to be stretched into a wire. Copper is one of the Fluorite 4
most ductile materials a plumber will use because it is Apatite 5
easily bent and softened into various shapes. Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Malleability of a material Topaz 8
Malleability can be defined as the property of Corundum 9
a material, usually a metal, to be deformed by Diamond 10
compressive strength without fracturing. If a metal can
be hammered, rolled or pressed into various shapes
Conductivity
without cracking or breaking, or other detrimental
effects, it is said to be malleable. This property is Conductivity is the property that enables a metal
essential in sheet metals, such as lead, that need to be to carry heat (thermal conductivity) or electricity
worked into different shapes. (electrical conductivity).
● Thermal conductivity: here, heat is transferred from

molecule to molecule through the substance. How

INDUSTRY TIP fast or how well the heat travels will determine the
material’s thermal conductivity. For example, metals,
Think of a pressed steel radiator – the flutes have been
pressed into place but the steel has not fractured. such as copper, transfer the heat quickly and are
said to be good conductors of heat, whereas other
materials, such as polyurethane, allow the passage
Hardness of heat only very slowly and so are poor conductors
of heat. The inability of polyurethane to allow the
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to
passage of heat makes it a very good insulator with
resist bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
the ability to keep heat in. Thermal conductivity is
measured in watts per metre kelvin (W/mK).
INDUSTRY TIP ● Electrical conductivity: this is the ability of a

material to allow an electrical charge or current to

Think of a core drill using impregnated diamonds to cut through pass through it. It is measured in ohms (Ω). Materials
brickwork. The brick is ‘hard’ but the diamond is harder.
that allow an electrical current to flow freely, such
as copper and gold, are known as good conductors,
Hardness of minerals can be assessed by reference to whereas those that do not allow the passage of an
the Mohs scale, which ranks the ability of materials to electrical current, such as wood, ceramics and PVC,
resist scratching by another material. There is a good are known as insulators.
reason for grouping materials this way. If an unknown
material is discovered, it is one way how to find out IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
what it is by seeing how hard it is. Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per metre
kelvin (W/mK). Electrical conductivity is measured
The Mohs hardness scale starts at 1 for the softest in ohms (Ω).
material and goes up to 10 for the hardest.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Oxidation, corrosion and KEY TERM

degradation of solid materials Passive: when a metal becomes passive, it means
that an oxide film has formed that prevents further
All solid materials will corrode or degrade over time.
attack on the metal.
The amount that materials corrode or degrade
will depend upon the material’s resistance and the
environment in which the material exists. In this Corrosion
section of the chapter, we will investigate these three Corrosion is the main reason for metals deteriorating.
processes and how they affect plumbing materials. Most metals will corrode on contact with water (and
moisture in the air), acids, salts, oils, and other solid
INDUSTRY TIP and liquid chemicals. Metals will also corrode when
exposed to some gases, such as acid vapours, ammonia
Corrosion is why chemical additives/inhibitors are used in gas and any gas containing sulphur.
central heating systems.
Corrosion specifically refers to any process involving
the deterioration or degradation of metal components.
The best-known case is that of the rusting of steel and
Oxidation of metals iron where the formation of ferrous oxide occurs. The
Metals are oxidised by the presence of oxygen in the corrosion process is usually electrochemical.
air. This process is more commonly called corrosion.
When rusting occurs, the metal atoms are exposed to
Electrons jump from the metal to the oxygen
an environment containing water molecules. Here, they
molecules (see the page on electron flow later in this
give up electrons and become positively charged ions.
chapter). The negative oxygen ions that are formed
penetrate into the metal, causing the growth of
an oxide on the metal’s surface. As the oxide layer KEY POINT
increases, the rate of electron transfer decreases. The electrochemical process involves the passage of
Eventually, the corrosion stops and the metal becomes a small electrical charge between two metals that are
passive. However, the oxidation process may possibly at opposite ends of the electromotive series of metals.
The stronger, noble metal is called the cathode and the
continue if the electrons succeed in entering the metal
weaker metal is known as the anode. When these two
through cracks, pits or impurities in the metal, or if the dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte such as
oxide layer is dissolved. water, an electric charge is generated and the anodic
metal is ‘eaten’ away by the cathodic metal. A by-
product of this reaction is the generation of hydrogen
gas. The process accelerates when heat is present.

Metal Air Rust Water

Oxygen (O2)

Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2 Fe2+

O2 + 4e− + H2O → 4OH−

Cathode area

2Fe → 2Fe2+ + 4e−

Anode area

 Figure 3.4 How rust is formed

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

This effect can occur locally to form a pit or a crack, in contact with each other through the presence
or it can extend across a wide area to produce general of an electrolyte. Metals are graded through the
corrosion. In effect, iron (Fe) will rust if it is exposed to electromotive series (also known as the electrochemical
water and oxygen. series) of metals. The further the metals are apart in
the series, the greater the chance of galvanic corrosion.
Other forms of metal
KEY TERM
corrosion that occur in Electrolyte: a fluid that allows the passage of
plumbing and heating electrical current, such as water. The more impurities
(such as salts and minerals) there are in the fluid, the
systems more effective it is as an electrolyte.
There are many forms of metal corrosion that can
occur within plumbing and heating systems, including:
● de-zincification INDUSTRY TIP
● galvanic corrosion

● erosion corrosion A magnesium rod (sacrificial anode) is used in a hot water

● pitting corrosion.
cylinder to prevent galvanic corrosion taking place. See
Chapter 5 on hot water for more details.
De-zincification of brass
Brass is an alloy mixture of copper and zinc. De- For galvanic corrosion to occur, three conditions must
zincification of brass is a form of selective corrosion be present:
(often referred to as de-alloying) that happens when 1 electrochemically opposed metals must be present
zinc is leached out of the alloy, leaving a weakened 2 these metals must be in electrical contact
brittle porous copper fitting. This commonly occurs in 3 the metals must be exposed to an electrolyte.
chlorinated tap water or in water that has high levels of
One of the metals is the most noble, cathodic metal
oxygen. Signs of de-zincification are a white powdery
and the other is the weaker, least noble anodic metal.
zinc oxide coating the surface of the fitting, or if the
When an electrolyte is introduced, such as water,
yellow brass turns a shade of red. Selective corrosion
a small electrical direct current (DC) is generated
can be a problem because it weakens a fitting, leaving
between the two metals. The stronger of the two
it vulnerable to possible failure and eventual leaks.
metals will destroy the weaker metal, with hydrogen
being produced as a by-product.

Copper
Lead
Tin
 Figure 3.5 De-zincification and its effects Nickel
Iron
INDUSTRY TIP Chromium
Modern brass fittings do not suffer from de-zincification Zinc
and are marked DZ or DZR. Manganese
Aluminium
Magnesium
Galvanic corrosion
ANODIC
Galvanic corrosion (also called galvanic action, (least noble)
‘dissimilar metal corrosion’ and often wrongly termed
‘electrolysis’) occurs when two dissimilar metals are  Figure 3.6 Electromotive series of metals

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Erosion corrosion Pitting corrosion

Erosion corrosion occurs in tubes and fittings because Pitting corrosion is the localised corrosion of a metal
of the fast-flowing effects of fluids and gases. The surface and is confined to a point or small area that
increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal takes the form of cavities and pits. Pitting is one of
surfaces of a tube can result in rapidly increasing the most damaging forms of corrosion in plumbing,
erosion rates and eventually a leak. Erosion corrosion especially in central heating radiators, as it is not easily
can also be encouraged by poor workmanship. detected or prevented.
For example, burrs left at cut tube ends can cause
disruption to the smooth water flow, and this can INDUSTRY TIP
cause localised turbulence and high flow velocities,
resulting in erosion corrosion. A system needs to be correctly flushed out to prevent
pitting, which can be caused by flux remaining on the inside
of the pipework after soldering.
INDUSTRY TIP
Make sure all of the burrs are removed from the end of cut
pipework before installing them to prevent erosion taking
place.

    
 Figure 3.7 Erosion corrosion

 Figure 3.8 Pitting corrosion

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Degradation of plastics KEY POINT

The use of plastics is becoming common in the Photodegradation takes place in direct light, even
plumbing industry. Everything from hot and cold water electric light, whether heat is present or not. UV
services to central heating and drainage can now be degradation takes place in daylight, whether the Sun
installed in some form of plastic material. Problems, is present or not. Its effects occur even on cloudy
however, can occur with plastics under certain days and as such it is generally down to the climate.
conditions. Degradation of plastics can occur from a
variety of causes such as: UV degradation
● heat
Most plastics are vulnerable to degradation by the
● light
effects of direct exposure to the UV part of the daylight
● oxygen
spectrum. UV solar radiation is present even on cloudy
● ultraviolet (UV) degradation.
days. When UV attack occurs, the colour of the plastic
may change and its surface will become brittle and
Heat (thermal degradation)
chalky. This can happen over a very short time period
One of the limiting factors when using plastics in and will lead to cracking and eventual failure.
high temperature applications is their tendency
to not only soften but also to thermally degrade. Polypropylene waste pipes and MDPE water pipes
In some instances, thermal degradation can occur are adversely affected by UV degradation, with ABS
at temperatures much lower than those at which pipework and fittings being severely compromised by
mechanical failure is likely to occur. prolonged exposure to the UV daylight spectrum.

All plastics experience some form of degradation Preventing corrosion

during their life. The chemical reactions that occur with
Corrosion is one of the most destructive processes to
thermal degradation lead to both physical and optical
plumbing and heating systems, but there are methods
changes, such as:
we can employ to prevent and protect from corrosion:
● reduced ductility and embrittlement
● Galvanisation is one method of protecting steel
● chalking
from rusting by coating with a thin layer of zinc.
● colour changes
Galvanising is a process by which the steel is dipped
● cracking.
in a bath of molten zinc.
● Greasing and oiling are some commonly used
Light (photodegradation)
methods to prevent rusting. The grease and oil
This occurs due to the action of light, whether from
prevent water and moisture penetration.
natural sunlight or electrical fluorescent lighting, and
● Chrome plating and anodising prevent corrosion
generally causes a yellowing of the plastic material. It is
of metal by coating the metal, creating a barrier
usually more pronounced on light-coloured plastics but
between it and the corrosive environment.
can affect all colours.
● Wet central heating systems can be protected from

Oxygen (oxidative degradation) corrosion by the use of corrosion inhibitors mixed

with the system water.
This is decomposition of the plastic due to the presence
● Plastics can be protected from the effects of UV
of oxygen, which alters the plastic’s properties. Colour
light by painting.
change is often the first sign of oxidative degradation,
● Sacrificial anodes (magnesium rods) placed inside
coupled with a change in flow, mechanical and
hot water storage cylinders protect the cylinder
electrical properties of the plastic, even if the colour
from electrolytic corrosion.
change is not noticeable. Polypropylene, polyethylene
● Metals can be coated with enamel for protection.
and ABS are the plastics most severely affected. PVC,
Enamel consists of a thin layer of glass heated to a
however, is unaffected by oxidative degradation.
high temperature which then fuses on to the surface
of the metal.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

density. This peculiar behaviour is known as the

KEY TERM
‘anomalous expansion’ of water. At 100°C, water
Anodising: coating one metal with another by has a density of 958 kg/m3 and at 0°C, its density is
electrolysis to form a protective barrier against
915 kg/m3. This can be expressed as a percentage.
corrosion.
When heated, water expands by 4 per cent; when
cooled it expands by 10 per cent. When water is
The properties of liquids turned to steam, it expands by 1600 times, so 1 m3
The plumbing industry is primarily concerned with of water will transform into 1600 m3 of steam!
liquids in one form or another, with water being the
most common fluid we deal with. Liquids you may KEY POINT
come across in your working life include: The effects of the changes in density of water can
● water
benefit water heating by creating heat circulation
by convection. We will deal with heat transfer
● refrigerants
through water later in the chapter.
● glycols and anti-freeze

● fuel oils
● The boiling point of water at sea level is 100°C:
● lubricants.
if the pressure is raised from this, the boiling point
Here, we will investigate these liquids and their uses increases. At 1 bar pressure, the boiling point of
within the building services industry. water is 120°C. Similarly, if the pressure is lowered,
then the boiling point decreases. At the top of
Water Mount Everest, the boiling point of water is 69°C.
Water is the most abundant compound on earth. It ● Water freezes at 0°C: again, pressure can affect
covers seven-tenths of the Earth’s surface and is the key this. If the pressure increases then the freezing point
to life on Earth. Water has many uses, including hot and is lower. Dissolved minerals can also affect the
cold water supplies and wet central heating systems. freezing point. Plumbers also add anti-freeze (glycol)
Yet, what do we actually know about water? to water in systems where pipework is vulnerable to
freezing, for example in solar thermal systems.
The properties of water ● The relative density of water is 1: this is the
q Table 3.10 The energy of sensible and latent heat of water from measurement that all other solids and liquids are
0°C of water to 100°C of steam (see page 146 for more on measured against.
sensible and latent heat) ● The specific heat capacity of water is 4.187 kJ/
Pressure Boiling point of the water kg°C: the specific heat capacity of a substance
bar kPa °C kJ/kg is the amount of heat required to raise the
0 0 100.00 419.06 temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1°C (or by
1 100.0 120.42 505.6
1 K). In the case of water, it takes 4.187 kJ of heat
to raise 1 kg of water by 1°C. Compared to other
2 200.0 133.69 562.2
materials, water requires a lot of energy to heat up.
3 300.0 143.75 605.3
● Water itself is a poor conductor of electricity: it is
● Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid: the presence of dissolved minerals that makes water a
any taste it does have comes from the minerals that good conductor of electricity. Sea water, for example,
may be dissolved in it, and this can often explain why is a very good conductor of electricity because of the
water tastes different in different parts of the country. dissolved salts and minerals it contains.
● Water can exist in all three states of matter: ● Water is a poor conductor of heat: compared to
liquid (water), solid (ice) and gas (steam). most metals, water is a poor conductor of heat. In
● Water has a maximum density of 1000 kg per fact, water is a better insulator of heat than it is
cubic meter (m3) at 4°C: at this temperature, water conductor. That is why it takes so much energy to
is at its densest. When the temperature of water raise the temperature of water by 1°C (see specific
is either raised or lowered from 4°C, water loses heat capacity, above).
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

q Table 3.11 Classification of water

Type of water pH value Base Notes
Neutral 7 N/A Neutral water is neither soft nor hard.
Soft Below 7 Acidic Water is made soft by the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2). It is particularly destructive
to plumbing systems containing lead as it can dissolve the lead, making the water
contaminated. Because of its lead-dissolving capability, soft water is known as ‘plumbo-
solvent’. Soft water lathers soap easily.
Temporary Above 7 Alkali Temporary hard water contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3), otherwise known as limestone.
hard water This kind of water can be softened by boiling but leaves behind limescale residues, which
can block pipes and other plumbing fittings and appliances. When water reaches 65°C, the
calcium in the water re-forms in a process known as precipitation, causing scaling within
plumbing systems. Lathering of soap is difficult.
Permanently Above 7 Alkali Permanently hard water contains magnesium and calcium chlorides, and sulphates in the
hard water solution. It cannot be softened by boiling.

● Water is known as the ‘universal solvent’: almost against the action of gravity. The wider the gap, the
all substances dissolve in water to a certain extent. less capillary attraction takes place. It is of particular
Because of this, it is almost impossible to get interest to plumbers as it has the ability to cause
chemically pure water on Earth. problems within some plumbing systems, such as:
● Water is classified as being hard or soft: the ● it can cause water to be drawn up underneath tiles

hardness and softness of water affects its pH value and roof weatherings, resulting in water leaks inside
(see Table 3.11). the building
● Water goes through several stages to be turned ● it can initiate water trap seal loss in above-ground

into steam: at atmospheric pressure, the boiling drainage systems; in this instance, there are two
point of water is 100°C. To raise the temperature forces at work – capillary attraction and siphonic
of the water from 0°C to 100°C takes 419 kJ/kg of action.
energy. To turn the boiling water at 100°C to steam
Conversely, it is also the process we use to make
at 100°C takes a further 2257 kJ/kg of energy; this
soldered capillary joints on copper tubes and fittings.
is when it expands by 1600 times. At this point, the
steam is said to be saturated steam. In other words, Before capillary attraction can take place, two processes
it is saturated with heat. The total heat, therefore, to need to be present. These are adhesion and cohesion.
turn water at 0°C to steam at 100°C takes 2676 kJ/kg
of heat energy. Any further heat added after this does
not increase the temperature of the steam; it remains
at 100°C and the steam is known as ‘superheated’
steam because of the extra heat energy. To increase
the temperature of the steam, the initial pressure of
the water will have to be increased.

INDUSTRY TIP  Figure 3.9 Capillary attraction

The pH scale allows engineers to test water for its acidity or

alkalinity. This in turn will allow the corrective treatment to INDUSTRY TIP
be offered to gain a pH level of 7 (natural water).
Capillary attraction is used to a plumber’s advantage when
solder is melted into a liquid and is drawn in between the
Capillary attraction pipe and fitting.
Capillary attraction is the process where water (or any
fluid) can be drawn upwards through small gaps
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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Adhesion and cohesion

Vapour Vapour
Water is fluid because of cohesion. The cohesive Compressor
quality gives water a slight film on its surface, which is
known as the surface tension.
Water is also attracted to other materials, and so it
tends to stick to whatever it comes into contact with. Evaporator Fan Condenser
This is known as adhesion. When water is placed in a
vessel or a glass, the adhesion qualities of the water
give it a slightly curved appearance. This is known as
the meniscus and can be convex (outward curve) or
concave (inward curve).
Liquid & vapour Liquid
Expansion valve
KEY TERMS
 Figure 3.10 The vapour compression refrigeration cycle
Cohesion: the way in which the water molecules
‘stick’ to one another to form a mass rather than
staying individual. This is because water molecules Glycol
are attracted to other water molecules. Glycol is the name used for solar hot water system
Adhesion: the way in which water molecules ‘stick’ anti-freeze solution. It is used for protecting solar
to other molecules they come into contact with.
panels from freezing during the winter when mixed
with water in the sealed solar panel circuit. It is
Refrigerants available in two forms: propylene glycol and ethylene
Refrigerants are fluorinated chemicals that are used glycol. Propylene glycol is the preferred chemical for
in both liquid and gas states. They can, therefore, solar panels as ethylene glycol is highly toxic. The anti-
be classified as both liquid (when compressed) and freeze should be checked regularly as its anti-freezing
gas (vapour). All refrigerants boil at extremely low capability diminishes with time and the solution can
temperatures, well below 0°C. become corrosive with age.

When a refrigerant gas is compressed, it changes its Fuel oils (kerosene)

state to a liquid. During this process a lot of heat and
Kerosene is a fuel oil that is used with most domestic
pressure are generated. When the pressure is released
oil-fired boilers (see Chapter 7, Central heating
quickly, it generates cold. Refrigerants’ ability to change
systems, page 379). Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid
their state quickly with such wide temperature changes
formed from hydrocarbons, and has a density of
allows them to be used in refrigeration plants, air
0.78–0.81 g/cm3. It is made from the distillation of
conditioning systems and heat pumps. The process is
petroleum at temperatures between 150°C and 275°C.
known as the vapour compression refrigeration cycle.
The flashpoint of kerosene is between 37°C and 65°C,
The refrigerant vapour enters the compressor, which and it will spontaneously combust at 220°C. The heat
compresses it, generating heat. The compressed of combustion of kerosene is 43.1 MJ/kg, and its higher
vapour then enters the condenser, where the useful heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg.
heat is removed and the vapour condenses to a liquid
refrigerant. From here, the liquid refrigerant then passes Lubricants
into the expansion valve, where rapid expansion takes A lubricant is a substance, often a liquid or grease,
place, converting the warm liquid into a super-cold introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce
vapour/liquid mix, which creates the refrigeration effect. friction, thus improving efficiency and reducing
The vapour/liquid mix passes through the evaporator, wear. There are many types of lubricant in use in
where final expansion to a vapour takes place. This then the plumbing industry:
enters the compressor for the cycle to begin again.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Silicone grease and spray: used for general fires. It is also used with plumbers’ blowtorches for
lubrication of plumbing parts for water and drainage soldering capillary fittings. There are two basic types:
systems. It is also used when jointing push-fit 1 butane – used mainly as a camping gas
plastic pipe systems to lubricate the rubber seals. 2 propane – the most widely used LPG in the
● Graphite paste: used for lubrication of gas taps. building services industry.
● Cutting oils: used when threading low carbon ● Natural gas: the most widely used fuel in the UK,
steel pipe. They help to prevent overheating of the natural gas has many applications, both domestic
cutting dies. and industrial. It is used as a fuel for:
● Penetrating oils: used to help loosen tight and ● gas fires
rusted joints. ● cookers

● room heaters

The principal applications of ● condensing central heating boilers

● water heaters
gases ● electricity generation
In this section of the chapter, we will look at the ● industrial heating and processes.
principal uses of gases in the building services industry, ● Carbon dioxide: used as a freezing agent with pipe-
together with their properties and the scientific laws freezing kits, and is also used in fire extinguishers.
that apply to them. ● Refrigerant gas: see the section on refrigerants
(page 141).
Types of gases
The principal gases in the building services industry are Gas laws
listed below. Gases behave very differently from the other two states
● Air: this has limited uses within the plumbing industry. of matter we have studied so far: solids and liquids. Gases,
● It can be used as a heating medium in warm-air unlike solids and liquids, have neither a fixed volume
heating systems. Here, the air is warmed by a nor a fixed shape. They are moulded completely by the
warm-air heater, usually fired by gas. The warm air container in which they are held. There are three variables
is distributed to the property by means of a fan. by which we measure gases. These are as follows.
● It can be used as a pressure charge in expansion

vessels. These are usually installed in sealed Pressure

heating systems and some unvented hot water This is the force that the gas exerts on the walls of its
storage vessels. container; it is equal on all sides of the container. For
● Air at high pressure can be used to clear blocked example, when a balloon is inflated, the balloon expands
drains. because the pressure of air is greater on the inside of
● Steam: once the preferred method of heating, the balloon than the outside. The pressure is exerted on
the use of steam has declined over recent years. all surfaces of the balloon equally and so the balloon
However, because of new, more efficient system inflates evenly. If the balloon is released, the air will
designs, steam is being used as a heating medium for: move from the area of high pressure (inside the balloon)
● new combined heat and power applications – to the area of low pressure (outside the balloon).
steam can be used to generate electricity and
warm properties in district heating systems
KEY POINT
● electricity generation

● hot water production using large hot water

Pressure is measured as force per unit area. The
calorifiers
standard SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa).
However, in plumbing it is more likely that pressure
● heating systems – the steam is used instead of
will be measured in bar pressure (1 bar = 100 kPa)
water in the heat emitters.
or millibar (1 mbar = 100 Pa).
● LPG: liquid petroleum gas (LPG) can be used for

heating appliances such as boilers, cookers and

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Volume Boyle’s law

The volume of gas in a given container is affected Boyle’s law states that the volume of a sample of
by temperature and pressure. Pressure is constant if gas at a given temperature varies inversely with the
temperature is constant. If temperature is increased, applied pressure. In other words, if the pressure is
then both the volume and pressure increase. doubled, the volume of the gas is halved. Table 3.12
illustrates this point.
Temperature
An important property of any gas is its temperature.
INDUSTRY TIP
The temperature of a gas is a measure of the mean
kinetic energy of the gas. The gas molecules are in The principle of Boyle’s law applies to a child’s balloon. If
constant random motion (kinetic energy). The higher the balloon is inflated to a set pressure and then squeezed,
the temperature, then the greater the kinetic energy the pressure inside increases as the space inside the
and greater the motion. As the temperature falls, the balloon decreases. If the space inside the balloon were
kinetic energy decreases and the motion of the gas halved, then the pressure would double.
molecules diminishes.

Charles’s law IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Charles’s law was discovered by Jacques Charles in Boyle’s law can also be expressed as:
1802. It states that the volume of a quantity of gas, ‘Pressure multiplied by volume is constant for a given
amount of gas at constant temperature.’
held at constant pressure, varies directly with the kelvin
temperature. But what does that mean? To put this in mathematical terms:
P × V = constant (for a given amount of gas at a
It relates to how gases expand when they are heated fixed temperature)
up and contract when they are cooled. In other words,
Since P × V = K, then:
as the temperature of a quantity of gas at constant
pressure increases, the volume increases. As the Pi × Vi = Pf × Vf
temperature goes down, the volume decreases. Where:
Vi = initial volume
INDUSTRY TIP Pi = initial pressure
Vf = final volume
Charles’s law can be explained with the following analogy.
Pf = final pressure
If a sealed copper pipe were pressurised to 20 mb at room
K = constant
temperature and then placed in direct sunlight where the pipe
could warm up, then the pressure inside the pipe would rise.
The rise in pressure would be directly proportional to the rise q Table 3.12 Sample of gas at constant temperature and varying
in temperature. If the pipe were allowed to cool down to room pressure
temperature, then it would return to its original pressure. Test Pressure Volume Formula Calculation
1 100 kPa 50 cm3 P × V = K 100 × 50 = 5000

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS 2 50 kPa 100 cm3 P × V = K 50 × 100 = 5000

The mathematical expression for Charles’s law is 3 200 kPa 25 cm3 P × V = K 200 × 25 = 5000
shown below: 4 400 kPa 12.5 cm3 P × V = K 400 × 12.5
= 5000
V1 ÷ T1 = V2 ÷ T2
5 25 kPa 200 cm3 P × V = K 25 × 200 = 5000
Where:
V = volume
T = temperature

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

3 THE RELATIONSHIP Temperature

BETWEEN ENERGY, Temperature is simply the degree of hotness or coldness
of a body or environment, and is expressed in terms of
HEAT AND POWER units or degrees designated on a standard scale, usually
celsius (centigrade) (°C) or kelvin (K).
The relationship between energy, heat and power is
such that it is almost impossible to have one without Celsius (°C)
the other two. Below is a list of units for energy, heat This scale, using increments of 1 degree (1°), is the
and power. most widely used by the building services industry.
● The unit of power: the watt is the SI unit for In simple terms, it has a zero point (0°C), which
power. It is equivalent to one joule per second (1 J/s) corresponds to the temperature at which water will
or, in electrical units, one volt ampere (1 V·A). freeze. When this scale is used, the degree symbol (°)
● The unit of heat: the joule is the unit of heat; 4.186 should accompany it, i.e. 21°C.
joule of heat energy (which equals one calorie) is DEGREES
required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
from 0°C to 1°C.
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit
● The unit of energy: also the joule (see above).

● Specific heat capacity: the specific heat capacity of 100 373 212
a substance is the amount of heat required to change
a unit mass of that substance by one degree in
temperature. It is measured in kilojoules per kilogram
per degree Celsius or Kelvin (kJ/kg°C or kJ/kgK).

INDUSTRY TIP 0 273 32

Specific heat capacity is important to understand when

working out how much energy is required to heat up a hot
water cylinder.

Heat energy is transferred because of temperature

- 100 173 - 148
difference – for example, heat passes from a warm
body with high temperature to a cold body with low
temperature. The transfer of energy as a result of the
temperature difference alone is referred to as heat
flow. The watt, which is the SI unit of power, can be
defined as 1 joule per second (J/s) of heat flow.
In this part of the chapter, we will investigate the - 200 73 - 328

energy/heat/power/temperature relationship, and its

implications for the building services industry.

- 273 0 - 460

C K F

 Figure 3.11 The relationship between celsius, kelvin and

fahrenheit

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Kelvin (K)
This has the same increments as the Celsius scale,
but has a minimum temperature that corresponds to
the point at which all molecular motion will stop. This
temperature is often called absolute zero and is equal to
−273°C. Therefore:
● −273°C = 0K, or

● temperature K = temperature °C + 273.

The degree symbol (°) is not used when using the

Kelvin scale, i.e. 21 K. The two scales (C and K) are,
for the most part, interchangeable. The SI unit of
temperature is the kelvin; however, when discussing
temperature difference, celsius or kelvin may be used
and, since both scales correspond with each other,
temperature difference is uniform. In other words, a 1°C
temperature difference is equal to a 1 K temperature
 Figure 3.12 Glass thermometer
difference.
● Thermocouple: this device is a connection between
two different metals that produces an electrical
INDUSTRY TIP
voltage when subjected to heat. This senses a
Celsius is named after the Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely
(1701–1744). The Kelvin scale is named after the Belfast-born used type of temperature sensor for measurement
engineer and physicist William Thomson, First Baron Kelvin and control when used with digital thermometers
(1824–1907). (see below). They can also be used to convert heat
into electrical power.
● Thermistor: thermistors are resistors that vary
Measuring temperature with temperature. They are constructed of
Many methods have been developed for measuring semiconductor material with a resistivity that is
temperature. Most rely on measuring some physical especially sensitive to temperature. When the
property of a working material that varies with temperature is measured, the resistance of the
temperature. Temperature measuring devices include thermistor responds in a predictable way.
the following. ● Infrared thermometers: these use infrared
● Glass thermometer: one of the most common energy to detect temperatures. They detect actual
devices for measuring temperature. This consists of energy levels by the use of an infrared beam and
a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid. so the thermometer does not need to actually
Temperature increases cause the fluid to expand, so touch the surface to take an accurate temperature
the temperature can be determined by measuring measurement.
the volume of the fluid. These thermometers are
usually calibrated so that the temperature can
INDUSTRY TIPS
be read by observing the level of the fluid in the
thermometer. Thermistors are used in modern boilers to measure
● Gas thermometer: this measures temperature by temperature on the return pipe.
the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. Infrared thermometers are used to image a radiator and
identify potential cold spots.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

INDUSTRY TIP
Digital thermometers are commonly used when
commissioning a system as they offer a quick and easy way
to measure water temperature.

States of matter
Everything around us is made up of matter, which can
exist in three classic states: solid, liquid and gas. Each of
the phase changes is associated with either an increase
or decrease in temperature. For example, if heat energy
 Figure 3.13 Infrared thermometer is applied to ice, it melts to form water and, if more
● Digital thermometers: these are probably the heat energy is applied to the water, it reaches its boiling
most common thermometer used in the plumbing point, where it vaporises, evaporating to steam. The
industry. Dual digital thermometers can read two process can also work in reverse. When the heat is
temperatures simultaneously, instantly giving the given up by the steam, it condenses back to water. Each
temperature difference between two points, which of these phase changes is given a name:
is essential when benchmarking central heating ● ice (solid) to water (liquid) is called melting

boilers for reading the temperature of both flow and ● water (liquid) to steam (gas) is called evaporation/

return pipes. vaporisation

● steam (gas) back to a water (liquid) is called

condensation
● water (liquid) to ice (solid) is called freezing

(solidification)
● ice (solid) to steam (gas) is known as sublimation

● steam (gas) to ice (solid) is known as deposition.

 Figure 3.14 Digital thermometer

Steam
)
am
Enep ora tion

te
os
rgy

yt
ing

ctl
ens

e
dir
Ev a

ice
ond

n( ice
)
ati
o
Water
C

o
m y yt
bli tl
Su rg ec
Ene rg
y ea
m
dir

ne st
rgy

n(
E io
ting

osit
Ene
zing

ep
Mel

D
Free

Ice

 Figure 3.15 States of matter

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

Steam

ion
Water is heated from 0ºC to water

orat

rgy
at 100ºC. A change in temperature

Evap
but no change of state. This is

Ene
sensible heat.
Water
The ice remains at 0ºC and
melts to become water at 0ºC.
ting

rgy
A change of state without a change
Mel
in temperature. This is latent heat.
Ene
Ice

 Figure 3.16 How sensible and latent heat work together

Sensible and latent heat 1 conduction

2 convection
Sensible heat of liquid and gases 3 radiation.
When heat is applied to a liquid, its temperature will
We will look at each one in turn.
rise as heat is added without a change of state. The
resulting increase in heat is known as sensible heat. This
Conduction
process can be reversed. When heat is removed from
the liquid and its temperature decreases, the heat that Conduction happens when heat travels through a
is removed is also called sensible heat. Therefore, any substance, with the heat being transferred from one
heat that causes a change in temperature without a molecule to another.
change of state is known as sensible heat.
INDUSTRY TIP
Latent heat of liquid and gases
To understand conduction, imagine holding a cold short
Changes of state, as we have already seen, are the result
piece of copper pipe. While still holding the pipe a blowtorch
of a change in temperature. Solids can become liquids,
flame heats the opposite end up. The heat will travel down
liquids can become gases and each change of state is the pipe until the pipe is too hot to hold.
reversible. The heat that causes any change of state is
known as latent heat. Latent heat, however, does not
affect the substance’s temperature. For example, water Consider a piece of copper tube. If heat is applied
boils at 100°C. The heat required to raise the water to its to one end, before long the heat will have travelled
boiling point of 100°C is called sensible heat. The heat through the material so that the effects of the heat
required to keep it boiling at 100°C is latent heat. will be felt at the other end. This occurs because kinetic
energy in the form of heat is being passed from one
Methods of heat transfer copper molecule to another very quickly. When the
copper is cold, the atoms move very slowly. As heat is
So far we have investigated temperature and heat, and applied, these atoms gain speed and collide with the
how these affect the different states of matter. Now, slower, cooler atoms. In this way, some of the kinetic
we will consider the methods of heat transfer. energy is passed through the material, the slow atoms
There are three methods by which heat can be becoming faster and colliding with other slow atoms,
transferred through a substance or from one substance and so on.
to another. These are:

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Not all substances, however, transfer heat at the same for every degree rise in temperature, then the length of
rate. Some materials, such as plastic or wood, are expansion can be significant. On larger installations, it
very poor at transferring heat, with little or no heat may mean the use of expansion joints to accommodate
transference occurring at all. the amount of expansion so that damage to the
pipework is eliminated. PVCu expands by a greater
Most metals are very good conductors of heat and,
amount of 0.0005 m/m/°C.
because of this, they are also very good at conducting
electricity. Materials that do not transfer heat well,
such as plastic, are known as insulators. INDUSTRY TIP
Expansion joints are required in many systems to allow
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS material to expand and contract without causing problems
The rate at which a material will transfer heat is for the installation. Plastic expands the most out of all
known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity,
plumbing materials; look at a guttering component and note
which is measured in W/m/K. It can be found using
the following equation:
the expansion mark. For more information see Chapter 8.

Thermal conductivity
heat × distance
= IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
area × temperature difference
Let’s see by how much copper expands.
20 m of 22 mm copper pipe contains water that rises from
Table 3.13 lists some common substances, together 4°C to 85°C. By how much does the copper expand?
with their coefficient of thermal conductivity. There is 20 m of copper pipe, an 81°C temperature
difference and a 0.000018 coefficient of expansion
q Table 3.13 Coefficient thermal conductivity of common substances
of copper, so:
Material Thermal conductivity W/m/K 20 m × 81°C × 0.000018 m/m/°C = 29.16 mm
Silver 406.0
Copper 385.0
Gold 310
Convection
Aluminium 205.0 Convection is heat transfer through a fluid substance,
Brass 109.0
which can be water or air.
Steel 50.2 Convection occurs because heated fluids, due to their
Lead 34.7 lower density, rise and cooled fluids fall.
Concrete 0.8 As water or air is heated it expands, which makes it less
Polyethylene HD 0.5 dense and therefore lighter. If a cooler, denser material
Wood 0.12–0.04 is above the warmer layer, the warmer material will rise
Polystyrene expanded 0.03 through the cooler material. The lighter, rising material
will release its heat into the surrounding environment,
From Table 3.13, it can be seen that silver is the best become denser (cooler), and will fall because of the
conductor of heat, with copper coming a close second. effect of gravity, to start the process over again.
The poorest conductor of heat is expanded polystyrene, In a hot water system, this process is known as gravity
which is an excellent insulator of heat. circulation.
The coefficient of linear expansion
Most materials expand when they are heated. When
INDUSTRY TIP
copper pipework expands it can often be heard as a Gravity circulation is no longer used to heat water but can
ticking when the central heating is on. The copper still be found in a few older properties. See the old direct
expands in length by 0.000018 m/m/°C. This may not system in Chapter 6 and the C-plan plus system in Chapter 7.
seem a lot, but when it is considered that this figure is

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

surface. This is the reason that solar thermal panels are

dark and dull, to allow them to absorb the Sun’s heat
more effectively. This is also why a lot of cars in hot
Hot, less dense
water rises
countries are coloured white, to reflect the heat.
through the water
to the top of the
cylinder.
Solar thermal radiation
Sun Earth
Solar thermal radiation
Cooler, dense water
falls back towards
the heat source to
be reheated and the
process starts again.
 Figure 3.18 Thermal radiation from the Sun

Energy, heat and power

calculations
 Figure 3.17 Gravity circulation in a hot water system
In this part of the chapter, we will look at simple
energy, heat and power calculations using information
Modern radiators in central heating systems use two we have previously discovered. To recap, the SI units of
methods of heat transfer, with convection being the measurement of energy, heat and power are:
main heat transfer method. The other is radiation. ● energy – the joule (J)

● heat – the joule (J)

Radiation ● power – the watt (W)

The third method of heat transfer is radiation. Radiation ● specific heat capacity – kilojoules per kilogram per

heat transfer is thermal radiation from infrared light, degree celsius (kJ/kg/°C).
visible or not, which transfers heat from one body to
another without heating the space in between. Like all Calculations using the specific heat
forms of light, thermal radiation travels in straight lines. capacity of water

INDUSTRY TIP KEY POINT

Remember: the specific heat capacity of water is
Radiation is used in solar thermal and solar PV panels which 4.186 kJ/kg/°C.
use dark coloured fins to absorb the energy from the Sun.
Example 1
Consider the heat from the Sun, which travels millions How many kilojoules would it take to heat 100 litres of
of miles through the vacuum of space to heat the Earth. water from 30°C to 80°C?
The heat can be felt from a distance because it travels The formula for this is:
in waves, which are emitted from the heat of the Sun.
L × Δt × SHC of water
Radiation is the heat transfer method that makes solar hot
water collectors in solar hot water systems so effective. Where:
Radiation heat can also be felt from a hot radiator, even L = litres
though there is no visible heat source or flame. This is
Δt = temperature difference
because the heat is being radiated as thermal energy.
SHC of water = 4.186
Radiated heat is better absorbed by some materials
than others. The colour and texture of a surface can Therefore:
also affect the heat absorption. A dull matt surface 100 × (80−30) × 4.186 = 20930 kJ
will absorb heat more effectively than a shiny polished
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Example 3
ACTIVITY
Using the formula shown in Example 1, calculate how
How many seconds would it take for 20 kg of water to
many kilojoules it would take to heat 140 litres of be heated by 15°C using a 3 kW heating element?
water from 4°C to 65°C.
KEY POINT
Example 2 Remember: water has a specific heat capacity of
4.186 kJ/kg/°C and that 1 W = 1 J/s.
We can develop this concept further to calculate how
many kilowatts it would take to raise the temperature
The formula for this is:
of the 100 litres of water by 50°C. To do this, we need
kg × t × SHC
to state a time frame. Let us assume that the 100 litres
kW
of water is required in one hour. The calculation would
Where:
then become:
L × Δt × SHC of water
kg = kilograms
Time (in seconds) t = temperature
Where:
kW = kilowatts
L = litres
SHC = specific heat capacity
Δt = temperature difference
Therefore:
SHC of water = 4.186 20 × 15 × 4.186
= 418.6 s or 6.976 minutes
1 hour in seconds = 3600 3

Therefore:
ACTIVITY
100 × (80–30) × 4.186
= 5.81 kW Using the formula shown in Example 3, calculate
3600 how many seconds it would take for 42 kg of
water to be heated by 30°C using a 3 kW heating
ACTIVITY element.
Using the formula shown in Example 2, calculate
how many kilowatts it would take to raise the
temperature of the 140 litres of water from 4°C
to 65°C in two hours.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

4 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORCE AND PRESSURE,

AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE PLUMBING
AND HEATING INDUSTRY
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the scientific time. It is usually measured in metres cubed per
principles of force and pressure, and investigate how second (m3/s). However, in plumbing systems, flow
they apply to the building services industry. rate is usually measured in litres per second (l/s) or
in litres per minute (l/m) when using a flow/wier cup.
The SI units of force and When converting l/s into l/m you multiply by 60.
When converting from l/m to l/s you divide by 60
pressure (60 seconds per minute).
 Table 3.14 SI units of force and pressure
Velocity metres per second m/s IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Acceleration metres per second squared m/s2 To convert from m3/s to l/s, multiply m3/s by 1000.
Flow rate metres cubed per second m3/s To convert from l/s to m3/s, multiply l/s by 0.001.
Force newton (equal to kg m/s2) N Flow rate can also be measured in kilograms per
second (kg/s). Since 1 litre of water has a mass of
Pressure, stress pascal (equal to N/m2) Pa
1 kilogram, then 1 litre per second (l/s) = 1 kilogram
per second (kg/s).
Velocity and acceleration
● Velocity is the measurement of the rate at which
an object changes its position. In order to measure
Force
it, we need to know both the speed of the object Force is an influence on an object at rest that, acting
and the direction in which it is travelling. It is alone, will cause the motion of the object to change. If
measured in metres per second (m/s). the object at rest is subjected to a force, it will start to
● Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which move. For example, consider water in a pipe connected
an amount of matter increases its velocity. It is to a cistern at one end and a tap at the other. When
measured in a change of velocity over a period of the tap is closed, the water is not moving and so is
time and, as such, is directly proportional to force. It said to be at rest. When the tap is opened, the force
will increase and decrease linearly with an increase of gravity will move the water out of the tap, causing
or decrease in force if the mass remains constant. It water to flow. It is measured in newtons (N).
is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2).
● Acceleration due to gravity is the rate of change IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
of velocity of an object due to the gravitational pull The unit of the force of gravity is the newton. It is
of the Earth. If gravity is the only force acting on an the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at
object, then the object will accelerate at a rate of 1 metre per second, every second. On Earth, that
force of acceleration (known as gravitational pull) is
9.81 m/s2 downwards towards the ground. 9.81 metres per second per second, or 9.81 m/s2.
Therefore, if we multiply the mass of an object (in kg)
Flow rate by 9.81, the result is measured in newtons (kgm/s2).
In plumbing, flow rate is defined as an amount of
fluid that flows through a pipe or tube over a given

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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Before we can attempt these calculations, we must
first find the mass of the cistern in kg. The formula for
this is:
length × width × height = volume in m3
From earlier calculations, we know that to find the
When the tap is When the tap is force of an object we use the formula:
closed, the body opened, the force of
of water is at rest gravity pushes the kg × gravity = N
water down the pipe
and out of the tap Since 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg, a cistern
causing a flow of measuring 1 m × 0.5 m × 0.7 m has a force of
water 3433.5 N.
The formula for finding pressure is:
force
= N/m2
area
From these calculations we can see that the greater
the surface area for a given mass, the less force
will be exerted by that mass. This is of particular
importance when placing large cisterns in roof
 Figure 3.19 The force of gravity on a cold water system spaces since the greater the surface area we can
rest the cistern on, the more we can spread the load
of the cistern.
ACTIVITY
Calculating force
ACTIVITY
Consider the cistern in Figure 3.19. If it contained a
mass of water equal to 40 kg, then by multiplying Pressure
the mass by the force of gravity, the force of the What is the pressure exerted by a block of lead
cistern acting downwards can be calculated: with a cross-sectional area of 4 m2 and a mass of
4000 kg?
40 × 9.81 = 392.4 N
If a cistern in a roof space contains a volume of
100 litres of water and 1 litre = 1 kg, what is the Static pressure of water (head)
force acting on the platform it is standing on? The unit of water pressure is the pascal. The pressure
exerted by water is due to its mass and is determined
by the height of the column of water. For instance, if
Pressure the pressure exerted by a water main is 300 kilopascals
In physics, pressure is defined as force per unit area. (kPa) it will balance a column of water about 30 m
For an object sitting on a surface, the force pressing high. This pressure is equivalent to a head of water of
on the surface is the weight of the object measured 30 m. Therefore, 10 m of head = 100 kPa.
in newtons per square metre (N/m2). However, in
Water pressure in plumbing systems is usually
different orientations it might have a different area
measured in bar pressure.
in contact with the surface and will therefore exert a
different pressure. For example, if a cistern measuring Static head of water in plumbing systems is measured
1 m long × 0.5 m wide × 0.7 high was placed in a roof from the bottom of the water source, i.e. the cistern, to
space, then what pressure would it exert if: the outlet, as shown in Figure 3.20.
● it was placed on its bottom

● it was placed on its side

● it was placed on its end?

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

q Table 3.15 Conversions for common units of head of pressure

Kilopascals (kPa) Bar Metres head of water

10 0.1 1
20 0.2 2
30 0.3 3
40 0.4 4
50 0.5 5
100 1 10
Static head measured from
150 1.5 15
the bottom of the cistern
exerts a pressure of 10 kpa 200 2 20
per metre of head.
10 m 250 2.5 25
10 kpa = 0.1 bar = 1 m 300 3 30
350 3.5 35
400 4 40
450 4.5 45
500 5 50

the objects located on it. The more pressure there

Static head at the tap is is, the stronger that force will be; at sea level, the
100 kpa = 1 bar = 10 m
atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa. This is known as
 Figure 3.20 The head of pressure on a cold water system 1 atmosphere (atm). Atmospheric pressure decreases
with height.
ACTIVITY
Static pressure of water The principle of a siphon (siphonic
If the vertical distance between the bottom of a action) due to atmospheric pressure
cold water cistern and the tap is 16 m, what is the The principle of a siphon is to discharge water from a
pressure at the tap in: high vessel to a lower vessel using atmospheric pressure
a kilopascals and the cohesive properties of water.
b bar?
The principle of a siphon can be understood with
reference to the diagram (see Figure 3.21). The two
Table 3.15 shows the conversions for common units of beakers are both at atmospheric pressure, but they are
head of pressure. at different levels. The pressure at beaker ‘B’ is greater
because it is lower. The outlet from the hose at ‘B’
Dynamic pressure must be lower than the inlet of the hose at ‘A’ for flow
Also called working pressure, dynamic pressure is the to take place. When suction is applied to the end of the
pressure of water while it is in motion. In other words, hose at ‘B’, the water will flow upwards over the top of
it is the pressure of flowing water. If the pressure of the beaker ‘A’, where the atmospheric pressure is slightly
water is increased, the velocity and flow rate will also lower. Here, gravity and the cohesive nature of water
increase. will empty the contents of beaker ‘A’ into beaker ‘B’.

Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the amount of force or
pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the Earth and

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Increased fluid speed,

decreased internal pressure

Water from beaker A flows backwards to  Figure 3.22 The Bernoulli effect
beaker B when a negative pressure is B
applied at point C, emptying beaker A. Similarly, if the pipe suddenly increases in size, then the
This process is known as siphonic action. velocity of the water will decrease but the pressure will
C increase slightly. The flow rate remains constant. This
can be seen in the different settings on a showerhead.

 Figure 3.21 Siphonic action Factors affecting flow rate

As we have seen, flow rate is unaffected by sudden
INDUSTRY TIP increases in pipe size but, as described below, there are
elements in plumbing systems that can severely affect
Siphonic action is one way in which a toilet flushes. The the flow rate.
water in the toilet cistern is transferred to the toilet pan ● Changes in direction: any change in direction
via the flush pipe. See Chapter 9 for details of how a WC of a pipe will offer resistance to the flow of the
siphon works.
water. That resistance will, in effect, be an increase
in the overall length of the pipe. For example, an
elbow installed in the run of copper pipe will offer
The relationship between resistance equivalent to 0.37 m of pipe. So, if 10
elbows are used, then the length of the pipe has,
velocity, pressure and flow theoretically, increased by 3.7 m. Machine-made
rate in plumbing systems bends offer slightly less resistance at 0.26 m of
pipe. This will also vary with the material of the
As we have already discovered, if pressure is applied to
pipe (see ‘Frictional resistance of the internal bore
a pipe full of water, the effect is to increase the velocity
of the pipe’ below).
and therefore the flow rate of the water. The more
pressure that is applied, the greater the velocity and q Table 3.16 Resistances in the form of equivalent lengths of
common fittings
flow rate becomes.
Nominal pipe size* (mm)
A similar effect occurs when a pipe is suddenly reduced
in size; this can be seen in a hosepipe. If the end of a 8 10 12 15 22 28
flowing hosepipe is suddenly reduced, then the speed Type of fitting Equivalent length (m)
increases and the water shoots further away, but the Capillary elbow 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.37 0.60 0.83
pressure and flow rate will be reduced. This is called the Compression elbow 0.24 0.33 0.42 0.60 1.00 1.30
Bernoulli effect. Square tee piece 0.27 0.37 0.49 1.00 1.6 2

This describes the result of a reduction in pipe size, Swept tee piece 0.22 0.29 0.38 0.60 0.75 1
where the speed of fluid increases at the same time as Manifold connection 0.60 1.00 1.20 n/a n/a n/a
the pressure or the fluid’s potential energy decreases. Minimum radius 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.26 0.41 0.58
(machine) bend
* Copper tubes to BS EN 1057 R250

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

● Size of pipe: the greatest factor in the flow rate of the loss of flow rate. To counter this effect, the pipe
any system is the size of the pipe itself. The bigger size should be increased initially at the start of the
the bore of the pipe, the better the flow rate will be. pipe run and then reduced as length increases.
● Pressure: pressure increases flow rate. The greater ● Frictional resistance of the internal bore of the
the pressure, the greater the flow rate. pipe: different materials offer different frictional
● Length of the pipe: flow rate diminishes with resistance. Polybutylene pipe, for instance, has
length because of the frictional resistance of the the smoothest bore of all common pipe materials
wall of the pipe. Water flows faster down the centre and low carbon steel the roughest. Therefore, low
of the pipe than it does at the pipe wall. The nearer carbon steel at like-for-like sizes will have a much
the water is to the wall of the pipe, then the greater lower flow rate than polybutylene pipe.
the frictional resistance and so the slower the water ● Constrictions such as valves and taps: taps and
becomes. The frictional resistance of the pipe is valves offer a lot of resistance to the flow of water.
slowing the flow rate constantly. The greater the Some stop taps can increase pipe length by up to
length, the more frictional resistance, the greater 6 m per valve.

5 THE MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES IN THE

PLUMBING AND HEATING INDUSTRY
Simple machines are those that aid with the lifting and
moving of loads that are too heavy to lift or move on
Simple machines
their own. There are four main types: Here, we will look at the machines themselves and their
1 levers possible uses in everyday working life.
2 wheel and axles
3 pulleys
Levers
4 screws. In physics, a lever is a rigid object that can be used with
a pivot point or fulcrum to multiply the mechanical
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS force that can be applied to another, heavier object.
Levers are examples of mechanical advantage.
The calculation for finding out how a lever functions is:
Load There are three classes of lever, as follows.
Mechanical advantage = ● First class lever: a simple see-saw arrangement
Effort
where the long arm (force effort) is proportional to
These machines give a mechanical advantage (velocity the short arm (load). Examples of this are:
● the lever arm of a float-operated valve
ratio) to human effort, meaning they multiply the
● claw hammer
force that is put into them. There are two types of
● water pump pliers (double lever).
mechanical advantage:
● Second class lever: a variation on the first class
1 Ideal mechanical advantage (IMA): purely theoretical,
based upon an ‘ideal machine’, which does not exist. lever. Examples of this are:
● wheelbarrow
2 Actual mechanical advantage (AMA): this is the
● crowbar.
mechanical advantage of a real machine such as a
● Third class lever: examples of this are:
wheelbarrow (lever). AMA takes into consideration
● the human arm
real-world factors such as energy lost because
● tools, such as a hoe or scythe
of friction.
● spades and shovels.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The wheel and axle multiplies the ‘torque’ during the

turning motion.
Both the wheel and the axle have ropes wound around
them. The load is lifted by pulling on the rope around
the wheel so that the wheel and axle is rotated once,
F
therefore:
W Radius of the wheel R
Mechanical advantage = =
 Figure 3.23 First class lever Radius of the axle r
Spanners and screwdrivers use the principle of wheel
and axle.

Pulleys
A pulley is a collection of one or more wheels over
which a rope or chain is looped to aid lifting heavy
objects. Pulleys are examples of simple machines. In
F other words, they multiply the lifting forces.
W

 Figure 3.24 Second class lever How do pulleys work?

F A single pulley reverses the direction of the lifting force.
When the rope is pulled down, the weight lifts up. If
a lift of 100 kg is needed, an equal force of 100 kg
must be exerted. A lift of 1 m high needs to be pulled
downwards 1 m.

 Figure 3.25 Third class lever r

Wheel and axles

 he wheel and axle is composed of a wheel, which
T R
is larger than the diameter of the axle. Either of these
can be used as the effort arm and the resistance arm,
and this depends where the force is applied. The force
 Figure 3.26 The pulley wheel
is usually applied to the wheel rather than the axle to
gain the maximum output. The point where the axle If more ropes and wheels are added, the effort needed
joins the wheel is known as the fulcrum and this acts to lift the weight is reduced. The 100 kg weight is
as the point where the force from the larger wheel is now supported by two ropes instead of one, so the
transferred to the smaller axle. lift effort is halved. This gives a positive mechanical
advantage. The bigger the mechanical advantage, the
KEY TERM less force is needed.
Wheel and axle: a mechanical device used to wind
up weight; includes a grooved wheel, turned by a
cord/chain, and a rigid axle.

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 Chapter 3 Scientific principles

100 kg lifting force 50 kg lifting force 25 kg lifting force

100 kg load 100 kg load 100 kg load

 Figure 3.27 Single pulley system  Figure 3.28 Two pulley system  Figure 3.29 Four pulley system

INDUSTRY TIP
In a pulley system, the load to be lifted can be divided by
the number of wheels to get the lifting force, for example,
a 100 kg load divided by four wheels gives a 25 kg lifting
force.

If four wheels are used and held together by a long

rope or chain that loops over them, the 100 kg weight
is now supported by four ropes, which means that
each rope is supporting a quarter of the total 100 kg
weight, or 25 kg. This means that only a quarter of the
force (25 kg) is needed to lift the weight (100 kg). This  Figure 3.30 The Archimedes screw
system is known as a block and tackle.

Screws
In terms of simple machines, a screw is a machine
that converts rotation into a straight-line motion that
can be placed vertically, horizontally or at an angle. It
is basically a cylinder or wedge with an incline plane
wrapped around it. It was originally designed as a
simple water pump (the Archimedes screw), a task for
which it is still used today. It can be found in many
objects, such as screw fixings, bolts and threads on
pipe. It can also be seen on drills and auger bits, and
 Figure 3.31 The Archimedes screw in action as a water lifter
as a means of moving solid fuel, such as coal, towards
a boiler by its rotary motion.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

The following formula is used to calculate the The moment of a force can be worked out using the
mechanical advantage of a screw: formula:
π×D Moment = force applied × perpendicular
MA =
L distance from the pivot
Where: If the magnitude of the force is F and the
MA = mechanical advantage perpendicular distance is d, then:
π = 3.142 Moment = F × d
D = diameter
L = length
An example of this would be a spanner turning a bolt. It
is much easier to turn the bolt using a long spanner than
it is using a short spanner. This is because more torque
Basic mechanics: moments (turning force) can be applied at the bolt (pivot) for less
of a force (torque) effort. A long spanner is an example of a force multiplier.
In physics, the moment of a force is the measure of
the turning effect (or torque) produced by a force Centre of gravity
acting on a body. It is equal to the applied force and In physics, the centre of gravity of an object is the
the perpendicular distance from its line of action to imaginary point where all of the weight of the object
the pivot, about which the body turns. The turning is concentrated. This concept is especially important
force around the pivot is called the moment. Its unit of when designing large structures such as multi-storey
measurement is the newton. buildings and bridges, or making a prediction of the
gravitational effect on a moving object or body.
Another term for it is the ‘centre of mass’.
The centre of gravity will vary from object to object. In
The moment of a
force - the pivot
symmetrically shaped objects, it will coincide with the
geometric centre.
In irregularly (asymmetrically) shaped objects, the
Distance from centre of gravity may be some distance away from
the pivot the centre of the object; in hollow objects, such as a
ball, it may be in free space, away from the object’s
physical form.

KEY POINT
Force applied
For many solid objects, the location of the
geometric centre follows the object’s symmetry.
For example, the geometric centre of a cube is the
point of intersection of the cube’s diagonals.

Moment = Force applied × Distance from the pivot

= Newtons
Action and reaction:
 Figure 3.32 The moment of force
Newton’s third law of motion
A push or a pull (action) on an object can often result
in movement (reaction) when the pull or push is
greater than the weight of the object. If both action

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 50N

Chapter 3 Scientific principles

and reaction are equal, then no movement takes 50N

place because the object is pushing or pulling against 50N 50N
the action with equal force. This is known as contact
force and is a result of contact interactions (normal,
frictional, tensional, and applied forces are all
examples of contact forces). Other forces are a result
of ‘actions-at-a-glance’ interactions (gravitational
pull, electrical and magnetic). These two types of 50N 50N
force have one thing in common: for every force 50N
applied there is an equal opposing force and as such
is subject to action and reaction.

50N

50N

 Figure 3.33 Action and reaction

There are many ways in which this can be seen. For

example, when a person sits on a chair (action), the 50N
downward force of the person provokes an upward force 30N 30N
in the chair (reaction). The person and the chair have
equal force and so equilibrium exists. If the person were
too heavy for the chair, then the chair would collapse
(reaction).
This is Newton’s third law of motion, which states:
Every action has an equal but opposite reaction. 30N 30N
50N
This means that, for every force that an object is
subjected to:  Figure 3.34 Balanced forces in equilibrium (top) and
1 there is an opposing force from the object unbalanced forces in equilibrium (bottom)
2 both action and reaction forces are equal
3 forces always come in pairs (points 1 and 2). The same can apply for unequal forces. They, too, can
be in a state of equilibrium provided left and right
forces are equal but not 50N
necessarily the same as the
Equilibrium equal up and down forces.
When all the forces acting on a stationary object
are balanced, the object is said to be in a state of The key word here is balanced. All forces, whether equal
equilibrium. The forces are balanced when all forces or not, must be balanced. The forces cancel each other
(left, right, front, back, up and down) are the same. In out and so add up to zero. In other words, for an object
Figure 3.34 (top), all forces are 50 N and are therefore to be in equilibrium, the sum of the forces on each part
equal forces in equilibrium. of the system must be zero. Look at Figure 3.35.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Upward/downward forces are equal

so no movement takes place

50 N 50 N

Unequal horizontal forces resulting

in movement =
50 – 30 = 20
50 N 50 N 30 N 50 N Movement of 20 N

50 N 50 N
Vertical/horizontal forces are equal
so no movement takes place.
Forces are zero because they cancel
each other out.

 Figure 3.35 Forces acting on an object

6 THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY IN THE

PLUMBING AND HEATING INDUSTRY
Electricity is a vital part of everyday life. It powers a better understanding of what electricity is and how
lighting, household appliances and heating systems, it works.
but its danger cannot be overstated. We cannot see it,
You can find out about electricity, its scientific
hear it or smell it, yet if we touch it, it can kill. Because
principles, basic circuitry and dangers, in Chapter 11.
of the obvious dangers, it is necessary for us to have

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have seen how even simple actions, also investigated the limitations of some materials and
such as hammering a nail or using a screwdriver, have how we must always be aware of what we are using
a scientific explanation. The actions we perform and and how we use it, if problems of corrosion and poor
the materials we use employ the laws of physics and workmanship are to be avoided. These are points that
chemistry to useful effect that allow us to install will become clearer as we move forward through the
systems of plumbing safely and professionally. We have following chapters of this book.

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 Test your knowledge

Test your knowledge c Kelvin

d Ampere
1 A cold water storage cistern contains 250 litres
7 What size of earthing cable should be used to
when filled to its working capacity. If the base
bond gas and water mains pipework?
of the cistern measures 600 mm by 1200 mm,
what pressure will be exerted by the cistern on a 4 mm2
the base beneath it? b 6 mm2
a 1765 N/m2 c 8 mm2
b 2542 N/m2 d 10 mm2
c 3406 N/m2 8 When different metals are present together in
d 3740 N/m2 a system of pipework, which of the following
types of corrosion is likely to occur?
2 Which of the following measurements is a base
SI unit? a Erosion
a kg b Oxidic
b m/s c Atmospheric
c m2 d Electrolytic
d l/s 9 In an old hot water system that does not use a
pump, how is heat transferred from the boiler to
3 Which of the following components is
the cylinder?
manufactured from a pure metal?
a Conduction
a 22 mm end feed elbow
b Convection
b Double panel, single convector, welded seam
radiator c Impulse
c Lead-free solder d Radiation
d 15 mm type A compression coupling 10 How does water grip the side of a beaker or
pipe?
4 Which of the following statements describes the
ductility of a material? a Adhesion
a Its ability to be stretched without breaking b Gravity
b Its ability to conduct heat c Cohesion
c Its ability to resist atmospheric corrosion d Convection
d Its ability to return to its original shape once 11 Which of the following materials is used
released from tension because it is a good conductor of heat?
5 If 0.150 m3 of water were heated beyond its a Copper
boiling point, what volume of steam would be b Steel
produced? c Lead
a 0.150 m3 d Plastic
b 150 m3 12 What is the relative density of water?
c 0.240 m3 a 1
d 240 m3 b 9.81
6 What is the unit of heat? c 10
a Joule d 3.14
b Watt

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

13 At which of the following temperatures does 16

water change state (latent heat)?
a 65 degree Celsius B
b 100 degree Celsius Approximately
0.2 bar
c 4 degree Celsius pressure

d 10 degree Celsius
14 At what temperature is water at its most dense?
a 100 degree Celsius
b 0 degree Celsius
c 4 degree Celsius
d 65 degree Celsius
15 A
Approximately
1.0 bar
pressure

On the system shown in the diagram, the

A distance from the cold water storage cistern to
outlet A is 10.0 m which gives approximately
1 bar pressure. Approximately how far below
B
the cistern has outlet B been installed?
a 2 cm
b 20 m

C
c 2m
d 200 mm
17 What property of water is identified by using the
pH scale?
D
a Heat conductivity
Which of the tappings will have the highest
b Acidity/alkalinity
pressure?
c Electrical conductivity
a A
d Specific heat capacity
b B
18 How would you test a piece of material for its
c C
tensile strength?
d D
a Squashing
b Hitting
c Pulling
d Twisting
19 What is convection the result of?
a Heat travelling through or along a solid
b Differences in the density of a solid
c Heat travelling through the air to a solid
d Difference in the density of liquids and
gasses

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 Test your knowledge

20 What SI unit measures mass? 25 Calculate the thermal expansion in a 3 m length

a Kilograms of copper pipe if its temperature were increased
from 10°C to 80°C. Take the coefficient of
b Kelvins
linear of copper expansion as 0.000016
c Square centimetres
m/m/°C.
d Amperes
26 Give two examples of class 2 levers.
21 How can the freezing point of water be
27 Explain by how much cold water will expand
reduced?
when heated up in a hot water cylinder, and
a Adding insulation where this expansion is taken up in various
b Adding glycol systems.
c Adding inhibitor 28 When a boiler is installed on a kitchen wall
d Adding alkalinity it may be secured in position by coach bolts.
Explain what forces and material strengths are
22 A 150-litre cylinder is to be installed within
required to keep the boiler in position.
an airing cupboard. The cylinder will require
its temperature raising from 10°C to 60°C. 29 Outline what happens in the dezincification
Calculate the amount of heat energy required. process.
23 If a cylinder were installed at a height of 3.5 m 30 Briefly state what two properties water has that
above the level of the lowest hot water outlet, can cause a resistance to the flow of water
what head pressure will be provided at the inside pipework.
outlet? 31 State the relationship of Celsius and kelvin in
24 Copy and complete the table below. temperature measurement.
 nswers can be found online at
A
Measure of: SI unit Symbol
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
Area

Volume

Velocity

Density

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CHAPTER 4

PLANNING AND SUPERVISION

INTRODUCTION
The plumbing services industry encompasses a vast number of roles, each associated with specific skills and
responsibilities. It is important to understand each role in order to oversee building services work. You should
also understand the reasons for risk assessments and method statements, and how to plan work programmes
for work tasks in the building services industry.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● the role of the construction team within the plumbing and heating industry
● information sources in the building services industry
● communicating with others
● the responsibilities of relevant people in the building services industry
● work programmes in the plumbing and heating industry
● risk assessments and method statements for the plumbing and heating industry.

1 THE ROLE OF THE CONSTRUCTION TEAM

WITHIN THE PLUMBING AND HEATING
INDUSTRY
The construction of any building is a complex process
that requires a group of professionals, known as the
The structure of the site
construction team, working together to produce what management team
the client has requested. In this first section of the Within each construction project, there is a
chapter, we will take a closer look at the construction site management team. This usually follows a
team. We will consider the role that each individual recognised structure by which the team operates and
has in the overall construction project and their communicates. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.
responsibilities within the management structure.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

Client

Quantity surveyor

Building surveyor
Architect

Local authority
Structural engineer
Clerk of works
Health and safety inspector
Building services engineer

Building control officer

Civil engineer
Building contractor

Buyer Estimator

Subcontractor Suppliers

 Figure 4.1 The structure of the site management team

It is important that all members know their roles and a specific set of objectives, which must be completed
responsibilities within the management structure to within a given time frame and on budget to a specific
ensure the smooth running of the project and that any set of rules and regulations.
problems are dealt with as quickly as possible.
The management of any large construction site usually
falls into two tiers:
ACTIVITY 1 those that visit the site only occasionally, usually
Do you know the management structure of the senior management
company you work for? 2 those that are permanently site based.
Using the management structure diagram in Figure 4.1
as a guide, draw a chart of your own company. In this section we will look at the first tier.

The client
The key roles of the site The client is arguably the most important part of the
management team project because they are the reason for the construction
of the building. They, either directly or indirectly,
The management of construction projects requires
employ everyone else who has a connection with the
a good understanding of modern management
construction project because, without them, the work
systems as well as expert knowledge of the design
would not exist. They finance the whole project.
and construction process. Construction projects have

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The client can vary from a single individual to a large The architect, like the client, has direct responsibilities
consortium or organisation. under the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2015 (discussed in Chapter 1, Health and
Under the Construction (Design and Management)
safety practices and systems, page 10).
Regulations 2015 (see Chapter 1, Health and safety
practices and systems, page 10), clients (with the
exception of domestic clients who intend to live in the
The surveyor (building surveyor)
completed building) have direct responsibilities with The role of the building surveyor is to ensure that the
regard to the health and safety of all those people building regulations are followed during the planning and
directly or indirectly employed as part of the project. construction phases of new buildings and extensions,
On all projects clients will need to: and conversions to existing properties. They resolve
● ensure the competence of all team members, and problems arising from the building regulations and
that they are adequately resourced and appointed relevant legislation. The building surveyor will also make
early on in the project site visits at different stages of construction to ensure
● ensure there are suitable management that the building process is being properly carried out.
arrangements for the project’s welfare facilities
● allow sufficient time and resources at every stage of KEY POINT
the project from concept to completion The Building Regulations set standards for the
● provide pre-construction information to designers design and construction of buildings, primarily to
and contractors so that regulations can be followed. ensure the safety and health of people in or around
those buildings, but also for energy conservation
Where projects are notifiable under Construction and access to buildings. They are divided into
(Design and Management) Regulations (projects lasting ‘Documents’ or ‘Parts’ named after letters of the
more than 30 days or involving 500 person-days alphabet, such as Document L Conservation of Fuel
and Power, and Document H Building Drainage.
of construction work), clients must also:
● appoint a principal designer

● appoint a principal contractor The quantity surveyor

● make sure that construction work does not start
The quantity surveyor, or QS, is an accountant who
unless a construction phase plan is in place, and advises as to how the building can be constructed
that there are adequate welfare facilities on-site within the client’s finances. The QS also measures the
● provide information relating to the health and safety
amount of labour and materials needed to complete
file to the construction design and management the building according to the architect’s drawings.
(CDM) co-ordinator These details are then combined into a document
● keep the health and safety file and provide access to
called the Bill of Quantities, which is used by building
it if required. contractors to produce an estimate.

The architect As work progresses, the QS will produce measurements

and variations of the work carried out to date so that
The architect (or designer) is considered to be
the main contractor can receive interim payments. At
the leader of the management team. It is their
the end of the contract, the QS will also prepare the
responsibility to transform the client’s requirements
final account to be presented to the client. In addition
into a building design and working drawings. Architects
to these duties, the QS may also advise the architect
generally supervise all aspects of the construction work
on the cost of any variations to the original contract or
until handover to the client. They must be registered
any additional work completed.
with the Architects Registration Board (ARB), whose
duties and functions are defined by the Architects Act
1997. This was established to regulate the architect
Specialist engineers
profession in the UK. Many architects are also members These are hired as part of the architect’s team to
of the Royal Institution of British Architects (RIBA). assist in the design of the building with regard to their
specialist fields. There are three major engineering roles:

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

1 Civil engineer: the designer of the roads in to and checking the standard of the work and the quality of
out of the building, along with any bridges, tunnels the materials. The CoW will make regular reports back
etc. that may be required. May also be involved in to the architect as work progresses, and will also keep a
the design of drainage and water requirements to diary in case of any disputes, make any necessary notes
the building or complex. on the weather and note any stoppages.
2 Structural engineer: works closely with the
On large sites, the CoW will be a resident member of
designer to find the most efficient method to
the management team, while on smaller sites they will
construct the project. The engineer calculates the
visit only periodically.
loads, taking into account wind, rain and the weight
of the building itself. The frame and foundations
can then be designed to support these loads.
3 Building services engineer: the designer of the
internal services within the building, such as heating
and ventilation, hot and cold water supplies, air
conditioning and drainage. The building services
engineer will produce calculations for heat loss
through the building fabric, and take into account
solar heat gain from windows and internal heat
gains from plant, computers, lighting and people, so
that accurate calculations can be made for thermal
comfort within the structure. Most reputable
engineers belong to the Chartered Institute of  Figure 4.2 The clerk of works
Building Services Engineers (CIBSE).
The local authority
INDUSTRY TIP The local authority has overall responsibility for
ensuring that all works carried out conform to the
Although their role increasingly demands a multi-disciplinary requirements of the relevant planning and building
approach, building services engineers tend to specialise regulations. They may also show interest in site health
in one of the following areas: and safety in co-operation with the HSE. They employ
● electrical engineering the following people.
● mechanical engineering ● Planning officer: they are responsible for processing
● public health.
planning applications, listed building consent
applications, conservation area consent applications
and advising on planning issues.
KEY TERM
● Building control officer: responsible for ensuring that
Multi-disciplinary approach: using skills from regulations connected with public health, safety,
other professions or trades to overcome problems
energy conservation and disabled access are met.
outside the normal scope of your skill set, trade
or profession to reach satisfactory solutions, They work to the Building Regulations. A building
conclusions or outcomes. control officer’s job involves:
● checking plans and details of new constructions

and alterations of existing buildings

The clerk of works ● regular inspections of work in progress to ensure
Appointed by the architect, the clerk of works (CoW) that the construction work is in accordance with
– also referred to as the project manager – is the the Building Regulations
architect’s representative on-site. They ensure that the ● management of buildings and structures
building is constructed in accordance with the drawings, identified as being in a dangerous condition
while maintaining quality at all times. This includes

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management of the demolition of derelict

KEY TERM
●

buildings
● management of improved access to buildings for Overheads: costs that include such things as site
offices and staff salaries.
people with disabilities
● guidance and advice on all types of buildings
and constructional problems outside of Building
Regulations control.
Members of the on-site team
So far we have looked at the roles and responsibilities
of the site management team. Here, we consider the
ACTIVITY
on-site workers who report to the site management.
Who is the local authority in your area? Check out
its website and see what services it offers to the
construction industry. Subcontractors
Subcontractors play an important role within the
construction industry. Subcontractors will enter into a
The building contractor and their contract with the main building contractor for a specific
employees or specialised part of the contract, such as plumbing,
In this section, we will examine the role of the building heating and ventilation, air conditioning, electrical
contractor and the members of the team directly installation, plastering, bricklaying and joinery/
employed by them. carpentry. The contract may be labour only, where the
The building contractor will enter into a contract with building contractor purchases the materials, or it may
the client to carry out the work in accordance with the be on a supply-and-fix basis. The architect may specify
drawings, the Bill of Quantities and the specification. a nominated subcontractor in the initial contract, who
Every contractor develops their own methods of pricing must then, with the client’s permission, be used.
and tendering for the work and, depending on the size
of the job, this will determine the company’s staff
The site supervisor
requirements. Also known as the construction manager or project
manager, they are the building contractor’s main
The building contractor will employ specialists within representative on-site, responsible for the general day-
the construction industry to undertake certain key to-day running of the site. This can include preparing
roles. These include those listed in Table 4.1. budgets, hiring team members, handling deliveries and
overseeing construction duties.

 Table 4.1 Key specialist roles in the construction industry

Breaks down the Bill of Quantities into labour, materials and plant, and applies a set payment rate for each
The estimator one. This represents the amount it will cost the contractor to complete each stage of the project. Added to
this will be a set percentage for overheads (site office costs and site/administration salaries) and profit.
Responsible for sourcing and purchasing all the materials needed. They will obtain quotes for the materials
The buyer
in the quantities required, together with delivery times and quality assurances.
The planning Responsible for the pre-contract planning, and identifying the most economic and efficient way to use
engineer labour, plant and materials.
Responsible for all the items of mechanical plant used by the building contractor – from stock plant owned
The plant manager by the contractor or hire companies – to carry out a specific task. The plant manager is also responsible for
maintenance and repair and the training of plant operators.
Accountable to the senior management for all health and safety aspects on-site (safety inspections, safety
The safety officer
records, accident investigations, and safety training and inductions).
The contracts Supervises the creation and management of planning and building operations contracts, liaising with head
manager office staff and site agents as needed.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

The trade supervisor

Each of the different trades on-site will have its own
supervisor. They will be responsible for the overall
running of their company’s contract on the site. Their
tasks include:
● determining work requirements and the allocation

of duties to the operatives under their direct control

● consulting with other managers to co-ordinate

activities with other trades

● maintaining attendance records and rosters

● explaining and enforcing regulations

● overseeing the work of the workforce, and

suggesting improvements and changes

● holding discussions with workers to resolve

grievances
● perhaps performing the tasks of their trade.

 Figure 4.3 On-site trades

The on-site trades
No construction site can function without the on-site
trades. Working to the architect’s drawings, it is the
trades that build the architect’s vision. The trades can
be divided into two main groups:
1 craft operatives
2 building operatives.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Building contractor

Subcontractors Craft operatives employed Building operatives employed

by building contractor by building contractor

• General building
• Bricklayers
operatives
• Joiners
• Groundworkers

Subcontracted Subcontracted
craft operatives building operatives

• Plumbers • Plant mechanics

• Electricians • Scaffolders
• Plasterers • Glaziers
• Heating and ventilation
engineers • Ceiling fixers
•Gas fitters
• Painters and decorators
• Tilers

 Figure 4.4 Structure and roles of the building contractor and employees

Craft operatives ● Electricians: install and test all electrical installation

Craft operatives are skilled craftspeople who perform work on-site, including power, lighting, fire and
specialist tasks, such as those listed below. smoke alarms, and security systems, usually running
● Bricklayers: construct the building to the architect’s the cables in trunking or conduits for neatness.
specifications using a range of building materials, ● Heating and ventilation/air conditioning
including brick, block and stone. engineers: this is a very specialist trade, especially
● Carpenters/joiners: the wood trades provide a vital where the installation of air conditioning is
function on-site during the initial building phase, concerned. Their work mainly involves the
fitting door and window frames, floor joists and installation of large diameter pipework for heating
roof trusses. During the second phase they will fix systems and air conditioning ductwork.
internal doors, skirting boards, architraves, etc. ● Gas fitters: install natural gas lines in domestic
● Plumbers: on domestic construction sites, plumbers properties and in commercial or industrial buildings.
perform three key functions. They install: On some sites they may also install large appliances
1 hot and cold water supplies and pipelines.
2 central heating ● Plasterers: responsible for wall and ceiling finishing,
3 gas. dry lining and external rendering, if required, using a
On large construction sites, the plumber’s work will mixture of both modern and traditional techniques.
be restricted to hot and cold water supplies only. In ● Painters and decorators: responsible for wall and
most cases, specialist companies will perform the ceiling finishing, including painting skirting boards,
gas and heating installations.
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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

architraves and any specialist decorating such as The inspectors

murals, frescos, etc. There are other outside visitors to the construction
● Tilers: responsible for internal and external tiling site whose sole aim is health and safety. These are the
of walls and floors, and specialist tiling such as inspectors. Their role is to check that we are complying
swimming pools and wet rooms. with the rules and regulations, to ensure that the
Building operatives structure, the people who work in it and on it, and the
services that the eventual occupiers will use, are safe
Building operatives are labourers who carry out
and without risk.
practical tasks, such as those listed below.
There are four types of inspector:
1 health and safety inspector
2 building control inspector
3 water inspector
4 electrical services inspector.

The health and safety inspector

Also known as the ‘factory inspector’, the health and
safety inspector usually works for the HSE, but can also
be employed by the local authority. It is the inspector’s
duty to ensure that all health and safety law is fully
implemented by the building contractor (this is covered
in Chapter 1, Health and safety practices and systems,
page 15).

The building control inspector

The building control inspector (now more generally
known as the building control surveyor) works for the
local authority and makes sure that each of the Building
 Figure 4.5 Trades working together on-site Regulations documents is observed in the planning
● General building operatives and groundworkers: and construction stages of new buildings. The Building
usually mix concrete, lay drains, offload materials Regulations are the statutory rules by which buildings
are constructed, covering aspects such as drainage,
and generally assist the craft operatives
energy efficiency, disabled access, etc.
● Specialist building operatives: scaffolders, glaziers,

suspended ceiling installers. Building control surveyors need to know the Building
Regulations and how to interpret them accurately as
they have the power to reject plans that fail to meet
INDUSTRY TIP
the Regulations. They may also have to use their
Craft operatives, such as plumbers, electricians, joiners professional judgement and skill to offer advice on
and bricklayers, have served a formal apprenticeship. This acceptable solutions to meet statutory requirements
usually takes around three years to become fully qualified, should any problems arise. They will make site visits
with a formal City & Guilds (or equivalent) competency at different stages of construction to ensure that all
qualification being achieved. Specialist building operatives construction work is being properly carried out.
are often trained ‘in-house’ by the company that employs
them, or they may have undergone formal training courses. The water inspector
These operatives quite often do not serve a formal Water inspectors are employed by the local water
apprenticeship. undertaker. The key objective of the water inspector’s
role is to reduce the risk of contamination of the public

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

water supply from backflow of any fluid. They provide ● undergo a site health and safety induction
advice and guidance on regulation compliance in new ● wear the proper attire, such as hard hats, eye
and existing premises. The water inspector enforces the protection, high-visibility vest, hard-soled shoes
Water Regulations by inspecting a range of plumbing (no high heels, sandals, sports shoes or open-toed
installations, as follows. shoes; no shorts or sleeveless tops); construction
● Hands-on inspections: sites are often damp, dusty and dirty places, and the
● in a percentage of new domestic premises clothing should reflect this.
● in all new non-domestic premises/connections

● targeted inspections based on potential risk in

existing premises.
● Reactive inspections:
2 INFORMATION
● requests to inspect due to water quality SOURCES IN THE
problems
● requests from customers for advice and BUILDING SERVICES
resolution of plumbing problems with old or new
systems.
INDUSTRY
The electrical services inspector Documentation on-site
Electrical inspections must be made on all new electrical No construction site can function without certain
installations, but more especially on commercial/ documents and a certain amount of day-to-day
industrial properties. They are undertaken by the local paperwork. Each of these documents has an important
electrical supply company but, because these are function:
now privately owned, the electrical supply companies ● Job specification: a description of the installation

usually employ private subcontractors to inspect the that is being quoted for, complete with the types
installations and issue test certificates on their behalf. of materials and appliances that the installation
The fees for these services are paid by the customer. must contain. Occasionally, it may specify the
manufacturer or British Standard of the materials
Site visitors the installation is to use.
Construction sites occasionally get visits from people ● Working drawings (also known as building

with little or no construction site experience. To services drawings): all plans, elevations and
many, construction sites are dangerous places with details needed by the contractor, along with
many different activities happening at once. To the the specifications, so that an estimate can
experienced person, these activities seem perfectly be obtained and then the building can be
normal, but to the uninitiated, construction sites can constructed. These need to show all dimensions
be confusing, noisy and daunting. Generally, there are and be properly scaled.
three types of visitor to construction sites: ● Work programme: another name for a work
1 the frequent visitor with no construction site skills programme is a Gantt chart, and it has proved
2 the inexperienced visitor, including the general public to be an excellent method of communication. Its
3 the experienced visitor, such as delivery drivers. purpose is to:
● establish dates for work to start and finish
All visitors, regardless of the reasons for their visit, must
● illustrate the labour and plant required for the
follow the same rules as all other construction workers.
They must: duration of the contract
● check in at the appropriate place, usually the general ● show the order of operations

site office; often it is a requirement to sign in the ● provide information for monitoring work

visitor’s book and wear a visitor’s ID; visitors must progress.

also sign out again when leaving the site

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

 Figure 4.6 Example of a Gantt chart

● Delivery note: also known as delivery advice note, information contained in the health and safety
this is a document that lists the type and amount of file is designed to help those in positions of
materials that are delivered to the site. It should be responsibility to identify key health and safety
checked against the actual materials delivered and risks that may be encountered on-site, and
should be signed only if the materials on the note provide operating and maintenance manuals for
and the materials delivered are the same. A copy the building and any equipment installed.
should be retained for administration purposes. ● Customer care charter: also known as the
● Time sheets: these are completed by each customer service document. Good customer
employee on a weekly basis, on which they give care makes for loyal customers, and loyal
details of hours worked and a description of the jobs customers are a good source of positive
they carried out. Time sheets are used by employers advertising.
to calculate wages and provide information for ● Environmental policies: an environmental
planning future estimates. They are sometimes policy can be described as a statement of intent
completed by the trade foreman. to manage human activities to prevent, reduce or
● Policy documents: these include those listed below. remove any harmful effects on the environment
● Health and safety file: a document held by the and the Earth’s natural resources, while
client in which health and safety information is ensuring that any man-made changes to the
recorded and kept for future use at the end of environment do not have any harmful effects on
a construction project. It is a legal requirement humans. Environmental statements often make
of the CDM Regulations 2015. The type of commitments to:

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

– lower pollution and waste supplier to the contractor for payment for materials
– use energy and resources efficiently supplied, or from the contractor to the customer
– minimise the environmental impact on for services rendered. Usually, a period of time is
natural habitats and biodiversity of new allowed for the payment to be made.
developments ● Statutory cancellation rights: a number of
– minimise the environmental impact of raw laws give the customer the legal right to cancel a
material extraction. contract after they have signed it. There is usually
no penalty for cancellation provided that the
An environmental policy is implemented through an
cancellation is confirmed in writing within a specific
environmental management system (EMS). Writing
time frame. Most cancellation periods start when
an environmental policy is voluntary in the UK, and
the customer receives notification of their right to
the structure and content are not regulated under UK
cancel up to seven days before work commences.
legislation.
● Handover information: at the end of any
contract, the customer must be given certain
ACTIVITY information. For large contracts, this includes
Think about how long it would take you to install a
the health and safety file already mentioned. For
bathroom suite. Break the job down into days and
what you do on those days (i.e. day 1 – first fix; small domestic contracts, a file should be made
day 2 – dress sanitary ware), then produce a simple that contains any manufacturer’s information,
work programme for the job. installation, servicing and user instructions, the
appliance warranty information, contact numbers
of key personnel within the company, and a letter
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS of thanks for their custom.

Does the company you work for have an During the handover process, the customer should be
environmental policy? What does it contain? How shown where all control valves are, and how to use
does it affect the way that you work as a plumber? any appliances and controls that have been installed.
Find out what measures your company is taking As with all data that contains private customer
to protect the environment. information, caution should be exercised to protect this
information, as dictated in the General Data Protection
Regulation 2018.
Customer information
Communication between the company and the Company policies and procedures
customer takes place at every stage of the contract, Company working policies/procedures highlight what
from the initial contact to customer care at is important for the company and link this to its daily
the contract’s completion. Written communication can operations. Well-written policies and procedures allow
take the following forms: employees to understand their roles and responsibilities,
● Quotations and estimates: both of these are and management to guide operations without needing
written prices as to how much the work will cost to constantly intervene because employees know what
to complete. A quotation is a fixed price and is expected of them.
cannot vary. An estimate, by comparison, is not a
fixed price but can go up or down if the estimate Companies may have policies and procedures relating
was not accurate or the work was completed to the following aspects:
● Behaviour: companies and organisations demand a
ahead of schedule. Most contractors opt for
estimates because of this flexibility. certain behaviour and professionalism towards their
● Invoices/statements: documents that are issued
customers and management. Customers demand a
at the end of any contract as a demand for final certain respect, efficiency and professional attitude
payment. Invoices and statements can be from the towards the work and themselves.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

● Contract of employment: a contract of

employment is a mutual agreement between the
employer and the employee, which is the basis of
the employment relationship. A contract is made
when an offer of employment is accepted.

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS

Remember, presenting a professional image is key
to attracting and retaining customers, who will
associate a uniform and well-organised work site
with a skilled and competent plumber.
 Figure 4.7 Plumber presenting a professional image
● Timekeeping: customers do not expect and will not
tolerate lateness, unless it is unavoidable. If lateness Limits to personal authority
cannot be helped, then the customer should be As with most trades, plumbing follows a set pattern
informed at the earliest opportunity. with regard to the roles and responsibilities of the
● Dress code: a company uniform or dress code qualified operatives. Each member of the team will
presents a positive, professional image that the have certain expectations placed on them by the
customer comes to recognise. Many companies management of the company or organisation. It
and organisations have a set company uniform that follows, therefore, that the higher the qualification,
is expected to be kept in reasonable order. Some the more responsibility will be given, as described in
companies have a laundry policy, where uniforms or Table 4.2.
company work wear are cleaned free of charge.
 Table 4.2 Limits of authority by professional level
Apprentice Has very little responsibility with regard to plumbing installations.
plumber Initially under constant supervision from the plumber they work with.
As they gain experience they may work on simple installations and maintenance tasks.
Responsible for maintaining the company image with regard to timekeeping, appearance and customer care.
Their main task is learning their trade to the best of their ability.
Trained Domestic plumbers qualified up to NVQ Diploma Level 2 are able to install ‘non-complex’ hot and cold water
plumber systems, as well as domestic sanitation pipework and basic central heating pipework, only under regular supervision.
They may also have some responsibility for improving business products and services.
Advanced Domestic plumbers qualified up to NVQ Diploma Level 3 have much more responsibility than those at Level 2.
plumber At Level 3 they will be gas qualified and may be included on the company Gas Safe registration.
They are capable of running their own jobs, taking responsibility for domestic hot and cold water, and domestic
heating installations, and working on their own initiative without supervision.
They will be able to undertake unvented hot water installations and work to the Water, Gas and Building Regulations.
They may also have responsibility for improving business products and services, and initiating some basic system
design.
Plumbing Plumbing supervisors will have many years’ experience.
supervisor They are capable of design and installation across a broad spectrum of systems, and have knowledge of the
Regulations and British Standards.
They will have good managerial and organisational skills, and will hold at least a Level 3 in Plumbing and sometimes
a Level 5 qualification, e.g. an HNC in Building Services Engineering.
They will also have responsibility for improving business products and services, and overall responsibility for the
operatives and installations under their supervision.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Legislation and guidance regulation often results in prosecution. Regulations in

the plumbing industry include:
information ● Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
There are many sources of information and forms of ● Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
legislation that your employer (and you, the employee) ● Building Regulations.
must be aware of and follow. (All relevant health and
These are the main regulations that workers in the
safety legislation is covered in detail in Chapter 1, Health
plumbing industry must comply with.
and safety practices and systems). The main legislation,
regulations and guidance are summarised below. British Standards and approved
The Equality Act 2010 codes of practice
These provide guidance on interpreting and following
The Equality Act came into force in October 2010. This
regulations. The British Standards are not enforceable,
Act provides a single legal framework with clear, simplified
but they set out a series of recommendations so that
law in order to be more effective at tackling disadvantage
the minimum standard to comply with the regulations
and discrimination. It was implemented by the Equality
can be achieved. By adhering to the recommendations
and Human Rights Commission (EHRC). The EHRC was
within the British Standards, the regulations will be
formed on 1 October 2007 and has responsibility for
seen to be satisfied. Often the regulations and the
the promotion and enforcement of equality and non-
British Standards will make reference to one another
discrimination laws in England, Scotland and Wales.
and it may even be the case that the regulations make
This Act brought together a range of previous laws reference to more than one British Standard.
covered in the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, Equal
However important the regulations and the British
Pay Act 1970, Race Relations Act 1976 and Disability
Standards are, they are not our primary source of
Discrimination Act 1995.
information when installing equipment and appliances.
It protects people from discrimination in employment Manufacturers’ guidance overrides both of these.
due to their race, sex, gender, age, sexual orientation,
disability, marital status, maternity status or faith. Manufacturers’ guidance
Manufacturers’ installation, servicing/maintenance and
The Data Protection Act 2018 user instructions are the most important documents
The Data Protection Act was updated in 2018 and sets out you will have access to when installing, servicing and
rules to ensure that everyone has the right to know what maintaining equipment and appliances. They tell us in
information is held about them, and that information is basic installation language what we must do for correct
handled properly. The Act implements the General Data and safe operation of their equipment. This guidance
Protection Regulation into UK law. It is expected that the must be followed, otherwise:
GDPR will continue to apply after the UK leaves the EU. ● the terms of the warranty will be void

● the installation may be dangerous

The Freedom of Information Act 2000 ● we may inadvertently be breaking the regulations.

This Act gives you the right to ask any public body
In some instances, it may seem that the instructions
for all the information they have on any subject you
contradict the regulations or the British Standards. This
choose. Unless there’s a good reason, they have to
is because regulations are reviewed only periodically,
provide it within a month. You can also ask for all the
whereas manufacturers are moving forward all the time
personal information they hold about you.
with new, more efficient products, so their information
may be more up to date. In these cases, follow a simple
Regulations but effective rule: the manufacturers’ guidance must be
Plumbing is one of the most regulated trades within followed at all times.
building services engineering. Failure to comply with

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

3 COMMUNICATING Official company business should always be in written

form, usually on the company’s headed paper, and
WITH OTHERS should have a clear layout. The content of the letter
must be well written, using good English and correct
A company cannot function properly without proper grammar, and divided into logical paragraphs. Examples
methods of communication, whether a formal letter, of business letters are sales letters, information letters,
an email, memo, fax or verbal instructions. Formal general enquiry or problem-solving letters, and so on.
and informal communications take place in the
workplace every day. Most people believe that formal Email
communication is written communication but this is Emails have emerged as a hugely popular form
not the case. In a work context, communication in any of communication because of the speed that the
form that is about your job should always be regarded information they contain is transferred to the recipient.
as formal communication. As with letters, they should be well written and laid
out, using correct grammar and spelling to convey
Methods of communication professionalism, whether the recipient is a client,
customer or colleague.
at work
There are several ways that companies communicate Faxes
with customers, staff and suppliers, and other Faxes are another useful form of communication
companies, such as: for businesses. They are used mainly for conveying
● written communication (letters, email, faxes)
documents such as orders, invoices, statements
● verbal communication (face to face, telephone).
and contracts, where the recipient may wish to see an
Verbal communication should always be backed up authorising signature. Again, the basic rules apply with
with written confirmation, to avoid confusion. regard to layout, grammar and content. Remember to
always use a cover page that is appropriate for your
Written communication company. This is an external communication that
reflects the business and company.
Letters
Letters are an official method of communication
and are usually easier to understand than verbal
Verbal communication
communication. Good written communication The general rule of good, effective communication is
can help towards the success of any company by that you should think beforehand about the kind of
portraying a professional image and building goodwill. information you will need to give and what information

LETTER FACE TO FACE

EMAIL WRITTEN VERBAL TELEPHONE

FAX

 Figure 4.8 Methods of communication

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

you will expect to receive. You should always make Language differences
sure that your language, tone and body language are Construction sites are often multicultural places, so you
appropriate in terms of what you are saying and to may be dealing with colleagues, clients and site visitors
whom you are saying it. Good communication is crucial for whom English is not their first language, or who
if you are to carry out your job safely and efficiently, and speak with a different accent or dialect.
you may need to adapt your communication skills to
deal effectively with some individuals and groups. The
KEY TERMS
principle behind effective communication is making sure
that both parties completely understand each other. You Accent: the way in which people pronounce their
words.
may need to take into account the following factors.
Dialect: a combination of the way people pronounce
words, the vocabulary they use and the grammatical
Physical disabilities structures they use.
When communicating with a customer, colleague or
site visitor with a hearing impairment, you may need to: A person’s accent and dialect are often a result of
● use written notes or drawings to reinforce verbal where in the country they live or were brought up, but
information other factors such as social class and gender may also
● use appropriate written information (such as a play a part.
sales leaflet, manufacturer’s literature or guides)
to make sure that both you and the other person IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
understand what is being referred to; if available Different names for tools, systems and so on from
and appropriate, use other means of technology around the UK include:
(telephone amplifiers, etc.) to help communication. ● handi-bender vs scissor bender

When communicating with a customer, colleague or ● lump hammer vs club hammer

site visitor with a visual impairment, you may need to: ● troffins vs guttering

● give more verbal detail than you would usually use ● tin snips vs shears.
● describe any diagrams or visual aids that you are using

● keep the person informed of his or her surroundings, When communicating with a customer, colleague or
e.g. who is present, who has left the room. site visitor whose first language is not English, you may
need to:
● speak clearly and avoid using slang words (words or
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS phrases that are considered very informal and are
Remember: you should adjust your manner of often specific to certain geographical regions)
communication to suit the individual needs of ● use short sentences and simple words
others, which may include a visual or hearing ● ask questions to confirm that you have been
impairment, special learning needs, or those who understood
do not have English as their first language. ● use diagrams and visual aids to back up verbal

information
● use an interpreter, if possible, or ask if a family
Special learning needs member can act as an interpreter.
When communicating with a customer, colleague or When communicating with a customer, colleague or
site visitor with special learning needs, you may need to: site visitor whose accent is different from your own,
● if possible, make sure a responsible person is present
you may need to:
to hear any important information ● use the correct terminology in work situations –
● keep information short and relevant, and avoid using
avoid using local slang that may not be understood
too much technical information or jargon ● ask questions to confirm that you have been
● consider using visual aids and diagrams to back up
understood
information.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

● refer to product catalogues or manufacturer’s Dealing with workplace conflicts

literature to make sure that you are both talking
There are several ways in which your employer may
about the same thing.
deal with disagreements. They should:
In all these cases, you should always show respect for ● identify the problem – make sure everyone involved
the other person in the way in which you communicate. knows exactly what the issue is, and why they are
Keeping your body language open and engaged, with arguing; talking through the problem helps everyone
good eye contact, will help you to judge how the to understand that there is a problem and what the
information is being received. issues are
● allow every person involved to clarify their

Conflicts in the workplace perspectives and opinions about the problem – they
When people work together in groups, there will be should make sure that everyone has an opportunity
occasions when individuals disagree and conflicts occur. to express their opinion; they may even establish
Whether these disagreements become full-blown feuds a time limit for each person to state their case; all
or instead fuel creative problem solving is, in large part, participants should feel safe and supported
● identify and clarify the ideal end result from each
up to the person in charge. Conflicts can occur for
many reasons, such as: person’s point of view
● work out what can reasonably be done to achieve
● unfair working conditions

● unfair pay structures

each person’s objectives
● find an area of compromise to see if there is some
● clashes of personality

● language differences
part of the issue on which everyone agrees; if not,
● ethnic differences.
they may try to identify long-term goals that mean
something to all parties.
Informal counselling is one method that helps
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS managers and supervisors to address and manage
It is important to deal with workplace conflicts conflict in the workplace. This may be in the form of:
quickly and effectively as, if left unchecked, they ● meetings
can affect morale, motivation and productivity, ● negotiation/mediation sessions
and potentially cause stress and even serious ● other dispute-resolving methods.
accidents.

Conflicts may occur between:

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
● employer and employee – may need union It is important that employees know there is
involvement or some form of mediation someone they can go to if a conflict develops. If
● two or more employees – will need employer an employee has a conflict with another member
intervention of staff, then they should first discuss the problem
● customer and employer – may need intervention by
with their immediate supervisor.
a professional body
● customer and employee – will need employer

intervention. In extreme cases where the matter cannot be resolved,

then mediation or union involvement may be required
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH (see Table 4.3).
Reaching an agreement through discussion is known
as ‘negotiation’.

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 Table 4.3 Methods of resolving workplace conflict

Mutually agreed Recommendations Legally binding
Type of help solutions by an expert decisions Key features
Mediation (sometimes Yes Not usually, but Helps to maintain ongoing working
referred to as ‘collective parties can ask relationships.
conciliation’ when used for them Develops problem-solving skills.
with a group of employees)
Tackles conflict early.
Arbitration Yes Yes Simpler, faster alternative to tribunal
hearing (legal meeting with a judge
presiding over it).
Available only for cases involving
unfair dismissal or flexible working.
Individual conciliation Yes Yes Success rate of ACAS service: 70% of
cases settled or withdrawn before they
get to a tribunal hearing.
Often conducted on the phone:
parties may not talk to each other.

Source: Acas (2014) Advisory booklet: Managing conflict at work

KEY TERM company. It can lead to de-motivation of the workforce

and the business will not function as a unit. The effects
Conciliation: an alternative dispute resolution
process whereby the parties to a dispute agree to are obviously negative:
use the services of a conciliator, who then meets ● employees become mistrustful of management and,

with the parties separately in an attempt to resolve often, one another

their differences. Collective conciliation is when ● employees argue and reject their manager’s opinions
a group of employees is involved, and individual and input
conciliation is when there is only one employee ● employees file more grievances (cause for
involved in the dispute.
complaint) related to performance issues
● employees don’t keep their manager informed and
In the plumbing industry, workplace conflicts can avoid talking to management
usually be resolved by the Joint Industry Board (JIB), ● employees do their best to hide their professional
thus avoiding the need to approach the Advisory, deficiencies (lack of or gaps in skills) or performance
Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS) in all problems
but the most severe disputes. ● employees refuse to take responsibility.

Poor communication in the workplace can disrupt the

KEY TERM organisation and cause strained employee relations
Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS): and lower productivity, which can often result in the
an organisation that provides free and impartial following problems:
information and advice to employers and employees on
● Time may be lost as instructions may be
all aspects of workplace relations and employment law.
misunderstood and jobs may have to be repeated.
● Frustration may develop, as people are not sure of

The effects of poor what to do or how to carry out a task.

● Materials may be wasted.
communication at work ● People may feel left out if communication is not
The effects of poor communication can be extremely open and effective.
harmful to both businesses and personnel. If poor ● Messages may be misinterpreted or misunderstood,
communication exists, then goals will not be achieved causing bad feelings.
and this could develop into problems within the ● People’s safety may be at risk.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

All of these problems will eventually filter down to

existing and potential customers, and when that VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
happens, customer confidence will disappear, leading to
For more information and advice on ways of
a possible collapse of the company.
resolving disputes and avoiding conflict, visit the
ACAS website: www.acas.org.uk

4 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF RELEVANT PEOPLE

IN THE BUILDING SERVICES INDUSTRY
Site responsibilities: Types of customer
communicating with the Sometimes plumbing apprentices may be required
to deal with a customer’s representative such as a
client managing agent when engaged on a maintenance
When working as an apprentice, you will meet many contract or if involved in minor electrical works.
different types of clients. These may include a private Access arrangements may need to be finalised and
customer in a domestic dwelling, a representative of a a timescale for the completion of a section of work
customer or managing agent, a contracting customer, will need to be agreed upon.
or an internal customer who works within your
When dealing with a contracting customer, particularly
company.
on-site, a CSCS card will usually be required and they
will expect an organised and efficient workforce to
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS carry out a specific contract, often requiring a company
to include a method statement for the job. A contract
Excellent communication skills and good manners
customer can hire a business with specialist equipment
all contribute to a strong professional image and
to carry out work on their behalf.
lead to a foundation of respect between the two
parties.
KEY TERM
CSCS card: this stands for Construction Skills
Private customers are the people that most plumbers Certification Scheme card. Its purpose is to
meet on a daily basis and first impressions can mean a confirm that people who work in the built
environment have the necessary competence,
great deal. A private customer can employ a company
and identifies their qualifications. For example,
with specialist skills to work in their home, such as a trainee plumber would carry a small plastic ID
installers of solar panels or contractors who drill craft or operative card that identifies them as a
boreholes for private water supplies. A landlord of a person enrolled on an NVQ programme but not yet
dwelling is a private customer and can hire the services qualified.
of plumbers and gas engineers.
In larger companies, internal customers may be
The customer will need to trust the plumber and
involved in contracts and the plumber could be
have faith in their competence. They will see them as
included in a special project or even basic maintenance
representative of the company that they have hired to
of sanitary appliances.
carry out the work. Direct communication, in the form
of clearly thought out conversations, supported by In all work situations, the image, performance and
plans and manufacturers’ brochures, will help establish conduct of plumbers is paramount in creating a good
a good working relationship with the client. impression and helping their company gain further work.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Communication throughout the progress of a job is When a plumber becomes fully qualified at plumbing
very important in order to develop good and effective craft Level 3 they can take full responsibility for a
working relationships with a client. job, which will include dealing with direct enquiries
from clients, including any complaints. At this level
of competence, they would be expected to deal with
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS requests for extra work from a client and be familiar
Initial feedback to a customer on a job will be with the pricing arrangements for the work.
verbal and is essential for keeping them up to
date with developments, and informing them Supervision
of expected completion times and any likely
A plumber’s supervisor will be the main point of
changes to the schedule.
contact for apprentices at work. They will usually
be a fully qualified and experienced plumber who is
entrusted to ensure that the work is carried out safely,
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH efficiently and to the correct standard. One of their
The first point of written communication with a roles could be dealing with the hiring of subcontractors.
customer will be the quotation for the work and the
last will be the invoice from the contractor. It is important that positive and motivating methods of
supervision are employed in the day-to-day work on-
site. For example, in the event of a building flood as a
Site responsibilities for result of an apprentice’s error, a positive approach could
plumbers be to talk alone with the apprentice once the flooding
problem is resolved and ask them where they think
The level of personal authority regarding making
they made a mistake. An action plan, which could take
decisions, solving technical problems and
the form of a checklist, for when they next carry out
communications with customers will generally relate to
the same task could be drawn up and agreed upon. The
a plumber’s stage of progression within a company and
impact of their error could be discussed but, in the end,
their qualification status. For example, an apprentice,
there is a way forward to achieve an improved outcome
when working in a customer’s home, would not usually
the next time the apprentice takes on a similar job.
communicate directly with the customer and should
talk to their supervisor about any problems or issues
they encounter. A situation could arise where an ACTIVITY
apprentice is asked by a customer to carry out a job What would motivate you to improve your work?
Make a note and discuss with your team to see what
that the company has not quoted for; this could lead
motivates them.
to a number of problems, including not being able to
complete the agreed specified contract for the work
Punishing someone by deducting pay or making
on time. They will usually be guided and supervised
negative comments would be demoralising and
by a qualified plumber, who will help them to work
extremely demotivating. Other ways of motivating
efficiently and to the correct standard.
staff can include inspiring workers to strive for a higher
Once a plumber is qualified to craft Level 2, they standard and helping them to realise that they are
become more useful to the company and will be capable of such an improvement. Prompting can help
expected to work with less supervision but not take them to remember their aims on how to improve, and
on overall responsibility for a job. They will be able to some types of positive reinforcement can provoke
impart information about a specific job to a customer, people into a reaction, which in turn can improve their
but if additional work is requested they will be performance and perceptions about themselves. In
expected to forward this information, along with details essence, a supervisor is required to learn what makes
of any problems or complaints, to their supervisor. each individual member of their team respond, so that
they can improve and enjoy their work.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

✗ ✓ ● measuring the team performance and carrying out

appraisals, as well as the implementation of first-
level discipline
● identifying unacceptable or poor performance on jobs
● communicating with the team members concerned,
✗ with the aim of agreeing on ways of improvement.

INDUSTRY TIP
When a supervisor must intervene, they should support
staff with a detailed plan of how to improve, and by
creating records of improvement priorities and critical
activities, which should then be identified in programmes
 Figure 4.9 Good and poor examples of supervision
and schedules for future reference.

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Threats and bullying are negative, demotivating Sometimes competency discussions can be difficult
and create a poor working environment, with an to deliver, and excellent interpersonal skills are
often subdued workforce. required.

The degree of supervision needed varies according to

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH the apprentice’s level:
Praise and encouragement are excellent methods of ● at Level 1, you will receive a high level of hands-on

motivation, which can be more easily combined with supervision

positive discussions to help solve technical issues or staff ● at Level 2, you will have more autonomy to carry
problems with beneficial and productive outcomes. out tasks, with less strict supervision
● at Level 3, you are likely to work on your own without

much supervision, depending on the type of work.

Responsibilities when supervising
staff
INDUSTRY TIP
The role of a supervisor is quite involved and includes
many responsibilities, such as: The delegation of work tasks should be based on the
● defining the overall team workload for a specific job competence of the person, not how fast they can do a job or
● allocating the daily work priorities and specifying how much money they charge.
the workforce for day-to-day tasks
● control and monitoring of work patterns and shift A supervisor must be qualified at Level 3 and will
rotas usually have more experience than someone who
● explaining and communicating operational has just qualified, as they may be required to explain
information to the team, and relaying feedback from installation details to someone less experienced.
them to management
● initiating and leading incident investigations and KEY POINT
providing leadership in emergencies At apprentice level, it is common to have difficulty in
● maintaining and updating procedures on-site comprehending complex manufacturers’ instructions.
● finding solutions to problems You should receive coaching from your supervisor to
● identifying the competence levels for specific work help you.
tasks and assessing the training requirements of
individual team members

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

A supervisor should communicate any problems as it is completed to the agreed schedule. The design of
soon as they are identified. These could include: the work programme for larger projects, such as new-
● incorrect specification of pipework and materials build work, can be very detailed. It may even include
● any section of pipework that does not comply with a separate plan for the individual trades built into a
the Water Regulations larger overall programme of work for all activities on-
● any safety risks as a result of how components were site. The main contractor for the project will generally
installed. oversee the work programme and, on a well-designed
work programme, they will be able to identify whether
Adjusting work schedules everything is going to plan. Inevitably, problems will
The supervisor must be able to know how to adjust work occur, but contingency plans can be put in place
schedules when health and safety problems delay works. to keep the project on time and within the budget.
By referring to the work programme, they can produce a Precise monitoring, timely intervention and good
method statement and involve the team in its execution communication with other trades are key to managing
so that barriers to progress can be removed without a successful project.
compromising the ongoing safety of a given task. For It is therefore important for subcontractors to be
example, if asbestos is encountered, the work in that organised when taking on such work within larger
area may have to stop immediately and an alternative projects as they could lose out to competitors or
phase of the job started until the problem is resolved. face penalties if they fail to complete within the
By referring to the work programme, a supervisor could time allocated without the agreement of the main
manage this problem and use the diverse skills of their contractor.
workforce to create a solution.
KEY TERM
HEALTH AND SAFETY Work programme: a very detailed document
Poor supervision can contribute to accidents. A recent used on projects to record and assess activity
report written for the HSE pointed out that the heavy against expected time to complete the project.
workload of supervisors reduces their opportunities For example, it might highlight that poor quality
to recognise and respond to unsafe practices, of work and low safety standards could apply to
and concluded that the lack of supervision in the someone completing work ahead of schedule. It
workplace is a management failure. could also demonstrate that very slow progress
on a job would impact on labour costs. The
Sometimes there are delays in the second fix and, in competence of the plumber is very important and
this instance, the building services supervisor should their performance must be assessed carefully.
inform the construction manager. Good supervision is
at the heart of the successful execution and smooth
operation of the daily installation and servicing work of
a plumbing team.

5 WORK PROGRAMMES
IN THE PLUMBING AND
HEATING INDUSTRY
What is a work programme?
The principle of a work programme is to plan work  Figure 4.10 Supervisor showing an apprentice an area of work
activity against the time frame of a job or contract so to be reviewed

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

Work programmes can be used for private installation service and maintenance work in houses will involve
work such as the removal of a bathroom and installing planning and record keeping to the same standard
a wet room, where there could be quite a lot of as larger projects but on a smaller scale. Yearly boiler
disruption to people living in the property. A discussion servicing is recommended by manufacturers, but
with the customers at the outset will help to customise appliance safety checks are a legal requirement for
the work plan and organise different trades to carry landlords – the plumber’s record keeping and planning
out their specific tasks in an effective and efficient way. will help them to work effectively. A heating system
When working on-site, there are fewer restrictions than service will require the plumber to test the safety controls
when working in a house. When a site is occupied it on a sealed system and inspect the float-operated valve
is essential that the customer’s needs, requirements in the feed and expansion cistern located in a loft, where
and lifestyle are carefully considered when planning. safe access and good lighting needs to be provided.
There will invariably have to be some compromises on
both sides but the initial discussions are paramount to
identify times where rapid progress can be made and VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
where restrictions exist. Communication with the customer is essential to
ensure minimum disruption, as some tasks, such as
Using work programmes to arrange chlorination, may have to be carried out after hours.
and co-ordinate maintenance activities
In the same way, service and maintenance contract work
requires a work programme to ensure that appliances ACTIVITY
and components are kept functional, safe and in good If you are involved with installing a bathroom suite,
working order. A plumbing company could be involved in measure the temperature of the hot water tap and
see if it complies with the limit range set out by the
regular maintenance of a range of appliances in a large
Building Regulations.
building – for example, in a doctor’s practice or an office
block, to monitor the chlorination of water supplies
and testing, and checking flow rates and temperatures Job specifications
of water outlets to ensure compliance with the Water Job specifications will identify precise details of a
Regulations and current British Standards. job and will normally complement services and site
drawings for large projects. For example, if a bathroom
INDUSTRY TIP suite is to be installed, then the type, model, quality
and associated fittings will be clearly stated. Even
The Building Regulations now require thermostatic control the type of support for pipework can be mentioned.
of hot water temperature. The timely delivery of the specified appliances and
components is therefore important as delays will cost
The heat source for the building could be a commercial money and hold up other work associated with the job.
gas boiler and these will need to be serviced in
Testing procedures will be identified, such as soundness
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. The
testing and sanitary installation, or pressure testing a hot
radiator circuit must also be checked for effective
and cold water pipework installation. The specifications
operation and leaks. Usually on a maintenance contract,
can state who will notch the joints or make openings for
the sanitary appliances will have to be inspected and
first-fix pipework. Because the job specification is part
the air admittance valves (AAVs) may have to be
of the overall contract, any changes must be carried out
changed, as well as WC siphons. Performance testing
only after an agreement with the management has been
of appliance traps’ seals may be required if there have
made. Installers cannot take it upon themselves to make
been complaints of foul smells within the building.
any changes without permission.
There is a large range of maintenance tasks to carry out,
A job specification will also indicate what the
and accurate records of past events or risk assessments
documentation requirements are for power tools on-site
help plan for an effective work programme. Private
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

and what plant is required to carry out specialist tasks. everyone desires and this will lead to an increase in
Where special vehicles are required to complete specified the profit margin for the company. Labour resources
tasks, then this information will be stated in a job are best allocated after careful planning of when the
specification. Installation drawings and job specification work opportunity will arise in the work programme.
can be compared with the work programme. When planning work with plumbing and other trades
it is essential that the work is executed safely. If there
KEY POINT are any delays because of health and safety issues, then
Careful planning and monitoring against delivery the best solution would be to work around the problem
times is important to avoid losing money on a safely until it is resolved.
project. It is also important to avoid theft from a
site, which is best solved by arranging delivery on- KEY TERM
site early in the morning when operatives are there.
Delegation: sharing or transfer of authority and
responsibility, from an employer or supervisor to
Delivery of materials an employee.
Because a work programme can include a range of
information, such as the progress of work and the First fix
strategy of start times, for multiple trades on a building The first fix comprises all the work required to take a
project, the information must be clearly laid out on a building from foundation to plastering and painting
simple bar chart. With domestic properties the non- the internal surfaces. For a plumber, this includes the
arrival of goods and materials to a site can heavily installation of pipework in joists and in walls, and
impact a planned day’s work. On larger sites the routed to the planned location of appliances such as
delivery of materials ‘just in time’ means that they are radiators, boiler and sinks.
delivered to the exact location of the work at an agreed
time that coincides with the plumbers commencing Second fix
work. If material is not available this is likely to The second fix includes all the installation work
increase labour costs. In the same way, specialist plant required once the plastering has finished, which means
and machinery should be delivered to coincide with the appliances can then be connected to the first-fix
specialist contractors’ arrival to begin work on-site. pipework and commissioned.

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
When a delivery of plumbing fixings and fittings When on-site, ask to see the bar chart to check
arrives on-site, ask your supervisor if you can help where your particular work is located in the work
with checking the goods delivered against the programme. Identify the first- and second-fix stages
delivery note. of the plumbing team.

Other delays can occur, even if a delivery arrives on

Once a tender for a project has been attained, the next
time, such as the wrong specification of goods being
step is to devise an efficient and timely way to execute
sent, or items missing or arriving damaged. This is why
the plan in order to complete the task. A simple bar
it is important to carefully check the delivery note to
progress chart will provide the essential information
make sure that everything that has been ordered is
required to organise and monitor the progress of each
there, before signing off any documentation.
individual trade on-site. The plan will include start and
end dates, and even costs, for each section. The visual
Time allocation to work activities
display will give a quick indication of the progress of a
The delegation of work tasks should be based on project and allow for changes to be made. Some trades,
the competence of the person and not how fast such as plumbing, will be involved in the first- and
they can do a job or how much money they charge. second-fix works of an installation. If the job specification
Good-quality work completed ahead of time is what states that carpenters must cut notches in joists for the

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

Construction team 2014

JAN FEB MAR
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Ref Project Roles
SC 1 Sports Centre Carpenter 1 1
Plumber 1 1 1 2 2
Electrician 1 1 2
Plasterer
Painter
Key: 1 first fix, 2 second fix

 Figure 4.11 Excerpt from a simple bar progress chart

pipework, then the plumbing team can begin the first fix Variation in the work that would involve any change to
when that is completed. The job specification may also the agreed contract price for the work must be agreed
require that the carpenters insert battens in the studwork and approved in writing by the owner before a variation
in the wall to support appliances and radiators. Once the order can be put into action. A variation can impact on
dry lining has been fitted and any finish to the surface timescales for completion and any order must include
applied, then the plumber could come and complete the details of both cost and time changes.
second fix, and testing and commissioning can follow. All
If a variation of work is caused, for example, by
of this information can be represented on a bar chart like
poor installation or lack of ability to complete a
the one shown in Figure 4.11.
task properly, then the contractor could be liable for
any subsequent costs. A problem with the installation
KEY TERM may have been identified by the clerk of works and,
Tender: to submit a price or quotation for a job or if it is found that the routing of exposed pipework is
contract. not acceptable, it would then alter the agreed design.
A discussion with the contractors must take place and
Variations in work the reasons for the change, and its impact on time and
cost, must be carried out with the customer.
Nearly all construction projects will encounter changes
or variations during the design and construction
process. Because of this, many construction contracts INDUSTRY TIP
include provision for a variation clause. The term
Producing the variation order as early as possible will save
variation usually means a change, modification,
money, as one of the problems with reaching agreement is
alteration, revision or amendment to the original the time the whole process takes. Sometimes an independent
contract and how works are to be carried out. company can be brought in to quickly resolve variation issues
In order to solve problems related to changes to a if there is poor communication and co-ordination on a project.
project, the project team must be equipped to analyse
the variation, anticipate its immediate effect on other If the customer suggests changes after the contract
parts of the work programme and then effectively has been signed, then they will have to bear the costs
manage the new work. related to delays or additional material and design to
complete the work. All changes are to be confirmed in
Variation order writing as written communications have the advantage
A variation order is a document that records any of providing a permanent record.
agreement made with a client to alter the existing work
specified in a building contract. Causes of variation orders
The chart in Figure 4.12 shows a range of causes for
variations and is helpful when assessing where liability rests.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Causes of variation orders

A: Owner-related variations B: Consultant-related variations C: Contractor-related variations D: Other variations

Change of plans or scope Change in design by Contractor's lack of involvement Weather conditions
by owner consultants in design

Change of schedule by owner Errors and omissions in design Unavailability of equipment Safety considerations

Owner’s financial problems Conflicts between contract Unavailability of skills Change in government
documents regulations

Inadequate project objectives Inadequate scope of work for Contractor’s financial difficulties Change in economic regulations
contractor

Replacement of materials/ Technology change Contractor’s desired profitability Socio-cultural problems

procedures

Impediment in prompt Value engineering Differing site conditions Unforeseen problems

decision-making process

Obstinate nature of owner Lack of coordination Defective workmanship

Change in specifications by Design complexity Unfamiliarity with local conditions

owner

The customer may change Inadequate working drawing Lack of specialised construction
the specifications for a very details manager
good reason.
Inadequate shop drawing details Fast-track construction

Consultant’s lack of judgement Poor procurement process

and experience
There may be a lack of
Consultant’s lack of knowledge of Lack of communication communication by the
available materials and equipment contractor.

Honest wrong belief of consultant Contractor’s lack of

judgement & experience

Consultant’s lack of required data Long lead procurement

Obstinate nature of consultant Honest wrong belief of contractor

Ambiguous design details Complex design and technology

Design discrepancies (inadequate Lack of strategic planning

design)

Non-compliant design with Contractor’s lack of required data

govt. regulations

Non-compliant design with Contractor’s obstinate nature

owner’s requirements

Change in specifications by
consultant

 Figure 4.12 Causes of variation orders

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

Monitoring of progress and assess the progress of a job against agreed timescales
identifying deficiencies in work and anticipate any changes to costs. Monitoring the
progress of the job will help when confirming delivery
performance
times for fixings and fittings because if material is not
By referring to bar charts of the work programme, work available this is likely to increase labour costs.
activity, week numbers, expected completion dates,
price of materials and week commencing dates can be Deficiencies
identified. Installation drawings and job specifications Deficiencies in the context of the work performance
can also be compared with the work programme. relate to problems that could affect safety, quality and
Labour resources can be best employed and organised cost effectiveness.
after careful planning of when the work opportunity
will arise in the work programme, and this will help It is important that a supervisor should communicate
with the cost effectiveness of the project. any installation problems as soon as they are identified
while they are monitoring work. Examples of deficiencies
A clear, well-designed work programme will help a can include incorrect specification of pipework and
building service supervisor to be able to know the exact materials, any section of pipework that does not comply
time of a specific job, such as making a connection to with the Water Regulations, or if there is a safety risk
an existing sewer from a new estate. They will be able because of how components have been installed.
to organise a toolbox talk before the work begins, to
ensure that safe systems of work are observed because
KEY TERM
the plumbers will be in contact with waste matter from
humans. The supervisor can emphasise that, when Toolbox talk: a toolbox talk is an informal meeting
to deal with matters of health and safety in the
working on sanitary installations, rubber gloves should workplace and safe working practices. They are
be worn, but point out that this work should not be normally short meetings conducted on-site before
undertaken if the plumber has any open wound. the commencement of the day’s work activities.
Toolbox talks are an effective way of refreshing
The work programme would also show who was
operatives’ knowledge and communicating the
responsible for any work at a given time and what company’s health and safety culture.
materials were being used. This helps managers

6 RISK ASSESSMENTS AND METHOD

STATEMENTS FOR THE PLUMBING AND
HEATING INDUSTRY
Risk assessment its purpose. The law does not expect all risks to be
eliminated but there is a requirement to protect people
A risk assessment is a document drawn up after as far as is reasonably practicable.
an evaluation of existing or potential hazards on a
particular job that is about to start. Any such hazards As well as complying with the law, a risk assessment
are identified and precautions devised to reduce the enables a worker to focus on those risks in the
risk. Its aim is to provide information that will help keep workplace with the potential to cause real harm.
a worker safe and protect others from being injured or Straightforward measures can usually control risks,
even suffering illness. Although an apprentice would such as making sure that spillages are cleaned up
not be responsible for completing the risk assessment, quickly to help prevent the apprentice from slipping.
they must know how to follow it and be aware of Untidy work areas can also lead to accidents caused by

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

people tripping over pipework and leads. Accidents and

ill health can seriously affect lives and have a negative INDUSTRY TIP
impact on business, especially as a result of court
Sometimes a conversation with other trades working in the
action. Therefore, there is a legal requirement to assess
same area may help to add important information that could
the risks in the workplace and have a plan in place to improve the assessment.
control the risks.

Step 2: Deciding who might be

harmed and how
A walk around the proposed job location and
carrying out a visual inspection will help to make an
assessment of what could reasonably be expected to
cause anyone harm.
If dealing with, for example, gas appliances or
plumbing equipment connected to an electrical
supply, it is recommended that the manufacturer’s
instructions are consulted to ensure that these
are properly installed and operating correctly. If
chlorination of a cold water storage cistern (CWSC)
is going to be carried out at the same time as other
work, then COSHH data sheets for the chemicals
should be referred to. Another example of a high-risk
 Figure 4.13 Wet floor sign to warn people about a leak from an situation would be if a work environment is noisy.
appliance Noise can be a distraction and creates a problem when
close communication is required for people working in
The HSE produces a document called ‘Risk assessment:
pairs. Noise and exposure to chemicals can produce
A brief guide to controlling risks in the workplace’,
long-term hazards.
which outlines five steps to risk assessment. These are:
1 Identify the hazards.
2 Decide who might be harmed and how.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
3 Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions. The HSE publishes practical guidance on where
hazards occur and how to control them, on its website
4 Record your findings and implement them. at: www.hse.gov.uk
5 Review your assessment and update if necessary.
It is important to be clear about who could potentially
Step 1: Identifying hazards in the be harmed by each hazard as this approach will help
workplace identify the best way to manage the risk. Identify
Defining the risks in work situations involves being able precisely how people might be harmed for each
to identify hazards, which is anything that may cause different case, and state what type of injury could
harm, such as chemicals, electricity, working from occur or how health could be impacted. For example,
ladders or an obstruction. The risk is then defined by an engineer working in an oil- or gas-fired boiler room
the possibility that a person could be harmed by these could be exposed to carbon monoxide poisoning
hazards, along with an indication of how harmful or if the open flue failed to remove the products of
serious they could be. combustion effectively.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

 Figure 4.14 COSHH hazard pictograms

 Figure 4.16 Plumber’s trousers – make sure kneepads are fitted

 Figure 4.15 A typical safety helmet – check label to ensure it before starting work
is in date; it is always a good idea to inspect the helmet for
damage before use Step 4: Recording your findings and
implementing them
Step 3: Evaluating the risks and
It is important to write down the results of your risk
deciding on precautions
assessment and share them with your team. Doing
Once hazards have been identified, then decisions this will help to encourage all involved to put what is
must be made about what to do about them. The law written into practice. The results need to be written
states that you must do everything that is reasonably simply and clearly. However, if there are fewer than
practicable to protect people from harm. A risk five employees in a company, then nothing needs to be
assessment of what type of work you will be doing written down.
will have to be carried out, as well as information on
what controls you have in place and how the work will For example, a boiler room has many potential hazards,
be organised. Work out if the problem can be removed so carefully compiling a list of hazardous results is
completely and, if not, consider how the risks will be essential. You could begin implementing your findings
effectively controlled. There are several ways to reduce by emphasising that work areas around the boiler are
a risk, such as using barriers around a particular work to be kept clear of any tripping hazards and that the
area to prevent unauthorised access to a potentially area should be checked throughout the day. Perhaps in
hazardous area. The provision of an up-to-date first aid this same boiler room, it could be that natural gas will
kit in the work area is important, as is appropriate be released when installing new pipework. This risk can
personal protective equipment (PPE). then be contained by writing step-by-step procedures,
which should be stated in a method statement,
especially if there is a risk to others. Finally, it is a

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

possibility that some of the existing pipework insulation  Table 4.4 Risk calculation formula
contains asbestos, so care and attention should be Likelihood of an Consequences of an
taken when working on pipework. Therefore, as you accident occurring accident occurring
complete each action on the job, it should be recorded Scale Scale
and then implemented into the plan. value value
No likelihood 0 No injury or loss 0
Step 5: Reviewing your risk Very unlikely 1 Treated by first aid 1
assessment and updating it if Unlikely 2 Up to 3 days off work 2
necessary Likely 3 More than 3 days off 3
Quite often a plumber has to return to the same area Very likely 4 Specified major injury 4
of work on a servicing and maintenance contract, and Certainty 5 Fatality 5
circumstances could have changed. If the example of Calculation of risk factors
the boiler room is used again, then there could be new Likelihood × Consequence
hazards such as the storage of combustible materials or
Calculated figure Action
even chemicals in the vicinity of the appliances. Someone
Figures between 1 and 6 Minor, but monitor closely
may have damaged the main equipotential bonding at
Figures between 8 and 15 Significant, immediate control
the gas meter, or a contractor could have inadvertently
action
partially blocked a temperature relief discharge pipe.
Figures between 16 and 25 Critical, all activities must stop
It is therefore advisable that you look at the existing until risk reduced
risk assessment for the job location, and make a
note of any new changes and actions required. It is Worked calculation
essential that the risk assessment stays up to date. In a Imagine an apprentice is asked to solder pipework in
maintenance work plan it is good practice to plan and the loft space of a house that was built in 1960. They
review dates for risk assessments. are required to remove the galvanised CWSC. What
precautions should be taken, and what are the risks to
Risk calculation formulas the plumber and others?
A risk calculation formula is also known as ‘ranking
the risk’, and results in assigning a number to each
risk. Start with an assessment of the likelihood of an
accident, then proceed with listing the consequences.
This is called the quantitative approach.

KEY TERMS
Risk calculation formula: this is a method of
using a formula of multiplying likelihood by
consequences to provide a number that quantifies
the level of risk for a particular job.
Quantitative approach: ranking a risk with a number.

The formula for ranking risk with the quantitative

 Figure 4.17 Soldering pipework
approach is shown in Table 4.4.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

There are several risks associated with this scenario. A reduction of this risk is required. A possible solution
Access to the work area is to be carefully considered, could be the use of a secured ladder, with a protected
along with the likelihood and consequences of an area at the base or providing another trained person
accident occurring, and the provision to be put in place to to stand at the base. Ascending a ladder can be easier
reduce the risk. than descending, so a clear, secure area at the top of the
ladder is also required, in addition to adequate lighting.
There is also a fire risk because of the use of naked
An exposed floor with only joists for foot support in the
flames from using a blowtorch in a confined area with
loft at the top of the ladder could be made safer with
combustible materials in the vicinity. The removal of
robust boards that cover the area of joists and make
the galvanised CWSC may require the use of a power
it safe to stand without the risk of a plumber falling
tool to cut it into sections if the access to the loft space
through the ceiling.
is too small to allow it to be removed in one piece.
Finally, because the house was built in 1960 there is a The risk with these provisions in place could reduce the
possibility of the presence of asbestos in the building likelihood to 1 and the consequence to 0. The risk is
fabric, such as the fascia boards or even loft insulation. then reduced and safe access can be achieved.
There are several risks and by taking them one at a
time, a picture of what is required to reduce them ACTIVITY
can be compiled. If access to the work area is looked Assess and rank the risk of soldering a 15 mm copper
at, then an assessment of the likelihood and the pipe above a classroom doorway in a primary school.
What actions would you put in place to reduce the
consequences can be made. level of risks identified?
The likelihood of an accident from a fall or slip on
a freestanding portable ladder could be 3 and the There is another way to carry out a risk assessment
consequences could be 4. By multiplying these figures, that does not use numbers. This is referred to as the
3 × 4, we get a figure of 12, therefore the outcome is qualitative method. The qualitative approach divides
significant (according to the formula in Table 4.4). risks into priority categories – low, medium and high
– based on a range of factors. An example of how this
Task is applied is shown in the qualitative example of a risk
Accessing loft space with ladder
assessment which involves gas work (Figure 4.19). This
Equipment risk assessment form uses the qualitative approach of
Portable ladder
ranking risks.
Hazards
Slipping and falling
KEY TERM
Likelihood Consequence Risk factor
3 4 12 Qualitative method: divides risks into categories
such as low, medium and high.
Risk exposure
Employees

Control measures:
■ Ensure basic training is carried out for apprentices.
■ Inspect ladder for condition and correct grade.
■ Secure ladder at top and at base.
■ Ensure ladder extends sufficiently into loft space to enable
safe descent.
■ Provide safe floor area in loft space to manoeuvre.
■ Provide lighting.
■ Use correct PPE for task.

 Figure 4.18 Example of a basic risk assessment form for a

typical task in a customer’s home

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

General Risk Assessment Form

Location: Boiler room no 2, Looming Towers, Scare Street, Wick, UK Company Sector: Plumbing
Environment/Activity/Equipment Live. Tightness testing and purging of gas installation in boiler room.
Who is at risk: plumbers public contractors others (state) ................................

Hazard/s Leading to a risk of Existing measures to Risk rating Action required

control risk Yes/No
L S RR Ref No

Gas leakage Gas in air System tested before use 1 1 1 no

Apprentices monitored and

supervised

System tested after any

alteration

Purging of gas Gas in air / LEL lower Sectioning off areas 2 3 6

Explosive Limit

No naked flames or switching / yes

unless intrinsically safe (IS)

If young apprentices will be involved with this gas testing equipment, have the following been considered in the assessment:
Is the installation work required as part of their on site training? Y / N; The need to be supervised by a competent person Y / N; Their lack of
experience Y / N; If new to work, their lack of awareness of workplace risks Y / N; Their gender Y / N; Their manual dexterity Y / N;
Their physical abilities Y / N.

Action plan

Ref Further action required Action by whom Action by Date completed

No when

1 Only persons deemed safe, responsible and conscientious will be Supervisor / Immediate
allowed to touch the equipment even if supervised. Foreman effect

2 Use of gas co seeker to search leaks plus leak detection fluid. Senior gas Immediate
engineer/ Plumber effect

3 Whole system to be commissioned after successful completion Senior gas Immediate

of documentation. engineer/ Plumber effect

Sign off procedure

Work Completed by: Signature ..................................... Name ..................................... Date .....................
Checked by Supervisor: Signature ..................................... Name ..................................... Date .....................
Approved By Signature ..................................... Name ..................................... Date .....................
Risk Number ................. Signature ..................................... Name ..................................... Date .....................

Risk Rating Calculation

Likelihood Severity

3 Probable: Likely to occur each year; Has occurred recently 3 Death/hospitalisation

2 Possible: Likely to occur in 10 years; History of it happening 2 > 3 day injury

1 Remote: Not likely to occur in 10 years; Has not occurred 1 < 3 day injury

Risk Rating (RR) = Likelihood of Realisation of Hazard (L) × Severity of Hazard Being Realised (S)
Low = 1–2 Leave until last Medium = 3–4 Leave until later (set firm completion date) High = 6–9 ACT NOW

 Figure 4.19 Risk assessment form

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

Referring to the template above it can be seen that, A method statement must be clear and precise,
when a tightness test takes place, the likelihood of a otherwise it will be considered unsuitable or
hazard is low and so is the severity of hazard; therefore, insufficient for the task. Typical information to be
1 × 1 = low. included in a method statement includes drawings,
plans, specifications, schedules, risk assessments, site
However, as gas is released into air there is a high risk
inspection reports, manufacturers’ information, current
of flame ignition at the point of purging the pipework,
regulations and official guidance associated with
and in more extreme situations the risk of explosion if
protecting work areas.
the escape were left to continue and allowed to reach
an explosive mixture. Therefore, for this part of the job, The purpose of the method statement is to compile
the likelihood is high and so is the severity of hazard. into one document the control measures and
There are basic systems and processes used to reduce findings for a range of risk assessments associated
this risk and qualified Gas Safe engineers apply these on with a specific job. The information is then handed
a daily basis. to employees so that they have clear and detailed
guidance on how to safely carry out the task.
Method statement (plans of
ACTIVITY
work) How would a method statement help you when
A method statement is often used for a high-risk carrying out work in a customer’s home? Consider
situation. Its aim is to prevent accidents or dangerous whether the extra planning would encourage a more
situations from occurring. A suitable and sufficient enjoyable and productive working day.
method statement should be a practical and useful
document that clearly describes a safe working For example, providing a method and system of
method for a work team to follow easily. Senior working for employees investigating public health
management require this document to help them issues related to leaks from a domestic septic
manage and control a job as it verifies that any tank installation (like those shown in Figure 4.20)
significant risks have been considered and specific is essential as it is likely that there will be a risk
instructions to show how to deal with such risks have assessment relating to the exposure of raw sewage,
been provided. It should provide sufficient detail so and another to cover the lifting and repair of
that anyone inspecting the instructions, such as the low-level pipework, including possible trench and
HSE or even clients, can assess the effectiveness of excavation work. It is important that a method
the plan. The method statement is meant to help statement is followed precisely to complete a job
managers, supervisors and workers to carry out their safely, as this will protect the workers and, in this
work safely and efficiently. particular case, the public.

KEY TERM
Method statement: the record of how
management wants the job to be done. Its main
purpose is to guide site work and it must always
be available on-site as a live document with an
aim to prevent accidents or dangerous situations
from occurring.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

It is also important that a method statement be

provided when installing a septic tank because of the
risk to and possible impact on others in the vicinity.
There will be specialist contractors present to install the
tank, and to prepare and dig the required excavations,
as well as plumbers installing sanitary pipework. Local
authorities will be involved and the management
of a company needs to arrange a good level of co-
ordination to ensure the job runs safely and on time.
A method statement helps with the planning and
execution of such tasks.

Presenting a method statement

A method statement could include headings such as
details of the contract and the scope of work. It is
difficult to be entirely prescriptive about the precise
form a method statement will take, but anyone reading
the document should quickly be able to establish the
nature of the work. The sample in Table 4.5 shows how
a method statement can be laid out, with examples
of typical headings and details of how the plan will be
managed.

 Figure 4.20 Septic tank installations

 Table 4.5 Method statement examples

Typical heading Example of what the details will include

Details of contract Work location and attendance times/dates.
and scope of the Contact details: supervisor, client, survey details, principal contractor/co-ordinator (where relevant), senior
work manager responsible for the contract, local authority.
The scope of the work: what does the team have to do and what are the constraints of the site.
Equipment, materials Lifting, drilling and excavation equipment: hand tools, sprays, gels, fencing, barriers and signage, etc.
and controls Location and access arrangements for water and power supplies.
Methods of storage and transport.
Location and access to welfare facilities.
Other relevant site- Clear responsibilities and lines of communication with relevant third parties (customers and other
specific information specialist contractors).
Adequate pre-planning will ensure that others will not have a negative impact on the neighbours.
Emergency arrangements and procedures.
Any other significant risks (including how they will be controlled).
Method of work Site-specific sequence of work and actual methods to keep work areas safe and tidy.
The method will give details of safe working practice: working at height, working in excavations, confined
spaces, live electrical installations.
Management The plan is meant to be a management tool as well as a guide for site teams, so it should be clear how the
arrangements supervisors/managers are expected to ensure that the working methods are followed.
Regular team meetings to include any variations to the job specifications or working methods.

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 Chapter 4 Planning and supervision

ACTIVITY
Complete the risk assessment form for the replacement the work, such as causing a fire from the use of a
of a WC suite in a customer’s property. You must blowtorch, and how you would prevent the risk.
think of the hazards you might encounter while doing

Company name: Date of risk assessment:

Job description: Installing a WC pan and cistern

What are the hazards? Who might be What are you already Do you need to do
harmed and how? doing? anything else to
control this risk?

 Figure 4.21 Risk assessment form

Source: adapted from the Health and Safety Executive’s risk assessment template

SUMMARY Effective working relationships are crucial if the construction

process is to be successful, but they are also often fragile,
and it is important to know that help is at hand if these
During this chapter, we have looked at the varied relationships, for whatever reason, break down.
personnel of the construction industry, from the
The interaction between the many members of
client through to the building contractor and the
the construction team and the smoothness of the
workers on-site. We have seen how the relationships
construction process is the most visible testament
between the trades are interwoven, with everyone
that effective working relationships at all levels of
working towards a common objective – a successful,
construction management, tradesperson and labourer
quality building and a happy client.
are just that – effective and working!

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Test your knowledge 6 Which of the following is the main role of the
clerk of works?
1 In line with the Construction (Design and a To ensure that all work by contractors is
Management) Regulations 2015, a construction completed in line with agreed plans and
project is notifiable when: relevant standards on behalf of the client
a The project lasts more than 500 days and b To quantify the materials required for the
involves 30 or more operatives installation and order as required
b The project involves 500 or more person-days c To oversee the craft operatives on-site and
or lasts more than 30 days plan the daily activities
c The site includes three or more trades at any d To manage the finances of the project,
one time including materials and labour, ensuring the
d The client is classified as a ‘non-domestic project is completed within budget
client’ 7 According to HSE guidelines, what is the third
2 Which member of the site management team step to risk assessment?
advises on how a project can be constructed a Identify the hazard
within the client’s financial budget?
b Review the assessment and update as
a The building surveyor required
b The estimator c Decide who may be harmed and how
c The clerk of works d Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions
d The quantity surveyor 8 Plumbers that are able to install ‘non-complex’
3 Which of the following is the Building Control hot and cold water systems, as well as domestic
Inspector employed by? sanitation pipework and basic central heating
a The HSE pipework under regular supervision, are usually
b The local authority qualified to which level?

c The client a Level 1

d The main contractor b Level 2

4 As a plumber working on a large domestic c Level 3

new-build project, which document would be d Level 4
consulted to confirm the type and quality of 9 An apprentice plumber finds a crack in a fitted
terminal fittings to be installed? washbasin in a new property. Who should he/
a The specification she report the problem to first?
b The work programme a The client
c Working drawings b The clerk of works
d Variation orders c The supervisor
5 Which of the following tasks is classed as ‘first d The quantity surveyor
fix’? 10 What is the most likely outcome of materials not
a Installing traps to wash hand basins being delivered to site on time?
b Installing flexible connectors to terminal a Increased labour costs
fittings b Increased profit
c Hanging radiators on finished walls c Improved company reputation
d Notching joists to install heating pipework d Improved punctuality

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 Test your knowledge

11 Which person in the construction team would 18 What is the correct process if a conflict occurs
obtain quotations from the suppliers? on-site?
a The clerk of works a Resolve it quickly
b The main contractor b Take it to arbitration
c The procurement officer c Inform the unions
d The client d Seek mediation
12 Who is allowed to sign off a variation order? 19 Who would be an apprentice’s main point of
contact on-site?
a The estimator
a The customer
b The quantity surveyor b The supervisor
c The client c The site manager
d The clerk of works d The clerk of works
13 Which trade would install conduit? 20 Who does the subcontractor report to?
a Electrician a The architect
b The building control officer
b Plumber
c The main contractor
c Carpenter d The trade supervisor
d Bricklayer 21 Which sentence best describes the first fix
14 Which document shows the order of construction process?
and allows the monitoring of progress? a The installation of pipework into joist and walls
a Delivery note b The installation of appliances to pipework
b Work programme c The handing over of an installation to a customer
d The design stage of an installation
c Time sheet
22 What could conflict on-site between fellow
d Job specification
workers result in?
15 Which piece of legislation gives you the right to a A reduced level of accidents
ask a public body for information they have on a b An increase in output
subject? c A reduction in output
a Data Protection Act 2018 d An increase in wages
b The Equality Act 2010 23 What is the main advantage of communicating
c The Freedom of Information Act 2000 by email rather than posting a letter?
d GDPR a A more formal method of communication
b More likely to be understood
16 Which of the following is NOT enforceable by law?
c There are less words used
a BS EN 806 d It is a quicker form of communicating
b The Data Protection Act 2018 24 An apprentice plumber has flooded part of a
c The Water Regulations building. How should the supervisor deal with
d Building regulations the situation?
17 If you were to produce a formal quotation for 25 Give three important points to remember when
a customer, which method of communication communicating with someone who has a visual
should be used? impairment.
a Text 26 List the four on-site inspectors.
b Face to face 27 Who are ACAS and what is their role in
c Written workplace disputes?
d Telephone
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

28 What calculation is required to produce the risk 31 List the regulations that a plumber MUST
factor of a task when following the quantitative adhere to while installing a system.
risk assessment method? 32 Describe what a ‘works programme’ is used for.
29 Describe the role of the clerk of works.
Answers can be found online at
30 The building control officer (BCO) is expected www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction
to visit the site. Describe what the role of the
BCO is.

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 CHAPTER 5
COLD WATER SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
The supply of fresh, wholesome cold water to people’s homes is a basic human need. As a plumber, it is
your job to get the water from the main external stop valve to the taps so that it is clean and fit for human
consumption. Most people take for granted the supply of cold fresh water to their homes and few would
probably appreciate the degree of work necessary to provide this service.
In this chapter, we will look at the subject of water from the cloud to the tap, the cleaning process that makes it
fit for human consumption, the distribution of water and the systems that you will install. We will also explore the
regulations that govern our industry and the processes you will need to understand to enable you to work safely
and correctly on domestic cold water systems, from installation planning to testing, maintenance and fault finding.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● the sources and properties of water
● the types of water supply to dwellings
● the treatment and distribution of water
● the sources of information relating to cold water systems
● the water service pipework to dwellings
● how to select cold water systems
● the system layout features of cold water systems fed from private water supplies
● the components used in boosted (pumped) cold water supply systems from private sources for
single-occupancy dwellings
● backflow protection
● the Water Regulations
● how to install cold water systems and components
● how to carry out commissioning procedures
● how to replace or repair defective components
● how to decommission cold water systems.

1 SOURCES AND There is no new water on Earth – all water is about

4.2 billion years old, whether it is sea water (saline),
PROPERTIES OF river or stream water, groundwater, fossilised water or
water from the polar ice caps.
WATER
The rainwater cycle
Water is a simple compound made up of two hydrogen O
atoms attached to a single atom of oxygen, with the
chemical symbol H2O. Water is tasteless and odourless
and, in small quantities, it is colourless, while in large
H H
quantities it possesses a light blue hue.
p Figure 5.1 Water molecule

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Water moves constantly in what is scientifically may remain on the surface, where it will eventually find
called the hydrological cycle. We know it by its more its way into rivers, streams, lakes or the oceans. Here,
common name: the rainwater cycle. the process begins again, an example of the Earth’s
natural recycling process.
Simply explained, the rainwater cycle is a natural
process where water is continually exchanged between
the atmosphere, surface water, groundwater, soil water
Sources of water
and plants. It can be divided into three main transfer If we look at all of the water on Earth, 97 per cent is
processes: saline (sea) water and only 3 per cent is fresh water. Of
1 evaporation from oceans and other water bodies fresh water, nearly 69 per cent (or 2.07 per cent of the
into the air Earth’s total water resources) is trapped in the polar ice
2 transpiration from land plants and animals into the caps and glaciers, and 30.7 per cent (0.9 per cent of the
air total water resources) is groundwater. It is groundwater
3 precipitation from water vapour condensing from that the population of the Earth relies on for its drinking
the air and falling back to Earth or into the ocean. water supply.

Su at
Fr ate

Ri %
es r

rf er
w %

ve
w 3%

ac
h

rs
e
0.
3
Sw
am
Gr
ou 11 ps
%
Water saturated cloud wa nd
30 ter
.7%
Water vapour

Sal
sea ine o Lak
Rain and snow w r e
Heat from the Sun 97 ater Ice 87 s
% ca %
an ps
gla d
Evaporation ci
69 ers
%

p Figure 5.3 Distribution of the Earth’s water

River running back to the sea
to restart the process
The total freshwater supply for the world is in the region
p Figure 5.2 The rainwater cycle of 1350 trillion litres, the majority of which is stored on
the ground, where it is available in reservoirs, streams,
As the Sun warms the Earth, water on its surface rivers, lakes, etc., with a further 13,650 trillion litres
evaporates. This vapour rises with the air and is carried in the form of water vapour, which will eventually fall
by the prevailing winds. If the vapour passes over land, as rain. Conversely, about 1100 trillion litres of water
some of it condenses to form clouds and, as more evaporates into the atmosphere worldwide every day.
water vapour is attracted or the ground rises (hills or
mountains), the cloud becomes saturated to the point Sources of water in the UK
where it can no longer hold the moisture and the vapour
Of the rain that falls on the UK annually, only 5 per cent
is released in the form of rain, sleet, snow or hail.
is collected and stored in reservoirs for the drinking water
On reaching the ground, there are many paths it may supply. The rest flows in rivers to the sea or is filtered
follow. Some of it may be re-evaporated back into the down to the natural water table or aquifers that exist
atmosphere; it may be absorbed by the ground, where below the ground surface. The main sources of water in
it will travel towards the water table or aquifer; or it the UK are shown in Table 5.1.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

 Table 5.1 Sources of water in the UK

Source of water Description Properties of water from this source
Deep wells Machine-dug wells that draw their water from below the Usually good-quality water, as extracted from
shallow impermeable strata (see Figure 5.4). below the Earth’s surface.
Shallow wells Wells dug by hand or excavator that penetrate only the first Must be considered dangerous because it can
water-bearing strata, or aquifer, in the Earth’s surface (see be contaminated with water from cesspits or
Figure 5.4). broken drains, etc.
Upland surface Water that has collected in upland lakes and rivers without The main water source for the north-west of
water passing through the Earth’s strata. England. It is not contaminated with salts and
minerals, and is naturally soft and acidic.
Spring A naturally occurring flow of water from the Earth’s surface. The purity of the water is highly dependent on
the distance it has travelled from the source.
River A large natural flow of water, usually starting as a small Usually poor quality due to industrial pollution.
stream on high ground, which enlarges with distance The cost of treatment is high.
travelled. Usually terminates at the sea and can be tidal,
such as the River Avon.
Canals Most canals are a product of the Industrial Revolution and Very poor quality, generally used only for
for many years fell into dereliction. Many, though, have been industrial purposes and irrigation.
cleaned and re-opened, and are now sites of natural beauty.
Aquifers Naturally occurring water-bearing strata, often deep beneath Very high quality, but prone to contamination
the Earth’s surface. Mostly consist of permeable rock, such by nitrates from farming.
as sandstone, gravel silt or clay, which soaks up water like a
sponge (see Figure 5.4).
Artesian wells Water that rises from underground water-bearing rock layers Usually very good quality as the water is
and springs under its own pressure, but only if the well head is below the filtered naturally through layers of rock.
level of the water table (see Figure 5.5).
Boreholes Man-made wells that are drilled directly to a below- Very high-quality water that, in most cases, is
groundwater source and the water extracted for use if cleaner than the water undertaker’s water main.
connection to a water main is extremely difficult. Filtering and chlorination are not necessary,
although the quality should be monitored.

Lake Deep well Land spring Unconfined aquifer Shallow well

Impervious strata
INDUSTRY TIP
Pervious strata

Confined aquifer The Environment Agency is

the overseeing authority for all
Impervious strata
watercourses in the UK. It samples
p Figure 5.4 Deep and shallow wells about 7000 river and canal sites
12 times a year to test their
Artesian spring Artesian well
Impervious strata chemistry and nutrients so it can see
Plane of saturation whether there are any pollutants and
whether it needs to target areas for
improvement.

Impervious strata Water-bearing strata

p Figure 5.5 Artesian wells and springs

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

These changes are aesthetic only and do not constitute

INDUSTRY TIP a health risk. Typical situations where this may occur in
domestic properties are:
The information in this section on fluid categories is
● water heated in a hot water secondary system
taken from the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
● mixed fluid categories 1 and 2 water discharged
1999 document, accessible at: www.legislation.gov.uk/
uksi/1999/1148/contents/made from combination taps or showers
● water that has been softened by a domestic common

salt regeneration process.

The UK fluid categories Fluid category 3
Fluid category means a category of fluid as described
Fluid category 3 is water that constitutes a slight health
in Schedule 1 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
hazard because of the concentration of low-toxicity
Regulations and/or Scottish Water Byelaws. Any water
substances. Fluids in this category are not suitable for
that is not cold wholesome drinking water supplied by
drinking or any other domestic purpose or application.
a water undertaker can be classed as a potential hazard.
The substances might include:
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 list
● ethylene glycol (anti-freeze), copper sulphate or
five fluid categories, as described below.
similar chemical additives such as heating inhibitors,
Fluid category 1 cleansers and descalers
● sodium hypochlorite and other common
Fluid category 1 is wholesome water supplied by a
water undertaker, complying with the Water Quality disinfectants used in domestic properties.
Regulations made under Section 67 of the Water Typical fluid category 3 situations occur in the
Industry Act 1991. It must be clean, cold and potable. following.
All water undertakers have a duty to supply water ● In houses, apartments and other domestic
that conforms to these regulations, which ensure dwellings:
wholesome water suitable for domestic use or food ● water in the primary circuits of heating systems,
production purposes. Whenever practicable, water whether chemicals have been administered or
for drinking water purposes should be supplied direct not
from the water undertaker’s mains without any ● water in washbasins, baths and shower trays
intervening storage. ● clothes-washing and dishwashing machines

● home dialysis machines

KEY TERM ● hand-held garden hoses with a flow-controlled

Potable: drinkable, from the Latin word ‘potabilis’ spray or shut-off valve
meaning drinkable. ● hand-held fertilisers.

● In premises other than single-occupancy domestic

dwellings:
INDUSTRY TIP ● domestic fittings and appliances such as

washbasins, baths or showers installed in

The three words commonly used to describe fluid category 1
commercial, industrial or other premises may be
are wholesome water, potable water and drinking water.
regarded as fluid category 3; however, if there is
a potential for a higher risk, such as a hospital,
Fluid category 2 medical centre or other similar establishment,
Fluid category 2 is water that would normally be then a higher fluid category risk should be
classified as fluid category 1 but whose aesthetic applied in accordance with the regulations
quality has been impaired because of: ● house-garden or commercial irrigation systems
● a change in temperature without insecticides.
● a change in appearance, taste or odour owing to the

presence of substances or organisms.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Fluid category 4 ● hose union bib taps in a non-domestic

installation
Fluid category 4 is water that constitutes a significant
● sinks, WC pans, urinals and bidets
health hazard because of the concentration of toxic
● permeable pipes in any non-domestic garden,
substances, which can include:
whether laid at or below ground level
● chemical, carcinogenic substances or pesticides
● grey-water recycling systems.
(including insecticides and herbicides)
● Medical:
● environmental organisms of potential health
● laboratories
significance.
● any medical or dental equipment with
Typical fluid category 4 situations are as follows. submerged inlets
● General: ● bedpan washers and slop hoppers
● primary circuits of heating systems in properties ● mortuary and embalming equipment
other than a single-occupancy dwelling ● hospital dialysis machines
(commercial systems) ● commercial clothes-washing equipment in care
● fire sprinkler systems using anti-freeze chemicals homes and similar premises
● house gardens ● baths, washbasins, kitchen sinks and other
● mini irrigation systems without fertilisers or appliances that are in
insecticides, including pop-up sprinkler systems non-domestic installations.
and permeable hoses. ● Food processing:
● Food processing: ● butchery and meat trade establishments
● food preparation ● slaughterhouse equipment
● dairies ● vegetable washing.
● bottle-washing plants. ● Catering:
● Catering: ● dishwashing machines in healthcare premises
● commercial dishwashers and similar establishments
● refrigerating equipment. ● vegetable washing.
● Industrial and commercial installations: ● Industrial/commercial:
● dyeing equipment ● industrial and chemical plants
● industrial disinfection equipment ● laboratories
● photographic and printing applications ● any mobile tanker- or gulley-cleaning vehicles.
● car-washing and degreasing plant ● Sewage treatment works and sewer cleaning:
● brewery and distilling processes ● drain-cleaning plant
● water treatment plant or softeners that use ● water storage for agricultural applications
methods other than salt ● water storage for fire-fighting systems.
● pressurised fire-fighting systems. ● Commercial agricultural:
● commercial irrigation outlets below or at ground
Fluid category 5 level, and/or permeable pipes, with or without
Fluid category 5 represents a serious health risk chemical additives
because of the concentration of pathogenic organisms, ● insecticide or fertiliser applications
radioactive material or very toxic substances. These ● commercial hydroponic systems.
include water that contains:
The list of examples of applications outlined above for
● faecal material or any other human waste
each fluid category is not exhaustive.
● butchery or any other animal waste

● pathogens from any source. The distinction between fluid category 4 and fluid
category 5 is often difficult to interpret. In general,
Typical fluid category 5 situations are as follows.
we can assume that fluid category 4 is such that
● General:
the risk to health, because of the level of toxicity or
● industrial cisterns and tanks
the concentration of substances, is such that harm

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

will occur over a prolonged period of days to weeks ● the obligations of the water companies and licensed
to months, whereas the risk from fluid category 5, water suppliers to supply water that is fit for human
because of the high concentration of substances or consumption, and the enforcement of those obligations
the level of toxicity, is such that serious harm could by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural
occur after a very short exposure of minutes to hours Affairs (Defra) and the Drinking Water Inspectorate
to days, or even a single exposure. ● charging powers of water companies and suppliers,
and the control of those charges by Ofwat
KEY POINT ● protection of customers and consumers by Ofwat
We must remember that fluid category 1 is clean, and the Consumer Council for Water.
cold, wholesome water direct from the water Under the provisions laid down by the Water Act 2003,
undertaker’s main and no other fluid category the UK Government introduced two documents that
must come into contact with it or contamination regulate how plumbers install, commission and maintain
may occur.
water supplies within domestic buildings. These are:
1 the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
2 the Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016.
2 THE TYPES OF WATER These will be discussed later in the chapter.
SUPPLY TO DWELLINGS Sources of recycled, unwholesome
water supply in domestic dwellings
Types of water supply in Over the past 20 years, demand for water has
the UK increased dramatically in the UK. Each of us now uses
There are two types of water supply in the UK: an average of 150 litres of water every day for washing,
1 water supplied by a water authority, known as a flushing the WC, drinking, cooking, gardening and
water undertaker, under Section 67 of the Water Act other household tasks. With the climate changing and
2 water supplied from a private source, such as a frequent periods of drought becoming a possibility, the
borehole, river or stream. need to save water is becoming more apparent.
There are many ways in which water usage can be
The Water Act 2003 (Water Industry reduced in a dwelling, from simple rainwater collection
Act 1991) in water butts for garden use, to more complex systems
for clothes washing and WC flushing. We will look at
INDUSTRY TIP these here. It must be remembered that this type of
water is not fit for human consumption and must be
Access the Water Act 2003 at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ marked as such. Any installation in a dwelling must not
ukpga/2003/37/contents
cross-connect with the mains cold water supply.

The Water Act 2003 amalgamates and amends two There are three types of unwholesome water:
previous pieces of legislation: the Water Industry Act 1 grey water
1991 and the Water Resources Act 1991. The Water 2 rainwater harvesting
Act 2003 introduced changes to the regulation of the 3 black water.
water industry in England and Wales originally made
Grey water
under the Water Industry Act 1991. It is enforced by the
Environment Agency and deals with such matters as: Waste water from baths, showers, washing machines,
● the appointment and regulation of water and
dishwashers and sinks is often referred to as grey water.
sewerage companies and licensed water suppliers by About a third of all water used in the average
the Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) household is used for WC flushing. The water used
● water supply and sewage disposal powers, and for bathing from baths, showers and washbasins
duties of the water companies and suppliers can be collected, cleaned and reused for this purpose.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

High-level grey water

storage cistern

Grey water
supply

Grey water feed

Grey water collection to cistern in the
roof space

Grey water
filter

Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

p Figure 5.6 Indirect grey water system feeding a WC

Grey water is usually clean enough for use in WCs resources because water that would otherwise be lost
with only minimal disinfection or micro-biological can be used to flush toilets, water gardens and feed
treatment. Problems can arise when the warm grey washing machines, instead of using water direct from
water deteriorates when stored, as the bacteria it the mains supply for such purposes.
contains rapidly multiply, making the water smell.
Rainwater harvesters can be installed at domestic or
This can be overcome by filtration and treatment with
commercial sites, and average households can expect
chemicals. There must also be a means of protecting
to save up to 50 per cent of their water consumption
the mains water against contamination by backflow
by installing a rainwater harvesting system.
from a grey water system, in order to comply with
the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999. Harvesters are usually installed beneath the ground
in an underground storage cistern or on the roof of a
Rainwater harvesting flat-roofed building. A typical four-bedroom house will
Rainwater harvesting has the potential to save a capture enough water to keep a 5000-litre cistern in
large volume of mains water and reduce pressure on use throughout most of the year.

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High-level grey water

storage cistern

Grey water
supply
Rainwater is collected from the
roof by the guttering system
where it flows down the
rainwater pipe, through a
rainwater filter and into an
underground storage cistern

Grey water feed

to cistern in the
roof space

Grey water
filter
Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

p Figure 5.7 Indirect rainwater harvesting system

Black water Unwholesome water will be revisited in Chapter 9,

Black water is water and effluent from WCs and kitchen Sanitation systems.
sinks that can be treated only by a water undertaker at
a sewage works.

3 THE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS AND

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
In this section, we will look at the way the water we use
every day for drinking, washing and cooking is filtered,
Sedimentation, filtration,
cleaned and sterilised to ensure that it is fit for human sterilisation and aeration of
consumption. The word we use to describe fresh, clean water
water is ‘wholesome’.
Before it is considered wholesome, the water undergoes
several stages of treatment to ensure its cleanliness and

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

quality. These stages are the responsibility of the water Sludge blanket level Inlet valve
undertaker and are known as: Settled water
channel
● sedimentation ● sterilisation Decanting trough
● filtration ● aeration.

Sedimentation

Sludge
Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter concentrator
cone

Sterilisation
Automatic
sludge
bleed valve
Distribution
Inlet pipe
Bottom sludge
extractor pipe
p Figure 5.8 The water treatment process
p Figure 5.9 Sedimentation tank
Sedimentation
Sedimentation tanks are designed to slow down the Filtration
water velocity to allow the solids that the water Filtration is an important process that removes turbidity
contains to sink to the bottom and settle under and algae from the raw, untreated water. There are
gravity. Simple sedimentation may also be used to many different types of filter, including screens, gravel
reduce turbidity. filters, slow sand filters, rapid sand filters and pressure
filters. We will concentrate on three of these:
KEY TERM 1 slow sand filters
Turbidity: the cloudiness or haziness of water 2 rapid sand filters
caused by particles that are usually invisible to the 3 pressure filters.
naked eye. Turbidity is a key test of water quality.
The difference between these types is not just a
matter of the speed of the filtration process, but the
Sedimentation tanks are usually rectangular in underlying principle of the method. Slow sand filtration
shape, with a length to width ratio of 2:1, and are is a biological process and rapid sand filtration is a
usually 1.5–2 m deep. The inlet and outlet must be physical treatment process.
on opposite sides of the tank, and the inlet designed
to distribute the incoming flow as evenly across the Slow sand filters
tank as possible. The outlet should be designed to These are often preceded by micro-straining or coarse
collect the cleared water across the entire width filtration. These filters are used primarily to remove
of the tank. The tank will also require covering to micro-organisms, algae and turbidity. It is a slow but
prevent external contamination. very reliable method of water treatment, often suited
Sedimentation tanks require cleaning when their to small supplies, provided that there is sufficient area
performance begins to deteriorate; a 12-monthly period to properly construct the filtration tanks.
between cleaning operations is normally sufficient.

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Slow sand filters consist of tanks containing sand

KEY TERM
with a size range of 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm, and to a
depth of around 0.5 m to 1.5 m. For single dwellings, Floc: a collection of loosely bound particles
or materials. These are bound together by the
circular modular units, usually used in tandem, are
coagulation process for easy removal from the
available. These have a diameter of around 1.25 m. water.
As the raw water flows downwards through the sand,
micro-organisms and turbidity are removed by a
simple filtration process in the top few centimetres Rapid sand filters are usually constructed from
of sand. Eventually, a biological layer of sludge rectangular tanks containing coarse silica sand with
develops, which is extremely effective at removing a size range of 0.5 mm to 1 mm laid to a depth of
micro-organisms in the water. This layer of sludge between 0.6 m and 1 m. As the water flows downwards
is known as the ‘schmutzdecke’. The treated water through the filter, the solids remain in the upper part
is then collected in underdrains and pipework at the of the sand bed where they become concentrated. The
bottom of the tank. The schmutzdecke will require treated water collects at the bottom of the filter and
removing at periods of between 2 and 10 weeks flows through nozzles in the floor. The accumulated
as the filtration process slows. The use of tandem solids are removed either manually every 24 hours
filters means that one filter can remain in service or automatically when the head loss reaches a
while the other is cleaned and time allowed for the predetermined level. This is achieved by backwashing.
schmutzdecke to re-establish. A variety of proprietary units are available containing
Slow sand filters should be sized to deliver between filtering media of different types and sizes. In some
0.1 m3 and 0.3 m3 of water for every 1 m2 of filter filters, the water flows upwards, improving the efficiency.
per hour.
Bellmouth Inlet
Float-operated valve

Filter media
Inlet
Backwash waste
Schmutzdecke

Fine sand
Filtered
water
Gravel
Outlet Wash water
and air supply
Perforated support Gravel
tiles or underdrains
p Figure 5.11 Rapid gravity filter
 Figure 5.10 Slow sand filter
Pressure filters
KEY TERM These are sometimes used where it is important
Schmutzdecke: ‘schmutzdecke’ comes from the to maintain a head of pressure to remove the need
German word meaning ‘dirt cover’. to pump the water into the supply. The filter bed is
enclosed in a cylindrical pressure vessel. Some small
pressure filters are capable of delivering as much as
Rapid (gravity) sand filters
15 m3/h. The cylinder is typically made of specially
Rapid sand filters are predominantly used to remove coated steel, and smaller units can be manufactured
the floc from coagulated water, but they can also be from glass-reinforced plastic. They operate in a similar
used to successfully remove algae, iron, manganese and way to the rapid sand filter.
water turbidity from raw water.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Air release valve

Inlet
Sand
Air and
Washout
wash water
Gravel
inlet

Outlet

Drain

p Figure 5.12 Pressure filter

Sterilisation
Finally, water is treated with chlorine and ammonia Distribution of cold water
before being allowed to enter the water supply. This There are two methods of water supply distribution
will kill off any bacteria missed by the water filters. used in the UK. These are:
Fluoride is still added in some parts of the UK, but only 1 gravity distribution
in minute quantities. Ultraviolet (UV) water treatment 2 pumped distribution.
uses a simple concept where water passes through a
clear chamber where it is exposed to UV light. This UV KEY POINT
light destroys the majority of bacteria and viruses that There are more than 2000 reservoirs used
are present in the water. for drinking water in the UK. These are the
responsibility of the Environment Agency.
Control
Diluting water inlet
panel
Gravity distribution
The water from the collection of upland surface water is
C impounded in reservoirs on high ground. Here, the water
h Diluting water
l
is filtered by slow sand filters, and chlorinated before
absorption tower
o being fed to homes and factories by gravity. No pumping
r is required.
i
n
e Slow sand Service Chlorinating Water
filter reservoir house main
Reservoir
Water main
with injector

p Figure 5.13 Sterilisation by injection of chlorine

Aeration
Aeration is commonly used to treat groundwater by
mixing water with air. This removes dissolved metals p Figure 5.14 Gravity water distribution
and gases like CO2 through chemical reactions and
physical mixing.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Pumped distribution Service reservoir

When water is taken from a river, it is pumped on a water tower

direct to a settlement tank where all of the heavier

impurities sink to the bottom. It is then passed through Pumping and
chlorinating house
a slow sand filter to remove any organic matter and
Pump house Water
chlorinated to wholesome water standard before being Settlement Slow sand main
pumped to a water tower. From the tower, it flows via tank filter
gravity to the water main. River

p Figure 5.15 Pumped water distribution

4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION RELATING TO

COLD WATER SYSTEMS
The sources of information to be used when KEY POINT
undertaking work on cold water systems are: BS EN 806 – Specification for installations inside
● statutory regulations buildings conveying water for human consumption
● industry standards is a relatively new British Standard that came into
● manufacturers’ instructions. force in 2011. It is divided into five parts:
1 General recommendations
2 Design
Statutory regulations 3 Pipe sizing
4 Installation
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) 5 Operation and maintenance.
Regulations 1999 Linked with this is a second British Standard, BS
Before 1999, each water authority had its own set of EN 8558 – Guide to the design, installation, testing
water bye-laws that were based upon the 101 Model and maintenance of services supplying water for
Water Bye-laws issued by the UK Government in 1986. domestic use within buildings and their curtilages.
Together, these two publications replace the old
The problem was that each water undertaker had local
British Standard, BS 6700 – Design, installation,
variations, which caused much confusion as there was testing and maintenance of services supplying
no ‘common’ standard throughout the UK. water for domestic use within buildings and their
curtilages. However, parts of BS 6700 that are
On 1 July 1999, the Office of the Deputy Prime
not covered in either BS EN 806 or BS EN 8558
Minister issued the first ever water regulations to be are retained. For further information contact The
enforced in the UK. They are known as the Water Water Regulations Advisory Scheme.
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 and offer a
common practice throughout the UK. They are linked Simply put, the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
to a British Standard, BS EN 806 – Specification for Regulations were made under Section 74 of the Water
installations inside buildings conveying water for Industry Act 1991 and have been put in place to ensure
human consumption. that the plumbing systems we install and maintain
prevent the following:

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

● contamination of water The Private Water Supplies Regulations 2016 stipulate

● wastage of water that a risk assessment must be made of all private
● misuse of water water supplies including the source, storage tanks,
● undue consumption of water any treatment systems and the premises using the
● erroneous metering of water. water supply.

KEY TERM INDUSTRY TIP

Erroneous: wrong; incorrect.
A free copy of the Private Water Supplies Regulations
2016 can be downloaded here: www.legislation.gov.uk/
An important factor here is that these Regulations
uksi/2016/618/contents/made
cover only those installations where the water is
supplied from a water undertaker’s water main, and are
enforced by the water undertaker in your area. They are Industry standards
not, however, enforceable where the water is supplied
from a private water source. The British Standards (BS EN 806 – 1
A free copy of the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
to 5 and BS 8558)
Regulations 1999 can be downloaded from the The main British Standard for design, installation,
relevant government pages at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ commissioning, testing, flushing and disinfection
uksi/1999/1148/contents/made of systems is BS EN 806:2010 Specifications for
installations inside buildings conveying water for
The Private Water Supplies human consumption (in conjunction with guidance
Regulations 2016 document BS 8558:2011 Guide to the design,
A private water supply is defined as any water supply installation, testing and maintenance of services
that is not provided by a water undertaker. It is not supplying water for domestic use within buildings
connected to any part of the water mains network and their curtilages).
and, as such, water rates are not charged, although In reality, the information has changed very little from
the owner of any such supply may make a charge for the previous British Standard, BS 6700: 2006+A1:
any water used. Private supplies are commonly used 2009 Design, installation, testing and maintenance
in rural areas where connection to water mains is of services supplying water for domestic use within
difficult. A private supply may serve one property or buildings and their curtilages, and this document
many properties on a private network. The water may should be referenced where alternative information is
be supplied from a borehole, spring, well, river, stream not available.
or pond.
The Building Regulations
Under the Water Act 2003, the local authority in
The Building Regulations make reference to cold water
the area where the private water supply is located is
services and systems. These are mentioned briefly
responsible for the inspection and testing of the water
in Approved Document G1 – Cold Water Supply
supply to ensure that it is maintained to a quality that
and Approved Document G2 – Water Efficiency.
is fit for human consumption. These inspections and
Additional recommendations can be found in Annex 1
tests are made in accordance with the Private Water
– Wholesome Water and Annex 2 – Competent Person
Supplies Regulations 2016. Generally speaking, the
Self-certification Schemes.
more people that use the supply, the more detailed
the tests and the more regular the inspections Manufacturers’ instructions
have to be. Supplies for commercial properties and
Where appliances and equipment are installed
activities, or food production and preparation, have to
on a system, the manufacturer’s instructions are
be tested more frequently and meet more stringent
a key document when undertaking testing and
requirements than domestic supplies.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

commissioning procedures, and it is important that Trunk mains will vary in diameter depending on the
these are used correctly at both installation and purpose of the main and the likely demand for the
commissioning operations. Only the manufacturers supply. Pipes that transfer water to the various points
will know the correct procedures that should be used in the distribution system can vary in diameter from
to safely put the equipment into operation so that it 75 mm to 2.3 m. The size of the water main depends
performs to its maximum specification. Remember: upon the size of the community that it serves.
● always read the instructions before operations
 Table 5.2 The size of water main required depends on the size
begin of the community it is to serve
● always follow the procedures in the correct order

● always hand the instructions over to the customer

Town population Size of main (metres diameter)
upon completion 500,000 1.05 m to 1.20 m
● failure to follow the instructions may invalidate the 200,000 0.75 m
manufacturer’s warranty. 5000–20,000 0.2 m to 0.3 m

When a new house has to be connected to the water

5 THE WATER SERVICE supply, the supply pipes are usually 25 mm in diameter.

PIPEWORK TO At the boundary to the dwelling, a ‘screw-down stop

valve’ is installed, so that the supply to the house can be
DWELLINGS isolated if necessary while any repairs are carried out.

Methods of connection to the

Distribution of water in water main
cities, towns and villages Underneath the road is the water main. The connection
Water is supplied to our homes via a grid system for the water supply to the dwelling is made by a
network of pipes known as trunk mains, a phrase brass ferrule, which is the responsibility of the water
dating back to when the mains were constructed from undertaker. The ferrule is a type of shut-off valve that
hollowed-out tree trunks. allows the water supply connection to be isolated for
maintenance and repair.
Water
treatment
The connection to the water main can be made in a
plant number of ways depending upon the material from which
the water main is made. For instance, if the water main
is made from cast iron, then a self-drilling and tapping
machine is used. With this tool, the water main is drilled,
threaded and a ferrule inserted while the main is still
under pressure so that the supply to other properties is not
disrupted. If the main is made from PVCu or cementitious
lined asbestos, then a brass strap-type ferrule is used.
Water mains

Houses and
other buildings

p Figure 5.16 Water supply grid system

p Figure 5.17 A strap-type ferrule water main connection

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

The supply pipe runs from the main external stop valve
to the dwelling and is the responsibility of the house
owner. It must be installed at a minimum depth of
750 mm and a maximum depth of 1350 mm. It must
terminate within the building with a screw down-type
stop valve with a drain-off valve installed immediately
above the stop valve.
Together, the communication pipe and the supply pipe
make up the service pipe to the building.
p Figure 5.18 A standard gunmetal ferrule
KEY POINT
From the water main to the building Figure 5.19 identifies a lot of important factors:
pipe names, pipe depth and three points of
The water supply from the water main into the building isolation.
comprises two separate pipes:
1 the communication pipe, owned and maintained by
The water supply to buildings can be arranged in
the water undertaker
numerous ways. In each case, separate dwellings
2 the supply pipe, owned and maintained by the
supplied must have a controlling stop valve in a position
owner of the building.
that will allow the water supply to be turned off in an
The communication pipe is installed by the water emergency without affecting any other property.
undertaker from the ferrule on the water main to the
Most water supplies in modern dwellings and industrial
main external stop valve (also known as the boundary
premises are piped in medium-density polyethylene
stop valve because it is usually located at the boundary
pipe (MDPE), which is coloured blue for easy
of the property). It incorporates a gooseneck bend to
identification to show mains cold (potable) water. This
allow for any settlement of the roadway or pavement.
is generally known as ‘blue poly’. The minimum pipe
It is the sole responsibility of the water undertaker to
size for modern dwellings is 25 mm. Soft copper to BS
install, repair and maintain the communication pipe and
EN 1057 R220 can also be used (in older properties
main external stop valve.
the cold mains may even be 15 mm copper).

Household
stop valve
Communication Service pipe owned
pipe owned and and maintained by the
maintained by the building owner
water undertaker

750 mm minimum
1350 mm maximum

Ferrule Building water supply

and 75 mm service duct
Boundary stop tap
isolator Boundary stop tap and water meter sealed at both ends
chamber with No other service or
Water cable in duct
main hinged cover

p Figure 5.19 The entry of the water supply into the building

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Boundary
stop valve 1
The usual and preferred method of
supply, one stop valve to one house

2
This method is used where the
communication pipe is long
Joint
communication
pipe 3
This method is used where the
communication pipe is long

4
This method is used where the
supply pipe is long

5
This method is used where the
Joint supply pipe is long
supply
pipe
Water suppliers will normally insist on individual supplies to properties and DO NOT
favour joint supplies (commonly called communal supplies).

p Figure 5.20 Alternative methods of supplying more than one dwelling

With new installations, a water meter is either fitted Water meters inside the dwelling are usually fitted to
at the boundary to the property or in an external existing water supplies. They must be fitted between
Groundbreaker-type meter box. This is so the customer two stop taps with a drain-off valve fitted after the
does not have to be present when the meter is being meter but before the upper stop tap.
read and to prevent illegal tampering with the water
meter.

Stop valve
Drain off
valve

Meter Permanent
cross bonding

Stop valve

p Figure 5.21 Groundbreaker-type meter box p Figure 5.22 Installation of an internal water meter

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There are many different stop valve/tap styles available,

KEY POINT but they must comply with the Water Regulations and
From the external main stop valve is where the
BS EN 806. This, however, would not be acceptable
plumber’s involvement with the Water Supply (Water
Fittings) Regulations 1999 begins. From here on, when used as the lower stop tap on an internal water
everything that we do to the cold and hot water meter installation as it would be possible to draw water
system in the building is regulated to ensure that from the main before the water meter, leading to
the water supplied is fit for its intended purpose. erroneous metering.
Any stop tap used above or below ground must be
Entering the property made from either gunmetal or corrosion-resistant
brass, to prevent de-zincification of the stop tap. The
When the water supply enters the property, it should
Water Regulations state:
terminate with a screw-down stop tap/valve complying
Every water fitting shall be immune to or
with the Water Regulations and BS EN 806. The Defra
protected from corrosion by galvanic action or
guidance to the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
by any other process which is likely to result in
Regulations 1999 is very specific:
contamination or waste of water.
As far as is reasonably practicable:
Source: Schedule 2, Reg. 3
1 A stop valve should be located inside the
building; and, All fittings that are made of a copper alloy, such as
2 Be located above floor level; and, brass or gunmetal, should carry either ‘CR’ or ‘GM’
markings on the fitting body to show that they are
3 As near as possible to the point where the
corrosion resistant.
supply enters the building; and,
4 Be so installed that its closure will prevent the A drain-off valve conforming to BS EN 1254 should be
supply of water to any point in the premises. installed immediately above any stop tap/valve to allow
Source: Section 4, G10.5
draining of the system.

The diagram in Figure 5.23 illustrates the point.

6 SELECTING COLD
WATER SYSTEMS
So far, we have looked at how water is collected,
150 mm
cleaned and distributed to houses and industry. We
will now move on to look at the cold water systems
we install in dwellings, their components, testing and
maintenance.
Each dwelling should have a wholesome (often called
75 mm service duct sealed at both ends ‘potable’, meaning ‘drinkable’) water supply, the most
No other service or cable in duct
important place being at the kitchen sink. In most
domestic premises, it is likely that people will drink
water from most of the taps. This means that water
p Figure 5.23 The entry of the water supply to a property to all taps should be connected to the mains supply or
The water authorities recommend that no more than come from a protected storage cistern.
150 mm of blue MDPE pipe be exposed above the floor Drinking water should also be provided in convenient
level of the building. This is to minimise the amount locations in offices and other buildings, especially
of MDPE pipework visible because MDPE decomposes where food is being eaten or prepared.
under persistent exposure to the ultraviolet (UV) light
present in daylight.

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Domestic systems of cold l if a hot water storage vessel is to be installed, then

a minimum of a 22 mm cold feed pipe is required,
water supply increasing in size to reflect increased demand
There are two basic systems of cold water used in to the hot water storage vessel supplied from a
domestic dwellings: 100–150-litre cold water feed cistern in the roof
1 the direct system of cold water space
2 the indirect system of cold water. l on larger installations, a 22 mm rising main may be
required, but this will depend on the water needs of
The direct system of cold water the household.
supply
If a combination boiler or instantaneous water heater
With this system, all cold water taps are fed direct from
is installed, then a 15 mm mains cold water supply
the mains supply. This means that all taps are provided
should, in most cases, be sufficient, depending upon the
with a supply of drinking water. Storage is required only
supply pressure and flow rate.
for supplying cold water to the hot water cylinder via
a 150-litre cistern. A feed cistern will not be necessary
if the hot water is supplied via an instantaneous hot 100–150 litre storage cistern fitted with
water heater or ‘combi’ boiler. BS 1212 part 2 float-operated valve
Spherical ball-type
The direct system is the most commonly installed type service valve
of cold water system in domestic properties because
its installation is cost effective and there is usually a
relatively high-pressure supply available.
 Table 5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the direct system
of cold water supply
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed WC cistern fitted with
Advantages Disadvantages to secondary hot water cylinder either a BS 1212 part 2
part 3 or part 4 float-
Cheaper to install At times of peak demand, the 22 mm or 28 mm full-way operated valve
pressure may drop gate valve or lever-type
Drinking water at all fittings spherical ball valve Spherical ball-type
Less pipework If the mains are under repair, the service valve
property has no water
Less structural support
required in roof space for If there is a leak in the premises,
the cold feed cistern there will be a great deal of
damage due to high pressure
More suitable for
instantaneous showers, Can be noisy 15 mm mains cold water to all appliances
hose taps and mixer fittings. Greater risk of contamination to
Used in conjunction with a mains
high-pressure (unvented) Drain-off valves
Greater wear on taps and valves
hot water supply
More problems with water
Smaller pipe sizes may be hammer
used in most cases
Greater risk of condensation
Good pressure at all cold build-up on the pipework, which
water outlets can easily be mistaken for a leak

Pipe sizes for the direct system

Pipe size depends on the system design but, generally
speaking:
l a 15 mm rising main will be large enough to supply
p Figure 5.24 The direct system of cold water supply
most cold water demands for a three- to four-
bedroom house with all cold water outlets being
supplied in 15 mm, including the bath

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

The cistern should be installed as high as possible to

increase the system pressure.

230–250 litre storage cistern fitted with

BS 1212 part 2 float-operated valve

Spherical ball-type
service valve
No water pipes or cisterns in the roof space.
No risk of burst pipes due to freezing

WC cistern fitted with either a BS 1212 part 2,

part 3 or part 4 float-operated valve

Spherical 22 mm or 28 mm cold WC cistern fitted with

ball-type feed to secondary either a BS 1212 part 2,
service valve hot water cylinder part 3 or part 4 float-
operated valve
22 mm or 28 mm full
way gate valve or lever- Spherical
type spherical ball valve ball-type
service valve

15 mm mains cold water to all appliances

Appliance off the
cold water mains
22 mm cold distribution pipework to the
bath reducing to 15 mm to feed the wash
hand basin and WC cistern
Drain-off valves

Drain-
off
valves

p Figure 5.25 Direct cold water system with combi boiler or

instantaneous hot water heater

The indirect system of cold water p Figure 5.26 The indirect system of cold water supply
supply
Pipe sizes for the indirect system
With this system of cold water supply, only the kitchen
sink and the cold water storage cistern are fed directly Pipe size depends on the system design but, generally
from the mains cold water supply. The other appliances speaking:
l a 15 mm rising cold water main will be large enough
are fed indirectly via the cold water storage cistern in the
roof space. A large amount of water will, therefore, need to supply most cold water demands for a three- to
to be stored to supply both cold water and hot water to four-bedroom house
l the kitchen sink should be supplied with water direct
appliances and fittings from a minimum of 230 litres of
water stored in the cistern. The system is designed to be from the cold water main and 15 mm pipework is
used in low-pressure water areas where the mains supply adequate for this; the cold water storage cistern can
pipework is not capable of supplying the full requirement also be supplied via 15 mm pipework
l a cold water distribution pipe (22 mm minimum)
of the system. This type of system also has a reserve of
stored water for use in the event of mains failure. distributes cold water from the cistern to the

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

washbasin, WC and bath; the bath should be Most cold water supplies that are delivered from the
supplied from 22 mm pipework because of the lack mains cold water supply arrive at a building at a 3 to
of pressure, but all other appliances can effectively 7 bar pressure (30–70 metres head). A 30 m head is
be supplied from 15 mm pipework equivalent to around eight storeys in height. When
l a 28 mm (22 mm minimum) cold feed pipe is taking into account a two-storey margin to allow for
needed to supply the hot water storage vessel; this frictional losses, it becomes obvious that the height
system is ideal when mixing valves and taps require of the building will often outstrip the head of pressure
equal pressure and flow rate as both hot and cold available. In some parts of the UK, it is not unusual
supplies are fed from the same source, this being the to find premises with pressures lower than 2 bars and
cold water storage cistern. flow rates of below 15 litres/minute. In these cases,
the water undertaker should be consulted as to where
 Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the indirect system
of cold water supply supply pressures can be relied upon to ensure the
correct operation of the cold water system.
Advantages Disadvantages
Reduced risk of water hammer and Supply pipe must KEY TERM
noise be protected
Constant low pressure supply reduces against backflow Multi-storey: tall building that requires boosting
the risk and rate of leakage from cistern or pumping of the water supply pressure given its
Suitable for supply to mixer fittings for Risk of frost height.
vented hot water supply damage in the roof
space
Reserve supply of water available in If the public supply is inadequate or the building
case of mains failure Structural support
is needed for the too high, then the water supply within the building
Less risk of backflow – fewer fittings
supplied directly
cistern must be boosted. There are several ways that this
Showers may be supplied at equal
Space taken up can be achieved and these can be divided into ‘direct
head of pressure Increased cost of boosting’ systems, direct from the cold water mains
installation supply, and ‘indirect boosting’ systems from a break
Reduces demand on main at peak
periods Reduced pressure cistern. Indirect systems are the most common as
at terminal fittings
Can be sized to give greater flow rate direct boosting systems are often forbidden by water
undertakers because they can reduce the mains
Cold water systems in larger pressure available to other consumers in the locality
and can increase the risk of contamination by backflow.
dwellings and high-rise However, where insufficient water pressure exists and
properties the demand is below 0.2 litres/second, then drinking
For larger buildings (office blocks, factories, hotels, etc.), water may be boosted directly from the supply pipe,
it is preferable for all water, except drinking water, to provided that the water undertaker agrees. With
be supplied indirectly via a protected storage cistern, or indirect systems, a series of float switches in the break
cisterns. cistern starts and stops the pumps depending upon the
water levels in the cistern.

Cold water systems in Boosting pumps can create excessive aeration of the
water, which, although causing no deterioration of
multi-storey buildings water quality, can cause concern to the consumer
In plumbing systems, the term multi-storey applies to because of the opaque, milky appearance of the water.
buildings that are simply too tall to be supplied totally There are several common examples of these systems:
using just the pressure of the water main. Because of l direct boosting systems
their design, these buildings have particular cold water l direct boosting to a drinking water header and
system requirements that can be satisfied only by duplicate storage cisterns
pumping or ‘boosting’ the cold water supply either in l indirect boosting to a storage cistern
part or in total. l indirect boosting with a pressure vessel.

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Direct boosting systems sinks in each dwelling when the pump is not running.
Where permission from the water undertaker has been Excessive pressure should be avoided as this can lead
granted, pumps can be directly fitted to the incoming to an increase in the wastage of water at the sink taps,
supply pipe to enable the head of pressure to be along with the nuisance of excessive splashing.
increased. A pipeline switch on the header bypass starts the
pumps when the water level falls to a predetermined
Pump stop level. The pumps can be time controlled or activated
Pump start to shut down by a pressure switch. When filling the
cisterns, the pumps should shut down when the water
levels in the cisterns are approximately 50 mm below
the shut-off level of the float-operated valve.
Secondary backflow devices may be required at the
drinking water outlets on each floor.
Automatic air inlet valve

Upstand

Pump stop
Pump start

NOTE: This drawing does not CWSC

Incoming supply show any additional backflow
prevention devices that may be
required under the Water Supply
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999. Pipeline level switch
Drinking water
header
Stop valve Duplicate pump Secondary protection
p Figure 5.27 Direct boosting system

A float switch or some other no less effective device

situated inside the high-level cistern controls the
pumps. The pumps either switch on or off depending
upon the water level in the cistern. The pumps are
activated when the water drops to a depth normally
equal to about half the cistern capacity and switch Incoming supply
off again when the water level reaches a depth SV NRV
Drinking water supplies sinks in flats
approximately 50 mm below the shut-off level of the NRV taken from the boosted supply pipe

float-operated valve.
If the cistern is to be used for drinking water, then it Stop valve Duplicate pump
must be of the protected type. p Figure 5.28 Direct boosting to a drinking water header and
duplicate cisterns
Direct boosting to a drinking water
header and duplicate storage Indirect boosting to a storage cistern
cisterns This system incorporates a break cistern to store the
This system is used mainly for large and multi-storey water before it is pumped via a boosting pump (known
installations. With this system, the cisterns at high level as a booster set) to a storage cistern at high level.
are for supplying non-drinking water only; a drinking The pumps should be fitted to the outlet of the break
water header sited on the boosted supply pipe provides cistern. The capacity of the break cistern needs careful
limited storage of 5 to 7 litres of drinking water to consideration and will depend upon the total water

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

storage requirements and the cistern’s location within pumps and the compressed air operate intermittently.
the building, but it should not be less than 15 minutes The pumps replenish the water level and the pressure
of the pump’s maximum output. However, the cistern vessel maintains the system pressure. Since the system
must not be oversized as this may result in water may be supplying drinking water, the vessel capacity
stagnation within the cistern. is purposely kept low to ensure a rapid and regular
turnover of water. The compressed air must be filtered
The water level in the storage cistern (or cisterns) is usually
to ensure that dust and insects are eliminated.
controlled by means of water level switches that control
the pumps. When the water drops to a predetermined Pressure switches
Gauge Supply to
level, the pumps start to fill the storage cisterns. The high level
pumps are then switched off when the water level
Compressor
reaches a point about 50 mm from the shut-off level of Pressure
relief valve
the float-operated valve. A water level switch should also Compressed air

be positioned in the break cistern to automatically shut Sight

Water gauge
off the pumps if the water level drops to within 225 mm Supply from
break cistern
of the suction connection near the bottom of the break
cistern. This is simply to ensure the pumps do not run dry.

Duplicate pump set

Pump stop
Pump live Pump start p Figure 5.30 Auto-pneumatic pressure vessel
Pump shut off
Normally, the controls, including the pressure vessel,
pumps, air compressor and control equipment, are
purchased as a package, although self-assembly
NOTE: This drawing does not show any
booster sets are available.
additional backflow prevention devices
that may be required under the Water
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

Filtered air vent

Incoming supply
Overflow and filter

Pump stop
Pump start

Duplicate pump

p Figure 5.29 Indirect boosting to a storage cistern

Indirect boosting with a pressure

vessel
This rather complicated system is used mainly in p Figure 5.31 A typical booster set with pressure vessel and
buildings where a number of storage cisterns are fed control boards
at various floor levels, making it impractical to control
As can be seen from Figure 5.32, some of the floors
pumps by water level switches. It utilises a pneumatic
below the limit of the mains cold water supply pressure
pressure vessel to maintain the pressure boost to the
are supplied un-boosted direct from the cold water main,
higher levels of the building.
with the floors above the mains pressure limit being
The pneumatic pressure vessel comprises a small water supplied via the break cistern and booster set. Drinking
reservoir with a cushion of compressed air. The water water supplies must be from a protected cistern.
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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Automatic air inlet valve Secondary protection

NOTE: This drawing does not show any additional backflow

prevention devices that may be required under the Water
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.
Boosted
mains supply

Limit of mains pressure

To pressure switches

Compressed air line Pressure gauge

Pneumatic
pressure
vessel
Drain tap Pressure
relief
Break cistern Filtered air vent valve
Incoming supply

Overflow and filter

Pump Un-boosted
stop mains supply
Duplicate
Pump pumps
start
NRV

302.06

p Figure 5.32 Indirect boosting with pressure vessel

Summary of cold water as the lack of pressure is compensated for by an

increase in pipe size and, therefore, flow rate.
systems
In some cases, a combination of both methods of
7 THE SYSTEM
l

supply may be the best arrangement. In a dwelling

or a house, for example, the ground-floor outlets
and any outside tap could be supplied under mains
LAYOUT FEATURES OF
pressure, while all other cold water outlet fittings
could be fed from a storage cistern.
COLD WATER SYSTEMS
l The performance of any cold water system is FED FROM PRIVATE
dependent upon the pressure of the incoming
supply and its flow rate. WATER SUPPLIES
l Direct systems require a good pressure and flow rate
The UK has more than 500,000 people whose only
because all of the appliances use mains cold water
source of potable drinking water is from a private
supply and, in some cases, mains-fed instantaneous
supply. There are two methods of pumped supply from
hot water supply too.
a well or a borehole:
l Indirect cold water systems, where low-pressure
1 pumped supply with pressure control
supply is used, must be pipe-sized correctly to ensure
2 pumped supply with level control.
that the system meets the design specification
We will look at each of these methods separately.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Pumped supply with transducer to sense pressure drop across the

installation, a pressure gauge and an accumulator.
pressure control The kitchen sink is usually installed with water under
This type of system provides directly drawn water at pressure direct from the accumulator. All other
the point of use. Pressure is maintained within the outlets are supplied from a low-pressure supply from
system by the use of an accumulator (often called a storage cistern situated in the roof space. A non-
a pressure vessel) and a pump. The accumulator is return or check valve must be fitted upstream of the
a vessel that contains air under pressure and water. accumulator.
The water is contained within a neoprene rubber
bag inside the accumulator, which expands when Pumped supply with level
water is pumped into it under pressure. The air is
then compressed and the pressure rises. As the water control
within the accumulator is used, the pressure will drop. This system uses a float switch to monitor the level
At a predetermined pressure, the pump will start and of the water in a storage cistern. The storage cistern
the accumulator is refilled, raising the pressure to is normally situated in the roof space of a dwelling.
its operating level. These systems generally operate The float switch operates a surface-mounted pump,
at 1.5 to 3 bar. This system is preferred when water which fills the tank until the level of the float switch
treatment is being considered. is reached. All water for the dwelling passes through
the storage cistern and this supplies all outlets with
Control of the system is automatic. The system
a low-pressure supply. Water fed direct from the
contains a submersible or surface-mounted pump
borehole to a kitchen sink under pressure is not
to bring the water to the surface, filtration and
possible with this installation.
sterilisation equipment (usually UV), a pressure

Storage cistern

Pressure vessel/accumulator

Impervious strata Pressure switch

/flow controller
Sandstone aquifer
Pressure Gravity
gauge feed
Gate/isolator Non-return
valve valve
Pressurised
distribution
usually to
kitchen sink

Submersible pump

p Figure 5.33 A typical borehole installation with pressure control

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Storage cistern
Float switch controlling pump

Impervious strata
Sandstone aquifer

Surface-mounted pump Gate/isolator

valve Gravity feed
distribution
to all outlets

Filter

p Figure 5.34 A typical borehole installation with level control

Aquifer Catchment tank at the head of a spring
Because all of the water for the dwelling is supplied at
Spring
low pressure, this system can also be used with supplies
Protective external
that are fed via a catchment tank in a stream or spring
break/storage cistern
via an external break/storage cistern. It is also possible
Impervious strata
to use water direct from a catchment tank without Surface
the use of a pump, provided that the source of water pump

is higher than the dwelling. It must be remembered,

however, that some form of filtration and sterilisation
of the water is necessary. A non-return or check valve
must be fitted upstream of the pump. p Figure 5.35 A typical spring catchment tank installation with
level control

8 THE COMPONENTS USED IN BOOSTED

(PUMPED) COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS FROM
PRIVATE SOURCES FOR SINGLE-OCCUPANCY
DWELLINGS
In this, the final part of the unit dealing with private
water supplies, we will investigate the components used
Vertical, horizontal and
with private water supplies to single domestic dwellings: submersible pumps
1 small booster pump sets, which incorporate all There are two different types of pump that can be
controls and components used with private water supplies and, more specifically,
2 boosted system with separate controls and components boreholes and springs:
3 use of accumulators in increasing system flow rate.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

1 surface pumps, such as:

l horizontal single-stage types Electrical connection
and isolation panel Accumulator
l vertical multi-stage types

2 submersible pumps. Pressure transducer Multi-stage

centrifugal
Surface pumps for private water supplies are available Pressure gauge pump motor
either as single components or as packaged units Control panel
Supply manifold
containing all the necessary equipment pre-fitted. The
latter are the easiest to install and require only the final
plumbing and electrical connections.
Water intake
Submersible pumps may be purchased as separate manifold
components or in packs with all the separately
matched equipment supplied together ready to p Figure 5.38 Components of a vertical multi-stage pump set
assemble.
Control box to monitor
pressure and flow rate
The accumulator
and to vary the pump The accumulator is a pressurised vessel that holds
Water feed speed if necessary
to property a small amount of water for distribution within the
Pressure and flow rate
LCD read out installation. It is designed to maintain mains operating
pressure when the pump is not working, and to reduce
Water pump usage. Small accumulators can also be used to
supply in Single-stage pump suppress water hammer.
Small domestic installations use bladder-type
p Figure 5.36 Components of a horizontal pump accumulators. These consist of a synthetic rubber
bladder or bag within a coated steel cylinder or vessel.
Schrader valve under
protective cap

Compressed
air

Synthetic
rubber
bladder

Water

p Figure 5.37 A typical submersible pump kit

A typical pump package would normally consist of the

following components:
l the pump

l a transducer to sense pressure and flow

Connection to the system
l a control box to monitor pressure differentials and

flow rate p Figure 5.39 A bladder-type accumulator

l an accumulator to assist in providing sufficient
The operation of an accumulator can be broken down
system pressure for the installation
into three stages, as follows.
l a float switch to prevent the pumps running dry.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

1 When the pump operates, it forces water into the a supply pressure of 4.5 bar would require a 3 bar air
accumulator bladder, compressing the air surrounding charge, and so on. Air pressure can be checked and
it to a pressure greater than the vessel’s pre-charge topped up as necessary at the Schrader valve (a tyre
pressure. This is the source of the stored energy. valve where you put the air in) situated at the top of
2 When the bladder expands due to water being the accumulator.
forced in by the pump, it deforms in shape and the
pressure within the accumulator increases. Bladder Float switches, transducers
deformation stops when the water and the now
compressed air charge become balanced. and temperature sensors
3 When a tap is opened, the pressure within the Float switches, transducers and temperature sensors
system drops and the compressed air forces the play a vital part in modern boosted large-scale cold
water out of the accumulator. When all of the water water systems. The problems encountered are not
inside the accumulator is used and the pressure just those of how to install them but also where to
falls to a predetermined level, the pump energises install them. Installations of large cisterns are often
to recharge the accumulator water storage and undertaken in tight and restricted spaces. Difficulties
pressure, and the cycle begins again. arise in positioning these components while providing
access for maintenance and inspection.
Probably the most important consideration when
applying an accumulator is calculating the correct Here, we will look at these important components.
pre-charge pressure. The following points must be
considered:
l the type of accumulator being used

l the work to be done

l the system operating limits.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

The pre-charge pressure is usually 80–90 per cent
of the minimum system cut-in pressure (the pressure
at which the pump energises), to allow a small
amount of water to remain in the vessel at all times.
This prevents the bladder from collapsing totally. To
calculate the pre-charge pressure, follow this simple
procedure:
If the minimum working pressure of a cold water
system is 2 bar, then:
2 × 0.9 (90%) = 1.8 bar
Pre-charge pressure = 1.8 bar p Figure 5.40 Magnetic toggle float switch

The accumulator air charge must be lower than the Float switches
mains pressure for water to enter the vessel and, on Float switches, often called level switches, provide
average, a pressure differential of around 1.5 bar lower detection of water levels within the cistern to activate
than the supply pressure would be acceptable (but no various other pieces of remote equipment, such as
more than 2 bar and no less than 0.8 bar). This means start/stop functions on boosting pumps, open/close
that, if the supply pressure is 3.5 bar, then the air functions on solenoid valves, water level alarms and
charge within the accumulator must be around 2 bar; water level indicators.

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Micro-switch de-activated Raised water level Float raised

Magnets with opposing poles repel each other

Micro-switch activated opening and closing the micro-switch to operate
either a booster pump set or solenoid valve

Float lowered

Lowered water level

p Figure 5.41 A magnetic toggle float switch and how it works

variations and converts a pre-set low pressure into

INDUSTRY TIP voltage to activate either the boosting pumps or the
compressor feeding the pressure vessel to boost the
Float switches are commonly used in many types of systems
pressure to normal operating pressure. Transducers may
to activate and de-activate pumps.
also be used to sense over-pressurisation.
There are many different types of float switch available,
and these can vary in sophistication from simple
magnetic toggle switches to ultrasonic and electronic
types. Popular types include:
l magnetic toggle – a simple float switch that uses

the opposing forces of magnets to activate a micro-

switch
l sealed float

l pressure-activated diaphragm

l electronic

l ultrasonic.

Transducers
p Figure 5.42 Water pressure transducer with pressure gauge
A transducer is an electronic sensor that converts
a signal from one form to another. In large-scale,
multi-storey water systems, it senses system pressure

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Temperature sensors of supplying potable, wholesome water. Various

Temperature sensors are often used to monitor protection measures must, therefore, be included in
the temperature of large volumes of stored the design of the cistern to ensure the water supply
wholesome, potable water where the installation is of does not become contaminated or unwholesome. To
major importance, such as in a hospital, prison or any comply with the Water Regulations, cisterns must:
l be fitted with an effective inlet control device to
place where there is a duty of care.
maintain the correct water level, i.e. a float-operated
KEY TERM valve
Duty of care: in British law, the moral and l be fitted with service valves on inlet and outlet

legal obligation imposed on an organisation or pipework connections

individual, which necessitates that a standard of l be fitted with screened warning/overflow pipes
reasonable care is adhered to. If the standard of l be covered with a rigid, close-fitting lid, which is not
care is not met, then the acts are considered to airtight but excludes light and insects
be negligent and damages may be claimed for in a
l be insulated against freezing or undue warming
court of law.
l be installed so that the risk of contamination is

minimised
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations advise l be arranged so that water can circulate, preventing
that stored wholesome water should not exceed 20°C stagnation
in order to minimise the risk of micro-bacterial growth. l be supported to avoid distortion or damage that

could lead to leaks

l be readily accessible for maintenance and cleaning.

ACTIVITY
Look in a customer’s loft or your loft area at home
and identify each of these installation factors.

KEY POINT
Make sure you relate these factors to Figure 5.44.

Cisterns must be installed to these requirements if

the problems of contamination are to be avoided. In
the past, when cisterns were fitted with unscreened
overflows and poorly fitting lids, insects and small
p Figure 5.43 Water temperature sensor mammals could easily gain access to the water the
cisterns contained. Some insects, like mosquito larvae,
need water to complete their life cycle and these must
Cold water storage cisterns be avoided.
Storage cisterns and the Water Schedule 2, Paragraph 16, therefore sets out to prevent
Regulations this, both in the manufacture and the installation of the
Schedule 2, Paragraph 16, of the Water Regulations cistern.
tells us that a storage cistern supplying low-pressure Correct installation will, in most cases, eliminate the
cold water supply to sanitary appliances, or feeding problems mentioned, especially when avoiding the
a hot water storage system, should be capable problem of stagnation of water.

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Insulation against BS 1212 part 2 Neoprene rubber sealing

heat and cold float-operated valve grommet around vent pipe

Closely fitting lid

Screened vent
50 mm float valve
connection
25 mm distance between
Service Water level FOV and overflow
valve 25 mm distance between
overflow and water level
Screened overflow/warning
Full-way pipe clip below the water level
gate valve Cold feed to hot water storage cylinder
Cold distribution pipe 25 mm Full-way
25 mm gate valve

p Figure 5.44 Cistern complying with Schedule 2, Paragraph 16, of the Water Regulations

and BS 8558 recommend that each dwelling be taken

Types of domestic cistern, separately, and the amount of water calculated to suit
up to 1000 litres the needs of the dwelling and its occupants.
l Storage cistern: this is designed to hold a supply of Kitchen sinks cannot be supplied from a protected
cold water to feed appliances fitted to the system. cistern. Their supply must come direct from the mains
On indirect cold water systems, storage cisterns are cold water supply.
used. It supplies cold water only.
l Feed cistern: this can be identical to the storage
cistern. However, it holds only the water required to INDUSTRY TIP
supply the hot water storage vessel. In other words, It is recommended that the Water Efficiency Calculator be
it supplies cold water to a hot water storage system. used to calculate the storage requirements of a dwelling.
l Combined storage and feed cistern: this is a This can be found here: www.thewatercalculator.org.uk/
combination of the previous two examples. It is used calculator.asp
on an indirect system of cold water where only the
drinking supply is taken direct from the main and
the rest of the water is supplied from a cistern. It General installation
stores water for the domestic hot water system and
the indirect system of cold water to the appliances,
requirements for domestic
wash hand basin, bath, WC, washing machine, etc. cisterns
l Feed and expansion cistern: used to feed a vented Water is heavy. At 4°C it weighs 1 kg per litre, so 230
central heating system; also allows expansion of litres will weigh 230 kg – almost a quarter of a tonne!
water into the cistern when the system is hot. From this, we can appreciate that a cistern full of water
l WC and automatic urinal flushing cisterns: used to will need adequate support, especially if placed in a
clear the contents of a WC or urinal. The water they roof space. Normal practice would be to try to place
contain is not considered wholesome. They will be the cistern over a load-bearing supporting wall, as
covered in more detail in Chapter 9, Sanitation systems. shown in Figure 5.45, but if this is not possible, then the
platform (or stillage) must be big enough to support
Capacities of domestic the weight of the cistern and the water it contains by
spreading the load across the roof joists.
cisterns
The British Standards no longer make reference to the
minimum requirement as to the amount of water that
is stored in a cold water cistern. Instead, BS EN 806

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Cistern supported over the whole of its base.

The base should be at least 150 mm larger all
the way around than the base of the cistern

Cistern base to be made from At least 350 mm clearance for

moisture-resistant plywood or maintenance of the FOV and
tongued and grooved floorboard
cistern cleaning

No insulation under cistern Cistern supported over

load-bearing wall

p Figure 5.45 Cistern shown positioned over a load-bearing supporting wall

The platform that the cistern sits on should be covered High

pressure
with 21 mm tongue and groove boarding or moisture- orifice
resistant marine-grade plywood. The platform should
Water outlet
be at least as big as the base area of the cistern and, if
possible, 150 mm larger all the way around.
Access to the cistern, once it has been installed, is
Water inlet
vital for cleaning, inspection and maintenance. The
minimum access allowance will depend on the size of Union

the cistern. For cisterns of less than 1000 litres, 350 Plunger Diaphragm
mm must be allowed to permit access to the float- washer
operated valve before removal and replacement. Float adjustment screw

Inlet requirements for domestic

p Figure 5.46 A BS 1212 Part 2 and 3 float-operated valve with a
cisterns high-pressure orifice fitted
The inlet requirements state that all cisterns will be
fitted with an adjustable water inlet control device. Figure 5.46 shows a cross-section of a float-operated
These devices are usually float-operated valves that valve, which can be made of brass (BS 1212 Part 2) or
must conform to BS 1212. The British Standard defines plastic (BS 1212 Part 3). The adjustment screw allows
four types of float-operated valve that are suitable for for the valve to be set at the correct water level. It is
use in cold water cisterns: important to note that BS 1212 only covers valves up
l Part 1 – Portsmouth type (permitted only with a to 54 mm in size. Any float-operated valve fitted that
backflow prevention device) exceeds this size must be authorised by one of the
l Part 2 – brass diaphragm type following bodies:
l Part 3 – plastic diaphragm type l Water Regulations Advisory Service

l Part 4 – diaphragm equilibrium type (used only on l Water Fittings and Materials Directory

WC cisterns). l your local water authority.

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A low-pressure orifice, generally coloured red, would If we look at Figure 5.48, it can be seen that the cold
be used if the supply pressure was low or the float- feed for the hot water system is higher than the cold
operated valve was being fed from another cistern, distribution pipe connection. This is so that, in the
say, on an indirect cold water system to a WC. The event of mains cold water failure, the hot water will
difference between an HP (white) and LP (red) orifice is run out first, which will prevent any potential scalding
simply that the LP orifice has a wider opening to allow situation if any mixing valves, such as showers, bath
greater flow of water. mixers or monobloc washbasin mixers, are installed
on the system.

Prevention of stagnation
Correctly positioned outlet pipes can help to prevent
stagnation of the water held in a cistern by ensuring a
through flow of water.
If there is only one outlet fitted, then it must be
positioned on the opposite side of the cistern to the
p Figure 5.47 A BS 1212 Part 2 float-operated valve
float-operated valve.
If there are two outlets fitted, they should be positioned
Water outlet requirements on opposite sides of the cistern, with one higher than
the other. The higher outlet should be on the opposite
for domestic storage cisterns side of the cistern from the float-operated valve. This
Outlets from a cistern include indirect cold water arrangement ensures circulation of the water within the
distribution pipes and cold feed pipes to hot water cistern, which in turn helps to prevent stagnation.
storage systems.
Figure 5.48 shows the positioning of cold water
distribution and cold feed pipes. It is recommended that
the cold water distribution pipe be taken from the bottom
of the cistern. This is to prevent the build-up of sediment
on the bottom of the tank; alternatively, the cold water Primary
Secondary Internal water flow outlet
distribution pipe can be located on the side of the cistern. outlet

The distance between the cold water distribution outlet Secondary

outlet
and the cold feed to the hot water system should be
p Figure 5.49 Flow of water to prevent stagnation
not less than 25 mm.

Service BS 1212 part 2 Neoprene rubber sealing

valve float-operated valve grommet around vent pipe
Screened vent
50 mm float-valve
connection
25 mm distance between
Water level FOV and overflow
25 mm distance between
overflow and water level
Screened overflow/warning
pipe clip below the water level
Cold feed to hot water storage cylinder
Cold distribution pipe 25 mm
25 mm

Preferred cold distribution pipe connection

p Figure 5.48 Cistern connections

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Materials for domestic to act as a warning that the float-operated valve has
malfunctioned and the cistern is about to overflow.
cisterns An overflow pipe has a larger diameter than a warning
Almost all new installations use cisterns made from
pipe and should be able to carry the excess water that
plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene and glass-
would be present if the inlet valve (float-operated valve)
reinforced plastic (GRP).
fails completely and lets in the maximum amount of
Most cisterns manufactured today are made from water possible. This should ensure that the inlet valve
polypropylene because this allows: will never become submerged in water and the cistern
l lightweight construction will not flood the area in which it is situated.
l strength
Warning and overflow pipes should run to a point
l hygiene
outside of the building that is clearly visible and below
l resistance to corrosion
the level of the storage cistern. Warning pipes should
l flexibility, as they can easily be handled through
be situated below the overflow pipe so it is obvious
roof space openings.
which pipe is which.
Cisterns are available either square, rectangular
Overflow and warning pipe requirements for cold water
or circular in shape, and are produced in black to
cisterns vary with the storage volume of the cistern
prevent the growth of algae. However, because they
installed.
are flexible, the base of the cistern must be fully
supported throughout its entire length and width.
Cisterns up to 1000-litre capacity
Holes for pipe connections should be cut out using a Cisterns below 1000-litre capacity require a single
hole saw, and not by using a heated section of copper combined warning and overflow pipe. The bottom of
pipe and using it to make a hole in the cistern. Doing the combined warning and overflow pipe should be
the latter alters the molecular structure of the plastic a minimum of 25 mm above the water level of the
and will result in the cistern cracking. The joint between cistern.
the cistern wall and fitting should be made using
plastic or rubber washers.
Layout features for large-
Galvanised steel cisterns were used for many years,
but these were notorious for corrosion. They are still
scale storage cisterns used
manufactured and can still be used, provided the inside in multi-storey cold water
of the cistern is protected by the use of a special paint
that is registered by the Water Fittings and Materials
systems
Directory as safe to use with potable water. The installation of large-scale cisterns differs somewhat
from the cisterns you have already been introduced to.
HEALTH AND SAFETY Large cisterns must be installed in accordance with the
On no account must any linseed oil-based jointing Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 (and
compounds be used as this also breaks down the Scottish Water Byelaws 2004). Regulation 5 states
the plastic and provides a culture where micro- that the water undertaker must be notified before the
biological growth such as Legionella pneumophila installation of large cisterns begins, and it is important
(Legionnaires’ disease) can occur.
to remember that the correct backflow protection
must be present in relation to the fluid category of the
contents of the cistern.
Warning and overflow pipes
Simply put, the difference between a warning pipe and In this section, we will look at the general requirements
an overflow pipe lies in the fact a warning pipe has a of large-scale cisterns.
smaller diameter than an overflow pipe. It is intended

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Materials for large-scale l not be of such a length that it will restrict the flow
of water, causing the air gap to be compromised
cisterns l discharge in a visible, conspicuous position.
Large cisterns can be made from several materials,
The warning pipe invert needs to be located a
and can be either one piece or sectional. Sectional
minimum of 25 mm above the maximum water level
cisterns are constructed, usually on-site, from 1 m2
of the cistern, and the air gap not less than 20 mm or
sections, which are bolted together and can be made
twice the internal diameter of the inlet pipe, whichever
to suit literally any capacity and tailored to fit any
is the greater.
space. Sectional cisterns can be internally or externally
flanged and are bolted together with stainless steel The general features of larger cisterns are as follows.
bolts. The main materials are described below. l Cisterns with an actual capacity of 1000 litres to
5000 litres:
For one-piece cisterns:
l the discharge level of the inlet device must be
l glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) BS EN 13280:2001
positioned at least twice the diameter of the
l plastic BS 4213:2004 and BS EN 12573–1:2000
inlet pipe above the top of the overflow pipe
l polypropylene (PP)

l polyethylene (PE)
KEY TERMS
l polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Actual capacity: (of a cistern) the maximum volume
For sectional cisterns: it could hold when filled to its overflowing level.
l GRP BS EN 13280:2001 Nominal capacity: (of a cistern) the total volume it
l steel, with protection against corrosion and could hold when filled to the top of the cistern.
subsequent water contamination in the form of:
l protection with a paint that is listed in the Water l the overflow pipe invert must be located at least
Materials and Fittings Directory 25 mm above the invert of the warning pipe (or
l glass coated warning level if an alternative warning device is
l galvanised fitted)
l rubber lined l the warning pipe invert must be located at least
l aluminium–rubber lined. 25 mm above the water level in the cistern and
must be at least 25 mm diameter.
Overflow and warning pipe Air gap 2 × inlet diameter Not less than 25 mm

requirements of large-scale Not less than 25 mm

Service
cisterns valve Overflow pipe
Overflows for large cisterns are quite different from
those fitted to cisterns for domestic purposes. The Shut off
objective is the same – to warn that the float-operated level
Warning pipe
valve is malfunctioning and to remove water that may
otherwise damage the premises. However, with larger
cisterns, the potential for water wastage and water
damage is far greater. Therefore, the layout is different. Cistern capacity 1000 L to 5000 L
Type 'AG' and 'AF' air gaps
The overflow/warning pipe on large-scale cisterns must:
p Figure 5.50 Cistern with a capacity of 1000 litres to 5000 litres
l contain a vermin screen to prevent the ingress of

insects and vermin l Cisterns with an actual capacity greater than

l be capable of draining the maximum inlet flow
5000 litres:
without compromising the inlet air gap l the discharge level of the inlet device must be
l contain an air break before connection to a drain
positioned at least twice the diameter of the
inlet pipe above the top of the overflow pipe

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Air gap 2 × inlet diameter Not less than 25 mm

Not less than 25 mm

Service
Overflow
valve
pipe

Shut off
level

Warning alarm

Alarm sounds when the water

is 25 mm from the invert of
the overflow pipe

Cistern capacity greater than 5000 L

Type 'AG' and 'AF' air gaps

p Figure 5.51 Cistern with a capacity greater than 5000 litres

 overflow pipe invert must be located at least

the
l

25 mm above the invert of the warning pipe (or

Multiple cistern installations:
warning level if an alternative warning device is interconnection of two or
l
fitted)
the warning pipe invert must be located at least
more cisterns
25 mm above the water level in the cistern and Where large quantities of water are required but space
must be at least 25 mm diameter is limited, cisterns can be interlinked, provided the
l alternatively, the warning pipe may be discarded cisterns are of the same size and capacity. Problems
provided a water level indicator with an audible can occur if the cisterns are not linked correctly,
or visual alarm is installed that operates when especially where the cisterns are to supply drinking
the water level reaches 25 mm below the invert water. Stagnation of the water in some parts of
of the overflow pipe. the cistern may cause the quality of the water to
deteriorate. It should be remembered that the number
In both cases, the size of the overflow pipe will depend of cisterns to be linked should be kept to a minimum.
upon the type of air gap incorporated into the cistern Stagnation can be avoided by following some basic
(we will look at air gaps and backflow protection a rules. Connection must be arranged to encourage
little later in this unit) and this will depend upon the the flow of water through each cistern. This can be
fluid category of the cistern contents. It must be achieved by:
remembered that: l keeping the cistern volumes to a minimum to ensure
l if a type AG air gap (fluid category 3) is fitted, the rapid turnover of water and thus prevent stagnation
overflow diameter shall be a minimum of twice the l connecting the cisterns in parallel wherever possible
inlet diameter l connecting the inlets and the outlets at opposite
l if a type AF air gap (fluid category 4) is fitted, the ends of the cistern
minimum cross-sectional area of the overflow pipe l using delayed-action float-operated valves to limit
must be, throughout its entire length, four times the stratification.
cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe
l for all cisterns greater than 1000 litres, the invert of

the overflow must not be less than 50 mm above

the working level of the cistern.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Service valve
Independent screened
Cold water supply overflow pipes for each
cistern. Cisterns over 1000
litres require an overflow and
a warning pipe

Service valve

Access cover for cistern

cleaning and float-operated valve
maintenance/replacement
Screened vent
Large diameter header pipe
Gate valves
Large cold water cisterns interlinked in parallel

Cold water feed and distribution pipes

p Figure 5.52 Cisterns in parallel

to encourage water movement, with the secondary

connection made on the cistern with the float-
operated valve installed. The overflow/warning pipe
should be fitted onto the same cistern as the float-
Internal water flow Internal water flow
Secondary Primary
operated valve. Both cisterns must be of the same size
outlet outlet and capacity.
p Figure 5.53 Cisterns in series When connecting two or more cisterns, care should
Where it is not possible to connect cisterns in parallel, be taken to ensure that the water movement is regular
cisterns may be connected in series. and even across all cisterns. In this situation, it is a
good idea to install float-operated valves on all cisterns
In practice, cisterns in series should be interconnected with appropriate service valves, as detailed in the
to allow free movement of water from one cistern to Defra guidance to the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
the other. They should be connected at the bottom Regulations 1999:
and the middle so that water passes evenly through Service valves should be fitted as close as is
them. The primary outlet connection should be made reasonably practical to float-operated valves.
on the opposite cistern to the float-operated valve

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Every cylinder has a float-operated valve to allow movement of water in every cylinder
Each FOV is fitted with a service valve as detailed in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations

All FOV's to shut

off at the same
water level

Gate valves to be positioned so that any Every cylinder to have its own
two cisterns can be de-commissioned for independent overflow/warning pipe.
cleaning and maintenance, leaving These should evacuate the building
two in commission for supply separately and NOT be joined together

p Figure 5.54 Installing three or more cisterns

installation. This has several advantages over pumping

INDUSTRY TIP direct from the mains supply:
l Using break cisterns ensures that there is no surge
A free copy of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
on the mains supply when the boosting pumps
1999 can be downloaded from the relevant government
pages at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1999/1148/contents/ either start or stop.
l Break cisterns ensure that contamination of
made
the mains cold water supply from multi-storey
installations does not occur.
Wherever a float-operated valve is fitted, then an
l Break cisterns ensure that there is sufficient supply
overflow/warning pipe must accompany it. These
for the installation requirements at peak demand.
should terminate in a conspicuous, visible position
l Break cisterns safeguard the water supply to other
outside the building. On no account should they be
users by not drawing large amounts of water from
coupled together.
the mains supply through the boosting pumps.
There should be service/gate valves positioned to allow
Break cisterns are often used in very tall buildings as
for isolation and maintenance of the cisterns without
intermediate cisterns on nominated service floors,
interrupting the supply. In Figure 5.54, you will see that
thus dividing the system into a number of manageable
any two of the four cisterns can be decommissioned,
pressure zones. The break cisterns provide water to
leaving two in operation. This ensures continuation of
both user outlets and other break cisterns higher up,
supply.
where the water is then boosted to other pressure
zones further up the building.
Break cisterns As with all cistern installations, break cisterns must
Break cisterns (often called break tanks) are used in be fitted with an appropriate air gap that ensures zero
large cold water installations in order to supply the backflow into any part of the system.
system with water via a set of boosting pumps when
the mains supply is insufficient. They provide a ‘break’
in the supply between the mains supply and the

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Type AB air gap × 2 the inlet pipe diameter Head over weir Not less than 25 mm
Not less than 25 mm
Incoming mains Screened overflow pipe
S
cold water supply Screened warning
Solenoid valve shown pipe
but this could be a float-
operated valve, equilibrium
float valve or delayed-action
float valve
Float switch
Weir overflow to be sized in
closing the
accordance with the diameter
solenoid
of the incoming water supply
valve

Float switch to shut down the

boosting pumps so they do not Float switch opening Cold supply to the
run dry in the event of lack of water the solenoid valve boosting pumps

p Figure 5.55 The layout of a break cistern with a raised chamber

Frost protection of pipes,

fittings and cisterns
You can never fully protect against freezing
temperatures. No matter how much insulation we
wrap around pipes and fittings, if the weather gets
cold enough the pipes will freeze. Therefore, we merely
delay the freezing process as long as we possibly can by
insulating. p Figure 5.56 Insulation around pipes

When we insulate pipes, we are not attempting to

KEY POINT
‘keep the cold out’. The idea of insulation is to keep in
The thermal envelope is defined as that part of a
the heat that is already there. In other words, we are building that is enclosed within walls, floor and
attempting to retain the ‘heat energy’ already present in roof, which is thermally insulated in accordance
the water for as long as possible. This means insulation is with the requirements of the Building Regulations.
important even under normal conditions as it maximises
energy efficiency. The greater the thickness of insulation, The Defra guidance to the Water Supply (Water
the longer the heat energy is retained. This is illustrated Fittings) Regulations 1999 (G4.3) states:
in Figure 5.56, where you will see that, for a greater
If the frost protection provided is insufficient for
volume of water, i.e. larger pipe sizes, less insulation
exceptional freezing conditions or the premises
will be needed. Trace heating is sometimes used. This is
are left unoccupied without adequate heating,
covered in Plumbing Book 2, also published by Hodder
damage and leakage can often be avoided by
Education.
shutting off the water supply and draining down
The Defra guidance to the Water Supply (Water the system before the onset of freezing.
Fittings) Regulations 1999 (G4.2) states:
The Defra guidance to the Water Supply (Water
All cold water fittings located within a building Fittings) Regulations 1999 (G4.4) states:
but outside the thermal envelope, or those
Where low temperatures persist, insulation will
outside the building must be protected against
only delay the onset of freezing. Its efficiency
damage by freezing.
is dependent upon its thickness and thermal

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

conductivity in relation to the pipe size, the Roof joists Fibreglass roof insulation
time of exposure, the location and, possibly, the
wind chill factor.

INDUSTRY TIP
There are two conditions used to determine the thickness of Plasterboard Insulated pipework underneath
roof insulation
pipe insulation required:
● Normal condition refers to the insulating of pipework p Figure 5.57 Pipes in roof spaces
in unheated rooms of a building which has a working
heating system. All unheated rooms that contain INDUSTRY TIP
pipework should be protected from freezing, e.g.
cloakrooms, store rooms, utility rooms etc. The same process of frost protection also applies to hot
● Extreme conditions means pipework that will require water systems, which are covered in Chapter 6.
thicker insulation to give better protection against
freezing, e.g. under suspended floor, in garages,
pipework externally run above ground and buildings that
have no form of heating.
Insulation materials and
their effectiveness
Pipework insulation should be of the closed-cell type
In general, all pipes and fittings that are installed in
complying with BS 5422 and installed in accordance
vulnerable or exposed locations inside and outside a
with BS 5970.
building, such as unheated cellars, roof spaces, under
ventilated suspended floors, garages and outbuildings, The recommended materials for pipe insulation are:
must be insulated. Where pipework is installed in a l rigid phenolic foam (less than 0.020 W/m2K)

roof space, the pipes should still be insulated, even if l polyisocyanurate foam (0.020–0.025 W/m2K)

they are placed below the roof insulation. This is to l PVC foam (0.025–0.030 W/m2K)

avoid unnecessary warming by heat from the rooms l expanded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene,

below. The thickness of the insulation will, as we cross-linked polyethylene foam and expanded nitrile
have already seen, be dependent upon the size of the rubber (0.030–0.035 W/m2K)
pipe. Where pipes are located outside the dwelling, l expanded synthetic rubber, cellular glass and

the insulation should be to external standards and standard polyethylene foam (0.035–0.040 W/m2K).
waterproof. The wall thickness of the insulation is shown in Table 5.5.
 Table 5.5 Thermal properties of pipe insulation
External diameter Thermal conductivity of insulation material at 0°C in W/m2K
of pipe 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
mm mm mm mm mm mm
15 20 (20) 30 (30) 25* (45) 25* (70) 32* (91)
22 15 (9) 15 (12) 19 (15) 19 (19) 25 (24)
28 15 (6) 15 (8) 13 (10) 19 (12) 22 (14)
35 15 (4) 15 (6) 9 (7) 9 (8) 13 (10)
42 and over 15 (3) 15 (5) 9 (5) 9 (5) 9 (8)

Source: Defra guidance to the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations, Section 3, Schedule 2.
Note: 15 mm pipes with thermal conductivities of 0.030, 0.035 and 0.040 W/(m.K), shown with a *, are limited to 50% ice
formation after 9, 8 and 7 hours respectively. The figure in brackets indicates minimum thickness for 12 hours frost protection.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

9 THE WATER SUPPLY (WATER FITTINGS)

REGULATIONS 1999
The Water Regulations set out to prevent five factors: l Certificates of compliance are issued when required.
l waste of water l Systems must be tested for water tightness.
l undue consumption of water l Stored water and pipework must be protected.
l misuse of water l Cold water is protected from freezing or being
l contamination of water heated to above 25°C.
l erroneous measurement of water. l Systems are flushed out correctly when required.
l Pipework is labelled when required.
The water supplier, known as the water undertaker,
l Crossflow, backflow and back pressure (back
has the responsibility to supply water fit for human
siphonage) must be prevented.
consumption (wholesome water) to properties in the
l The five categories of water are listed.
UK. This is covered by the Water Act 2003. Once
l The mechanical and non-mechanical backflow
the water is inside the property, plumbers have the
prevention methods are outlined.
responsibility to install systems and appliances that
l Factors for unvented hot water are outlined.
maintain the quality of that water. This is covered
l The flushing requirements for WCs and urinals are
by the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations.
detailed.
This a legal requirement which could lead to serious
l Correct valves and isolators must be installed and
consequences if not followed.
pipework must be accessible.
It is a vital step for plumbers to become an ‘approved
Becoming an approved contractor is a separate course.
contractor’. This means the plumber has studied the
Water Regulations, taken a test and received a certificate The items outlined above are covered in this cold water
to prove their knowledge about the Water Regulations. chapter and are all based on the Water Regulations.
In brief, the Water Regulations make sure that:
l All fittings and materials are of an approved quality INDUSTRY TIP
and standard and will be installed correctly.
l Correct notice is given for certain installations (from
Understanding the requirements of the Water Regulations is
vital to becoming a professional plumber.
which approved contractors are exempt).

10 BACKFLOW PROTECTION
Backflow and back design and installation of hot and cold water supplies
and central heating systems. Let us look first at some
siphonage risks in the home of the appliances and systems we use, and consider
There are many instances in the home where backflow the risks. This will give you some idea of how the fluid
and back siphonage could present contamination risks. categories occur.
These will need to be considered during any planning,

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 Table 5.6 Appliances and fluid category risk

Appliance or system Content of the water Risk
Kitchen sink May contain animal remains from food preparation
WC Contains human waste
Fluid cat. 5
Bidet (over rim type) May contain human waste
Grey water and rainwater harvesting systems May contain bacteria and disinfectants
Contains soap and other detergents, and chemicals from dish
Washing machines and dishwashers
washing and clothes cleaning
Bath
May contain soap and other detergents from personal hygiene
Wash hand basin Fluid cat. 3
Shower valves and instantaneous showers At risk from soap and other detergents from personal hygiene
At risk from gardening and other activities such as watering,
Hose union bib taps (outside tap)
weed killing, car washing, irrigation, etc.
Fluid cat. 3 or 4
The water in the heating system is often contaminated with
Combination boilers (depending on
dissolved metals, flux and some form of chemical inhibitor
boiler size)
Hot water system Contains hot water Fluid cat. 2

Note: This table is designed to give a brief overview of how and where fluid categories occur in the home and should not be
viewed as exhaustive.

As you can see from Table 5.6, there are many potential
contamination risks in every dwelling, and the bigger
Industrial
the building the more risks there are likely to be. process with
a fluid
category
Whole-site, zone and 4 risk

point-of-use protection Reduced pressure zone (RPZ)

valve giving fluid category 4
There are many commercial and industrial processes risk protection to the water
undertaker's main
where the whole or part of a plumbing system can
present a high risk of backflow to other parts of the
installation, or even the water undertaker’s mains
Stop valve
supply, despite the fact that the installation is installed
Water undertaker's
to the required standards. In these circumstances, cold water mains
whole-site or zone protection must be installed on supply
those parts that are deemed to be high risk. p Figure 5.58 Whole-site protection

Whole-site protection
The term ‘whole-site protection’ simply means that
the water undertaker’s main is protected at all times
from backflow or back siphonage from any fluid
category that is not fluid category 1 by a suitable
backflow device. Protection should be at the point of
entry of the cold water supply.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Stop Industrial process

valve with a fliud
Gate category 4 risk
valve

Reduced pressure zone (RPZ)

Point of use protection Stop
valve valve giving fluid category 4
risk protection to the water
undertaker's main

Stop valve

Water undertaker's cold

water mains supply

p Figure 5.59 Zoned protection

Stop premises or complex, these have their own backflow

valve
protection devices to protect any part of the system
RPZ valve protection that is fluid category 1. Zoned protection is also
on each floor (zone)
Stop
required where any water supply pipe is supplying more
valve than one separately occupied premises.
RPZ valve protection

Stop
on each floor (zone) Point-of-use protection
valve This is the simplest form of backflow protection. Point-
Cold water supplies to of-use backflow protection devices are used to protect
RPZ valve
protection individual apartments an individual fitting or outlet against backflow and are
on each floor from a common
Stop
(zone) supply pipe usually located close to the fitting they protect, such as a
valve
single check valve on a mixer tap to protect against fluid
RPZ valve protection category 2, or a double check valve on a domestic hose
on each floor (zone)
union bib tap as protection against fluid category 3.
Stop valve
Water undertaker's cold water supply

p Figure 5.60 Zoned protection for domestic premises Eliminating the risk
of contamination of
If whole-site protection is required, it is important that
the water undertaker is informed at the application/
wholesome water
The Water Regulations and, more specifically, the
notification for water supply stage. They will assess
Water Regulations Guide can help us to choose
the application for a water supply and advise on what
the right course of action based upon the risk.
fluid category of backflow protection device must be
Manufacturers, too, help in this regard by designing
installed to comply with the Water Supply (Water
and manufacturing their appliances, taps and valves
Fittings) Regulations. The backflow protection device
to conform to the Water Regulations. For example,
must be installed before the system is commissioned.
most kitchen and bidet taps are designed and made
Zoned protection with fluid category 5 risk in mind, and most bath and
washbasin taps are designed and made with fluid
Zoned backflow protection simply means that, where
category 3 in mind.
different fluid categories exist within the same building,
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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

In most cases, where baths, washbasins, bidets and

kitchen sinks are concerned, a simple air gap will
Air gaps used as a method
protect the mains cold water supply. The size of the of backflow prevention
air gap, however, is dependent on the size of the tap, An air gap is simply a physical unrestricted open
appliance type and its likely contents. space between the wholesome water and the possible
contamination; the greater the air gap, the greater the
level of protection that is offered. It does not require
the use of a mechanical backflow prevention device.
Here, we will consider the most important air gaps and
how we can apply them. We will look at those listed in
Non- verifiable Table 5.7.
double check
valve
INDUSTRY TIP
Hose union Verifiable means the valve has a test nipple situated on
bib tap
the upstream side of the valve so it can be tested while in
Pipe sleeved
position to verify it is working correctly. A non-verifiable valve
through wall does not have this test point.
Isolation
valve

p Figure 5.61 Point-of-use protection

 Table 5.7 Schedule of non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangements and their respective fluid category protection
Suitable for protection against
Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices fluid category
Back pressure Back siphonage
a AA Air gap with unrestricted discharge above spill-over level 5 5
b AB Air gap with weir overflow 5 5
c AD Air gap with injector 5 5
d AG Air gap with minimum size circular overflow determined by measure or 3 3
vacuum test
e AUK1 Air gap with interposed cistern (e.g. a WC suite) 3 5
f AUK2 Air gaps for taps and combination fittings (tap gaps) discharging over X 3
domestic sanitary appliances, such as a washbasin, bidet, bath or shower
tray, shall not be less than the following:
Size of tap or combination Vertical distance of bottom of tap outlet
fitting above spill-over level of receiving appliance
Not exceeding G ½ 20 mm
Exceeding G ½ but not 25 mm
exceeding G ¾
Exceeding G ¾ 70 mm
➜
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Suitable for protection against

Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices fluid category
Back pressure Back siphonage
g AUK3 Air gaps for taps or combination fittings (tap gaps) discharging over any X 5
higher-risk domestic sanitary appliances where a fluid category 4 or 5 is
present, such as:
l any domestic or non-domestic sink or other appliance, or
l any appliances in premises where a higher level of protection is
required, such as some appliances in hospitals or other healthcare
premises
shall be not less than 20 mm or twice the diameter of the inlet pipe to the
fitting, whichever is the greater.
h DC Pipe interrupter with permanent atmospheric vent X 5
Notes:
1. ‘X’ indicates that the backflow prevention arrangement or device is not applicable or not acceptable for protection against back pressure for any
fluid category within water installations in the UK.
2. Arrangements incorporating type DC devices shall have no control valves on the outlet of the device; they shall be fitted not less than 300 mm
above the spill-over level of a WC pan, or 150 mm above the sparge pipe outlet of a urinal, and discharge vertically downwards.
3. Overflows and warning pipes shall discharge through, or terminate with, an air gap, the dimension of which should satisfy a type AA air gap.

Because the pressure in the

l an increase in downstream pressure caused by
main is zero, gravity forces
water in the system back pumps or expansion of hot water
towards the water main
l a combination of both of the above.

l Back siphonage: this is backflow caused by a

negative pressure creating a vacuum or partial

vacuum in the water undertaker’s mains cold water
supply. It is similar to drinking through a straw. If a
sudden loss of pressure on the mains supply were
to occur while a submerged outlet was flowing,
then water would flow back upwards through
the submerged outlet and down into the water
undertaker’s main.

Up stream Down stream Electric shower

Because the pressure in the

main is zero, gravity forces
water in the system back
Sudden loss of pressure due to a burst on towards the water main
the undertaker's main

p Figure 5.62 Back pressure

Each of the air gaps described in Table 5.7 will have two
Water from the bath being
fluid categories attached to it: one for back pressure sucked out by back siphonage
and one for back siphonage. The difference between towards the water main

the two is simple to explain.

l Back pressure: this is caused when a downstream
pressure is greater than the upstream or supply
pressure in the water undertaker’s main or the Up stream Down stream
consumer’s potable water supply. Back pressure can
be caused by: Sudden loss of pressure due to a burst on the
l a sudden loss of upstream pressure, i.e. a burst undertaker's main

pipe on a water undertaker’s mains supply p Figure 5.63 Back siphonage

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Type AA air gap with unrestricted l the flow from the inlet into the cistern must not be
more than 15° from the vertical.
discharge above spill-over level
Air gap
This gives protection against fluid category 5 and is
a non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangement Spill-over level
of water fittings, where water is discharged through
an air gap into a cistern, which has, at all times, an
unrestricted spill-over to the atmosphere. The air gap is TYPE AA air gap with unrestricted
measured vertically downwards from the lowest point discharge above spill-over level
of the inlet discharge orifice to the spill-over level. It Suitable for protection against fluid category:
should be remembered that: Back Back Outlet
5 pressure 5 siphonage
l the type AA air gap is suitable for all fluid categories

l the size of the air gap is subject to the size of the

p Figure 5.64 Type AA air gap
inlet (see Table 5.8)
 Table 5.8 Air gaps at taps, valves, fittings and cisterns
Situation Nominal size of inlet, tap, valve or Vertical distance between tap or
fitting valve outlet and the spill-over level of
the receiving appliance or cistern
Domestic situation with fluid categories 2 Up to and including G ½ 20 mm
and 3 (AUK2) Over G ½ and up to G ¾ 25 mm
Over G ¾ 70 mm
Non-domestic situation with fluid Any size of inlet pipe Minimum diameter of 20 mm or twice the
categories 4 and 5 (AUK3) diameter of the inlet pipe, whichever is
the greater of the two

p Figure 5.65 Animal trough

Rigidly fixed float- Removable cover Water level controlled

operated valve locked in position to be not less than
25 mm below spill-
over level

Type AA air gap

Separation plate prevents damage by animals

p Figure 5.66 Animal trough schematic

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Head over weir

Air gap 2 × inlet diameter

Weir spill slot Overflow pipe
screened

Shut off level Warning pipe

Not less than 25 mm

TYPE AB air gap with Outlet
weir overflow

Suitable for protection against fluid category:

Back Back
5 pressure 5 siphonage

p Figure 5.67 Type AB air gap with weir overflow

A good example of the use of a type AA air gap is in the

form of animal drinking troughs, where the discharge of
water into the trough is in a raised housing on the edge
of the trough. The housing is covered to prevent the
animals from having access to the water supply.

Type AB air gap with weir overflow

This gives protection against fluid category 5. It is a
non-mechanical backflow prevention arrangement of
water fittings complying with type AA, except that
the air gap is the vertical distance from the lowest
point of the discharge orifice, which discharges into the
receptacle, to the critical level of the rectangular weir
p Figure 5.68 Type AB air gap with weir overflow on a cistern
overflow.
The type AB air gap is suitable for high-risk fluid Type AD air gap with injector
category 5 situations and is particularly suited to
This is defined as a non-mechanical backflow
installations where the contents of the cistern need
prevention arrangement of water fittings with a
to be protected from contaminants such as insects,
horizontal injector and a physical air gap of 20 mm,
vermin and dust. A good example of this is feed
or twice the inlet diameter, whichever is the greater.
and expansion cisterns in industrial/commercial
It gives protection against back pressure and back
installations, or where high-quality water is required,
siphonage up to fluid category 5. This device is
such as in dental surgeries.
commonly known as a ‘jump jet’.
INDUSTRY TIP
The size of the weir needs to be calculated based on the
inlet size. This is usually completed using a weir overflow
calculator.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Air gap l AG air gaps must comply with the requirements of

BS EN 13076:2003.
Air gap Critical water level

Warning/
overflow pipe

Suitable for protection against

fluid category:
Back Back
Outlet
5 pressure 5 siphonage

p Figure 5.69 Type AD air gap with injector

Outlet

The principal uses of this type of air gap arrangement Suitable for protection against fluid category:
Back Back
are in commercial clothes washing and dishwashing 3 pressure 3 siphonage

machines. It also has the potential to be used in p Figure 5.70 Type AG air gap
catering equipment such as steaming ovens.
Where storage cisterns are installed, it is likely that
Type AG air gap with minimum size the critical water level would differ from installation
circular overflow determined by to installation because of the varying flow rates and
measure or vacuum test pressures of the incoming supply, and the differing
lengths and gradients of the overflow pipe. With
This is a non-mechanical backflow prevention
this type of installation, the type AG air gap is not
arrangement of water fittings with an air gap, together
practical because the critical water level cannot be
with an overflow, the size of which is determined by
calculated accurately. It is the critical water level that
measure or a vacuum test. This arrangement gives
would determine the position on the cistern of the
protection against fluid category 3.
float-operated valve and the distance between the
The type AG air gap fulfils the requirements of BS EN float-operated valve and the overflow.
14623:2005 Devices without moving parts for the
prevention of contamination of water by backflow. Type AUK1 air gap with interposed
Specification for type B air gaps. In a cistern that cistern
is open to the atmosphere, the vertical distance
This is a non-mechanical backflow prevention
between the lowest point of discharge and the critical
arrangement consisting of a cistern incorporating a
water level should comply with one of the following
type AG overflow and an air gap. The spill-over level
requirements:
of the receiving vessel is located not less than 300
l It should be sufficient to prevent back siphonage.
mm below the overflow pipe and not less than 15 mm
l It should not be less than the distances specified in
below the lowest level of the interposed cistern. It is
Table 5.7, depending on cistern type.
suitable for protection against fluid categories 5 for
The following points about type AG air gaps should be back siphonage and 3 for back pressure.
noted.
This arrangement is most commonly found on WC
l The air gap is related to the size of the inlet supply
installations, with the WC pan being the receiving
and is the minimum vertical distance between
vessel containing fluid category 5 water. A conventional
the critical water level and the lowest part of
domestic WC suite consists of a 6 l/4 l dual flushing
the discharge outlet of the float-operated valve, as
cistern, a part 2, 3 or 4 float-operated valve with an AG
specified in Table 5.7.
air gap and overflow arrangement. This creates an AUK1
l The critical water level is the level that is reached
interposed cistern or, in other words, a cistern that can be
when the float-operated valve has failed completely
supplied from a mains supply or another protected cistern
and the water is running freely at maximum
without the need for additional backflow protection.
full-bore flow rate and pressure.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Type AG air gap Warning pipe Washbasin cold water pillar tap
connected to fluid category 1

AUK2 air gap

15 mm Washbasin -
Contaminated minimum fluid category 3
water

Interposed cistern Suitable for protection against fluid category:

Suitable for protection against or receptacle
X Back Back
fluid category: such as a WC pan 3
pressure siphonage
3 Back 5 Back Outlet
pressure siphonage p Figure 5.73 AUK2 air gap (tap gaps)
p Figure 5.71 AUK1 air gap
AUK3 air gaps for taps or
Type AG air gap
combination fittings (tap gaps)
Overflow discharging over any higher-risk
300 mm domestic sanitary appliances where
AUK1 air gap
a fluid category 4 or 5 is present
Spill-over level
Type AUK3 – higher-risk tap gap means the height of
an air gap between the lowest part of the outlet of a
tap, combination fitting, showerhead or other fitting
discharging over any appliance or other receptacle,
and the spill-over level of that appliance, where a fluid
category 4 or 5 risk is present downstream.
p Figure 5.72 AUK1 air gap on a WC cistern
Lowest point of outlet of tap
Type AUK2 air gaps for taps and Tap gap for sinks or appliances where a
combination fittings (tap gaps) higher degree of protection is required
should be type AUK3
discharging over domestic sanitary
appliances Spill-over level
This refers to the height of the air gap between the Sink or higher-risk appliance
lowest part of the outlet of a tap, combination fitting,
showerhead or other fitting discharging over a domestic
sanitary appliance or other receptacle, and the spill-over
level of that appliance, where a fluid category 2 or 3 Suitable for protection against fluid category: Cold water supply
Hot water supply
risk is present downstream. An AUK2 air gap is suitable X
Back
5
Back
pressure siphonage
only for back siphonage up to fluid category 3 and must
comply with the distances stated in Table 5.7. p Figure 5.74 AUK3 air gap (higher-risk tap gaps)

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

In a domestic dwelling, AUK3 air gaps are most Normal direction

of flow
common at the kitchen sink in the form of high- Type DC pipe interrupter, this device
must be fitted with the lowest point of
necked pillar taps, sink mixer taps or sink monobloc the air aperture not less than 150 mm
taps. Sink mixers and monoblocs have a swivel spout. Shroud
above the free discharge or spill-over dust
If a cleaners’ sink, Belfast sink or London sink is being level of an appliance and have no valve, cover
flow restrictor or tap on its outlet.
installed, it is important that any bib taps installed are
positioned so as to maintain an AUK3 air gap. Air inlet
apertures
Taps and combination fittings discharging on non-
Suitable for protection against fluid category:
domestic appliances and any appliances in premises Back Back
- pressure 5 siphonage
where a higher level of protection is required, such as Outlet

appliances in hospitals or other healthcare premises,  Figure 5.76 DC pipe interrupter

require a type AUK3 tap gap.

DC pipe interrupter with a

permanent atmospheric vent
This refers to a non-mechanical backflow prevention
device with a permanent unrestricted air inlet, the
device being installed so that the flow of water is in a
vertical downward direction. They are used where there
is a threat of back siphonage from a fluid category 5.
The idea behind the DC pipe interrupter is to create
an air inlet should a back-siphonage situation occur.
When water begins to backflow upwards due to back
siphonage, the DC pipe interrupter allows air into the
system to break the siphonic action, thus preventing
contamination.

Control valve

Pipe interrupter
  
Not less than 150 mm minimum
p Figure 5.77 Typical DC pipe interrupter

Type DC In-line pipe interrupter

Suitable for protection against fluid category:
Back Back
- pressure 5 siphonage Outlet

p Figure 5.75 Installation of a DC pipe interrupter

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 5.9 Schedule of mechanical backflow prevention arrangements and fittings and their respective fluid category protection
Suitable for protection
Type Description of backflow prevention arrangements and devices against fluid category
Back Back
pressure siphonage
a BA Verifiable backflow preventer with reduced pressure zone 4 4
b CA Non-verifiable disconnector with difference between pressure zones not greater than 10% 3 3
c DB Pipe interrupter with atmospheric vent and moving element X 3
d EA/EB Verifiable and non-verifiable single check valves 2 2
e EC/ED Verifiable and non-verifiable double check valves 3 3
f HA Hose union backflow preventer; permitted only for use on existing hose union bib tap in 2 3
house installations
g HUK1 Hose union bib tap incorporating a double check valve arrangement; permitted only as a 3 3
replacement for existing bib taps in house installations
h HC Diverter with automatic return (normally integral with some domestic appliance X 3
applications only)

Notes:
‘X’ indicates that the backflow prevention device is not acceptable for protection against back pressure for any fluid category.
Arrangements incorporating a type DB device shall have no control valves on the outlet of the device. The device shall not be fitted less than 300
mm above the spill-over level of an appliance and must discharge vertically downwards.
Relief ports from BA and CA devices should terminate with an air gap, the dimension of which should satisfy a type AA air gap.

The DC pipe interrupter is a non-mechanical fitting. will try to achieve this within their installations and
It does not contain any moving parts. They are designs but there are many cases where air gaps are
manufactured from corrosion-resistant brass. Typical not practical as a method of protection. In these
uses include WCs and urinal installations. The following instances, installers may opt to install a mechanical
points should be noted. backflow prevention device. These provide a physical
l The valve should be fitted in the vertical position, barrier to backflow. However, it must be remembered
discharging downwards. that mechanical backflow prevention devices have
l It must be installed at least 300 mm above the limitations and can be subject to failure.
overflowing level, or 150 mm if fitted above a urinal.
In this section, we will look at some of the more
l No tap or valve should be installed downstream of
common mechanical backflow prevention devices and
the interrupter.
where we can install them (see Table 5.9).
l Pipe size reductions downstream of the interrupter

are not allowed. Type BA verifiable backflow

l The length of the pipe downstream after the

interrupter should be as short as possible.

preventer with reduced pressure
l The interrupter should be accessible for replacement
zone (a reduced pressure zone valve)
and repair. Better known as an RPZ valve, this is a mechanical,
l DC pipe interrupters must comply with BS EN verifiable, backflow prevention device, offering
14453:2005. protection to water supplies up to and including fluid
category 4. Verifiable simply means that the valve
Mechanical backflow can be checked via test points to see if it is working
correctly (verified).
prevention devices
An air gap is the most effective method of preventing
contamination of the water supply; most installers

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Check valve Check valve

1 open 2 open
Normal
direction
of flow
Normal direction of flow

Differential
Relief port relief valve
Check valve 1 open Check valve
2 open

Normal direction of flow

Direction
of
backflow

Type BA or reduced pressure zone valve

(RPZ valve). Differential
relief valve
Suitable for protection against fluid category: Relief port
Back Back
4 pressure 4 siphonage

p Figure 5.78 An RPZ valve cut-away

Most RPZ valves consist of three separate elements: differential valve will equalise and the differential relief
1 two check valves valve will open to discharge the water.
2 a differential relief valve
If complete mains failure occurs, the contents of the
3 three test points.
middle chamber are discharged to drain, provided that
The first check valve is spring loaded to generate a both check valve elements are functioning correctly.
specific pressure drop across this part of the valve. This However, should the upstream check valve become
creates a reduced pressure zone downstream in the faulty, the pressure in the middle chamber will equalise
middle chamber of the valve and on the downstream to that of mains pressure and the differential relief
side of the differential relief valve. The incoming mains valve will open and continuously discharge water at a
supply maintains supply pressure on the upstream side of steady rate. If the downstream check valve fails under
the differential valve and, as long as the mains pressure is zero mains pressure conditions, the differential relief
higher, the differential relief valve will remain closed. valve will open and water will discharge from the
downstream side of the system until the pressure here
If, under static conditions, the mains pressure reduces
also becomes zero.
to where it is just 0.14 bar above the pressure in the
reduced pressure zone, the differential relief valve will Testing, commissioning, maintenance and annual
open and release the contents of the middle chamber inspection can be carried out only by a trained and
to drain. Should backflow occur past the first check approved installer. Anyone who tests RPZ valves must be
valve element, the pressure on both sides of the certificated. Specialist training is available from various

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

test centres across the UK. Further recommended Type DB pipe interrupter with
reading is the Water Regulations Advisory Scheme atmospheric vent and moving
Information and Guidance Note No. 9-03-02.
element
Type CA non-verifiable disconnector The type DB pipe interrupter is a backflow prevention
device specifically designed for fluid category 4
with difference between pressure
applications. The concept of the DB interrupter is very
zones not greater than 10 per cent simple. Water enters a tube that has one end blanked
These are very similar to BA devices (RPZ valves) in off. Around the tube are a series of small holes over
that they provide a positive disconnection chamber which a flexible rubber membrane is stretched. As the
between the downstream water and the upstream water flows into the tube, it is forced through the holes
water. The disconnection area between the two main and this flexes the rubber membrane to allow water
check valves is open to the atmosphere under fault to flow. If the supply pressure suddenly stops, then the
conditions, thereby maintaining an air gap should a loss membrane contracts against the holes to effectively
of upstream pressure occur. Like the RPZ valve, any prevent backflow. Any back-flowing water is then
water discharged would run to drain via a tundish. They released to atmosphere through another series of holes
are suitable for fluid category 3. in the outer casing of the device. They are approved
A typical use of a type CA disconnector is as a for use as protection against back siphonage but not
permanent connection between a sealed central heating back pressure.
system and the water undertaker’s cold water supply. Direction of flow

The outer
The vents open
membrane to
closes off atmosphere
the outer when a
vent holes
during sudden loss
normal of pressure
p Figure 5.79 A type CA backflow preventer water flow occurs. This
prevents
back
siphonage

System boiler p Figure 5.81 Type DB pipe interrupter schematic

DB pipe interrupters are generally used externally

as attachments to hose union bib taps and must
not be used on appliances that have a control
Type CA
disconnector
valve restriction, such as a washing machine. They
are resistant to frost damage. They must be fitted
vertically and have no valves fitted downstream of
the device.

Water undertaker's
Flow Return cold water supply

p Figure 5.80 Use of a type CA backflow preventer

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Spring-loaded valve

Direction
of flow

Valve guide End on

Test point Stainless steel spring view

Spring-loaded valve

Direction
of flow

p Figure 5.82 Type DB pipe interrupter Valve guide End on

Stainless steel spring view
Some DB interrupters are manufactured with bayonet-
type attachments for domestic garden perforated hose Suitable for protection against fluid category:

irrigation systems. Type EA/EB single check valve

Back Back
2 pressure 2 siphonage
Type EA and type EB verifiable and
p Figure 5.83 Type EA verifiable single check valve and type EB
non-verifiable single check valves non-verifiable single check valve
These two valves are the simplest of all mechanical
backflow prevention devices and can be used to protect Both valves are manufactured from DZR resistant brass
against fluid category 2 for both back pressure and and have either type A compression fittings or female
back siphonage. Generally regarded as point-of-use BSP threads for connection to the pipework. The valves
protection, they consist of a spring-loaded one-way should conform to BS EN 13959:2004 for use in hot
valve that will allow water to flow from upstream to or cold water systems up to 90°C.
downstream only. If back siphonage or back pressure In domestic premises the risk from fluid category 2
occurs, the valve will shut to prevent a reverse water generally occurs where the hot and cold supplies are
flow. When no water is flowing, the valve remains in taken to a single terminal fitting such as mixer taps or
the closed position. Both types are almost identical shower valves. This is known as a cross-connection.
in appearance. The difference between them is that However, care must be taken when installing single
the type EA device has a test nipple situated on the check valves to hot water supplies as the expansion of
upstream side of the valve so that it can be tested while the water can cause excessive pressure on the check
in position to verify that it is working correctly. The valve causing it to fail. Other uses include the cold
type EB non-verifiable single check valve does not have water connections to drinks machines.
a test point but can be used in the same way as the
type EA single check valve. Type EC and type ED verifiable and
non-verifiable double check valves
These are mechanical backflow prevention devices
consisting of two single check valves in series,
which will permit water to flow from upstream to
downstream, but not in the reverse direction. They are
used primarily to protect against fluid category 3 for
both back pressure and back siphonage.

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Suitable for protection against fluid category:

Type EC/ED double check valves

Back Back
3 pressure 3 siphonage

Direction Spring-loaded valve

of flow

End on
view
Test point Test point Valve guide
Stainless steel spring

p Figure 5.84 Type EC verifiable double check valve

Direction Spring-loaded
of flow valve

End on
Stainless steel Valve guide view
spring

p Figure 5.85 Type ED non-verifiable double check valve

The type EC verifiable double check valve has two test connection to the filling loop and not to the sealed
nipples, one on the upstream side of the first check heating connection.
valve and another in the chamber between the first and
second check valves. These are used to verify that the Type HA hose union backflow
valve is working correctly. The type ED non-verifiable preventer (permitted for use only
double check valve does not have a test point but can on existing hose union bib taps in
be used in the same way as the type EA single check house installations)
valve.
As the name suggests, this mechanical backflow
Typical uses in domestic installations include garden prevention device screws onto the outlet thread of a hose
hose union bib taps and sealed heating systems union bib tap. It is specifically for use with existing hose
fitted in conjunction with a temporary filling loop. union bib taps that do not have any form of backflow
When used with sealed heating systems, the double protection. It is used to protect against back pressure at
check valve must be fitted to the cold water supply fluid category 2 and back siphonage at fluid category 3.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Normal direction of flow

Rising spindle
Connection to hose
Packing gland
union bib tap

Head workings
Single check valve
Fixed jumper

Connection to hose Rubber membrane Washer

Single
check
valve

Normal direction of flow

Test point

Back Back
3 pressure 3 siphonage

p Figure 5.87 Type HUK1 hose union bib tap with double check
valve arrangement
Air entering the
Stainless steel
spring
hosepipe when
the water
Type HC diverter with automatic
pressure drops return
2 Back
3 Back This refers to a mechanical backflow prevention device
pressure siphonage
used in bath/shower combination tap assemblies,
p Figure 5.86 Type HA hose union backflow preventer which automatically returns the bath outlet open to
atmosphere if a vacuum occurs at the inlet to the
Type HUK1 hose union bib tap device.
incorporating a double check valve The type HC diverter with automatic return is usually
arrangement incorporated into the design of an appliance or fitting.
This hose union bib tap incorporates two single It is not a ‘stand alone’ fitting that can be added
check valves, one situated at the inlet to the tap to the installation. A good example of a type HC
and one at the outlet. A screw-type test point is diverter would be a bath/shower mixing valve with a
also included on the tap body. They are fitted in the diverter valve to operate the shower. While pressure is
same way as a normal HU bib tap. However, they maintained, the diverter valve remains open and the
are not suitable for new installations and can only water is fed to the shower hose. Should loss of pressure
be used as replacements where a hose union bib occur, the diverter valve closes and any excess water in
tap already exists. This is simply because the Water the shower hose returns to the bath through the open
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations state that any tap, thus preventing the water from back-flowing down
mechanical backflow prevention device should be the cold supply pipe. They are suitable for fluid category
fitted within the envelope of the building to prevent 3 to prevent back siphonage only.
damage by freezing. They are suitable as protection
against fluid category 3 for both back pressure and Methods of preventing
back siphonage.
cross-connection in
systems that contain non-
wholesome water sources
A cross-connection is a direct, physical connection
between wholesome, potable water and water that
is considered non-potable, such as recycled water or

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harvested rainwater. In extreme circumstances, this fittings used with a potable water supply. There are two
can result in serious illness and even death. Cross- ways in which this can be achieved:
connections occur during correct plumbing design 1 by the use of labels or colour banding pipes in
and installation, such as the hot and cold connections accordance with BS 1710: Identification of
to a shower valve or a mixer tap (cross-connection pipelines and services; above-ground pipes and
between fluid category 1 and fluid category 2) and fittings should be labelled at junctions, and either
these, for the most part, are protected by the correct side of valves, service appliances and bulkheads
use of mechanical backflow prevention devices. 2 by the use of pigmented materials and pipes –
However, some modern plumbing systems require British Standards recommend that a contrasting
much more thought and planning, rather than simply type or colour of pipework is used to make
the installation of a check valve. The Water Supply identification easier.
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 demand that
Pipeline colour codes to BS 1710
cross-connections from a water undertaker’s mains to
recycled and rainwater harvesting systems and even Wholesome
drinking water Green - Blue - Green
connections to private water supplies are eliminated
Hot water
completely in order to safeguard the wholesome water supply Green - White - Crimson - White - Green

supply. There are several ways in which we can do this:

Reclaimed water Green - Black - Green
l correct design of systems, taking into account the

requirements of the regulations in place Effluent Black

l careful planning and routing of pipework and fittings

l careful use of mechanical backflow prevention Chemical dosing Violet

devices and air gaps

Fire fighting Green - Red - Green
l using the correct methods of marking and colour

coding pipework and systems.

p Figure 5.88 Pipeline colour codes to BS 1710
Of these, identification of pipework is most important,
especially when additions to the system are required or KEY POINT
during routine and emergency maintenance operations. Blue medium-density polyethylene (MDPE)
water supply pipe must not be used under any
Colour coding pipework circumstances to convey anything other than
All pipes, cisterns and control valves that are used wholesome drinking water, nor must it be used
to form ducts for conveying pipes with any other
for conveying water that is not considered to be
fluids or cables.
wholesome must be readily identifiable from pipes or

11 INSTALLING COLD WATER SYSTEMS AND

COMPONENTS
The working principles 3 terminal fittings
4 drain-off valves
of taps, valves and other 5 shower mixer valves.
terminal fittings In this part of the chapter, we will look at each one in
Taps and valves can be divided into five separate turn, including the types available, their uses and the
categories: working principles.
1 isolation valves
2 float-operated valves

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Isolation valves and drain valves 1057, compression connections for MDPE and push-fit
As already stated, the main use of an isolation valve is connections for polybutylene pipe.
to turn off (isolate) either complete systems, or parts
Full-way gate valves (low-pressure
of a system or appliances. They can be divided into
isolation) to BS 5154
four distinct types:
1 those that isolate high-pressure systems, such as Gate valves are used on low-pressure installations such
stop taps as the cold feed to vented hot water storage cylinders
2 those that isolate low-pressure systems, such as and the cold distribution pipework for indirect cold
full-way gate valves water systems. They do not have a washer, instead using
3 those that isolate appliances and terminal fittings a brass, wedge-shaped gate that rises inside the valve.
on either high- or low-pressure systems Wheel head
4 those that are used for draining down systems.
Packing gland
Stop taps/valves (high-pressure isolation)
Packing
to BS 5433 or BS 1010
Stop taps are designed for isolation of high-pressure Non-rising spindle

cold water systems and, because of their restrictive Rising gate

internal design, should not be used on low-pressure Olive
supplies. They are manufactured to either BS 5433 or Compression fitting
BS 1010 for domestic use.
p Figure 5.90 Internal workings of a full-way gate valve
They consist of a brass valve body, a head gear with
a rising spindle, a packing gland and a re-washerable
loose jumper plate. Stop taps have an arrow on the
valve body that shows the direction flow of the water.
Tap wheel head

Rising spindle

Packing gland
Packing
Head workings

Jumper and washer

Direction
of flow p Figure 5.91 Full-way gate valve

They are known as ‘full-way’ gate valves because the

p Figure 5.89 Internal workings of a BS 1010 tap design allows water to flow at full bore without much
restriction to the flow rate. However, they should not
Some stop taps have a drain valve built in to the stop be used on high-pressure supplies as they tend to allow
tap body, but care should be taken with this type when water to pass by the gate when the valve is under
installing internal water meters as the drain valve pressure. They consist of a brass valve body and a head
position may allow water to be drawn from the main gear with a non-rising spindle.
without being metered.
Gate valves are also available with a lockshield head to
Stop taps are available with either capillary or prevent the valve being tampered with.
compression connections to suit copper tubes to BS EN

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Spherical plug valves (isolation) No drain valve should be placed below ground
Spherical plug valves are used for isolation of or in any position which allows the valve to
appliances and terminal fittings such as taps and become submerged in water.
float-operated valves. A variety of styles are available, Jumper and washer
including with or without a handle (these use a
Packing gland
screwdriver slot to isolate the water), or for use with an
appliance such as a washing machine.

Quarter-turn
Quarter-turn Rising spindle
handle
handle
Spindle seal

Compression fitting
 Figure 5.94 Internal workings of a drain-off valve
Fitting body
The types of isolation valve and their use
Ball
Figure 5.95 shows the types of isolation valve that can
p Figure 5.92 Internal workings of a spherical plug valve be used on cold water installations and the position to
The internal design of the valve allows water to be which they are best suited. As a general rule of thumb,
isolated by turning a ball through 90°. The ball has a it should be remembered that:
l stop taps/valves are high-pressure only valves and
hole through it, which, when in line with the direction
of water flow, allows water to pass through it. It is should not be used on low-pressure supplies
l gate valves are for low-pressure installations
isolated when the hole is at 90° to the flow of water.
l service/Ballofix/ISO valves are primarily for terminal

fixture isolation.

1, 4, 6, 7
1, 4, 6, 7

Cold water storage

F & E cistern cistern

1, 5, 6, 7 1, 5, 6, 7
1. Flanged gate to BS 5163
(large systems only)
2. Screwdown stop valve
to BS 5433
3. Plugcock
4. Screwdown stop valve
to BS 1010
p Figure 5.93 A spherical plug valve 5. Wheel operated (gate)
4, 6 6
valve BS 5154
Drain-off valves 6. Slot-type spherical
plug valve to BS 6675
Drain-off valves are small valves that are strategically 7. Lever operated spherical
plug valve to BS 66751, 2, 3, 4, 7
placed at low points in the installation to allow draining
down of the system. Several types are available: 1, 2, 3
l with a male thread to allow connection to low

carbon steel pipes and fittings p Figure 5.95 The type and position of valves
l with a spigot end to facilitate connection to either

copper capillary fittings or compression fittings Float-operated valves to BS 1212

l with or without a packing gland.
Float-operated valves are used to control the flow of
Drain-off valves should be positioned in accordance water into cold water storage and feed cisterns, feed
with the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations, and expansion cisterns, and WC cisterns. They are
which state that: designed to close when the water reaches a pre-set

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

level. They are made to BS 1212 and it is important the valve, but it is easily recognisable by its vertical
that plumbers recognise the different types. There are piston and by the fact it delivers water into the cistern
four basic float-operated valve types: in two streams. This type of float-operated valve is
1 BS 1212 Part 1: Portsmouth pattern and Croydon very noisy and no longer manufactured, but it may
pattern still be used in some older WC cisterns.
2 BS 1212 Part 2: Diaphragm type
3 BS 1212 Part 3: Diaphragm type (plastic)
4 BS 1212 Part 4: Torbeck equilibrium type (WC
cisterns only).
Float-operated valves can either be high pressure or Washer

low pressure depending on the type of orifice fitted. Piston

The orifice is the part of the valve that the water Lever arm
passes through. A high-pressure orifice is white in
colour and has a small hole for the water to flow
through, whereas the low-pressure orifice is coloured
red with a larger hole. The orifice is universal for Parts p Figure 5.97 A BS 1212 Part 1 Croydon-type float-operated
1, 2 and 3 float-operated valves. valve

BS 1212 Part 1 Portsmouth pattern float- BS 1212 Part 2 and 3 (plastic) diaphragm
operated valve float-operated valves
The Portsmouth-type float-operated valve discharges These float-operated valves use a diaphragm rather
water from the bottom of the valve, which makes it than a washer to control the flow of water and, unlike
susceptible to back siphonage should the valve become Part 1 float-operated valves, they discharge water over
submerged in water. It should not be fitted on new the top of the valve. This makes them less susceptible
installations without some form of backflow protection to being submerged in water when the overflow runs
device, although existing Portsmouth-type valves can and so less likely to cause a contamination issue. They
be repaired and maintained. also have fewer moving parts, which makes the valve
quieter in operation and less likely to cause water
Portsmouth float-operated valves have moving parts
hammer and reverberation of the pipework.
that will come into contact with water, and this makes
them vulnerable to failure and noise.
KEY TERM
Union Orifice Piston
Water hammer: caused by a rapid opening and
End cap
closing of the float-operated valve. As the water
nears the water level in the cistern, the ball valve
Lever arm
can begin to bounce quickly up and down and
from side to side. This causes the noise to travel
down the pipework, resulting in reverberation or
a whining noise. It can also be caused by a faulty
Washer
washer or diaphragm.

p Figure 5.96 A BS 1212 Part 1 Portsmouth-type float-operated The main difference between a Part 2 float-operated
valve valve and a Part 3 float-operated valve is that the
Part 2 is made of brass and the Part 3 is made of
BS 1212 Part 1 Croydon pattern plastic. They are almost identical in all other respects.
float-operated valve It should be noted that plastic float-operated valves are
The Croydon-type float-operated valve is less not recommended for cisterns other than WC cisterns
common than the Portsmouth type. Like the because of the risk of freezing and subsequent splitting
Portsmouth, it discharges water from the bottom of of the plastic.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

p Figure 5.98 A BS 1212 Part 2 diaphragm-type float-operated

valve

BS 1212 Part 4 Torbeck equilibrium p Figure 5.99 A BS 1212 Part 4 Torbeck-type float-operated valve
diaphragm float-operated valve
The Torbeck equilibrium float-operated valve is a Terminal fittings
diaphragm valve that works on the principle of equal
Terminal fittings are those that are fitted to sanitary
pressure in front and behind the diaphragm when the
appliances, such as baths and washbasins. There are
valve is open. No moving parts come into contact with
several different types, which are:
the diaphragm. It closes the valve when a build-up of
l Pillar taps for baths, washbasins and bidets – these
pressure occurs in front of the diaphragm due to the
are available for baths (¾-inch tails), washbasins and
float arm closing the pressure relief orifice on the front
bidets (½-inch).
of the valve. Although quieter in operation than other
l High-necked pillar taps for kitchen sinks – similar
float-operated valves, the positive ‘snap’ closing action
internal design to pillar taps but designed with a high
can lead to problems of banging and reverberation in
stem to provide an AUK3 air gap at kitchen sinks.
some systems.
l Bi-flow mixer taps including monobloc mixers –
The valve can be used on either high or low pressures these are two taps in a single body. A bi-flow mixer
by the insertion of either a low-pressure or high- has a single spout that is divided down the middle
pressure flow restrictor in the valve stem. Some so that the water does not mix until it has exited
valves also have a filter, to filter out any minute the tap. It is not a true mixer tap.
solid impurities in the water, which could cause l True mixer taps – allow the hot and cold water
malfunction. supplies to be mixed inside the body of the tap.
The Torbeck valve must be used only on WC cisterns. Caution should be exercised as these taps can
provide a cross-connection between low-pressure
hot (fluid cat. 2) and high-pressure cold (fluid cat. 1).
l Bib taps and hose union bib taps – bib taps are

mostly fitted to the wall above cleaners’ sinks and

Belfast sinks. Hose union bib taps are specifically
designed for garden use so that a hose may be
connected.

p Figure 5.100 Pillar taps p Figure 5.101 Bi-flow mixer taps p Figure 5.102 True mixer taps p Figure 5.103 Bib taps

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

They fall into three categories: Taps with a non-rising spindle to BS EN

1 taps with a rising spindle 200:2008
2 taps with a non-rising spindle to BS EN 200:2008 These taps do not have a rising spindle. Instead, the
3 ceramic disc taps. spindle has a thread at the end that lifts a hexagonal
barrel, with a rubber washer attached, inside the valve
Taps with a rising spindle head workings. The spindle is fixed in the head workings
These are referred to as BS 1010 type taps, but BS by a circlip.
1010 has now been withdrawn. They have a rising
spindle attached to a jumper plate and a washer. When Non-rising spindle
the tap is turned on, the spindle rises, allowing the Tap wheel head
pressure of the water to push the jumper plate and Circlip
washer upwards to start the flow of water. Originally, Spindle seals
there were two different types: Head workings
1 those taps with loose jumper plates for high- Barrel rises inside
the tap head
pressure supplies such as mains cold water
2 those taps with fixed jumper plates for low-pressure
supplies such as indirect cold water installations and
vented hot water supplies.
Washer

Rising spindle
Tap wheel head
Packing gland
p Figure 5.105 Non-rising spindle tap
Packing
Head workings

Jumper and washer

p Figure 5.106 Non-rising spindle pillar tap head workings

There are many different styles and types of BS EN

p Figure 5.104 Rising spindle pillar tap 200:2008 tap and each manufacturer has its own
style of conforming to the British Standard. The result
Both types have a packing gland designed to stop water
of this is that very few of the head workings are
leaking through the spindle. The design of these taps
interchangeable between manufacturers.
is generic across most manufacturers. This means that
the head workings of one tap will almost certainly fit These taps are available as pillar taps for washbasins
the tap body of another manufacturer, including stop and bidets, high-necked pillar taps for kitchen sinks,
tap heads. mixer taps for baths (¾-inch thread) and kitchen sinks
(½-inch threads), monobloc mixer taps and bib taps.
These taps are available as stop taps, pillar taps for
washbasins and bidets, high-necked pillar taps for Ceramic disc taps
kitchen sinks, mixer taps for baths (¾-inch thread) and
Unlike washer-type taps, ceramic disc taps use two
kitchen sinks (½-inch thread), and bib taps.
thin, close-fitting, slotted ceramic discs in place of
rubber washers. One of the discs is fixed, while the

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other is turned by the handle of the tap a quarter of a the hot and cold connections. The difference is in the
turn through 90°. internal workings of the shower. In this part of the
chapter, we will look at those differences.
Ceramic disc tap heads are ‘handed’. In other words,
there are specific hot tap head workings, which turn to The requirement of all shower valves is that they blend
the left, and specific cold tap head workings, which turn hot and cold water to the required temperature.
to the right, and they are usually colour coded for easy
identification. Manual mixing valves
Manual mixing valves do not have thermostatic
Ceramic disc taps are not universal. If replacement head
control. They rely wholly on the hot and cold supplies
workings are required during maintenance operations,
being balanced in terms of pressure and flow rate.
the correct type for the make of tap will be needed.
Once the temperature of the blended water has been
adjusted, it remains fixed and does not adjust to
fluctuations in flow rate, pressure or temperature. For
this reason, the temperature of the hot water needs to
be stable.
Although manual mixing valves can be used on high-
pressure supplies, they are best suited to low-pressure
installations to avoid pressure fluctuations. They should
not be fitted to systems that contain instantaneous
water heaters or combination boilers.
p Figure 5.107 Ceramic discs
Venturi boost mixing valves
Shower mixer valves The venturi mixing shower valve is specifically designed
Shower mixer valves mix water from both the cold for installations that do not have balanced hot and
water and hot water installations, and discharge the cold supplies, such as mains-fed cold water and low-
mixed water from a showerhead. They can be either: pressure hot water. For the valve to work correctly,
l manual mixing valves the mains cold water must have a pressure of at least
l venturi boost mixing valves 1 bar and a maximum pressure of 3 bar. Pressures in
l pressure compensating mixing valves excess of this will require a pressure reducing valve to
l thermostatic mixing valves – for example: be fitted.
l wax capsule type
The venturi mixing valve uses the extra pressure of
l bi-metal coil type.
the cold water supply to increase the pressure of the
Shower valves are available in three styles: hot water supply by using the venturi principle. The
1 exposed, surface-mounted valves – mounted on the operating principle is as follows.
surface, generally with concealed pipework As the cold water passes through the venturi tube
2 concealed valves – all the valve and pipework is within the valve, its velocity increases and its pressure
concealed with only the controls on show is slightly reduced. At this point, the hot water is drawn
3 bar valves – a recent addition, an exposed-type in to the cold supply and mixed. As the mixed water
shower valve designed to be thin and modern leaves the venturi, the pressure reverts to almost as
looking. high as the initial cold supply, giving a fairly powerful
Externally, all mixing valves appear very similar in style shower.
and most have common distances of 150 mm between

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

Increase temperature

Temperature control

Venturi

Hot water inlet Cold water inlet

Thermal shutdown device

Boosted mixed (reduces flow to a trickle
water outlet if mixed water temperature
rises above 45ºC)

p Figure 5.108 The working principles of a venturi boost shower mixing valve

Pressure-compensating mixing valves when pressure fluctuations occur. They do not,

This type of mixing valve gives greater temperature however, react to changes in temperature.
stability compared to manual mixing valves. Some
valves can be used on both high- and low-pressure
Thermostatic mixing valves
systems, while others are specifically designed for high- Thermostatic mixing valves give the best overall
pressure system use. temperature control of all the shower valves currently
available. In most cases, the maximum temperature is
Pressure-compensating mixing valves are manufactured
pre-set by the manufacturer with a manual override
with either of the following two types of control.
for the end user. Incoming hot water temperature
1 Sequential control: starting the shower at a low
averages about 55°C and the cold supply at 15°C, giving
temperature and progressively turning the control
a showering temperature of between 38°C and 42°C.
towards hot gradually increases the temperature
There are two different types:
and maintains a steady flow rate. When the
1 Wax capsule type: a copper capsule containing a
temperature is set, a balancing diaphragm reacts to
mixture of fine metal particles and a heat-sensitive
subtle changes in water pressure and maintains the
wax is positioned in the mixing chamber of the
correct hot/cold mix.
valve. The wax expands with heat. As the wax
2 Dual control: these have a separate flow
expands, it forces a metal piston to activate a
control and temperature control mechanism.
shuttle, which effectively controls the flow of hot
The temperature control mechanism consists
and cold water into the valve by restricting the flow
of a metallic shuttle that moves backwards and
rate of the hot and cold water. If the temperature
forwards inside a plastic mixing tube. The hot and
of the hot water is very hot then the hot flow is
cold water is regulated as the water flows through
restricted, allowing more cold water into the valve
the tube. If there is a drop in pressure on either
to compensate for the high temperature. When a
supply, the shuttle is moved inside the mixing tube,
cooler shower is required, then the reverse happens
increasing the flow on the reduced pressure side
and the shuttle moves backwards as the wax
and decreasing the flow on the opposite supply.
contracts, aided by a spring pushing against it.
This maintains an even showering temperature

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2 Bi-metal coil type: these work on the bi-metallic

coil principle where two metals with differing
expansion rates are bonded together. When heat
is applied, the two metals expand but one faster
than the other, causing the metal coil to distort. In
the case of a shower valve, the bi-metallic coil is
fastened at one end to a shuttle that controls the
in-flow of hot and cold water to the mixing chamber
of the valve.

p Figure 5.111 Single impeller p Figure 5.112 Twin impeller

shower pump shower pump

The installation of showers and shower pumps will be

covered in more detail in Chapter 6, Hot water systems.

INDUSTRY TIP
Remember: it is not permitted to fit shower pumps on mains
cold water installations. The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
p Figure 5.109 Wax capsule p Figure 5.110 Bi-metallic coil Regulations prohibit the use of pumps on mains cold water
except when special permission has been given by the water
Shower pumps undertaker.
Low-pressure shower valves can have boosted hot and
cold supplies by the use of shower boosting pumps. Scale reduction and water
There are two types available:
1 Single impeller outlet pumps: this type of pump treatment in domestic
is designed to pump hot or cold water to individual properties
outlets such as hot or cold water taps throughout the
As well as the treatment given to the water by the water
property. They were commonly installed after the
undertaker, many domestic properties, especially in hard
shower mixer valve to boost the mixed water to the
water areas, employ alternative methods to condition
showerhead, however it can sometimes be difficult to
the water so that scaling problems do not occur.
install them as per the manufacturer’s guidelines in
this way; as such twin impeller pumps have become Scaling occurs in hot and cold water systems and
more common to boost the water to the mixer valve. central heating installations when the water contains
2 Twin impeller inlet pumps: these are fitted before salts and minerals, such as calcium carbonate, that re-
the mixing valve, and boost the individual hot and forms in the water as a hard limescale that sticks to the
cold supplies to the valve where the water is mixed, inside of pipes and appliances. This process is known
or if the correct pump is selected, can also supply as precipitation. The resulting limescale reduces the
hot and cold water to the whole house. They have a appliance’s efficiency and can, in some cases, make the
single electric motor, which drives two impellers (hot appliance unusable.
and cold). Care should be taken when installing the There are several methods we can use to prevent
pipework to ensure that it meets the manufacturer’s precipitation from occurring; these include the use of:
specific requirements with regard to pump position, l water conditioners
pipe size and minimum head of water required. l water softeners

l water filters.

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In this part of the chapter, we will look at the use of l Electronic (electromagnetic): these cause
these appliances and how they work. dissolved hardness salts and minerals to cluster
together rather than form on surfaces.
Water conditioners
The term ‘water softener’ is used to describe a variety
of products that are designed to prevent the build-
up of limescale. Water conditioners (also known as
limescale inhibitors) work by altering the chemistry of the
precipitation process by suppressing limescale formation
and thereby reducing the rate of scaling. There are many
different types of water conditioner using a wide variety p Figure 5.116 Electromagnetic water conditioner
of conditioning methods, including those described below.
l Electrochemical: typically German or Austrian
l Magnetic: prevents scale build-up by influencing
made, these conditioners contain a cartridge filled
the type of calcium crystals precipitated, which
with ceramic beads that cause the magnesium and
ensures that only needle-like aragonite crystals
calcium crystals to precipitate. The conditioner units
are formed. These find it harder to stick to smooth
are usually quite large, requiring an electrical supply.
surfaces than the normal calcium crystals. These
are for individual appliance protection only, such as The benefits of installing a water conditioner include:
combi boilers. They are installed on the cold main l reduction in the scale formation in pipes

to the appliance. l reduction of limescale on taps

l Electrolytic: these work by adding a minute l easier cleaning of showerheads and places where

amount of zinc to the water, which suppresses the limescale may form.
formation of calcium crystals. Any crystals that are
formed are washed away by the flow of water. Can Water softeners
be used for whole-house protection. A water softener is an appliance that is fitted directly
to the water supply to a domestic dwelling or a
commercial building, specifically designed to remove
the water hardness. They are usually installed as close
to water main entry into the building as possible.
Most modern softeners are very compact and can
p Figure 5.113 Magnetic scale p Figure 5.114 Electrolytic easily be fitted under a kitchen sink.
inhibitor scale inhibitor
Rising main
Water softener
Rising main

Electrolytic water
conditioner

Stop valve
Stop valve

p Figure 5.115 Fitting an electrolytic water conditioner p Figure 5.117 Fitting a water softener

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Water softeners use a process called ion exchange. The 6 Disinfection: used to reduce the bacteria content
softener contains a column that is filled with special and other micro-organisms by either UV light
resin beads. These remove the dissolved calcium and or a very fine sediment filter (usually ceramic or
magnesium salts by replacing them with sodium as membrane).
the water passes through them. Once a day, the unit
automatically washes the beads with brine (salt water)
to remove calcium and magnesium ions, taking the
solution to drain. Every month, the unit has to be refilled
with salt in the form of granules, tablets or blocks.
Use of a water softener generally reduces the hardness
of the water from 350 mg/l (milligrams per litre) to less
than 10 mg/l.
When installing a water softener, there must be at least
one unsoftened cold water outlet in the dwelling.
p Figure 5.118 Fitting a water filter

Drinking water filters

Drinking water filters alter the water composition to
Installation of cold water
improve its taste, odour and appearance for drinking pipework
and cooking purposes. There are two common types: Many of the requirements for pipework installation
1 jug filters – filled from a tap and stored in a fridge are covered in Chapter 2, Common processes and
2 plumbed-in filters – usually sited underneath the techniques. Here, we will look at those techniques
kitchen sink with a separate drinking water tap specific to cold water installations.
installed at the kitchen sink.
These can usually be supplied in six different forms: Choosing the right materials
1 Activated carbon filter: used to reduce taste and Cold water supply in domestic dwellings, as we have
odour such as chlorine. The carbon filter has a already discussed, is strictly regulated by the Water
large surface area that attracts and absorbs organic Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. This means that
substances from the water. The carbon is usually in the choice of materials for cold water installations is
powder, granular or block form. limited to the following.
2 Ion exchange: used to reduce limescale formation l Copper tubes and fittings (refer back to Chapter 2,

and other metal-ion contaminants such as lead. Common processes and techniques) – copper has a
It takes the form of tiny granules, which work proven record for cold water installations. It is light,
by replacing the mineral or contaminant ions with rigid, has many jointing techniques available and
hydrogen ions. requires only minimal clipping. It is highly resistant to
3 Sediment filter: designed to remove fine particles corrosion and has a minimum life, in ideal conditions,
from the water. These comprise a mesh through of 150 years. It does, however, take great skill to
which the water passes, trapping the sediment. fabricate and install it properly. There is a fire risk
The smaller the holes in the filter, the smaller the when using soldering equipment and it requires many
particles that can be removed. specialist tools to successfully complete an installation.
4 Reverse osmosis: these work under pressure to l Polybutylene pipe and fittings (refer back to Chapter 2,

remove most of the dissolved mineral content by Common processes and techniques) – manufacturers
passing the water through a very fine membrane. state that PB-1 has a life expectancy of 50 years. It
5 Distillation: removes the mineral content of the is light and extremely flexible, and requires regular
water by boiling it and condensing the steam back clipping when fixed on the surface. It is easier to
to water vapour. install and can be cabled through joists easily and
quickly. Push-fit joints make installation quicker and so

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

installation time can be reduced by 40 per cent with buried in walls or floors unless provision can be made
no fire risk. Testing techniques are more complicated to make it accessible.
and time consuming than for copper tube.
Pipes in suspended timber floors
Preparation, planning and Pipes have been installed in timber floors for many
positioning of pipes years. Notching or drilling of joists should not be
The installation of cold water systems needs to comply carried out in joists or rafters 100 mm deep or less.
with the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations and Notches should not be too tight for the pipes or
we must always consider the recommendations of BS creaking and ‘ticking’ noises may become a problem
EN 806 and BS 8558. The manufacturer’s instructions as the pipes expand and contract. Pipes in notches
have to be followed with regard to the appliances should be covered with joist clips to prevent excessive
installed and materials used. movement, and floorboards should be screwed (not
nailed) when they are repositioned.
The installation procedures will vary depending on
the property. For instance, the methods used on There are many different styles of suspended floor,
new buildings will differ from those in an occupied including engineered timber joists, lightweight
dwelling where the customer’s possessions will need fabricated steel joists, lightweight cellular steel joists,
to be taken into account. and concrete block and beam systems. Figure 5.119
shows the installation requirements for these systems.
Irrespective of the property type, pipework runs need
to be planned carefully. It is advisable to avoid positions
where frost and heat could cause a problem, such as INDUSTRY TIP
outside walls, in cellars and unheated roof spaces.
Notching and drilling of joists should be done carefully,
Wherever possible, pipework should be positioned out
taking care to follow the recommendations mentioned in
of sight and boxed in where appropriate. It should be
Chapter 2, Common processes and techniques, page 105.
remembered, however, that pipework should not be
Typical laminated strand beam Maximum 50 mm diameter
1/3 depth

Allowed hole zone 1/3 depth d

3 depth
1/

d 2 × diameter of d
the largest hole

Parallel strand beam Maximum 50 mm diameter

1/3 depth

Allowed hole zone 1/

3 depth d
1/3 depth

1/3 1/3 1/3

2 × diameter of
the largest hole

Typical engineering timber joist Do NOT cut or notch out joist flanges

150 mm 150 mm
150 mm

Maximum hole 2 × longest side of

size 38 mm in 2 × diameter of the
largest hole (mm) largest rectangular hole
cantilever
incl. knock out hole
38 mm knock out hole
Do not cut holes in
hatched areas near Minimum distance of hole from joist support
to joist supports
(see manufacturer's data sheet)

p Figure 5.119 Pipe installation requirements of typical joist systems

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Floor screed Insulated pipe in duct

Access cover

Insulated pipe in duct

Plasterboard

Pipe clipped to joist Insulation

Access cover

Insulated pipe
in duct

Plasterboard

p Figure 5.120 Pipe in walls and floors

Cold water pipes should not be installed in the same Where the laying of pipes in walls and floors is
notch as hot water and central heating pipes. There unavoidable, they should be placed in purpose-made
must be a minimum horizontal distance of 300 mm ducts that have an accessible, removable cover, as
between cold water pipes and any hot water/central shown in Figure 5.120. Pipes laid in chases must have
heating pipes to prevent radiated heat from warming adequate room for expansion and contraction, and
the cold drinking water. Where there is a significant should be sufficiently lagged or protected.
risk of cold water pipes being warmed by other
Pipes passing through walls should be sleeved to allow
pipework, the cold water installation should be lagged.
for expansion and to protect the pipe from building
To eliminate the risk of contamination from undue
settlement and the corrosive effects of the masonry on
warming, the cold water pipework must never be
the pipe. The sleeve should be sealed at both ends. The
allowed to exceed a temperature of 25°C.
pipe should be thermally insulated where necessary.
Pipes in walls and sleeved through Preparing to install
walls In Chapter 2, Common processes and techniques,
According to Defra’s guidance on the Water Supply we discussed taking care of the customer’s property
(Water Fittings) Regulations 1999: and possessions during the installation process, and
Unless they are located in an internal wall which is how we should use various methods to protect the
not a solid wall, a chase or duct which may readily customer’s environment and property. There are
be removed or exposed, or under a suspended floor also other steps we can take before we start the
which may be readily removed and replaced, or to installation to help save time, as described below.
which there is access, water fittings shall not be: l Walk the job: take the time to walk around the job

1 Located in the cavity of a cavity wall, or; and plan the routes that you intend to take your
2 Embedded in any wall or solid floor, or; pipework.
l Prepare the job: use this time to lift floorboards
3 Installed below a suspended or solid floor at
ground level. and cut notches in preparation for the pipework
installation. The floorboards can be replaced
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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

temporarily so that the customer is not l If the installation is an existing system, leave the
inconvenienced by holes in the floors. Remember final connections to the system until last. This will
to clear any mess as you go along. Don’t leave it all help to keep the decommissioning and turnover
to the last minute and never leave cleaning to the time of the system as short as possible.
customer. l Pipework installed in floors and walls should be
l Mark out: if you have decided on the routes that placed in properly prepared and accessible chases
you intend to take, then mark out any surface- and ducts. Protect the customer’s property at all
mounted pipework and drill any holes that you times with dust sheets when cutting in chases.
need to drill. Chases in walls and floors can also be l Hot and cold pipework should not be installed
marked at this point. Don’t forget to use the correct together unless the cold water can be protected
PPE, such as protective goggles, when carrying out from undue warming from the other surrounding
drilling and chasing procedures. It may be necessary services. If possible, when pipework is to be fixed
to perform a risk assessment first. on wall surfaces, the hot water pipework should be
l Keep the customer informed: let the customer installed above the cold water pipework and, when
know where you are going to be working and how installed in a floor cavity, a gap of at least 300 mm
long you plan to be in this area. should be maintained horizontally.
l Keep entrances and exits clear: don’t leave trip l Cisterns should be marked and drilled for pipe
hazards, such as cables and tools, lying around the connections in accordance with BS EN 8558 4.3.10
work area. and all holes drilled with a hole saw. Installation
requirements should be in accordance with the
Installation, testing and Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations.
commissioning of cold water l Holes and notches in joists must be carried out in
line with the building regulations.
systems
l A water dead leg refers to any pipework that is no
The fabrication of pipework, installation techniques, longer in use and there is a risk of the water turning
commissioning and testing are dealt with elsewhere in stagnant which could contaminate the system.
this book. These, however, are important subjects that These are normally redundant branches and should
require reinforcement of your learning. The important be removed in order to prevent this from happening.
aspects of installation are as follows.
l Keep all exposed pipework as neat as possible. Use Connections to bathroom equipment and
the recommended clipping distances and protect other common components
the building fabric when making soldered joints. When connecting bathroom equipment, the manufacturer’s
l Prefabrication techniques for copper tube can save
installation instructions should be referred to. The design of
time and money on installations. Try to use machine the installation will dictate the size of the pipe required to
bends wherever possible as these help with the flow deliver the flow rate, but the connection size to the tap will
rates in the finished installation. be dictated by the tap itself (see Table 5.10).
 Table 5.10
Baths Bath taps usually require 22 mm pipework unless the system water is to be delivered at high pressure, then 15 mm
pipework usually suffices.
Washbasins Washbasins are usually connected with 15 mm pipe, but many new monobloc washbasin taps have 10 mm
connections. However, 10 mm pipe should be restricted to the last 1 m of pipework, otherwise the flow rates
required may be affected.
WCs WCs must be fitted with an isolation valve prior to connection to the float-operated valve for maintenance and
replacement purposes. They are usually connected in 15 mm pipe.
Bidets The kind of connection to bidets is dictated by bidet type. Over rim-type bidets can be connected in the same
manner as washbasins. However, ascending spray-type bidets must be connected only to low-pressure supplies
fed from a storage cistern. The recommendations of BS EN 806 and the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999 must be adhered to, as ascending spray bidets are a backflow risk.
➜
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Cold water The size of pipe connecting to the float-operated valve in a cold water cistern will depend on the size of the float-
cisterns operated valve. Most cisterns are connected in 15 mm pipe for domestic cisterns. However, on rare occasions, a 22 mm
connection is required, especially on large domestic installations, where a ¾-inch float-operated valve has been installed.
Cold feed pipes to hot water storage cylinders and cold distribution pipework on indirect cold water installations
from the cold water cistern should be sized in accordance with the demands of the system. The more appliances
installed, the greater the flow rate and the larger the pipe.
Cisterns must have isolation valves on both the inlet and outlet pipework.
Boiler jigs Boiler jigs should be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Copper pipe must be installed
from the jig for at least 1 m.
Boosting Boosting sets, again, must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Most booster sets
sets and are now supplied with variable-speed pumps so the flow rate and pressure can be set by the installer to match
pumps the system design. This must be adjusted carefully to the required pressure and flow rate, and checked at
commissioning stage. Booster sets are usually installed with a cold water accumulator.
Cold water The accumulator is basically a pressurised water storage vessel, designed to limit the use of the pump and
accumulator maintain system pressure. These must be installed after the pump but before the first appliance.

Working on existing systems been used for the installation of cold (and hot) water
systems, and each of them brings its own unique set
Existing systems can be notoriously difficult to work of problems (see Table 5.11).
on and, the older the system, the more difficult it
can be. Over the years, a variety of materials have
 Table 5.11
Lead pipes There are still hundreds of installations that contain lead pipe and there are situations where making a joint on
lead pipe is unavoidable. Joints using leaded grade D solder were banned in 1986. This means that proprietary
joints, such as leadlocks and Philmac fittings, can be used only to convert the old lead pipe to workable copper
tubes or polybutylene pipes. Even so, we must still exercise caution as brass fittings such as leadlocks can
cause galvanic corrosion to occur, which could lead to water contamination downstream of the fitting. Wherever
possible, lead pipe should be removed and replaced.
20 thread Occasionally, you may come across an installation that contains thick-walled screwed copper pipe jointed using
copper tube screwed brass fittings. This is known as 20 thread copper tube because the threads on the pipe measure
20 threads to the inch. Sizes 3/8, ½ and ¾-inch pipes were generally used in domestic installations and are
not compatible with modern BS EN 1057 copper tubes or polybutylene pipes. Capillary converter fittings are
available but these are becoming increasingly rare.
Copper tube This type of copper tube was introduced in the 1950s and has a much thicker pipe wall compared with modern
copper tube. Jointing techniques were very similar to those of today, with both compression and capillary
fittings being used. However, the tube sizes are imperial and so converters are required for some sizes. ½-inch
tube will fit modern 15 mm, although it is a tight fit; ¾-inch is much smaller than modern 22 mm tube and so
must be converted; and 1-inch tube is extremely tight when used with 28 mm fittings, so a converter fitting is,
again, recommended. Both capillary and compression converter fittings are available.
Red band thin This kind of copper tube is identifiable by a red line running down the length of the tube and is mostly of
wall copper German origin. It was used in the early 1970s when copper tube was scarce due to a copper shortage. It is
tube very susceptible to pin hole corrosion. Only capillary joints should be made on this type of tube. The sizes of
tube are imperial.
Stainless steel Again, stainless steel tube was used extensively in the early 1970s due to a copper shortage. Unfortunately,
the tube was manufactured from low-grade stainless steel, which has led to many problems of corrosion.
Compression joints can be made onto this type of tube but care should be taken as it requires harder tightening
because stainless steel is a much harder metal than copper. Again, tube sizes are imperial.
High-density HDPE was used for underground service pipes from the external stop valve (boundary stop valve) to the
polyethylene dwelling. It is black in colour and comes in four grades (A, B, C and D). Compression fittings are still available
(HDPE) for this type of pipe but it should be noted that the grades have different wall thicknesses and so it is important
that the correct type of pipe insert is used when making joints. Conversion to blue MDPE is a fairly simple task
when the correct fitting is used.
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CuPVC Better known as ‘PolyYork’, this is a plastic pipe that is suitable for cold water supplies only. It was again used
(chlorinated extensively in some parts of the UK during the early 1970s for cold water systems inside a domestic dwelling.
unplasticised Fittings used a solvent cement system that, once a joint was made, had to be left for 24 hours before testing
polyvinyl could take place. It is very susceptible to fracture and fitting blow-off. Care should be taken when this pipe is
chloride) encountered as it is extremely easy to fracture a fitting just by turning the water supply off!
Acorn An early version of polybutylene pipe that first appeared in the mid-1980s. It is compatible with all new polybutylene
(polybutylene) pipes and fittings, and copper tubes and compression fittings; however, a special pipe insert is required.

Testing cold water systems be a certain amount of noise within that system.
Sometimes, however, the noise can be excessive and
l Before testing takes place, walk around the job and this may be attributable to:
check that all joints have been made correctly, that l Faulty tap washers: these tend to make a
there are a sufficient number of pipe supports and humming or squealing noise when the tap is
clips, and that you are happy that the installation opened. It is usually because the tap washer is either
conforms to the regulations. worn or split, and re-washering the tap cures the
l Close any open ends of pipes with cap ends. problem in most cases.
l Pressure testing of the completed installation will l Faulty FOV washers: this can cause a very loud
depend upon the materials used: hum throughout the pipework. Unfortunately, the
l Copper tubes – testing as detailed in BS EN
noise is amplified if the cistern is in the roof space.
806 and in Chapter 2, Common processes and Re-washering the FOV generally cures the fault.
techniques. One way of testing to see if it is the FOV washer is
l Plastic (polybutylene PB-1) – this will depend on
to turn on a cold tap when the noise begins. If the
which test is being performed. The requirements noise stops or goes quieter, it is probably the FOV
for both test A and test B are detailed in BS EN washer.
806 and in Chapter 2, Common processes and l Loose or incorrectly supported pipework: this
techniques. can be the cause of very violent banging within the
l Testing should be performed using a hydraulic test system. Every time the pipework reverberates, it is
pump like the one shown in Figure 5.121. equal to twice the incoming mains pressure. If the
supply is at 3 bar, then each bang is the equivalent
of 6 bar. This can eventually lead to fittings failure
and leakage. The best course of action is to try to
find where the pipework is loose, and re-fix it. If this
is not possible, the installation of a water hammer
arrester fitted near to the main stop valve inside the
property may cure the problem.

Inadequate water supply

p Figure 5.121 Hydraulic pressure test pump Airlocks on low-pressure systems can be a constant
nuisance, especially during the commissioning stage.
Noise Airlocks stop the flow of water due to air trapped in
the pipework, and there is insufficient water pressure
System noise can take many forms, from a squealing
from the cistern to push the air out. They usually occur
tap washer to violent pipework reverberation and
because the cold distribution pipe rises as it leaves the
water hammer. Most noise within direct systems of
cistern rather than falling towards the appliances, and
cold water is a direct result of the high pressure and
this causes a high spot where air collects. It is often a
flow rate that can occur within this system. It should
result of poor installation or design.
be remembered that whenever a system has a mixture
of high pressure and high flow rate, there will always

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Curing an airlock is not easy. Usually, the best course

of action is to leave the system to settle. Most
Commissioning cold water
airlocks eventually move, allowing water to flow. This systems
can be problematic if the system is new and at the Refer to Chapter 2, Common processes and techniques,
commissioning stage, because the system cannot be for further information on the commissioning of cold
tested properly until the airlock clears. To be sure that water systems.
airlocks do not occur, ensure that distribution pipes l The commissioning and flushing procedure should

from cisterns have a slight but constant fall towards be undertaken with fresh wholesome water direct
the appliances. from the water undertaker’s main.
l Check that all pipework is secure and check that
Leakage all tap connectors and tank connectors are fully
Leakage is a common problem in cold water systems. It tightened, and all drain-off valves turned off.
can take three main forms: l Check the inside of any cisterns installed to ensure

l Leakage from the cold water service pipe below that they are free of debris and that all connections
ground before it enters the property: this is quite are tight.
difficult to detect. The main signs of leakage are l Ensure that all isolation valves and terminal fittings

loss of water pressure and flow rate and a constant are off.
distant sound of running water. To find out whether l Open the kitchen cold tap and slowly open the

the leak is before or after the external (boundary) mains cold water stop valve. Allow the water to flow
stop valve, the external stop valve must be turned into the kitchen sink to clear any debris that may
off; if the water supply has stopped but the sound have collected in the pipework.
of running water remains, the communication pipe l Close the cold tap on the kitchen sink and allow the

is leaking and this must be repaired by the water system to fill to full standing pressure.
undertaker. If the sound of running water stops l Turn on the cold taps one at a time until the water

when the external stop valve is turned off, the leak runs clear, and check for leaks.
is on the service pipe to the property and this is the l Turn on the isolation valves to the float-operated

responsibility of the property owner. valve in the WC cistern and allow the cistern to
l Leakage from the internal cold water system fill to the water line. Adjust the water level as
pipes and fittings: this can cause a lot of damage necessary. Flush the WC and check for leaks.
to the property. It is fairly easy to detect the source l Fill any cisterns in the roof space and adjust the

by isolating the mains cold water stop valve. If the water level at the float-operated valve as necessary.
water stops, it is on the mains cold water supply. If l Open any taps and terminal fittings fed from the

the water continues to run, it is on the distribution cistern and clear any air in the system. Allow the
pipework. By isolating the mains internal stop valve water to run, to clear any debris.
and opening the hot and cold water taps in the l Allow the system to stand, then check for any leaks

property, the system will drain quickly, allowing throughout the system.
repairs to be carried out. l Isolate at the mains cold water stop valve and

l Leakage from taps and FOVs: dripping taps are an completely drain the system to flush the system
annoyance but they can also waste quite a lot of water through. This should clear any flux residue and swarf
if they are dripping for a long time. If the property is from the system.
on a water meter, they can make a significant impact l Refill the system and test for standing and running

on the water bill. Dripping FOVs are detected when pressure at all mains outlets using a pressure gauge.
the overflow to the cold water storage cistern or the l Check that all flow rates meet the specification and

WC cistern begins to run. This can first show itself by any manufacturers’ instructions, using a flow meter
the overflow running only at night when the pressure or a weir gauge.
of the water main rises. Gradually, it will start to run all l Re-check the system for leaks.

the time and will need to be repaired.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

ACTIVITY
Remember: water pressure is measured in bar 1 38 m in bar pressure
pressure – 1 bar is the equivalent of 10 m head of 2 4.5 bar in kilopascals (kPa)
water or 100 kPa. Now, using the above figures,
3 150 kPa in bar pressure
calculate:

ACTIVITY
Water flow rate is measured in litres per second or Now attempt the following calculations:
litres per minute. To convert from litres per second (l/s) 1 30 l/m into l/s
to litres per minute (l/m), simply multiply the l/s by 60.
2 0.25 l/s into l/m
For example:
3 12 l/m into l/s
0.3 l/s = 0.3 × 60 = 18 l/m
4 0.12 l/s into l/m
To convert from litres per minute (l/m) to litres
per second (l/s), simply divide the l/m by 60. For
example:
25 l/m = 25 ÷ 60 = 0.41 l/s

12 REPLACING OR REPAIRING DEFECTIVE

COMPONENTS: PLANNED AND UNPLANNED
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance tasks on cold water services, appliances
and valves are essential to ensure the continuing VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
correct operation of the system. The term used when Always try to maintain and return the customer’s
isolating a water supply during maintenance operations property as it was. If a component requires
is ‘temporary decommissioning’. replacement, we must ensure that we get as
Before undertaking the repair or replacement of near to a like-for-like replacement as possible,
components, we must first ascertain what the problem that we have the correct tools available, and that
is. The customer will be able to tell you what is the customer’s property is either removed or
happening with the component. They may not know protected with dust sheets and other coverings
the technical language but they will be able to explain before we begin.
the problem well enough for you to understand.

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Communication is key when it comes to both
resolving issues and also ensuring that your customer
feels informed and confident in your ability to
complete the job. You need to remember that
most of your customers will not have the technical
vocabulary that you are accustomed to. Remember,
this may be their home, so reassure them by
explaining the problem and the processes necessary
to fix (or not) the problem. Avoid overly technical
terms, clearly stating the stages of the job so they
know what to expect and when.
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The manufacturer’s A record of all repairs and maintenance tasks

completed will need to be recorded on the
instructions maintenance schedule at the time of completion,
When repairing or replacing components, the including their location, the date when they were
manufacturer’s instructions give step-by-step methods. carried out and the types of test performed. This will
These should be followed wherever possible. In some ensure that a record of past problems is kept for future
instances where the component is old or the customer reference.
has lost the original instructions, a copy may be
Where appliance servicing is carried out, the
available on the manufacturer’s website.
manufacturer’s installation and servicing instructions
Maintenance should be consulted. Any replacement parts may be
obtained from the manufacturer.
There are basically two types of maintenance:
1 planned preventative maintenance
2 unplanned/emergency maintenance. VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
Do not forget to keep the householder/
Planned preventative maintenance responsible person informed of the areas that are
Planned preventative maintenance is usually performed going to be isolated during maintenance tasks
on larger systems and commercial/industrial and operations, and always ask the customer if
installations. It is performed to a pre-arranged they need to ‘draw off’ a temporary supply of
maintenance schedule, which may mean out-of-hours water (kettle, saucepans, bucket, etc.) to cover a
working if the supply of water cannot be disrupted short period of system isolation.
during normal working hours. It is designed to stop
problems from occurring by catching faults in their
early stages. Planned preventative maintenance could Unplanned and emergency
include: maintenance
l periodic system inspection – checking for leaks
Unplanned and emergency maintenance occur when
l re-washering of float-operated valves
a fault suddenly develops, such as a burst pipe, or a
l re-washering and re-seating of terminal fittings and
small problem suddenly becomes a larger issue, such as
taps
a dripping tap or sudden loss of water. Unplanned and
l inspection and cleaning of cisterns
emergency maintenance can include:
l readjustment of water levels in cisterns
l burst pipes and leaks
l re-washering of drain valves
l running overflows
l cleaning of filters and strainers
l dripping taps
l maintenance of water softeners
l loss of low-pressure, cistern-fed cold water supply
l checking the correct operation of stop valves
due to faulty float-operated valves
l checking flow rates at all outlets.
l poor past installation practices, such as incorrectly

positioned overflow pipes

HEALTH AND SAFETY l complete component breakdown necessitating the
When a maintenance task involves isolating the cold replacement of the component.
water supply, a notice will need to be placed at the
point of isolation, stating ‘System off – do not turn Many of the maintenance practices we use involve the
on’, to prevent accidental turning on of the system. decommissioning of systems so that parts and pipes
In most systems, it will be possible to isolate specific can be replaced.
parts of the installation without the need to have the
whole supply turned off. Where no such isolation
exists, it may be of benefit to use a pipe-freezing kit
Maintenance tasks
so that total system isolation is not undertaken. In this part of the chapter, we will look at some of the
basic maintenance tasks we have to perform, including:

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

l re-washering and re-seating taps

l maintaining a ceramic disc tap
l maintaining BS 1212 Part 1, 2 and 3 float-operated
valves.

Re-washering and re-seating a rising

spindle tap
During the maintenance operation, taps should be
re-seated as well as re-washered. This involves using a
special tool, called a tap re-seating tool, which grinds p Figure 5.122 Tap re-seating tool
the seat of the tap to remove any pits that have
The procedure for re-washering a tap is as follows.
occurred due to water passing between the seat and
the tap, ensuring that the washer sits evenly on the First, ensure that the water supply is isolated, open the
tap seat. tap to relieve the pressure and put the plug into the
sink. This will ensure that any dropped small screws and
nuts do not disappear down the sink waste and into the
waste pipe trap.

STEP 1 Locate the screw that holds the tap head STEP 2 Carefully remove the tap head. STEP 3 With the head removed, we can now break
onto the spindle and carefully remove with a Invariably, taps are cross-top heads, which can the joint between the tap head workings and
small screwdriver. prove difficult to remove. Care must taken here the tap body using an adjustable spanner. This
to prevent damage to the appliance that the tap may involve using a pair of water pump pliers to
is fixed to. counteract the force of the adjustable spanner on
the head workings. Ensure that a cloth is used to
protect the tap body from the effects of the jaws
of the water pump pliers on the tap body.

STEP 4 Remove the jumper plate and washer STEP 5 Some rubber tap washers are held onto STEP 6 Remove the packing gland nut and
from the spindle. A little force may be needed the jumper plate by a small brass nut. Carefully remove the spindle by fully winding in a
from the flat blade of a screwdriver if the jumper remove the nut and replace the existing rubber clockwise direction and pushing the spindle
plate is fixed. washer with a new rubber washer of the correct through the packing gland.
size, then replace the washer nut. Do not over-
tighten the washer nut as it may break.

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STEP 7 Check the spindle for any signs of wear STEP 8 Push the spindle back through the STEP 9 Check the packing in the packing
and remove any scale that may have gathered packing gland and fully wind until the tap gland and replace with a PTFE grommet where
on the spindle shaft. A non-metallic fittings spindle is in the fully open position. necessary.
cleaning pad is ideal for this. Re-grease the
spindle using silicone grease.

STEP 10 Re-insert the jumper plate into the STEP 11 Check the seat of the tap by shining a STEP 12 Check the fibre sealing washer on the
spindle. torch into the tap body. If the tap requires head workings. These tend to break when the tap
re-seating, use the tap re-seating tool with correct head is removed. If the fibre sealing washer needs
size grinding head and re-seat as necessary. replacing, this can be done using PTFE tape.

STEP 13 Replace the head workings into the tap STEP 14 Tighten the packing gland nut, taking STEP 15 Replace the tap head but do not secure
body (ensuring the head workings are fully open) care not to over-tighten as the tap will be with the screw at this point. Turn on the water
and re-tighten into the tap. difficult to open. with the tap open. This will ensure that any
debris from re-seating will be washed out of the
tap. Turn off the tap and check for any drips.
Replace the tap head securing screw.
p Figure 5.123 Re-washering a tap

Re-washering and re-seating a non-rising in the closed position and prevent the tap being
spindle tap opened. Often, this is a result of its having been
Some of the problems that can occur with these taps over-tightened, compressing the washer.
are as follows. l The circlip, which holds the non-rising spindle in
l The barrel, which rises inside the tap head workings, position, can very often break.
can become dislodged causing the tap to seize

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

There is no packing gland with non-rising spindle taps, First, ensure that the water supply is isolated, open the
so maintenance is a little easier. The maintenance tap to relieve the pressure and put the plug into the
procedure for non-rising spindle taps is as follows. sink. This will ensure that any dropped small screws and
nuts do not disappear down the sink waste and into the
waste pipe trap.

STEP 1 Carefully remove the cap on the tap head STEP 2 Locate the screw that holds the tap head STEP 3 With the head removed, you can now
to gain access to the screw. on to the spindle and carefully remove with a break the joint between the tap head workings
small screwdriver. Some tap heads simply pull and the tap body using an adjustable spanner.
off the spindle. Carefully remove the tap head. This may involve using a pair of water pump pliers
to counteract the force of the adjustable spanner
on the head workings. Ensure that a cloth is used
to protect the tap body from the effects of the
jaws of the water pump pliers on the tap body.

STEP 4 Fully unwind the spindle until the STEP 5 Carefully remove the rubber washer STEP 6 Carefully remove the circlip with circlip
hexagonal barrel can be removed from the head and replace with the correct size washer. A tap pliers and push the spindle downwards and out
workings. washer kit may be of benefit here, as there are of the head workings.
many different sizes and styles of washer for a
non-rising spindle tap.

STEP 7 Check and replace the spindle ‘O’ ring STEP 8 Re-grease the spindle with silicone STEP 9 Re-insert the spindle into the head
seals as necessary. grease. workings and replace the circlip.

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STEP 10 Check the hexagonal barrel for any STEP 11 Re-grease the barrel using silicone STEP 12 Check the tap seating and re-seat using
signs of scale and clean with a cleaning pad as grease and very carefully rewind back into the the tap re-seating tool with the correct size
necessary. head workings. Ensure that the tap head is in the grinding head as required.
fully open position.

STEP 13 Check the rubber ‘O’ ring on the tap STEP 14 Replace the head workings into the tap STEP 15 Replace the tap head but do not secure
head workings. This washer seals the head body (ensuring the head workings are fully open) with the screw at this point. Turn on the water
workings to the tap body. Replace as required. and re-tighten into the tap. with the tap open. This will ensure that any
debris from re-seating will be washed out of the
tap. Turn off the tap and check for any drips.
Replace the tap head securing screw.
p Figure 5.124 Re-washering a non-rising spindle tap

Maintaining a ceramic disc tap l Ensure that the water supply is isolated. Open the
Ceramic disc taps do not have a washer to replace. tap to relieve the pressure and drain the pipework.
Instead, they use two very thin plates or discs of a l Using a crows-foot spanner or a tap spanner, twist
ceramic material to allow water to flow through the the tap locking nut holding the tap to the appliance
tap. Most ceramic disc taps are not repairable. The tap counter-clockwise half a turn. This is to release the
head workings will need to be replaced with a like-for- tap from the appliance. By not loosening the tap
like unit, which can be obtained from the manufacturer connector first, the tap connector will prevent the
or from the local merchant or stockist. There are a wide tap from spinning in the appliance.
variety of ceramic disc sets available and the correct l Attach the tap spanner to the tap connector and
one for the tap must be obtained. When ordering the turn counter-clockwise. Ensure that you hold the
part, the type of head workings, i.e. hot or cold, will tap during this process as it may turn, damaging the
need to be stated as they open and close in different appliance.
directions. l Remove the old tap and clean the hole.
l Take off the locking nut to the new tap and make sure
Replacing taps that the rubber grab washer is in place on the tap.
Modern taps can be replaced easily, as the threaded l Insert the tap into the appliance and wind up the
tap-connecting tail is of a generic length, irrespective of new locking nut clockwise by hand, then finally
the manufacturer. tighten with the tap spanner.

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l Replace the fibre sealing washer on the tap 9 Remove the orifice from the float-operated valve
connector and wind the tap connector onto the tap. body and check to ensure that there are no cracks
Tighten the tap connector. or splits visible. Replace as necessary.
l Turn on the water, check for leaks and test the tap. 10 Reassemble the valve, making sure that the washer
is towards the spindle.
When replacing old taps, the threaded tap-connecting
11 Replace the cotter pin and open to ensure that it
tail is longer than more modern taps. This means that
does not fall out.
a tap extender fitting is used to lengthen the thread
12 Re-install the valve into the cistern, making sure the
to the correct length for it to fit the existing pipework.
fibre sealing washer is in place.
Tap extender fittings are available from most good
13 Re-tighten the union and turn on the water.
plumbers’ merchants.
14 Check the operation of the valve, adjusting the
Repairing a BS 1212 Part 1 float-operated water level as necessary.
valve (Portsmouth type)
Repairing a BS 1212 Part 2 and 3 float-
Portsmouth-type float-operated valves are allowed
operated valve (diaphragm type)
to be fitted on new installations only if some form
Diaphragm-type float-operated valves discharge water
of backflow prevention device is installed before the
over the top of the valve. They have a large diaphragm-
float-operated valve; usually this would be a double
type washer that is easily accessible for repair and
check valve. However, if a Portsmouth valve is part
replacement. To replace the diaphragm washer, follow
of an existing installation, then repair is permissible.
the steps listed below.
To repair a Portsmouth valve, follow the steps listed
1 Turn off the water supply at the isolation valve to
below.
the float-operated valve.
1 Turn off the water supply at the isolation valve to
2 Remove the float-operated valve from the cistern
the float-operated valve.
by unscrewing the union nut.
2 Remove the float-operated valve from the cistern by
3 Unscrew the large washer-retaining union and float
unscrewing the union nut.
arm arrangement at the front of the valve, and
3 Remove the end cap on the valve body.
withdraw the washer.
4 Remove the cotter (split) pin holding the float arm
4 Replace the washer, ensuring that it is fitted the
to the valve body and remove the float arm.
correct way. These washers must be inserted
5 Remove the piston from the valve body.
correctly for the float-operated valve to operate as
6 The piston is generally made from one of two
normal.
materials. It can either be brass or nylon.
5 Replace the large washer-retaining union and float
7 For brass pistons, the float-operated valve washer
arm arrangement, ensuring that is engaged into the
is held in the end of the piston by a retaining cap,
retaining notch at the top of the front plate and
which will need to be unscrewed to allow the
hand tighten the union.
washer to be removed. To remove the retaining cap:
6 Check that the orifice is in good order, with no
l place a flat-blade screwdriver in the slot for the
cracks or splits. Replace as necessary.
float arm and unscrew the retaining cap using a
7 Re-install the valve into the cistern, making sure
pair of pliers
the fibre sealing washer is in place.
l remove the washer and replace with a like-for-
8 Re-tighten the union and turn on the water.
like washer
9 Check the operation of the valve, adjusting the
l replace the retaining cap and tighten
water level as necessary with the float arm
l check the piston for any signs of scale and remove
adjustment screw.
these with a cleaning pad.
8 For nylon pistons, simply push the washer out of the
gap in the side of the washer housing and replace
the washer.

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Replacing float-operated valves l Once both unions have been disconnected, remove
Float-operated valves can be replaced easily, as the pump. The pump unions should have the old
the threaded connecting tail is of a generic length, washers removed and the union faces cleaned. The
irrespective of manufacturer. new pump should include flat rubber washers.
l Ensure that the water supply is isolated. Open the l Position the new pump, with the sealing washers
float-operated valve to relieve the pressure and in place, between the valves and hand tighten the
drain the pipework. unions. Take care to ensure that the pump is facing
l Using an adjustable spanner, twist the float- in the right direction for the system.
operated valve locking nut holding the float- l Fully tighten the unions with the water pump pliers.
operated valve to the cistern counter-clockwise half l Turn on the pump valves and check for leaks.
a turn. This is to release the tap from the appliance. l Carefully reconnect the electrics to the pump: live
By not loosening the tap connector first, the tap to the L point, neutral to the N point and earth to
connector will prevent the float-operated valve the E point. Make sure that all electrical connections
from spinning in the cistern. are tight.
l Attach the spanner to the tap connector and turn l Reinstate the fuse in the consumer unit. Switch on
counter-clockwise, ensuring that the float-operated and test for correct operation.
valve is held firm by a pair of water pump pliers.
l Remove the old float-operated valve.

l Take off the locking nut to the new float-operated

13 DECOMMISSIONING
valve and make sure that the rubber grab washer is
in place on the locking nut.
OF SYSTEMS
l Insert the float-operated valve into the cistern and Occasionally, systems will require isolation for repairs,
wind up the new locking nut clockwise by hand, renewal of appliances and extensions to systems, or
then finally tighten with the tap spanner. when systems or appliances are being permanently
l Replace the fibre sealing washer on the tap removed. This is known as decommissioning.
connector and wind the tap connector onto the Decommissioning takes two forms:
float-operated valve. Tighten the tap connector. 1 Temporary decommissioning: this is where
l Turn on the water, check for leaks and test the float- systems are isolated for a period of time so that
operated valve. work can be performed. Eventually, the system
will be recommissioned and put back into normal
Replacing pumps in boosting sets operation.
When replacing any electrical component, first ensure 2 Permanent decommissioning: when a system
that the electricity supply is totally isolated by initiating or an appliance is taken out of use, it has to be
the safe isolation procedure for electricity supplies, as permanently decommissioned. This will require that
follows. the system is isolated and drained, the appliance(s)
l Remove the fuse from the consumer unit. removed, and the pipework cut back, removed and
l Check that the electrical circuit is dead using a GS38 capped to the nearest live line to prevent stagnation
tester and proving unit or some other effective of water in a live cold water supply.
electrical testing device.
l Make a simple drawing of the live/neutral/earth

connections on the pump and disconnect the cable.

Information to be provided
l Turn off the isolating valves on the inlet and outlet to other users before
to the pump. decommissioning
l Carefully loosen the unions on the pump by turning
Whether permanently decommissioning a system or
them anti-clockwise using water pump pliers. It may
temporarily decommissioning a section of pipework
be a good idea to have some old towels handy to
to allow repairs or the replacement of appliances or
catch any water.

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 Chapter 5 Cold water systems

components, the end user or customer should be point of isolation informing other water users that part
informed of: of the system is out of commission and that it should
l which part of the system is likely to be out of service not be turned back on. It is also a good idea to put
l approximately how long for your telephone number on the notice so that people
l where they can get water from in the meantime. can contact you for information. The pipework should
be cut at the nearest tee piece or live line to prevent
Consider ways that can stagnation of water in the decommissioned section of
pipework. If the decommissioning is temporary, then
reduce periods when the appliance can be disconnected and the pipework
facilities are not available capped off.
To lessen the inconvenience of the water system being
off, the installation can be separated into zones by
installing isolation valves at key points. This would SUMMARY
ensure that not all of a system is out of commission
and that parts remain in service. During this chapter, we have investigated water supply
from the cloud to the tap and we have seen the
The work, rather than being done when the property is
correct practice of system installation, materials and
occupied, could be completed at those times when the
components. It is an almost impossible task to attempt
building is closed, outside of normal operating hours.
to describe every aspect of cold water supply and the
Always remember to isolate the fuel system/electricity best way to gain experience in this field is by working
supply to the hot water system, to prevent accidental on the systems themselves and seeing the different
heating of a decommissioned system. systems, both new and existing, in operation. It will
soon become apparent that there is a multitude of
Preventing the end user from different systems, materials and fittings based upon
those we have looked at. By seeing these different
using an appliance or system systems in operation, you will soon become proficient
To prevent the end user from using the cold at identifying the correct methods of working. And as
water system once it has been turned off for long as we can do that, we will enhance and develop
decommissioning, a notice should be placed at the our knowledge.

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Test your knowledge 7 What is the minimum recommended storage

capacity of a CWSC within an indirect cold
1 How many UK fluid categories are there? water system?
a 4 c 6 a 150 litres
b 5 d 7 b 230 litres
2 Water within a food preparation area such c 250 litres
as a kitchen sink falls within which UK fluid d 310 litres
category?
8 What type of BS 1212 float-operated valve is
a 4 c 6 shown below?
b 5 d 7
3 Waste water collected from baths, showers and
washing machines that is then reused for WC
flushing is known as:
a Rainwater harvesting
b Wholesome water
a Part 1 c Part 3
c Black water
b Part 2 d Part 4
d Grey water
9 Where is the most suitable location for the
4 With regard to water treatment, what does the component in the image below to be installed?
passage below describe?
‘... designed to slow down the water velocity to
allow the solids that the water contains to sink
to the bottom and settle under gravity. It may
also be used to reduce turbidity.’
a Sedimentation
b Filtration
c Sterilisation
d Chlorination a On the outlet of a CWSC
5 Which document is split into five parts and b On the inlet of a WC cistern within an
gives the specification for installations inside indirect system
the buildings conveying water for human c On the incoming water main as it enters the
consumption? property
a BS EN 806 d On the cold supply to a washing machine
b BS 6700 10 What type of air gap is incorporated over a
c The Water Supply (Water Fittings) kitchen sink?
Regulations a AG c AUK2
d The Private Water Supplies Regulations b AUK1 d AUK3
6 What is the minimum supply pipe size to a 11 What temperature does the Water Regulations
modern dwelling? state that cold water must never reach?
a 20 mm c 32 mm a 10°C c 15°C
b 25 mm d 40 mm b 25°C d 5°C

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 Test your knowledge

12 What are the two main considerations for the 18 According to the Water Regulations and BS EN
incoming cold water supply? 806, how should a cold water storage cistern be
a Flow and colour installed in a loft area?
b Temperature and pressure a Next to an outside wall
c Taste and temperature b Supported over its entire base
d Pressure and flow c Have 750 mm clearance on all sides
13 Following the commissioning of a cold water d Insulated under the whole base area
system, you find the flow rate from a float- 19 Which British Standard outlines the required
operated valve to be poor. Which of the capacity of a cold water storage cistern?
following could be the cause? a BS EN 806 c BS 5422
a The FOV was wrongly connected to a direct b BS 14336 d BS EN 1057
system 20 Which of the following is regarded as a ‘surface
b The system wasn’t flushed and debris is water’ source?
blocking the orifice a Underground reservoir
c The FOV can only be used on an indirect b Cold water storage cistern
system c Rising main
d Incorrect chemicals were used to flush the d Lake
system out
21 Why is a BS 1212 Part 1 float-operated valve not
14 Where should a drain-off valve be installed? allowed to be installed in a WC cistern?
a Immediately above the internal stop valve a The material it is made of could cause
and at every low point contamination
b At every appliance to aid system draining b The float is too big for a modern cistern
c Below the cold water storage cistern to avoid c The AG air gap cannot be maintained
wasting water
d It can only be used on low pressure systems
d Immediately below any appliance supplied by
22 What colour is a HIGH pressure orifice used in
the mains
a Part 2 float-operated valve?
15 Between what depths should the service pipe
a Green c Blue
be laid?
b Red d White
a 650–1300 mm c 800–1600 mm
23 What is fluid category 3 described as in the
b 750–1350 mm d 350 –700 mm Water Regulations?
16 If a tap washer in a tap is damaged, what would a Slight health risk
be the likely effect?
b Wholesome water
a The tap would drip from the outlet
c Wholesome water except for colour, odour or
b The tap would drip from the body temperature
c The tap would drip from the spindle d Significant health risk
d The tap would drip from the handle 24 What is the reason plumbers are required to use
17 What material is a modern service pipe made ‘approved’ fittings?
from? a They are cheaper
a R250 half hard copper b They are legal and avoid contamination
b Lead c They can be used on both copper and plastic
c MDPE pipework
d ABS d They have universal joints

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25 Who is responsible to ensure that water is fit for Answers can be found online at
human consumption in the mains? www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
a The customer
b The plumber Practical activity
c The local health authority At your place of work or training centre, why not
d The water undertaker ask your supervisor or tutor if you could prepare
to install a CWS cistern? Prepare by marking with
26 Explain fluid category 2 and give an example
a pen the correct outlet and inlet positions in
from within a dwelling.
accordance with WRAS guidance, ensuring that all
27 Give two advantages of a rainwater harvesting dimensions are adhered to.
system.
If it is convenient (ask permission), cut the
28 Consider the table at the bottom of the page. holes using the correct tools and ensure that all
Tick the boxes that indicate advantages when necessary components are fitted in accordance
comparing either direct or indirect system with Schedule 2, Paragraph 16 of the Water
selection. Regulations. Once the cistern is completed, ask
29 What can be provided to prevent pumps running your supervisor or tutor to check. This may also be
dry within a boosted old water system? a good opportunity to practise replacing the washer
30 Explain the difference between a true mixer tap within the float-operated valve while it is easily
and a bi-flow mixer tap. accessible.
31 Describe where a grey water re-use system
collects water from.
32 List the advantages of a direct cold water
system in a property.
33 A cold water storage cistern you are installing
has a cold feed and a cold distribution
connection. Explain why care needs to be taken
when positioning these connections.
34 Outline why a Part 1 float-operated valve is not
allowed to be installed today.

Particular advantage Indirect system Direct system

Cheaper to install
Drinking water to all fittings
Less fluctuation of pressure during peak demand periods

Less risk of leaks due to lower pressures

Smaller pipe sizes may be used
Good pressure at all outlets
Less risk of backflow

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 CHAPTER 6
HOT WATER SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
A supply of hot water is essential. We use it every day for personal hygiene, cooking and clothes washing. It is
a vital resource for combating germs and bacteria, but it can also cause harm if the temperature of the water is
not controlled.
In this chapter, will we investigate the many methods of supplying hot water in the home. We will look at the
systems of hot water supply, the installation methods we should employ, the appliances we use to generate
hot water and the ways in which we can control its temperature to safe, usable limits. We will also explore some
of the common hot water-related faults that occur and look at ways of maintaining systems so that they give
optimum performance.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● sources of information relating to work on hot water systems
● hot water systems and components
● system safety and efficiency
● how to prepare for the installation of systems and components
● how to install and test systems and components
● how to decommission systems and components
● how to replace defective components.

ACTIVITY KEY POINT

As a starting point to this unit, consider the following There are some areas that come under the subject
questions: of hot water – such as sanitary appliances, taps,
● What are the recommended design temperatures valves, pumps and backflow protection – that are
for hot water systems? identical to those areas discussed within other
chapters in this book. Where such duplication
● What safety devices are required in hot water
exists, you will be encouraged to read and research
systems?
within those chapters. In most cases, further
● How is Legionella prevented in hot water reading is encouraged within Chapter 2, Common
systems? processes and techniques, Chapter 3, Scientific
● Where can faults occur in hot water systems? principles, and Chapter 5, Cold water systems.

1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION RELATING TO

WORK ON HOT WATER SYSTEMS
Here, you will learn to identify and use the information
sources that should be referred to when designing hot
Statutory regulations
water systems, including: The installation of hot water systems is governed
● statutory regulations
strictly by various regulations:
● the Building Regulations Approved Document G3
● industry standards

● manufacturer technical instructions.

2010

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● the Building Regulations Approved Document L1A/B It is interesting to note that Regulation G3 applies to
2013 (with 2016 amendments) all domestic dwellings, including greenhouses, small
● the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 detached buildings, extensions and conservatories, but
● the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations only if they are served with hot water supplied from a
● the IET (18th Edition) (BS 7671:2008) Wiring dwelling.
Regulations.
It should be noted that the local building control officer
should be informed before commencing any installation
The Building Regulations Approved of a hot water system.
Document G3 2010
In the past, Building Regulations Approved Document INDUSTRY TIP
G3 related only to unvented hot water supply systems.
In 2010 it was updated to encompass all hot water Remember that:
delivery systems in domestic dwellings. It is divided ● Building Regulations Part G is about TEMPERATURE

into four parts: ● Building Regulations Part L is about EFFICIENCY.

1 Part 1 of G3 is a new requirement. It states that

heated wholesome water must be supplied to any
The Building Regulations Approved
washbasin or bidet that is situated in or adjacent to
a room containing a sanitary convenience, to any
Document L1A/B 2013
washbasins, bidets, fixed baths or showers installed This document promotes the conservation of fuel
in a bathroom, and any sink in an area where food and power. The basic outline to this document is that
is prepared. the building and services contained within a dwelling
2 Part 2 is an expanded requirement. It states that must be designed and installed to actively reduce
any hot water system, including associated storage the amount of CO2 produced. The building fabric
(including any cold water storage cistern) or expansion must contain insulation to limit heat loss and heating
vessel, must resist the effects of any temperature appliances, associated controls and equipment and
or pressure that may occur during normal use as a lighting systems must all reduce the energy wasted.
consequence of any reasonably anticipated fault or Pipes and storage vessels must also be insulated to
malfunction. This amendment was enforced after the reduce the waste of energy.
failure of an immersion heater thermostat that caused This document should be read in conjunction with the
the collapse of a storage cistern containing water Domestic Building Compliance Guide.
almost at boiling point.
3 Part 3, again, is an amended requirement. It INDUSTRY TIP
states that any part of a hot water system that
incorporates a hot water storage vessel must Copies of the Building Regulations Approved Documents G3
include precautions to ensure that the temperature 2010 and L 2013 can be downloaded free from these links:
of the stored water does not exceed 100°C and www.gov.uk/government/publications/sanitation-hot-water-
that any discharge from such safety devices is safety-and-water-efficiency-approved-document-g
safely conveyed to a point where it is visible www.gov.uk/government/publications/conservation-of-fuel-
without constituting a danger to persons in or and-power-approved-document-l
about the building.
4 Part 4 states that any hot water supply to a
fixed bath must include provision to limit the The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
temperature of the discharged water from any Regulations 1999
bath tap to not in excess of 48°C. This requirement In many respects, the Water Regulations mirror the
applies to any new-build or property conversions. Building Regulations, and these two documents
It is a new requirement that is intended to prevent should be consulted before undertaking any design or
scalding. installation of hot water systems.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Hot water supply is covered in Section 8 of Schedule

2 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. INDUSTRY TIP
The Document G Guidance for Hot Water Supply is
A copy of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
reproduced in Table 6.1, complete with the guidance
can be downloaded free from: www.legislation.gov.uk/
notes attached to the Regulations. uksi/1999/1148/contents/made
 Table 6.1 Document G Guidance for Hot Water Supply
SECTION 8
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24: Hot water services Guidance
17 (1) Every unvented water heater, not Unvented hot water systems
being an instantaneous water heater with G17.1
a capacity not greater than 15 litres, and a A temperature control device; and either a temperature relief valve or combined
every secondary coil contained in a primary temperature and pressure relief valve; and
system shall: b An expansion valve; and
a) Be fitted with a temperature control
c Unless the expanded water is returned to the supply pipe in accordance with
device and either a temperature relief
Regulation 15(2)(a), either;
valve or a combined pressure and
i An expansion vessel; or
temperature relief valve; or
ii Contain an integral expansion system, such that the expansion water is
b) Be capable of accommodating expansion
contained within the secondary system to prevent waste of water.
within the secondary hot water system.
G17.2 An expansion valve should be fitted to all unvented hot water storage systems,
(2) An expansion valve shall be fitted with
with a capacity in excess of 15 litres, to ensure that expansion water is discharged in a
provision to ensure that water is discharged
correct manner in the event of a malfunction of the expansion vessel or system.
in a correct manner in the event of a
malfunction of the expansion vessel or G17.3 Where expansion water is accommodated separately the expansion vessel
system. should preferably be of an approved ‘flow through type’ and should comply with the
requirements of BS 6144 and BS 6920.
18 Appropriate vent pipes, temperature Temperature of hot water within a storage system
control devices and combined temperature G18.1 Irrespective of the type of fuel used for heating, the temperature of the
pressure and relief valves shall be provided water at any point within a hot water storage system should not exceed 100°C and
to prevent the temperature of the water appropriate vent pipes, temperature control devices and other safety devices should
within a secondary hot water system from be provided to prevent this occurring.
exceeding 100°C.
Hot water distribution temperatures
G18.2 Hot water should be stored at a temperature of not less than 60°C and distributed
at a temperature of not less than 55°C. This water distribution temperature may not be
achievable where hot water is provided by instantaneous or combination boilers.
G18.3 The maintenance of acceptable water temperatures may be achieved by
efficient routing of pipes, reducing the lengths of pipes serving individual appliances
and the application of good insulation practices to minimise freezing of cold water
pipes and to promote energy conservation for hot water pipes. For references, see
Comments and Recommendations of Clause 4.3.32.2 in BS 8558.
Temperature of hot water supplies at terminal fittings and on surfaces of
hot water pipes
G18.4 Where practicable the hot water distribution system should be designed
and installed to provide the required flow of water at terminal fittings to sanitary
and other appliances at a water temperature of not less than 50°C and within 30
seconds after fully opening the tap. This criteria may not be achievable where hot
water is provided by instantaneous or combination boilers.
G18.5 Terminal fittings or communal showers in schools or public buildings, and in other
facilities used by the public, should be supplied with water through thermostatic mixing
valves so that the temperature of the water discharged at the outlets does not exceed 43°C.
G18.6 The temperature of water discharged from terminal fittings and the surface
temperature of any fittings in healthcare premises should not exceed the temperatures
recommended in HS(G)104 – Safe hot water and surface temperatures.
➜
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SECTION 8
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24: Hot water services Guidance
Energy conservation
G18.7 All water fittings forming part of a primary or secondary hot water circulation
system and all pipes carrying hot water to a tap that are longer than the maximum
length given in the table below should be thermally insulated in accordance with
BS 5422.
 Table 6.1a Maximum recommended lengths of uninsulated hot water pipes

Outside diameter (mm) Max. length (m)

12 20
Over 12 and up to 22 12

Over 22 and up to 28 8
Over 28 3

19 Discharges from temperature relief Discharge pipes from safety devices

valves, combined temperature pressure G19.1 Discharge pipes from expansion valves, temperature relief valves and combined
and relief valves and expansion valves temperature and pressure relief valves should be installed in accordance with the
shall be made in a safe and conspicuous guidance given in this document and should also comply with the requirements of
manner. Building Regulation G3.
G19.2 Where discharge pipes pass through environments outside the thermal
envelope of the building they should be thermally insulated against the effects of frost.
G19.3 The discharge pipe from a temperature relief valve or combined temperature
and pressure relief valve should:
a Be through a readily visible air gap discharging over a tundish located in the
same room or internal space and vertically as near as possible and in any case
within 600 mm of the point of outlet of the valve; and,
b Be of non-ferrous material, such as copper or stainless steel, capable of
withstanding any temperatures arising from a malfunction of the system; and,
c Have a vertical drop of 300 mm below the tundish outlet, and thereafter be laid
to a self-draining gradient; and,
d Be at least one size larger than the nominal outlet size of the valve, unless its
total equivalent hydraulic resistance exceeds that of a straight pipe 9 metres
long. Where the total length of the pipe exceeds 9 metres equivalent resistance,
the pipe shall be increased in size by one nominal diameter for each additional,
or part of, equivalent 9 metres resistance length. The flow resistance of bends
in the pipe should be taken into consideration when determining the equivalent
length of pipe; and,
e Terminate in a safe place where there is no risk to persons in the vicinity of the
point of discharge. See Building Regulation G3.
Note: Pipe sizing is now covered by BS EN 806-3.
Discharge pipes from expansion valves
G19.4 The discharge pipe from an expansion valve may discharge into the
tundish used for the discharge from a temperature relief valve or from a combined
temperature and pressure relief valve as described in G19.1; or:
a Discharge through a readily visible air gap over a tundish located in the same
room or internal space and vertically as near as possible and in any case within
600 mm of the point of outlet of the valve; and,
b Be of non-ferrous material, such as copper or stainless steel; and,
c Discharge from the tundish through a vertical drop outlet and thereafter be laid to
a self draining gradient; and,
d Not be less than the nominal outlet size of the expansion valve and discharge
external to the building at a safe and visible location.

➜
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SECTION 8
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24: Hot water services Guidance
20 (1) No vent pipe from a primary Vent pipes
circuit shall terminate over a storage G20.1 Vent pipes from primary water systems should be of adequate size but not
cistern containing wholesome water for less than 19 mm internal diameter. They may terminate over their respective cold
domestic supply or for supplying water to awater feed and expansion cisterns, or elsewhere providing there is a physical air
secondary system. gap, at least equivalent to the size of the vent pipe, above the top of the warning
(2) No vent pipe from a secondary circuit pipe, or overflow if there is one, at the point of termination.
shall terminate over any combined feed and G20.2 Vent pipes from hot water secondary storage systems should be of adequate
expansion cistern connected to a primary size but not less than 19 mm internal diameter and be insulated against freezing.
circuit. G20.3 Where vent pipes, from either a primary or secondary system, terminate over their
respective cold water feed cisterns, they should rise to a height above the top water level in
the cistern sufficient to prevent any discharge occurring under normal operating conditions.
Hot water systems supplied with water from storage cisterns
G20.4 In any cistern-fed vented or unvented hot water storage system the storage
vessel should:
a be capable of accommodating any expansion water; or
b be connected to a separate expansion cistern or vessel; or
c be so arranged that expansion water can pass back through a feed pipe to the cold
water storage cistern from which the apparatus or cylinder is supplied with water.
G20.5 Where the cold water storage cistern supplying water to the hot water storage
vessel is also used to supply wholesome water to sanitary or other appliances, any
expansion water entering the cistern through the feed pipe should preferably not
raise the temperature of the wholesome water in the cistern to more than 20°C.
Vented systems requiring dedicated storage cisterns or mechanical safety
devices
G20.6 Every vented and directly heated hot water storage vessel, single feed
indirectly heated hot water storage vessel, or any directly or indirectly heated storage
vessel where an electrical immersion heater is installed, should be supplied with
water from a dedicated storage cistern unless:
a Where the energy source is gas, oil or electricity, a non-self-setting thermal energy
cut-out device is provided in addition to the normal temperature-operated automatic-
reset cut-out; or,
b Where the energy source is solid fuel, a temperature relief valve complying
with BS EN 1490:2000, or a combined temperature and pressure relief valve
complying with BS EN 1490:2000, is provided complete with a readily visible air-
break to drain device and discharge pipe as described in G19.3.
G20.7 Every double feed indirectly heated hot water storage system which is heated by
a sealed (unvented) primary circuit, or the primary circuit heating medium is steam or
high temperature hot water, or where an electric immersion heater is installed, should:
a Be supplied with water for the secondary circuit from a dedicated cold water
storage cistern; or,
b Be provided with a non-self-setting thermal energy cut-out device to control
the primary circuit, and any electric immersion heaters, in addition to any
temperature-operated automatic-reset cut-out.
G20.8 No water in the primary circuit of a double feed indirect hot water storage vessel
should connect hydraulically to any part of a hot water secondary storage system.
G20.9 Vent pipes from primary circuits should not terminate over cold water storage
cisterns containing wholesome water for supply to sanitary appliances or secondary hot
water systems.
G20.10 Vent pipes from secondary hot water systems should not terminate over
feed and expansion cisterns supplying water to primary circuits.
G20.11 No water in the primary circuit of a single feed indirect hot water storage
vessel, under normal operating conditions, should mix with water in the secondary
circuit. Single feed indirect hot water storage vessels should be installed with a
permanent vent to the atmosphere.

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SECTION 8
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24: Hot water services Guidance
21 Every expansion cistern or expansion Primary feed and expansion cisterns
vessel, and every cold water combined G21.1 Every expansion cistern, and every cold water combined feed and
feed and expansion cistern connected expansion cistern connected to a primary or heating circuit should be capable of
to a primary circuit, shall be such as to accommodating any expansion water from the circuit and installed so that the water
accommodate any expansion water from level is not less than 25 mm below the overflowing level of the warning pipe when
that circuit during normal operation. the primary or heating circuit is in use.
22 (1) Every expansion valve, temperature Expansion and safety devices
relief valve or combined temperature and G22.1 Expansion valves, temperature relief valves or combined temperature
pressure relief valve connected to any fitting and pressure relief valves connected to any fitting or appliance should close
or appliance shall close automatically after a automatically after an operational discharge of water and be watertight when closed.
discharge of water.
(2) Every expansion valve shall: G22.2 Expansion valves should comply with BS EN 1491:2000. They should be
a Be fitted on the supply pipe close to fitted on the supply pipe close to the hot water vessel and without any intervening
the hot water vessel and without any valves, and only discharge water when subjected to a water pressure of not less
intervening valves; and than 0.5 bar (50 kPa) above the pressure to which the hot water vessel is, or is likely
b Only discharge water when subjected to a to be, subjected to in normal operation.
water pressure of not less than 0.5 bar (50
kPa) above the pressure to which the hot
water vessel is, or is likely to be, subjected
in normal operation.
23 (1) A temperature relief valve or Temperature and combined temperature relief valves
combined temperature and pressure relief G23.1 Except for unvented hot water storage vessels of a capacity of 15 litres or
valve shall be provided on every unvented less, a temperature relief valve complying with BS EN 1490:2000, or a combined
hot water storage vessel with a capacity temperature and pressure relief valve complying with BS EN 1490:2000, should be
greater than 15 litres. provided on every unvented hot water storage vessel. The valve should:
(2) The valve shall: a Be located directly on the storage vessel, such that the temperature of the stored
a Be located directly on the vessel in water does not exceed 100°C; and,
an appropriate location, and have a b Only discharge water at below its operating temperature when subjected to a
sufficient discharge capacity, to ensure pressure not less than 0.5 bar (50 kPa) greater than the maximum working
that the temperature of the stored water pressure in the vessel to which it is fitted, or 0.5 bar (50 kPa) greater than the
does not exceed 100°C; and operating pressure of the expansion valve, whichever is the greater.
b Only discharge water at below its Non-mechanical safety devices
operating temperature when subjected
to a pressure of not less than 0.5 bar G23.2 If a non-mechanical safety device such as a fusible plug is fitted to any hot
(50 kPa) in excess of the greater of the water storage vessel, that vessel requires a temperature relief valve or combined
following: temperature and pressure relief valve designed to operate at a temperature not less
i   
The maximum working pressure in the than 5°C below that at which the non-mechanical device operates or is designed to
vessel in which it is fitted, or operate.
ii The operating pressure of the
expansion valve.
(3) In this paragraph ‘unvented hot water
storage vessel’ means a hot water storage
vessel that does not have a vent pipe to the
atmosphere.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

SECTION 8
Schedule 2: Paragraphs 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24: Hot water services Guidance
24 No supply pipe or secondary circuit Filling of closed circuits
shall be permanently connected to a closed G24.1 No primary or other closed circuit should be directly and permanently
circuit for filling a heating system unless connected to a supply pipe unless it incorporates an approved backflow prevention
it incorporates a backflow prevention arrangement.
device in accordance with a specification
G24.2 A connection may be made to a supply pipe for filling or replenishing a
approved by the regulator for the purposes
closed circuit by providing a servicing valve and an appropriate backflow prevention
of this Schedule.
device, the type of which will depend on the degree of risk arising from the category
of fluid contained within the closed circuit, providing that the connection between
the backflow prevention device and the closed circuit is made by:
a A temporary connecting pipe which must be completely disconnected from the
outlet of the backflow prevention device and the connection to the primary circuit
after completion of the filling or replenishing procedure; or
b A device which in addition to the backflow prevention device incorporates an air
gap or break in the pipeline which cannot be physically closed while the primary
circuit is functioning; or
c An approved backflow prevention arrangement.

Source: Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999, Section 8

The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) All domestic and industrial electrical installations must
Regulations 1998 conform to the IET Wiring Regulations. In England and
Wales, the Building Regulations Approved Document P
Many hot water supply appliances use gas as their
2010 requires that domestic installations be designed
main fuel source for both direct and indirect domestic
and installed according to BS 7671, Chapter 13.
hot water heating. This, obviously, means that the Gas
This document was written to standardise electrical
Regulations play an important part in any hot water
installations in line with international document
installation.
IEC60364-1 and equivalent standards from other
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations deal countries. Guidance is given in installation manuals
with the safe installation, maintenance and use of these such as the IET on-site guide and IET Guidance notes
appliances, and any gas pipework and fittings connected 1 to 7.
to them in both domestic and industrial/commercial
Installations in industrial and commercial premises must
premises. The main requirement of the Regulations is
also satisfy various other legislative documents, such
that only a competent person (deemed by the HSE to
as the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. Again, the
be any person that is a member of an approved body)
recognised standards and practices contained in BS
must carry out work on any gas fitting. In this case,
7671 will help meet these requirements.
installers of gas appliances, pipework and fittings must
by registered with Gas Safe.
INDUSTRY TIP
INDUSTRY TIP
A copy of the Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document P
A copy of the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations can be downloaded free from this link: www.planningportal.gov.
1998 can be downloaded free from this link: www.hse.gov. uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_AD_P_2010.pdf
uk/pubns/priced/l56.pdf

Industry standards
The IET (18th Edition) (BS 7671) There are a number of industry standards that we can
Wiring Regulations reference to ensure that we conform to the regulations
As with the Gas Regulations, heating hot water often when installing hot water systems. Some of these share
uses electricity either as a direct or indirect fuel source.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

a commonality with those discussed in Chapter 5, Cold ● the minimum required pressure and flow rate of the
water systems. incoming supply, for satisfactory operation of the
● British Standard BS EN 806 Parts 1 to 5: again, this system
standard contains extensive information regarding the ● the minimum size of the incoming cold water supply
design and installation of hot water supply systems. ● the minimum size of any hot water distribution
● British Standard BS 8558:2011: this provides pipework
complementary guidance to BS EN 806. It is a ● the required heat input and heat recovery time
guide to the design, installation, testing, operation ● any electrical installation requirements
and maintenance of services supplying water for ● the operation of any controls
domestic use. ● the calculation required to ascertain the correct size
● The Domestic Building Services Compliance of the discharge pipework
Guide: this guide provides guidance to the Building ● fault-finding techniques.
Regulations Approved Documents L1 and L2 when
installing fixed building services within new and INDUSTRY TIP
existing dwellings to help them comply with
the Building Regulations. The guide specifically If the manufacturer’s instructions are not available or have
been misplaced, most manufacturers now offer the facility to
targets space heating, domestic hot water services,
download the instructions from their website.
mechanical ventilation, comfort cooling and interior
lighting. New technologies such as heat pumps,
solar thermal panels and micro-combined heat and
power systems are also discussed. The guide also
Factors affecting hot water
refers to other publications that refer to techniques systems
to assist in the design and installation of systems You will learn about the factors that affect the
that are over and above the standard that is selection of hot water systems for dwellings, with
required by the Building Regulations. consideration of:
● customer needs/occupancy and purpose

INDUSTRY TIP ● building layout and features

● energy efficiency
British Standards, BS EN 806 Parts 1 to 5 and BS 8558 ● environmental impact
should be read in conjunction with each other. Although BS ● appliance location
6700 has been superseded by BS EN 806 and BS 8558,
● cost
there are still parts of the document that remain relevant
● storage type/location
and it should still be consulted when either designing or
● legislation.
installing hot water systems.
The type of system we choose will depend on the
following points.
Manufacturer technical
installation and The customer’s needs/occupancy
and purpose
maintenance instructions This concerns the number of occupants and the
Unvented hot water storage systems must be fitted, amount of hot water required. Larger households will
commissioned and maintained strictly in accordance require more hot water, which can be supplied in a
with the manufacturer’s instructions. These contain number of ways, i.e. an instantaneous water heater
vital information for the correct and safe installation, giving unlimited hot water amounts or a large hot
operation and maintenance of the system and its water storage cylinder, although other factors must
components, such as: also be considered before a decision is made.

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Building layout and features: the rate. This becomes important where there are long
size of the property and the distance distances between the appliance and the hot water
source.
from the outlets
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations stipulate Installation and maintenance costs
the maximum distance that a hot water supply pipe
This is also a very important point because of the size
may run without constituting wastage of water. This is
of the system, and initial cost of the appliance and
because of the amount of cold water that is drawn off
materials. Add to this the installation costs and any
before hot water arrives at the taps. This ‘dead’ cold
maintenance costs over the lifetime of the system.
water must be limited. Large properties may exceed
the maximum distances for hot water dead legs, which
Storage type/location
excludes some hot water systems. In these cases, only
systems that can incorporate secondary circulation The type of hot water storage system used (vented or
should be considered. unvented) will play a vital part in its location within
the dwelling. While a vented system may be fitted
Running costs and energy efficiency in an airing cupboard, an unvented system generally
New, more efficient methods of heating water requires much more space than that available in an
are constantly being developed. Perhaps the most airing cupboard, because of the need for safety and
important recent development is that of solar hot functional controls. The distance from the outlets also
water heating, which can, theoretically, offer a 60 may create a problem because the longer the run of
per cent saving on domestic hot water heating costs, hot water pipework, the greater the need for secondary
despite its initial costly installation. The development of circulation. Location of the storage vessel is, therefore,
fuel-efficient condensing oil and gas boilers and storage of great importance.
cylinders with fast heat recovery times have also
helped in terms of energy efficiency.
Legislation
As with all plumbing systems, the legislation that
Environmental impact: the type(s) of covers the installation of hot water systems must be
fuel to be used considered. Some systems, such as unvented hot water
installations, are governed much more rigidly because
With most storage hot water systems, multiple fuels
of the safety features that must be installed. Other
may be used in one system, i.e. utilising gas, oil or
systems, such as vented hot water installations, do not
solid fuel as the main fuel source, with an electrical
require such tight regulation but may not meet the
alternative (immersion heater) as back-up or for summer
specification of the appliances fitted.
use. Multipoint heaters do not have this capability and
so fuel type usage is very limited. The environmental Whichever system is fitted, the regulations that cover
impact of fuels like gas and oil are now important its installation must be adhered to at all times.
considerations, especially in buildings where a low/zero
carbon footprint is preferred. Choosing the right hot water
Appliance location: the number of system
hot water outlets When the above points are considered, the choice of
Again, an important point because this may hot water system should be quite a straightforward
automatically exclude such appliances as combi boilers affair. Certain dwellings almost dictate the system that
and instantaneous heaters because, although classed should be fitted. For example, it would be foolhardy
as multipoint heaters, only one outlet at a time may be to install a combi boiler in a dwelling with three
opened satisfactorily, whereas other types of hot water bathrooms, a kitchen, utility room and downstairs
system may allow multiple open taps with a good flow washroom. The hot water demand would be more

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than the boiler could cope with. By far the main frequency of use. Knowing this will indicate the correct
considerations that must be taken into account are the choice of system to install and the customer can then
type and number of appliances, and their pattern and be advised accordingly.

Hot water
supply

Localised or
Centralised system single point system

Instantaneous Storage Instantaneous Storage

Combination Open Unvented Open vented

Thermal vented/cistern Gas storage
store vented 'Fortic' water system mains Gas fired hot water
systems fed system fed system heater

Combi boiler or Unvented

instantaneous Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Indirect Electric hot water
water heater heater

Combined Small hot Small hot

primary water only water only Direct
storage units boiler boiler

Immersion Immersion
heater heater

p Figure 6.1 Types of hot water system

2 HOT WATER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

Identify types and layout Pipework layout features include:
● unvented hot water
features of hot water ● secondary circulation

systems ● solar thermal

● thermal stores
In this section, you will compare the types of hot water
● combination boilers.
supply systems used in dwellings and describe their
applicable pipework layout features.
Hot water system types
Hot water systems include:
Hot water systems can be divided into two categories,
● centralised systems – unvented hot water systems
as follows.
and vented hot water systems
1 Centralised systems, where hot water is delivered
● localised systems – unvented point-of-use heaters
from a central point to all hot water outlets in the
and instantaneous heaters
dwelling. The water may be heated by a boiler or
● indirect storage systems
immersion heater. Centralised systems are those
● direct storage systems, such as:
where the source of hot water supply is sited centrally
● electrically heated
in the property for distribution to all of the hot water
● gas or oil fired
outlets. They are usually installed in medium to large
● small point of use (under sink)
domestic dwellings such as a three-bedroomed house.
● bulk storage heaters (combination tank)
2 Localised systems, often called single-point or
● solar thermal hot water systems
point-of-use systems. With these systems, the hot
● combination boilers.
water is delivered by a small water heater at the
point where it is needed.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Centralised hot water BS EN 806 and BS EN 8558 recommend that the

capacity of the cistern feeding cold water to a hot
storage systems water storage vessel must be at least equal to that of
These are divided into the following types. the hot water storage vessel.
● Open vented systems: those hot water storage
Below are some important points to note about open
systems that are fed from a cistern in the roof
vented hot water systems.
space and contain a vent pipe that is open to the
● The open vent pipe must not be smaller than 22 mm
atmosphere.
pipe and must terminate over the cold feed cistern.
● Unvented systems: those hot water storage
● The open vent pipe must not be taken directly from
systems that are fed directly from the cold water
the top of the hot water storage vessel.
main, and utilise an expansion vessel or an internal
● The hot water draw-off pipe should rise slowly
air bubble to allow for expansion.
from the top of the cylinder to the open vent
● Gas-fired instantaneous multipoint hot water
pipe and incorporate at least 450 mm of pipe
heaters: those heaters that heat the water
between the storage cylinder and its connection
instantaneously.
point to the open vent. This is to prevent parasitic
● Gas- or oil-fired combination boilers: operate in a
circulation (also known as one pipe circulation)
similar fashion to instantaneous hot water heaters,
from occurring.
but also have a central heating capability.
● The cold feed pipe should be sized in accordance
● Thermal stores: sometimes referred to as water-
with BS EN 806. The cold feed is the main path for
jacketed tube heaters.
expansion of water to take place within the cylinder
● Gas- or oil-fired combined primary storage
when the water is heated. The heated water from
units: these are very similar in operation to the
the cylinder expands up the cold feed pipe, raising
thermal store (see above).
the water level in the cold feed cistern.
● The cistern should be placed as high as possible to
Open vented hot water storage ensure good supply pressure. The higher the cistern,
systems then the greater the pressure at the taps. Poor
In an open vented storage hot water system, water is pressure can be increased by raising the height of
heated, generally by a boiler or an immersion heater, the cistern.
and stored in a hot water storage vessel sited in a
central location in the property, usually in the airing
cupboard. Open vented systems contain a vent pipe,
which remains open to the atmosphere ensuring that
the hot water cannot exceed 100°C. The vent pipe
acts as a safety relief should the system become
overheated. It must be sited over the cold feed cistern
in the roof space.

ACTIVITY
To refresh yourself as to the types and make-up of
hard and soft water, check out Chapter 5, Cold
water systems, and Chapter 3, Scientific principles.

The cylinder is fed with water from the cold feed

cistern. The capacity of the cistern will depend upon
the capacity of the hot water storage vessel, and p Figure 6.2 Parasitic circulation

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● All pipes should be laid with a slight fall (except the Hot water draw-off connection 1" male thread
Immersion heater connection
hot water draw-off), to prevent air locks within the
system.
● The cold feed pipe from the storage cistern must
feed only the hot water storage cylinder.
● A drain-off valve should be fitted at the lowest Primary flow connection
1" female thread
point of the cold feed pipe. The direct water cylinder does not
contain any form of heat exchanger.
The water in the cylinder is the
KEY TERM same water that is in the boiler
Alternative primary flow connection
Parasitic circulation: circulation that occurs within 1" female thread. Position depends
the same pipe; often called one pipe circulation. on the manufacturer
Primary return connection
It generally occurs in open vent pipes that rise 1" female thread
vertically from the open vented hot water storage
cylinder. The hotter middle water rises up the Cold feed connection
vent pipe, and the cooler water, towards the wall 1" male thread
of the pipe, falls back to the cylinder. It can be a p Figure 6.3 Old gravity direct cylinder
major source of heat loss from hot water storage
cylinders. The hot water circulates from the boiler or circulator
by the principle of convection. This is known as gravity
There are two types of open vented hot water storage circulation (see Chapter 3, Scientific principles). The hot
system. These are: water rises in the primary flow pipe, directly heating
1 the open vented direct hot water storage system the stored water in the cylinder before the cooler water
2 the open vented indirect hot water storage system: returns to the boiler. The water in the cylinder does not
● double feed type heat uniformly. The water at the top of the cylinder
● single feed type. is usually 10°C hotter than at the bottom (generally
60°C at the top, 50°C at the bottom). This is known
The open vented direct hot water storage as stratification and is desirable in stored hot water
system systems.
Direct systems use a direct-type cylinder that is The primary flow and return pipes to and from the
heated by either a small hot water only boiler or an boiler/circulator should be a minimum of 28 mm in
immersion heater. The direct cylinder contains no older gravity systems regardless of pipe length, unless
form of heat exchanger and so is not suitable for use stated differently in the manufacturer’s instructions.
with central heating systems. The connections for
the cold feed and draw-off are usually male thread ACTIVITY
connections, while the primary flow and return
Look back at Chapter 5, Cold water systems and
connections have female threads. remind yourself how a cold water storage cistern
The boiler can either be a small gas-fired hot water should be installed.
heater (often called a gas circulator), designed to heat
the water directly, or a small back boiler situated
ACTIVITY
behind a solid fuel fire. Because the water in the boiler
Look back at Chapter 3 and remind yourself as to
comes direct from the hot water storage cylinder, the how the ‘head height’ of a system will affect the
boiler must be made of a material that does not rust. pressure of water at each outlet.
This is to prevent rusty water being drawn off at the
taps. Suitable boiler materials are:
● copper

● stainless steel

● bronze.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

22 mm vent pipe discharging 22 mm vent pipe discharging

into the CWSC and sealed into the CWSC and sealed
with a grommet with a grommet

22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to
22 mm or 28 mm full-way secondary hot water system
gate valve or lever type 22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate valve
spherical ball valve or lever-type spherical ball valve
22 mm draw-off to the bath then 22 mm draw-off to the bath then reduced
reduced to 15 mm to all other appliances to 15 mm to all other appliances

Heat source. Top immersion heater for daytime top-up.

Bottom immersion heater heats up all the water in the
28 mm cylinder via a daytime controller for the use of cheap
primary circulating rate overnight electricity
pipes connect the heat
source to the Heat source. Gas circulator
cylinder or back boiler behind a
solid fuel fire

p Figure 6.4a Old direct system of hot water, relying on gravity p Figure 6.4b Current direct hot water system, using
circulation immersion heaters
Direct cylinders, when connected to solid fuel back Alternative direct systems using immersion
boilers, are susceptible to boiling because there is no heaters
effective method of temperature control. As an alternative to direct systems with a circulator/
 Table 6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of direct systems back boiler, some direct systems use two 3 kW
immersion heaters placed in the side of the cylinder to
Advantages Disadvantages
heat the water. One immersion heater is placed at the
Quick heat up time of the Risk of rusty water being bottom of the cylinder to heat all the contents and a
water drawn off at the taps if the
wrong type of boiler is used second immersion heater is placed halfway down the
Cheap to install
High risk of scale build-up in cylinder for daytime top-up. The immersion heaters
hard water areas if the water are wired to a time controller for use with cheap-rate
temperature exceeds 65°C overnight electricity. The temperature of the immersion
High risk of scalding because heaters should be limited to 55°C to prevent build-up
of the lack of thermostatic
control
of scale.

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 Table 6.3 Criteria of choice for direct systems

Property size Storage capacity Fuel type Installation cost Fuel efficiency
Suitable for Varies with occupancy. Mostly used with Economy 7 The least expensive of Economy 7 electricity
most houses. Generally, 210 litres electricity but can also be used all storage systems for is 100% efficient but
for four people. with some solid fuel boilers and houses when boilers the tariffs can be very
gas circulators. Gravity hot water and circulators are not expensive.
circulation only. fitted.

● Some immersion heaters have a resettable double The open vented indirect (double feed type)
thermostat. One thermostat can be set to 50–70°C, hot water storage system
the other is a resettable high limit thermostat This is probably the most common of all hot water
designed to switch off the power to the unit when delivery systems installed in domestic properties. It uses
the maximum temperature is exceeded. It can be a double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder, which
manually reset. contains a heat exchanger, at the heart of the system.
● Some immersion heaters have a non-resettable The heat exchanger within the cylinder is usually a
double thermostat. One thermostat can be copper coil but, in older-type cylinders, it can also take
set between 50–70°C; the other is a high limit the form of a smaller cylinder called an annular. It is
thermostat designed to permanently switch off called indirect simply because the secondary water in
the power to the unit until the immersion heater is the cylinder is heated indirectly by the primary water
replaced and the fault rectified. via the heat exchanger.
KEY TERM
KEY TERM
Immersion heater: an electrical element that sits
in a body of water, just like in a kettle. When Primary and secondary water: the primary water
switched on, the electrical current causes the is the water that is in the boiler, central heating
electrical element to heat up, which in turn heats system and the heat exchanger of an indirect-type
up the water. Most immersion heater elements are hot water storage cylinder/vessel. It is called the
rated at 3 kW but cylinders can have 1, 2, 3 or primary water because it is heated by the primary
4 elements. All immersion heaters must comply source of heat and hot water in the dwelling,
with BS EN 60335–2–73 and have a resettable namely the boiler. The pipes that connect the
double thermostat (RDT) as standard. This enables boiler to the heat exchanger are called the primary
problems with overheating to be recognised flow and the primary return. The secondary water
quickly. is the stored water in the cylinder itself that is
delivered to the hot water outlets and taps. The
primary water heats the secondary water indirectly
The indirect system via the heat exchanger.
An indirect system uses an indirect-type hot water
storage cylinder, which contains some form of heat The double feed indirect cylinder
exchanger to heat the secondary water. There are two
The double feed indirect cylinder contains a heat
distinct types:
exchanger in the form of a coil and so is suitable for use
1 the double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder
with central heating systems. The connections for the
2 the single feed, self venting indirect hot water
cold feed, draw-off and the primary flow and return are
storage cylinder.
usually 1-inch male thread connections.
The heat exchanger contains primary water and is
In a double feed indirect system, two cisterns are used:
classed as part of the central heating system to the
a large cistern for the domestic hot water and a smaller
dwelling.
one for the heating. It is now general practice to install
indirect cylinders in preference to direct types, even if
the indirect flow and return are capped off.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Hot water draw-off connection 1" male thread heating system, which is fed with water from the cold
Immersion heater connection water main via a filling loop. Expansion of water is
accommodated in an expansion vessel.
Hot water storage cylinders must conform to BS 1566,
which specifies the minimum heating surface area of
the heat exchanger.
Primary flow connection ● Existing double feed indirect systems: existing
1" male thread double feed indirect systems use gravity circulation
via 28 mm gravity primary flow and return pipes to
heat the water in the cylinder. This type of system
can no longer be installed as they are extremely
Primary return connection wasteful in terms of energy usage. Document L1B
1" male thread of the Building Regulations recommends that these
Cold feed connection
systems should be replaced with fully pumped
1" male thread systems wherever possible (see Chapter 7, Central
p Figure 6.5 An indirect cylinder heating systems) or they must be updated to
include a cylinder thermostat and a motorised
The double feed indirect hot water storage cylinder zone valve arrangement, as stated in the Domestic
allows the use of boilers and central heating systems Heating Compliance Guide. This is to limit the
that contain a variety of metals, such as steel and amount of energy wastage.
aluminium because the water in the cylinder is totally
separate from the water in the heat exchanger. This INDUSTRY TIP
means that there is no risk of dirty or rusty water being
drawn off at the taps. The system is designed in such a Look at a copy of the Domestic Heating Compliance Guide
way that the water in the boiler and primary pipework and list the necessary controls for a central heating system.
is hardly ever changed, the only loss of water being in
the feed and expansion cistern through evaporation.
ACTIVITY
The secondary water is that which is drawn from the Using Figure 6.6, identify:
hot water storage cylinder to supply the hot taps. It is ● the two feeds
heated by conduction as the water in the cylinder is in ● where the expansion is taken up
contact with the heat exchanger. ● where the gravity circulation happens

● primary water
KEY TERM ● secondary water

Heat exchanger: a device or vessel that allows heat ● open vents.

to be transferred from one water system to another
without the two water systems being allowed to ● New double feed indirect systems: on new
come into contact with each other. The transfer installations, double feed indirect cylinders
of heat between the two systems takes place via must incorporate pumped circulation to the
conduction (see Chapter 3, Scientific principles). heat exchanger. Document L1A of the Building
Regulations dictates that all new installations must
A feed and expansion cistern feeds the primary part have pumped primary circulation with controls
of the system, and this must be large enough to that prohibit energy wastage. This is achieved by
accommodate the expansion of the water in the system installing thermostatic control over the hot water
when it is heated. The vent pipe from the primary storage cylinder via a cylinder thermostat and a
system must terminate over the feed and expansion motorised zone valve arrangement, as stated in
cistern. An alternative method would be to use a sealed the Domestic Heating Compliance Guide. Because

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the primary flow and return are pumped, the pipe

size, in most cases, can be reduced to 22 mm. This
ACTIVITY
Relate Building Regulations Part L and G to Figure
subject will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 7,
6.7 and compare the potential efficiency of this
Central heating systems. system to Figure 6.6.

22 mm vent from primary hot water system connected to the boiler,

the coil in the hot water cylinder and central heating system
22 mm vent from secondary hot water system. To determine the height
of the vent = 150 mm + 40 mm per metre of system height (m)
Feed and expansion cistern
fitted with BS1212 part 2
150 litre storage cistern fitted with BS1212 part 2 float-operated valve float-operated valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve

15 mm cold feed to
22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to the primary system
secondary hot water system
22 mm or 28 mm full-way
gate valve or lever-type
spherical ball valve

22 mm draw-off to the bath then

reduced to 15 mm to all other services 450 mm

28 mm primary flow and

return pipes from the boiler
to the coil in the cylinder

Heat source. Gas, oil

or solid fuel

p Figure 6.6 An old indirect gravity open vented (double feed) hot water storage system

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

22 mm vent from primary hot water system connected to the boiler,

the coil in the hot water cylinder and central heating system
22 mm vent from secondary hot water system. To determine the height
of the vent = 150 mm + 40 mm per metre of system height (m)
Feed and expansion cistern
fitted with BS1212 part 2
150 litre storage cistern fitted with BS1212 part 2 float-operated valve
float-operated valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve
Spherical ball-type
service valve

22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to 15 mm cold feed to

secondary hot water system the primary system
22 mm or 28 mm full-way
gate valve or lever-type
spherical ball valve
22 mm draw-off to the bath then
reduced to 15 mm to all other services 450 mm

22 mm primary flow
and return pipes from
Central heating the boiler to the coil
flow and return in the cylinder

Heat source. Gas, oil

or solid fuel

p Figure 6.7 A modern indirect open vented (double feed) hot water storage system with pumped primary circulation

 Table 6.4 Criteria of choice for double feed indirect systems

Property size Storage capacity Fuel type Installation cost Fuel efficiency
Suitable for all Varies with occupancy. Can be used with gas, oil, More expensive than Gas and oil appliances
domestic properties. Generally, 210 litres for solid fuel and electricity. direct systems due to must be energy-efficient
four people. Suitable for fully pumped the extra pipework for condensing types.
heating systems. Conforms the feed and expansion Can also be used with
to Doc. L of the Building cistern and associated Economy 7 electricity.
Regulations. pipework.

Indirect cylinders for renewable energy hot systems, such as solar, geothermal and ground-
water supply source heat pumps. The cylinder contains two
Open vented cylinders have been developed for heat exchanger coils. The first coil is used with a
installation onto renewable energy hot water supply conventional fuel source such as gas or oil and this

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accounts for 70 per cent of the cylinder’s hot water water are separated by a bubble of air that collects
volume. The second coil has 30 per cent volume in the heat exchanger, preventing the waters from
dedicated to the renewable energy heat source and is mixing. According to the Domestic Building Services
usually situated in the top third of the cylinder. They Compliance Guide, these cylinders are no longer
are suitable for: allowed for new or replacement cylinders. A ‘double
● modern fully pumped heating systems (see feed’-type cylinder must be used on all replacement
Chapter 7) installations.
● both vented and sealed heating systems up to 3.5

bar pressure. KEY TERM

They are supplied with a double thickness of CFC-free Single feed, self-venting indirect cylinder: often
polyurethane insulation and capacities from 130 litres referred to as the ‘Primatic’ cylinder, which is a
trade name of IMI Ltd. Another version of this
to 300 litres.
type of cylinder was also available and may be
found in some existing installations. It was known
as the ‘Aeromatic’. It is slightly different from the
Primatic because it has an air release valve on
the side of the cylinder near the heat exchanger to
bleed air from the heat exchanger.

Hot water draw-off connection

1" male thread

Immersion heater connection

Primary flow connection

1" male thread

p Figure 6.8 Double coil cylinder Primary return connection

1" male thread

Open vented indirect (single feed, self-

Cold feed connection 1" male thread
venting type) hot water storage systems
This is an old system that is rarely found now. It uses p Figure 6.9 Single feed, self-venting indirect cylinder
a single feed, self-venting indirect cylinder, often A typical open vented indirect (single feed, self-venting
referred to by its trade name: the ‘Primatic’ cylinder. type) hot water storage system utilising gravity
It contains a special heat exchanger, which uses air circulation is shown in Figure 6.10.
entrapment to separate the primary water from the
secondary water.
INDUSTRY TIP
It is fitted in the same way as a direct system, with
only one cold feed cistern in the roof space but, On no account must central heating inhibitors be used in
unlike the direct system, it allows a boiler and central the primary water if a single feed cylinder is installed as this
heating to be installed. It does not require a separate would cause contamination of the water if the air bubbles
feed and expansion cistern. The heat exchanger were to rupture.
works in such a way that the primary and secondary

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Factory-fitted internal vent

22 mm vent pipe
discharging into the
CWSC and sealed
with a grommet Hot water draw-off

22 mm or 28 mm cold feed to
secondary hot water system Primary flow connection
1" male thread
22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate valve
or lever-type spherical ball valve
Factory-fitted cold
Special heat exchanger uses air bubbles feed connection
to separate primary and secondary water

Primary return connection

1" male thread

p Figure 6.11 The layout of a combination open vented hot water

28 mm primary circulation 22 mm draw-off to storage cylinder
pipes connect the heat the bath then reduced
source to the cylinder to 15 mm to all other
appliances
Heat source.
Gas boiler/oil boiler

p Figure 6.10 Single feed, self-venting indirect system

Other types of open vented cylinder

Combination centralised open vented hot
water storage systems
A combination cylinder has its own cold feed cistern
attached on the top of the cylinder, and factory-fitted
cold feed and vent pipes. The connections for the draw-
off and the primary flow and return are usually 1-inch p Figure 6.12 Combination open vented hot water storage cylinder
male thread connections. Isolation of the hot water
for maintenance should be via a full-way gate valve Integrating a cold water feed cistern and a hot water
installed on the hot water draw-off pipe. cylinder in a compact all-copper unit is an effective
way of providing adequate supplies of hot water when
They are known as ‘Fortic’ cylinders and are available in
storage space is limited. It also enables a dry roof space,
both direct (immersion heater only and circulator/boiler
eliminating the risk of freezing. It is an ideal system for
types) and double feed indirect types. They come in a
rented accommodation due to its low maintenance
variety of sizes, 115 litres of hot water storage being the
requirement.
most common with 20–115 litres of cold storage above.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

head of pressure is very low. Because of this, Fortics

22 mm vent from primary hot
water system connected to the need to be installed as high as possible (but not in the
boiler, the coil in the hot water roof space) to improve the pressure at the outlets.
cylinder and central heating system
Feed and expansion cistern
fitted with BS1212 part 2 Power shower pumps may also cause a problem
float-operated valve because the cold water storage cistern cannot
Spherical ball-type service
valve replenish itself quickly enough to feed the shower
pump. The cistern is not designed to supply hot and
cold water systems, and so shower pumps must not be
fitted to this type of hot water supply.

15 mm cold feed to  Table 6.5 Advantages and disadvantages of combination

the primary system cylinder systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Hot water A cheap alternative for hot Suffers from lack of pressure
draw-off
water systems, especially unless installed at height
suited to flats and small Not suitable for pumped
houses shower installations because
Easy to install of the lack of cold water
Fully compliant with Doc. L of storage
the Building Regulations
22 mm draw-off to
Mains cold water the bath then reduced
to kitchen sink to 15 mm to all other ‘Quick recovery’ hot water storage cylinders
connection directly services
off the mains
The quick recovery cylinder has a multi-coil heat
Heat source. Gas, oil
or solid fuel exchanger that is made up of several smaller bore
coils rather than one large one. This encourages a
rapid recovery of the hot water because the coil
has a greater surface area of heat presented to
the water in the cylinder. They work in a similar
way to instantaneous hot water cylinders and are
replenishing the hot water even as it is being used.
This reduces the amount of storage required and can
save up to 40 per cent on fuel bills when compared
p Figure 6.13 A combination cylinder open vented hot water to the standard cylinder type. When cheap-rate
storage system electricity is used for heating the water, it is most
economical to heat the entire contents of the
The main problem with this type of cylinder is the lack cylinder overnight. This reduces the need to use the
of water pressure at the taps. The cold water storage is immersion heater during the day when electricity is
very close to the hot water cylinder and so the static more expensive.
 Table 6.6 Criteria of choice for combination cylinder systems
Property size Storage capacity Fuel type Installation cost Fuel efficiency
Small properties Usually 114 litres Best used with Economy 7 Ideally suited to flats and Economy 7 electricity
and flats. for flats but larger electricity but can be double small houses because of is 100% efficient but
capacities are feed type for use with fully the low installation and the tariffs can be very
available. pumped heating systems. materials costs. expensive.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Key points are:

● rapid heated water recovery; generally, recovery

times are 15 minutes for 45 litres and 45 minutes

for 210 litres (assuming a boiler output of 9 kW);
4 minutes for 45 litres and 19 minutes for 210 litres
(assuming a boiler output of 30 kW)
● multi-coil heat exchanger

● smaller storage cylinder means more space in the

airing cupboard
● reduces boiler cycling

● saves on fuel bills

● can be used with conventional fully pumped

systems.
Quick recovery cylinders work at their most efficient
when installed alongside condensing boilers running at
maximum temperature. This will ensure that recovery
times are at their absolute minimum and the lower
return temperature of the condensing boiler will  Figure 6.14 Shower outlet fed from a domestic hot water cylinder
maximise the time the boiler spends in condensing mode.
 Table 6.7 Advantages and disadvantages of Superduty cylinder
INDUSTRY TIP systems
Advantages Disadvantages
The high heat recovery cylinder relies on the coil having an
increased surface area. This increased surface area is able to Quick turnaround of hot water Initial cost of the
Only small storage capacity needed cylinder
transfer the heat from the primary water at a quicker rate, so
in a property the cylinder can stay the same size if space is Very energy efficient
limited but produce hot water quicker. Fully compliant with Doc. L of the
Building Regulations

 Table 6.8 Criteria of choice for quick recovery cylinder systems

Property size Storage capacity Fuel type Installation cost Fuel efficiency
All domestic Usually 80 litres. Can be used with Initial cost of the cylinder is Extremely energy efficient when
properties. Economy 7 electricity expensive, but is installed as used with condensing boilers due
and fully pumped a double feed indirect cylinder to fast heating of the water. Can
heating systems. with comparable costs. cut fuel costs by up to 40%.

Storage cylinder insulation ● Part L1A (new build and replacement cylinders) have
Cylinders are insulated with polyurethane foam, 50 mm insulation
which is sprayed on to a predetermined thickness. ● Part L1B (replacement only cylinders) have 35 mm
The thickness of the insulation is covered by Building insulation.
Regulations Document L: Conservation of heat and Cylinder insulation jackets are also available for
power, which was updated in October 2010. The uninsulated cylinders. They are made from fibreglass
insulation thicknesses have been modified to deliver insulation with a PVC jacket. They are tied with a
low standing heat loss and keep CO2 emissions to lace at the top and kept in place by either aluminium
a minimum, in line with the Regulations. The new bands or plastic straps.
thicknesses are:

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Grades of storage cylinder  Table 6.9 Common sizes of open vented hot water storage
cylinders
Open vented hot water storage cylinders are
manufactured to BS 1566–1:2002 – Copper Indirect Size Capacity
Cylinders for Domestic Purposes. Open Vented 900 mm × 350 mm 74 litres
Copper Cylinders. Requirements and Test Methods. 900 mm × 400 mm 98 litres
1050 mm × 400 mm 116 litres
BS 1566 specifies three grades of cylinder, with
each grade indicating the pressure the cylinder will 900 mm × 450 mm 120 litres
withstand. The grades of cylinder are: 1050 mm × 450 mm 144 litres
1 Grade 1: 25 metres head 1200 mm × 450 mm 166 litres
2 Grade 2: 15 metres head 1500 mm × 450 mm 210 litres
3 Grade 3: 10 metres head.

ACTIVITY
Working out the capacity of a cylinder calls for a
relatively simple calculation that involves the use of
Pi (π). Take π as being 3.142.
The formula for calculating the capacity of a cylinder
is:
π r2 × h × 1000
where:
25 m π = 3.142
r = radius
h = height

15 m
Example:
A cylinder has a diameter of 500 mm and a height
10 m of 1000 mm. What is its capacity in litres?
Answer:
First, we will need to convert mm to m. Therefore,
500 mm becomes 0.5 m and 1000 mm becomes 1
m. The diameter is 0.5 m so the radius will be half of
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 that. Therefore, the calculation will read:
2.5 bar operating 1.5 bar operating 1.0 bar operating 3.142 × (0.250 × 0.250) × 1 × 1000 = 196.375
pressure pressure pressure
litres
3.65 bar test 2.20 bar test 1.45 bar test
pressure pressure pressure Now attempt the following calculations:
 Figure 6.15 The grades of cylinder and their maximum working 1 A cylinder measures 300 mm × 1050 mm. What
pressures is its capacity?
2 A cylinder measures 400 mm × 850 mm. What
Storage cylinder sizes and capacities is its capacity?
3 A cylinder measures 500 mm × 1500 mm. What
Open vented hot water storage cylinders are available
is its capacity?
in a wide range of sizes and capacities. The more
common sizes are listed in Table 6.9.

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Anodic corrosion protection of hot water

storage cylinders
Hot water storage cylinders can suffer from electrolytic
corrosion where there are two or more dissimilar metals
present, especially in areas where the water is soft as
this is aggressive to certain metals.
Placing two dissimilar metals in aggressive water
produces a very small electric current, which flows
from the weaker (anodic) metal to the noble (cathodic)
metal where the anodic metal is gradually eaten away.
This occurs commonly when some types of brass
fittings are used.
Hot water cylinders can be protected from electrolytic Magnesium sacrificial anode
corrosion by the use of a magnesium rod, which is brazed to the bottom of the
hot water storage cylinder
either fastened to the bottom of the storage cylinder
during manufacture or by simply dropping the
magnesium rod in the draw-off connection during
installation. This magnesium rod is known as the
sacrificial anode. It works by distracting the corrosion
 Figure 6.16 Sacrificial anodes
away from the weaker anodic metal in the installation
to be eaten away itself. If necessary, it can be replaced
once the anode has been completely destroyed. anywhere along its length. The vent pipe and draw-off
must be installed in a minimum of 22 mm size pipe.
Pipe sizes for open vented hot water storage The hot distribution pipework must be a minimum
systems of 22 mm pipework to any large-volume appliances
Pipe sizes are critical if the correct flow rate is to be such as baths, but can be reduced in size to 15 mm to
achieved at the outlets. For open vented hot water supply kitchen sinks, washbasins and shower valves.
systems fed from a cistern in the roof space, the size It is good practice to install isolating valves at the
of the pipework would generally depend on the size appliances, although it is not a requirement of the
of the system. A minimum 22 mm cold feed pipe to Water Supply Regulations. The pipework should have a
the cylinder should be installed, with a full-way gate gradual incline towards drain-off valves to permit total
valve to provide isolation of the hot water system. draining of the system for maintenance and repair.
Occasionally, the cold feed may be 28 mm if there is
Where double feed indirect cylinders are installed,
more than one bathroom in the property. The cold
the primary system must contain a separate feed
feed should be fitted with a drain-off valve at the
and expansion cistern or expansion vessel and
lowest point to allow complete drain down of the hot
disconnectable filling loop, which separates the primary
water storage cylinder. The connection of the cold feed
water from the secondary water. The cold feed to the
to the cistern must be at least 25 mm above any cold
primary system from the F and E (feed and expansion)
distribution pipework to ensure that, in the event of
cistern can be installed in 15 mm pipework and must
mains cold water failure, the hot water runs out first.
not contain any form of isolation valve. The vent
The hot water draw-off should have a gradual rise from the primary system must be installed in 22 mm
towards the vent and must be a minimum of 450 mm pipework. It should rise vertically and terminate over
in length to prevent parasitic circulation occurring. the F and E cistern. The height of the vent pipe above
The vent pipe must rise vertically, terminate inside the the F and E cistern should not be less than 150 mm plus
cold water storage cistern and be sealed by means of 40 mm for every metre in height from the overflow
a rubber grommet; it should have no valve installed level to the lowest point of the cold feed pipe.

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and to ensure that the water within the storage

ACTIVITY cylinder does not exceed 100°C. There are two
To calculate the height of the vent pipe above the
categories of centralised unvented hot water storage
feed and expansion cistern, we must first determine
the length from the overflow pipe to the lowest part systems:
of the cold feed pipe at the cylinder. If the distance 1 directly fired/heated storage systems
between them is, say, 4 m then the calculation is as 2 indirectly fired/heated storage systems.
follows:
4 × 40 + 150 = 310 KEY POINT
Unvented systems require safety discharge
So, the vent pipe must be taken above the overflow
pipework that must be correctly sized and
level 310 mm.
positioned in accordance with Building Regulations
Now try it for yourself: Document G3. This is discussed later in the
1 There is a distance of 6 m between the overflow chapter.
level and the cold feed connection on the
cylinder. What is the recommended height of the
vent pipe? The various types of unvented hot water
2 There is a distance of 3 m between the overflow system
level and the cold feed connection on the There are three basic types of unvented hot water
cylinder. What is the recommended height of the system. They are defined by how the water is heated.
vent pipe?
These are:
3 The height of the vent pipe above the F and E
1 indirect storage systems
cistern is 350 mm. What is the distance between
the overflow level and the cold feed connection 2 direct storage systems:
to the cylinder? ● electrically heated

● gas or oil fired

3 small point of use (under sink).

The F and E cistern must be capable of accommodating
an expansion of 4 per cent of the total amount of Indirect storage systems
water contained in the primary system and any heating
Indirect unvented hot water storage systems utilise
system installed.
an indirect unvented hot water storage cylinder at the
heart of the system. As with open vented systems, the
Unvented hot water storage systems cylinder contains a coiled heat exchanger to transfer
An unvented hot water storage system is simply a the heat indirectly from the primary system to the
sealed system of pipework and components that is secondary system. This can be done in one of two
supplied with water above atmospheric pressure. The ways:
system does not require the use of a feed cistern. 1 by the use of a gas-fired condensing boiler
Instead, it is fed with water direct from a water 2 by the use of an oil-fired condensing boiler.
undertaker’s mains supply, or with water supplied by
a booster pump and a cold water accumulator if the Older, non-condensing boilers may be used if the
mains pressure is low. boiler is an existing appliance, provided that the boiler
contains both a control thermostat and a high energy
An unvented hot water system differs from open vented cut-out (high-limit) thermostat to limit the water
types because there is no vent pipe. Expansion of water temperature at the coil should the control thermostat
due to the water being heated is accommodated in fail. On no account must solid fuel appliances and
either an external expansion vessel or an expansion boilers be used to provide heat to the coil. The primary
bubble within the storage cylinder. hot water system may either be an open vented or
The system also requires other mechanical safety sealed system.
devices for the safe control of the expansion of water

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Balanced cold Isolation valve

Hot water draw-off water connection

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Internal expansion Check valve

pocket or air bubbles
Expansion (pressure)
relief valve

Flow Temperature relief valve

Heat exchanger D1 discharge pipework

Immersion heater Tundish

D2 discharge pipework
Return

Cold feed

 Figure 6.17 Indirect-type unvented hot water storage cylinder with internal expansion

An immersion heater provides back-up hot water heaters are independently controlled and cannot
heating for use during the summer or for when the be used simultaneously. The immersion heaters are
boiler malfunctions. manufactured to BS EN 60335–2–73 and must
contain a user thermostat usually set to 60°C and
Direct storage systems a non-resetting thermal cut-out (high limit stat).
The direct system uses a direct-type unvented hot ● Gas or oil fired: the design of these water heaters
water cylinder that does not contain any form of originated in North America. They consist of a hot
heat exchanger. There are two very different types, water storage vessel with a flue pipe that passes
as described below. through the centre. Expansion of the water is
● Electrically heated: this type of cylinder does catered for by the use of an external expansion
not contain a heat exchanger. Instead, the water vessel. Below the storage vessel is a burner to heat
is heated directly by two immersion heaters the water; this can be fuelled by either gas or oil,
controlled by a time switch. One immersion heater depending on the type. The burner is controlled by
is located close to the bottom of the cylinder to a thermostat and a gas/oil valve. An energy cut-
heat all of the contents of the cylinder at night out prevents the water exceeding the maximum
and another located in the top third to top up the of 90°C. The safety and functional controls and
hot water during the day if required via a one-hour components layout is almost identical to other
boost button on the time switch. Both immersion unvented hot water storage systems.

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Isolation valve

In-line strainer

Hot water draw-off Expansion vessel

Temperature Pressure reducing valve
relief valve

Balanced cold connection

Check valve

Expansion (pressure)
Immersion heaters relief valve

D1 discharge pipework

Tundish
D2 discharge pipework

Cold feed

 Figure 6.18 Direct-type unvented hot water storage cylinder with external expansion vessel

Terminal

Isolation valve

In-line strainer
Flue pipe
Pressure
Balanced cold reducing valve Draught diverter
connection
Expansion
vessel

Single
check valve

Temperature
relief valve

Expansion
(pressure)
relief valve Tundish
Discharge
pipe

Wiring centre and cylinder thermostat

Gas burner
Gas pipe

 Figure 6.19 Gas-fired direct-type unvented hot water storage cylinder with external expansion vessel

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Expansion vessel Single check valve

Expansion relief valve Isolation valve

Pressure reducing
valve
15 litre point-of-use unvented Tundish
Stop valve
hot water storage heater
Discharge pipe

 Figure 6.20 Direct-type under-sink type unvented hot water storage cylinder with external expansion vessel

Direct unvented under-sink storage heaters Unvented hot water storage systems and
Unvented under-sink hot water storage heaters are pipework arrangements
connected direct to the mains cold water supply and Many installers claim that an unvented hot water
deliver hot water at near mains cold water pressure. storage system is the best type of system for any
Because they have less than 15 litres of storage, they are domestic situation, but this is far from the case. There
not subject to the stringent regulations that surround the are many factors that must be considered before this
installation of larger unvented hot water storage units. arrangement is installed into a property:
● Available pressure and flow rate – this is probably
The expansion of water may be taken up within the
pipework, provided the pipework is of sufficient size to the most important factor, simply because poor
cope with the water expansion. If not, then an external pressure and flow rate will affect the operating
expansion vessel will be required. performance of the installation. Pressure and flow
rate readings should be taken at peak times to
ensure adequate water supply before recommending
this type of system.
● The route of the discharge pipework, termination

and discharge pipework size.

● The type of terminal fittings to be used. This is

especially important when retro-fitting unvented

installations onto existing hot water systems as the
existing taps etc. may not be suitable.
● Cost – unvented systems tend to be very expensive.

The types of unvented hot water

storage cylinder
 Figure 6.21 Unvented-type under-sink storage water heater There are two types of unvented hot water
with expansion vessel storage cylinder; both are manufactured to BS EN
12897:2016 +A1:2020 – Specification for Indirectly
Heated Unvented (Closed) Storage Water Heaters

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

and available as direct fired/heated or indirectly heated Most unvented cylinders are manufactured from
vessels: high-grade duplex stainless steel for strength and
● unvented hot water storage cylinders using an corrosion resistance. Some older cylinders may be
external expansion vessel manufactured from copper or steel with a polyethylene
● unvented hot water storage cylinders incorporating or cementitious lining.
an internal expansion air gap.

Isolation valve

In-line strainer
Hot water draw-off Expansion vessel
Temperature Pressure reducing valve
relief valve

Balanced cold connection

Check valve

Expansion (pressure)
Immersion heaters relief valve

D1 discharge pipework
Tundish
D2 discharge pipework

Cold feed

 Figure 6.22 A typical unvented cylinder with external expansion vessel

Balanced cold Isolation valve

Hot water draw-off water connection

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Internal expansion Check valve

pocket or air bubbles
Expansion (pressure)
relief valve
Flow Temperature relief valve

Heat exchanger D1 discharge pipework

Immersion heater Tundish

D2 discharge pipework
Return
Cold feed

 Figure 6.23 A typical unvented cylinder with internal expansion

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Unvented hot water storage cylinders can be purchased the vessel. There may be special instructions from the
as ‘units’ or ‘packages’: manufacturer regarding the installation requirements of
● units are delivered with all the components already that particular vessel.
factory fitted and require less installation time The floor on which the vessel is to be sited must be
● packages are delivered with all components substantial enough to accommodate the weight of the
separately packaged (except those required for vessel and its water contents.
safety, such as temperature relief valves); these
The pipework must be fitted in accordance with BS
have to be fitted by the installer in line with the
EN 806 and BS 8558. Unvented hot water storage
manufacturer’s instructions.
systems require at least a 22 mm cold water feed
The installation of unvented hot water supplied by a water undertaker because of the high
storage cylinders flow rate and pressure that the vessels operate at.
The installation of unvented hot water storage systems Water can be supplied through a boosting pump
(UHWSS) is subject to the strict requirements of Building and cold water accumulator if necessary (this will be
Regulations Approved Documents G3 and L, and the discussed later in the chapter). A 22 mm hot water
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. Typical draw-off is required in all installations, but this may be
pipework layouts are shown in Figures 6.24 and 6.25. reduced for particular appliances such as washbasins,
sinks and bidets. Isolation valves should be fitted at all
The unit or package must be installed in accordance
appliances in line with good practice.
with the manufacturer’s instructions supplied with

Isolation valve

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Balanced cold
connection
Expansion
vessel
Check valve

Shower valve
Temperature
relief valve Washbasin
Expansion Bath
(pressure)
relief valve
Immersion Heating
Wiring centre heater circuit
and cylinder
thermostat

Sink
Filling loop

System boiler

 Figure 6.24 Installation of an indirectly heated UHWSS with a system boiler

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Isolation valve

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Balanced cold
connection

Single check
valve Pressure
relief valve
Expansion bubble
Temperature
relief valve

Tundish

Discharge
pipework Immersion
heaters

Wiring centre and cylinder thermostat

 Figure 6.25 Installation of a directly fired UHWSS with immersion heaters as the primary heat source

The order in which the functional and safety The use of cold water accumulators in
components are installed is of paramount importance unvented hot water systems
if the system is to operate safely and efficiently, which The use of cold water accumulators is becoming
can be seen in Figure 6.24 for indirectly heated vessels increasingly popular, especially in areas where the
and Figure 6.25 for directly heated vessels. water pressure is exceptionally low. Accumulators
and boosting pumps, as we saw in Unit 5, Cold water
INDUSTRY TIP systems, offer a positive solution to the problem of
low water pressure and poor low flow rate by storing
It doesn’t actually state in the Water Regulations that water at night for use during the day. Both flow rate
isolation valves are needed at every appliance but it and pressure are critical factors when fitting unvented
is considered good practice to install them. The Water hot water storage systems as these rely on a good flow
Regulations say that every float-operated valve must rate and pressure to provide a satisfactory operation.
have a service valve fitted as near to it as possible. Other It should be borne in mind, however, that boosting
appliances aren’t mentioned. pumps that deliver more than 12 litres per minute are
not allowed under the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Unvented hot water storage systems require the Regulations when the cold water supply is being taken
installation of a discharge pipework to safely convey direct from a water undertaker’s mains supply.
any water that may be discharged as the result of
a defect or malfunction. Discharge pipework will be The issue of poor mains supply
discussed later in this section. Water supply pressures have consistently diminished
over the past 30 years. As more and more homes,
factories, offices and shops are built, the loading on
the UK water system has increased, with little or no

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upgrading of the water mains supply network. The accumulator would take advantage of the night-
pipework that serves our towns and cities is now time rise in pressure to replenish its storage capacity
supplying more properties than ever before, and this has while the mains pressure is at its highest. With the
resulted in a gradual degradation of both pressure and accumulator fully replenished, a good pressure and flow
flow rate. In some areas of the UK, the supply pressure rate would be available throughout the day, provided
can be as little as 1 bar, which is unsatisfactory for an that the accumulator has been sized correctly.
unvented hot water storage system.
Figure 6.26 shows a typical unvented hot water storage
Pressure of water takes two forms: system with an accumulator installed to increase
1 static pressure – this is the water pressure when both the pressure and the flow rate. An important
no flow is occurring; this is always greater than the factor here is the use of two pressure reducing valves
dynamic pressure (PRVs). The first PRV regulates the pressure entering
2 dynamic pressure (also known as ‘running pressure’) the property so that any pressure fluctuations can
– this is the water pressure when outlets are open be controlled to a predetermined pressure at night
and water is flowing. when the accumulator is replenishing. The second
PRV reduces the pressure to that of the UHWSS
During periods of peak use, both static and dynamic
manufacturer’s recommendations.
pressures will decrease. If, during this time, a property
has a static pressure of, say, 2 bar, then the dynamic Accumulators require a minimum incoming supply
pressure could drop to below 1 bar. At off-peak times, pressure to replenish successfully, usually around 2
say, during the night, this could rise significantly, bar. If the incoming supply cannot deliver this, even at
to 3 bar static and 2 bar dynamic, simply because off-peak periods, then a booster pump should also be
less water is being used in the surrounding area. An installed, as shown in Figure 6.27.

Cold water accumulator

Pressure
reducing
valve

In-line
Pressure strainer
gauge
Isolation
In-line Double valve
strainer check valve

Non-return valve

Water undertaker's Non-return valve Cold supply to outlets

stop valve
Pressure reducing valve

 Figure 6.26 An accumulator installed on an unvented system

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Cold water accumulator

Pressure
reducing
valve
In-line
Pressure Non-return strainer
gauge valve Isolation
In-line Double valve
strainer check valve

Boosting pump
Non-return valve

Pressure reducing valve

Water undertaker's stop valve Balanced cold supply to outlets

 Figure 6.27 An accumulator with a boosting pump installed on an unvented system

Comparisons between open vented and unvented hot water storage systems
There are important differences between these two types of system. Table 6.10 compares open vented and
unvented hot water storage systems.

 Table 6.10 Vented and unvented storage hot water systems: a comparison
Advantages Disadvantages
Open vented systems
Storage is available to meet demand at peak times Space needed for both the hot water storage vessel and the
Low noise levels cold water storage
Always open to the atmosphere Risk of freezing
Water temperature can never exceed 100°C Increased risk of contamination
Reserve of water available if the mains supply is interrupted Low pressure and, often, poor flow rate
Low maintenance Outlet fittings can be limited because of the low pressure
Low installation costs
Unvented systems
Higher pressure and flow rates at all outlets, giving a larger No back-up of water should the water supply be isolated
choice of outlet fittings If the cold water supply suffers from low pressure or flow rate,
Balanced pressures at both hot and cold taps the system will not operate satisfactorily
Low risk of contamination There is the need for discharge pipes that will be able to accept
The hot water storage vessel can be sited almost anywhere in the very hot water and there will be restrictions on their length
property, making it a suitable choice for houses and flats alike A high level of maintenance is required
The risk from frost damage is reduced Higher risk of noise in the system pipework
Less space required because cold water storage is not needed Initial cost of the unvented hot water storage vessel is high
Installation is quicker as less pipework is required
Smaller-diameter pipework may be used in some
circumstances

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Heat exchanger

Combustion chamber

Pilot flame

Burner
Thermocoupling
Push rod
Venturi tube

Diaphragm
Pressure differential valve

Hot water outlet Gas inlet Cold water inlet

 Figure 6.28 Gas instantaneous hot water heater

Gas-fired instantaneous multipoint Gas- or oil-fired combination boilers

hot water heaters Combi boilers are dual-function appliances. They
With this type of hot water heater, cold water is taken provide instantaneous hot water and central heating
from the water undertaker’s main and heated in a heat within the same appliance. In normal working mode,
exchanger as demand requires before being distributed combination boilers are central heating appliances,
to the outlets. As long as a tap is running, hot water will supplying a proportion of their available heat capacity
be delivered to it. There is no limit to the amount of hot to heat the central heating water. When a hot tap
water that can be delivered. There is no storage capacity. is opened, a diverter valve diverts the boiler water
around a second heat exchanger, which heats cold
Expansion of water due to being heated is
water from the water undertaker’s cold water mains
accommodated by back pressure within the cold water
to supply instantaneous hot water at the hot taps.
main. However, if this is not adequate or the cold water
In this mode, the entire heat output is used to heat
system contains pressure reducing valves or check valves,
the water. Temperature control is electronic and this
then an expansion vessel must be fitted.
automatically adjusts the burner to suit the output
The heater works on Bernoulli’s principle by using a required. Typical flow rates are around 9 litres per
venturi tube to create a pressure differential across the minute (35°C temperature rise). Some combination
gas valve when the cold water is flowing into the heater. boilers incorporate a small amount of storage and this
can double the flow rate to around 18 litres per minute.
KEY TERM
Bernoulli’s principle: when a pipe reduces in size, the
pressure of the water will drop but the velocity of the
water increases. When the pipe increases back to its
original size, then the velocity will decrease and the
pressure will increase almost to its original pressure.

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Combustion air in
Flue gas outlet
Combustion air in
Pressure
switch

Combustion air in

Automatic
air valve Primary heat exchanger
Spark igniter
Gas burner

Expansion Fully modulating

vessel multifunctional control
Pump
Water-to-water
heat exchanger

Diverter valve

System Pressure relief valve

by-pass

Central heating
flow and return

Cold Hot Gas

water water
inlet outlet

 Figure 6.29 Combination boiler

Thermal stores
Sometimes called water-jacketed tube heaters, large storage vessel of primary hot water fed from a
thermal stores work by passing mains cold water boiler. They are very similar to an indirect system but
through two heat exchangers that are encased in a work in reverse.
Optional F & E cistern Isolation valve
built into the unit
Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve

Boiler

Heat exchanger

Expansion
chamber
To hot taps
Pump on
primary return To cold taps
Central heating Heat exchanger
pump
Heating flow
Heating return
Mains cold water inlet

 Figure 6.30 Thermal store

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Adjustable
thermostatic
mixing valve

Central
heating flow Hot water oulet

Heat exchanger coiled

around the flue pipe

Central
heating return
Mains cold
water supply
Gas burner

 Figure 6.31 Combined primary storage unit

Inside the unit are two heat exchangers, which water and anti-freeze). On average during the summer
the mains cold water passes through, and a small months, 1 m2 of solar panel will deliver around 1 kW
expansion chamber. The expansion chamber allows of energy, therefore 1 m2 is needed for every occupant
for the small amount of expansion of the secondary of the dwelling, with a minimum recommended area
water. The primary water can reach temperatures of of 2.5 m2. This will supply about 80 per cent of the hot
up to 82°C, which can, potentially, be transferred into water demand during the summer and around 20 per
the secondary water. Because of this, an adjustable cent over the winter season, an average of 60 per cent
thermostatic mixing valve blends the secondary hot over the whole year. A conventional gas or oil boiler, or
water with mains cold water so that the water does an electric immersion heater, will be required for the
not exceed 60°C. remaining 40 per cent heating requirement or in case
the solar system should fail.
Gas- or oil-fired combined primary
storage units The components of a solar thermal
These are very similar in design to thermal stores and hot water system
work in exactly the same way, in that cold water from Solar hot water systems require certain components,
the mains supply is passed through a heat exchanger. some of them specialised, to enable the system to work
The difference here is that the unit has its own heat effectively. These are as follows.
source, in the form of a gas burner, to heat the primary ● Collector: these can either be:

water, eliminating the need for a separate boiler. ● Flat-plate collectors: these are the simplest

form of collector. They are tubes that run

Solar thermal systems through shallow metal boxes with a front of
thick black glass to trap the heat in a greenhouse
A solar water heating system uses roof-mounted solar
effect. As the heating fluid is pumped through
collectors aligned to face south to capture the heat
the tubes, it collects the Sun’s heat, which is
generated by the Sun. The solar collector can be either
then pumped through the heat exchanger where
a series of vacuum tubes or a flat panel, both of which
the heat is transferred to the water inside the
are filled with a heating fluid (usually a mixture of
storage cylinder.

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● Evacuated tubes: these are a little more How solar thermal panels work
complicated but, in essence, are tubes that have 1 The Sun heats the fluid in the solar collector.
a vacuum inside. These collect the heat from 2 When the thermostat senses that the panel is 6°C
the Sun, passing it to a manifold through which above the temperature inside the hot water storage
the heating fluid runs. The heated fluid is then cylinder, the circulation pump will start to run.
pumped to the coil in a similar way to the flat 3 The heated fluid is then pumped from the solar
plate collector. collector to the heat exchanger coil in the hot water
● Hot water storage cylinder to store the hot storage cylinder.
water. The cylinder should contain two coils: one 4 Here, the heated fluid gives off its heat into the
to transfer the heat from the solar collector and cylinder of stored water before returning to the
the other to transfer the heat from a conventional collector to be reheated. This process continues until
boiler/water heater. the hot water storage cylinder is at the required
● Heat exchanger, usually in the form of a coil that temperature.
transfers the heat from the solar collector to the
water stored in the hot water storage cylinder.
● Circulating pump to circulate the hot fluid from
Localised systems
the solar collector to the heat exchanger and Localised systems are often called single-point or
back. point-of-use systems. They are designed to serve one
● Control system: the control system is used to outlet at the position where it is needed and are usually
prevent freezing fluid being circulated through the installed where the appliance is some distance away
coil during the winter or at night when the Sun goes from the fuelled hot water supply.
down. A typical control system will incorporate a Again, these can be divided into two categories:
pump, flow meter, pressure gauge, a thermometer 1 instantaneous-type heaters
and a thermostat. 2 storage-type heaters.

Hot water
storage
cylinder
Secondary heat
exchanger Hot water outlet

Expansion
Pressure vessel Expansion
relief vessel
Boiler Pressure Solar collector
relief

Control system

(System fill points

omitted for clarity)

Mains cold inlet Primary heat exchanger Circulating pump

 Figure 6.32 Working principles of solar thermal hot water

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Instantaneous-type fuelled water HEALTH AND SAFETY

heaters You must not attempt to install any electrical
These can either be fuelled by gas or electricity, and appliance such as showers, immersion heaters or
are generally described as inlet controlled. This simply hand wash heaters unless you are competent to do
means that the water supply is controlled at the inlet so and have the correct qualifications. Remember:
electricity can kill!
to the heater. The water is heated as it flows through
the heater and will continue to be heated as long as the
water is flowing. When the control valve is closed, the
water flow stops and the heat source shuts down.
INDUSTRY TIP

This type of heater is generally used to supply small Most localised gas instantaneous water heaters do not contain
quantities of hot water such as washbasins and a flue. The gases from the appliance simply disperse in the
showers. Typical minimum water pressure is 1 bar. room where they are installed. They are known as ‘flueless
There are many different types of electric shower with appliances’.
varying outputs from 8.5 kW to 11 kW. The higher
the kW output, the better the overall flow rate at a Storage-type localised water heaters
showering temperature. All electric showers feature
This type of heater is often referred to as the
a low-pressure heater element cut-off so that the
displacement type heater, as the hot water is displaced
temperature of the water does not cause harm if the
from the heater by cold water entering the unit. Typical
supply pressure/flow rate is low.
storage capacities are between 7 litres and 10 litres
(for the over-sink type). They can be divided into the
following categories.
● Over-sink heaters: as the name suggests, these are

fitted over an appliance such as a sink. The water

is delivered from a spout on the heater. A common
complaint with this type of heater is that they
constantly drip water from the spout. This is normal
as the heater must be open to the atmosphere at
all times to accommodate the expansion when the
water is heated. The dripping water is the expansion
taking place and will stop once the heater has
reached its operating temperature.
● Under-sink heaters: the under-sink heater works

in exactly the same way as the over-sink heater.

The main difference is that these heaters usually
require a special tap or mixer tap that permits the
outlet to be open to the atmosphere at all times
to allow for expansion. The inlet of water to the
heater is still controlled from the tap. Typical
capacities are up to 15 litres.

 Figure 6.33 Localised instantaneous hot water heater

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Secondary circulation in domestic

Open vent to allow Insulation dwellings
for expansion Secondary circulation is required where the length of
any draw-off pipework is excessive. British Standard BS
Heater element
EN 806 (and BS 6700) and the Water Supply (Water
Fittings) Regulations give the maximum length a hot
Thermostat
water draw-off pipe may travel without a secondary
circulation system being installed. These lengths are
Swivel spout Cold water feed reproduced in Table 6.11.
with spreader feed
Water inlet  Table 6.11 Maximum length of pipe before it becomes a dead
control valve
leg and requires secondary circulation
Outside diameter (mm) Maximum length (m)
12 20
 Figure 6.34 A typical over-sink storage water heater
Over 12 and up to 22 12
Over 22 and up to 28 8
Over 28 3
Spout of the tap
acts as an open
vent allowing Secondary circulation is a method of returning the
expansion of
water to take place hot water draw-off back to the storage cylinder in a
continuous loop, to eliminate cold water ‘dead legs’ by
reducing the distance the hot water must travel before
Mains cold Hot water supply
it arrives at the taps.
water supply from the heater
to the tap to the tap
INDUSTRY TIP

Cold water What is a ‘dead leg’?

supply from
the tap to the When a hot tap is opened, a certain amount of cold water
water heater
is usually drawn off and allowed to run to drain before hot
water arrives at the tap. This wasted, cold water is known
Under-sink
water heater as a dead leg. Under the Water Regulations, dead legs must
be restricted to the lengths given in Table 6.11. If this is not
possible, then secondary circulation is required. Dead legs are
 Figure 6.35 A typical under-sink storage water heater a potential source of Legionella and noise.

Secondary circulation In all installations, secondary circulation must use

forced circulation via a bronze- or stainless steel-bodied
Secondary circulation is necessary to prevent the
circulating pump to circulate the water to and from the
wastage of water due to the excessive lengths of hot
storage cylinder. The position of the pump will depend
water draw-off from the storage vessel to the outlet.
on the type of hot water system installed.
Here, we will look at the various methods of providing
secondary circulation in hot water systems, including
larger domestic systems.

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swept tee just before the cold feed enters the unit. To
INDUSTRY TIP safeguard against reverse circulation, a non-return valve
or single check valve must be fitted after the circulating
A secondary circulation pump is very similar in design to a
pump and just before the swept tee branch. The pump
central heating circulator. The difference is that the secondary
circulating pump has a body cast from bronze to eliminate should be fitted on the secondary return, close to the
discoloured water and subsequent contamination. Bronze, hot water storage vessel.
as we discovered in Chapter 3, is a non-ferrous metal that
does not rust. Central heating circulators have a cast iron or Secondary circulation installations
steel body that would rust if used on a secondary circulation on open vented hot water storage
system. Under no circumstances should a central heating systems
circulator be used.
With secondary circulation on open vented systems,
the return pipe runs from the furthest hot tap back to
Secondary circulation installations the cylinder, where it enters at about a quarter of the
on unvented hot water storage way down. A circulating pump is placed on the return,
systems close to the hot water cylinder, pumping into the vessel.
As with all secondary circulation systems, the pump
In most cases, a secondary circulation connection is
must be made from bronze or stainless steel to ensure
not fitted on an unvented hot water storage vessel
that corrosion does not pose a problem. Isolation valves
and, unlike open vented hot water storage vessels, it is
must be installed either side of the pump so that the
not possible to install a connection on the vessel itself.
pump may be replaced or repaired. The system is shown
Where secondary circulation is required, this must
in Figure 6.37.
be taken to the cold water feed connection using a

Isolation valve

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Balanced cold
connection

Single check
valve Pressure
relief valve
Expansion bubble
Temperature
relief valve

Tundish

Single check
valve

Swept
'tee'
Bronze pump

Secondary circulation

 Figure 6.36 Secondary circulation on an unvented hot water storage installation

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Open vent pipe

Cold feed pipe

22 mm or 28 mm full-way gate or
lever-type spherical ball valve

Secondary return
1/ of the way down
4
the cylinder

Bronze
pump

Secondary return connection at the furthest appliance

 Figure 6.37 Secondary circulation on an open vented hot water storage installation

Some open vented cylinders can be purchased with a Preventing reversed circulation in
secondary return connection already installed on the secondary circulation systems
cylinder. Alternatively, an Essex flange (Figure 6.38)
The secondary flow (the hot water draw-off), as we
can be used on cylinders where no connection exists.
have already seen, should have a temperature of at
least 60°C. The secondary return of the secondary
circulation circuit should have a return temperature of
50°C when it reaches the cylinder at the end of the
circuit. In this way, the hottest part of the cylinder will
always be the top, where the hot water is drawn off.
If reversed circulation were to occur, the water in the
cylinder would never reach the disinfecting temperature
of 60°C and so would always be at risk of a Legionella
outbreak, however remote.
By installing a single check valve on the return, and
positioning it between the pump and the cylinder,
reverse circulation is prevented.

Time clocks for secondary

circulation
If secondary circulation is used on hot water systems,
it should be controlled by a time clock so that the
circulating pump is not running 24 hours a day. The
 Figure 6.38 An Essex flange time clock should be set to operate only during periods
of demand, and should be wired in conjunction with

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pipe thermostats (also known as aquastats) to switch ● A non-return valve (component 6 on the drawing)
off the pump when the system is up to the correct is installed on the secondary flow to ensure that
temperature and circulation is not required and to reverse circulation does not occur.
activate the pump when the water temperature drops. ● A cylinder thermostat (component 3 on the
drawing) is provided to maintain the temperature
Insulating secondary circulation within the cylinder at a maximum of 60°C.
pipework ● A pipe stat (component 2 on the drawing) installed
If secondary circulation systems are installed, they on the secondary flow maintains the temperature at
should be insulated for the entire length of the system. a minimum of at least 50°C.
This is to prevent excessive heat loss through the ● A motorised valve (component 4 on the drawing) is
extended pipework due to the water being circulated installed on the secondary return close to the hot
by a circulating pump. The insulation should be thick water storage vessel, to prevent water being drawn
enough to maintain the heat loss below the values from the secondary return when the pump is not
shown in Table 6.12. operating.
● Lockshield gate valves (components 7 and 8 on the
 Table 6.12 Insulation thickness for secondary circulation drawing) are provided to balance the system to
pipework ensure even circulation throughout the secondary
Tube/pipe size Maximum heat loss per metre water system.
15 mm pipe 7.89 w/m ● The secondary circulation system, shunt pumps and
thermostats are controlled through a control box
22 mm pipe 9.12 w/m
(component 1 on the drawing).
28 mm pipe 10.07 w/m

Secondary circulation on large open

vented hot water storage systems
1
Figure 6.39 shows a large domestic hot water system
with secondary circulation. As can be seen, there are
some significant differences from other secondary 2
6
circulation systems, as discussed below. 4
8
● The hot water vessel includes a shunt pump. This is 5
3
to circulate the water within the cylinder to ensure
that the varying temperature (stratification) of the
water inside is kept to a minimum, and to ensure 7
an even heat distribution throughout, thereby
preventing the growth of Legionella bacteria.
Stratification is desirable during the day so that the
 Figure 6.39 Secondary circulation on a large domestic open
draw-off water is maintained at its hottest for the vented hot water storage installation
longest period of time. Because of this, the shunt
pump should operate only during periods of low Here are some points to remember regarding large
demand, i.e. at night. centralised hot water systems:
● The secondary circulation pump (component 5 on ● The pipework should be carefully designed to

the drawing) is installed on the secondary flow and prevent dead legs as this is a major concern with
not the secondary return as with other, smaller regard to Legionella pneumophila.
systems. ● The hot water storage vessel should be capable of

being heated to 70°C, again to kill any Legionella

that may be present.

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● There should be easy access for draining, cleaning,

inspection and maintenance.
System components and
● If a shunt pump is installed, the storage vessel controls
should be insulated on its underside to prevent You will be able to describe the layout and operational
excessive heat loss. requirements of hot water system components
including the location and safety features for unvented/
The use of trace heating instead of vented hot water systems, with consideration of
secondary circulation standard components:
● line strainers
Electric trace heating uses an electric cable that forms
● pressure reducing valves
a heating element. It is positioned directly in contact
● single check valves
with the pipe along the whole length of the pipe. The
● expansion devices (vessel or integral to cylinder)
pipe is then covered in thermal insulation. The heat
● expansion relief valves
generated by the element keeps the pipe at a specific
● tundish arrangements
temperature.
● application of composite valves
The operation of the trace heating element should ● safety features – including expansion and
be timed to a period when the hot water system is in temperature relief pipework, vent pipes
most use, i.e. early in the morning and in the evening. If ● thermostatic mixing valves (TMV2 and TMV3).
the pipe is well insulated and installed with a timer, the
amount of energy usage will be minimal. You will be able to explain the working principles of
specialist components used in systems including:
By using trace heating, the additional cost of the extra ● infrared-operated taps
pipework for the secondary return and its associated ● concussive taps
pump and running costs is removed. ● combination bath tap and showerhead

● flow-limiting valves

● spray taps

● shower pumps – single and twin impeller

● pressure reducing valves

● shock arrestors/mini expansion vessels.

Note: the eight specialist components listed above

were covered in Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
The controls for vented/unvented hot water storage
systems fall into two categories:
1 safety
2 functional.
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the various
controls and components for unvented hot water
storage systems, their function and the position that
they occupy within the system.

 Figure 6.40 Trace heating

INDUSTRY TIP
Trace heating can also be used as frost protection on cold
water systems.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Pressure
relief
valve Temperature
& pressure
reducing
valve

In-line
strainer

Tundish

Pressure
reducing
valve

Isolation valve
Single check valve

 Figure 6.41 The controls on a modern UHWSS

Safety controls causing structural damage to the property. Calculating

With the water inside the storage vessel at a pressure how much steam would be produced illustrates the
above atmospheric pressure, the control of the point further.
water temperature becomes vitally important. This 1 cm3 of water creates 1600 cm3 of steam; if the
is because, as the pressure of the water rises, so the storage vessel contains 200 litres of water and each
boiling point of the water rises. In simple terms, if total litre of water contains 1000 cm3, then the amount
temperature control failure were to occur, the water of steam produced would be 200 × 1000 × 1600 =
inside the vessel would eventually exceed 100°C, with 320,000,000 cm3 of steam!
disastrous consequences. The graph in Figure 6.42
The Building Regulations Approved Document G3
demonstrates the pressure/temperature relationship.
states that unvented hot water storage systems must
On the graph it can be seen that at the relatively low have a three-tier level of safety built in to the system.
pressure of 1 bar the boiling point of the water has This takes the form of three components that are fitted
risen to 120.2°C! If a sudden loss of pressure at the to the storage vessel. The aim of these components
hot water storage vessel were to occur due to vessel is to ensure that the water within the system never
fracture, at 120.2°C the entire contents of the cylinder exceeds 100°C.
would instantly flash to steam with explosive results,

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

5
Functional controls
The functional controls of an unvented hot water
storage system are designed to protect the water
4
supply.
● To avoid contamination, the storage cylinder or
3 vessel must be of an approved material, such
Bar gauge

as copper or duplex stainless steel, or have an

2 appropriate lining that will not cause corrosion
or contamination of the water contained within
it. Where necessary it must be protected by a
1
sacrificial anode.
● A single check valve (often referred to as a non-
0 return valve) must be fitted to the cold water inlet
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 to prevent hot or warm water from entering the
Degrees 120.2 133.5 143.6 151.8 158.8 water undertaker’s mains supply.
Celsius ● A means of accommodating and containing the

 Figure 6.42 Boiling point/pressure relationship increase in volume of water due to expansion must
be installed. This can either be by the use of an
These components are: externally fitted expansion vessel or via an integral
1 Control thermostat (set to 60°C to 65°C): this air bubble.
● An expansion valve (also known as a pressure
can take two forms depending on the type of
storage vessel: relief valve) must be installed, and should be
● with direct heated vessels, this is the immersion
designed to operate should a malfunction
heater user thermostat occur with either the pressure reducing valve or
● with indirectly heated vessels, it is the cylinder
the means of accommodating the expanded water.
thermostat wired to the central heating The expansion valve must be manufactured to
wiring centre. Indirectly fired systems are also BS EN 1491:2000 – Building Valves. Expansion
controlled, in part, by the boiler thermostat Valves. Tests and Requirements.
(82°C maximum setting) and the boiler high The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations also
limit stat, designed to operate at typically 90°C. state that:
2 Overheat thermostat (thermal cut-out 90°C
Water supply systems shall be capable of being
maximum but more usually factory set at
drained down and fitted with an adequate
between 85°C and 89°C): again, this can take two
number of servicing valves and drain taps so as
forms:
to minimise the discharge of water when water
● with direct heated systems, it is incorporated
fittings are maintained or replaced.
into the immersion heater thermostat
● with indirectly heated systems, it is a separate To comply with this requirement, a servicing valve
component factory wired into the vessel and should be fitted on the cold supply close to the storage
designed to operate the motorised valve at the vessel, but before any other control. The valve may be
primary hot water coil. a full-bore spherical plug, lever action-type isolation
3 Temperature/pressure relief valve (95°C): a valve or a screw-down stop valve. Any drain valves
standard component used on most vessels that is fitted should be manufactured to BS 2879 and be
designed to discharge water when the temperature ‘type A’ drain valves with a locking nut and an ‘O’ ring
exceeds 95°C. Most types have a secondary seal on the spindle.
pressure relief function.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

The functional controls of an unvented hot water

storage system are listed below. We will look at each
KEY POINT
Backflow prevention devices were discussed in
one in turn and identify its position within the system.
detail in Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
In-line strainer
In most cases, the check valve will be part of the
The in-line strainer is basically a filter designed to
composite valve, to be discussed later in this section.
prevent any solid matter within the water from
entering and fouling the pressure reducing valve and Expansion device (vessel or integral to
any other mechanical components sited downstream. cylinder)
In modern storage systems, this is incorporated into the
Water expands when heated. Between 4°C and
composite valve, which will be discussed later in this
100°C it will expand by approximately 4 per cent.
section.
Therefore, 100 litres of water at 4°C becomes 104
Pressure reducing valve litres at 100°C. It is this expansion of water that must
be accommodated in an unvented hot water storage
Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) were looked at in detail
system. This can be achieved in one of two ways:
in Chapter 5, Cold water systems; however, they are of
1 by the use of an externally fitted expansion vessel,
sufficient importance to warrant an explanation here
or
too.
2 by the use of a purpose-designed internal expansion
The PRV of an unvented hot water storage system space or ‘expansion bubble’.
reduces the pressure of the incoming water supply
to the operating pressure of the system. In all cases Expansion vessels
this will be set by the manufacturer and sealed at the An expansion vessel is a cylindrical-shaped vessel that
factory. The outlet pressure will remain constant even is used to accommodate the thermal expansion of
during periods of fluctuating pressures. Should the water to protect the system from excessive pressures. It
pressure of the water supply drop below that of the is installed as close to the storage vessel as possible and
operating pressure of the PRV, it will remain fully open preferably higher. There are two basic types.
to allow the available pressure to be used.
The bladder (bag) type expansion vessel
Replacement internal cartridges are available and
easily fitted without changing the valve body should a Also known as the bag-type expansion vessel, this
malfunction occur. is usually made from steel and contains a neoprene
rubber bladder to accept the expanded water. At no
Modern PRVs for unvented hot water storage systems time does the water come into contact with the steel
are supplied with a balanced cold connection already vessel as it is contained at all times within the bladder.
fitted.
The inside of the steel vessel is filled with either air or
Single check valve nitrogen to a predetermined pressure. The initial pressure
The single check valve (also known as a non-return charge from the manufacturer is usually made with
valve) is fitted to prevent hot water from back-flowing nitrogen to negate the corrosive effects on the steel vessel’s
from the hot water storage vessel, causing possible fluid interior. A Schrader valve is fitted to allow the pressures
category 2 contamination of the cold water supply. The to be checked and to allow an air ‘top-up’ if this becomes
single check valve also ensures that the expansion of necessary. Figure 6.43 shows the workings of a bladder-
water when it is heated is taken up within the system’s type expansion vessel.
expansion components or expansion bubble. Single
check valves are classified as either type EA or EB
backflow prevention devices.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Expanded water Expanded water

Air cushion Air cushion Air cushion

Bladder-type membrane
A B C

Expanded water Expanded water

on Air cushion Air cushion

Bladder-type membrane
A B C  Figure 6.44 Bladder (bag) type expansion vessel

 Figure 6.43 Workings of a bladder (bag) type expansion vessel With some bladder expansion vessels, the bladder is
● Diagram A shows the bladder in its collapsed state; replaceable in the event of bladder failure. A flange at the
this is because the only pressure is the air/nitrogen base of the vessel holds the bladder in place. By releasing
charge compressing the empty bladder. There is no the air and removing the bolts, the bladder can be
water in the bladder. withdrawn and replaced.
● Diagram B shows that water under pressure has
entered the bladder during the initial cold fill The diaphragm-type expansion vessel
of the storage cylinder, causing the bladder to Diaphragm expansion vessels are used where the water
expand and pressurising the air in relation to the has been deoxygenated by the use of inhibitors or
water pressure. The bladder has expanded because because the water has been repeatedly heated, such
the water pressure is greater than the pressure of as in a sealed central heating system. They must not
the air. be used with UHWSS because the water is always
● Diagram C shows the bladder fully expanded due to oxygenated and comes into direct contact with the
the hot water expansion when the system is heated. steel of the vessel.
They are made in two parts with a neoprene rubber
diaphragm separating the water from the air charge.
Again, like the bladder-type expansion vessel,
a Schrader valve is fitted to allow top-up and testing
of the air pressure. Figure 6.45 shows the workings of a
diaphragm-type expansion vessel.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Expanded water Over a period

Expanded waterof time, the air within the air bubble
Air charge Air charge will
Air charge dissipate as it is leeched into the water. When
this happens, expansion cannot take place and the
pressure relief valve will start to discharge water.
However, this will only occur as the water heats
up. Once the cylinder is at its full temperature, the
pressure relief valve will close and will only begin to
discharge water again when expansion is taking place.
Because of this, manufacturers of bubble top units and
packages recommend that the cylinder is drained down
completely and refilled to recharge the air bubble. This
should be done on an annual basis or as and when
A Diaphragm B C
required.
Expanded water Expanded water Hot water dip pipe

Air charge Air charge

Air

Floating
baffle plate

Floating baffle
plate moves
upwards as the
water expands

Diaphragm B C

 Figure 6.45 The workings of a diaphragm-type expansion vessel

 Figure 6.46 Integral air bubble
Internal expansion
The scientific principles of expansion
With internal expansion, an air pocket is formed as the
vessels
hot water storage vessel is filled. A floating baffle plate
provides a barrier between the air and the water so The principle of an expansion vessel is that a gas is
that there is minimum contact between the air and the compressible but liquids are not. That principle is based
water in the cylinder. When the water is heated, the upon Boyle’s law. In this case, the gas is air or nitrogen
expansion pushes the baffle plate upwards in a similar and the liquid is water.
manner to an expansion vessel.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Boyle’s law states: Mathematically, Boyle’s law is expressed as P1V1 = P2V2
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional Where:
to its absolute pressure provided that the P1 = Initial pressure = 1 bar
temperature remains constant. V1 = Initial volume = 20 litres
In other words, if the volume is halved, the pressure is P2 = Final pressure = to be found
doubled. V2 = Final volume = 20 litres − 10 litres of expanded
water

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

So, to find the pressure in the vessel, the formula must P2 = Pressure to be calculated
be transposed: P1 × V1 1 bar × 20 litres
P2 = = = 1.33 bar
P1 × V1 V2 15 litres
P2 =
V2 The capacity left in the vessel after the initial fill is
Therefore: 15 litres with a cold fill pressure of 1.33 bar and, if
1 bar × 20 litres 10 litres of water are to expand inside the vessel, the
P2 = final pressure of the system will be:
10 litres
= 2 bar final cold pressure P1 × V1 1.33 × 15 20
P2 = = = = 4 bar
V2 15 – 10 5
If, on the initial cold fill of the system, the vessel
required, say, 5 litres of water to be taken in, the air The initial pressure of the empty 20-litre vessel was
pressure to apply to the vessel can be calculated. We 1 bar. On initial cold fill, 5 litres of water entered
can assume a water pressure of 1 bar. the vessel, reducing the capacity to 15 litres. As a
result, the air was compressed even more when the
P1 = 1 bar expansion of water takes place and, instead of 1.33
V1 = 20 litres bar final pressure, the pressure when the water is
V2 = 20 litres − 5 litres = 15 litres heated will be 4 bar.

ACTIVITY
Transposing the formula P1V1 = P2V2 as shown in the
example above, find the final hot operating pressure
of the storage cylinder.
Where:
P1 = Initial pressure = 1.5 bar
V1 = Initial volume = 18 litres
P2 = Final pressure = to be found
V2 = Final volume = 18 litres − 9 litres of ex-
panded water

Pressure relief valve

Often referred to as the expansion relief valve, the
pressure relief valve is designed to automatically
discharge water in the event of excessive mains
pressure or malfunction of the expansion device
(expansion vessel or air bubble). It is important that no  Figure 6.47 Pressure relief valve
valve is positioned between the pressure relief valve
and the storage cylinder. Tundish arrangements
The tundish is part of the discharge pipework and
The pressure at which the pressure relief valve operates
is supplied with every unvented hot water storage
is determined by the operating pressure of the storage
system. It is the link between the D1 and D2 pipework
vessel and the working pressure of the pressure relief
arrangements. It has three main functions:
valve. The valve is pre-set by the manufacturer and
1 to provide a visual indication that either the
must not be altered.
pressure relief or temperature relief valves are
The pressure relief valve will not prevent the storage discharging water due to a malfunction
vessel from exploding should a temperature fault occur 2 to provide a physical, type A air gap between
and, as such, is not regarded as a safety control. the discharge pipework and the pressure relief/
temperature relief valves

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

3 to give a means of releasing water through the

opening in the tundish in the event of a blockage in Isolation valve
the discharge pipework. Composite valve
Balanced cold
Expansion vessel water
The tundish must always be fitted in the upright
position in a visible place close to the storage vessel.
The tundish will be looked at in more detail when
discharge pipework arrangements are discussed later in
this section.

Composite valves
These days, it is very rare to see individual controls
fitted on an unvented hot water storage system unless
it is an early type manufactured in the 1990s. Most
manufacturers now prefer to supply composite valves,
which incorporate many components into one ‘multi-
valve’. A typical composite valve will contain:
● a strainer

● a pressure reducing or pressure limiting valve,  Figure 6.49 Position of a composite valve
followed immediately by
● a balanced cold take off, and finally Unvented hot water systems: the
● a pressure relief valve. discharge pipework
Pressure relief value The layout features for temperature and
Pressure
reducing
expansion relief (discharge) pipework
value With unvented hot water systems, there is always the
Reduced pressure
possibility, however undesirable, that the pressure relief
Cold
cold water outlet to water and temperature relief valves may discharge water. The
the hot water storage inlet discharge pipework is designed specifically to remove
vessel
the discharged water away from the building safely. It
Strainer Single check
value is, therefore, very important that it is installed correctly
with the correct size of pipe and that the pipework is
made from the correct material, especially since the
Balanced cold connection
water discharged may be at near boiling point.
 Figure 6.48 A typical composite valve There are three sections to the discharge pipework:
1 D1 pipework arrangement
Some composite valves may also contain an isolation
2 the tundish
valve. With all controls contained in a single valve,
3 D2 pipework arrangement.
making the connection to an unvented hot water
storage vessel is a simple matter of just connecting As we have already established the role of the tundish
the cold supply, without the need to ensure that the earlier in the chapter, we will concentrate specifically
controls have been fitted in the correct order. here on the D1 and D2 sections of the discharge
pipework.

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To ensure that there is no damage to the property, the ● The D1 pipework must not be smaller than the
discharge pipework should be positioned in a safe but outlet of the temperature relief valve.
visible position, and should conform to the following. ● The D1 discharge from both the pressure relief and
● The discharge must be via an air break (tundish) temperature relief valves may be joined by a tee
positioned within 600 mm of the temperature relief piece, provided that all of the points above have
valve. been complied with.
● The tundish must be located within the same space ● There must be at least 300 mm of vertical pipe
as the hot water storage vessel. from the tundish to any bend in the D2 pipework.
● It should be made of metal or other material capable
Figure 6.50 illustrates some of the requirements
of withstanding the temperature of the discharged
mentioned above.
water. The pipe should be clearly and permanently
marked to identify the type of product and its D1 discharge pipe from the
temperature relief valve
performance standards.*
● The discharge pipe must not exceed the hydraulic

resistance of a 9 m straight length of pipe without 600 mm max.

increasing the pipe size.
Tundish
● It must fall continuously throughout its entire

length with a minimum fall of 1 in 200. 300 mm

Fixed
● The D2 pipework from the tundish must be at least D2 discharge pipework min.
grating
must have continuous fall Trapped
one pipe size larger than the D1 pipework. gulley
● The discharge pipe should not connect to a

soil discharge pipe unless the pipe material can

withstand the high temperatures of discharge water,
in which case it should:
● contain a mechanical seal (such as a Hepworth

HepvO valve), not incorporating a water trap, to  Figure 6.50 The layout of the discharge pipework
prevent foul air from venting through the tundish
in the event of trap evaporation The pipe size and positioning methods
● be a separate branch pipe with no sanitary
for safety relief (discharge) pipework
appliances connected to it connected to unvented hot water cylinder
● where branch pipes are to be installed in plastic
safety valves
pipe, be either polybutylene (PB) to class S of BS As we have already seen, the discharge pipework must
7291–2:2010 or cross-linked polyethylene (PE- not exceed the hydraulic resistance of a 9 m straight
X) to Class S of BS 7291–3:2010 length of pipe without increasing the pipe size. Where
● be marked along the entire length with a the discharge pipework exceeds 9 m, the size of the
warning that no sanitary appliances can be discharge pipe will require calculating, including the
connected to the pipe. resistance of any bends and elbows. Table 6.13 can
be used.

* Paragraph 3.9 of Approved Document G3 Guidance specifies metal pipe for the discharge pipework. However, G3 itself states only that hot water
discharged from a safety device should be safely conveyed to where it is visible but will not cause a danger to persons in or about the building.
Since many types of plastic pipe are now able to withstand the heat of the discharge water, the responsibility for the choice of material rests with
the installer, the commissioning engineer and the local Building Control Officer to ensure that G3 is complied with. It is also important that, if plastic
pipes are used, the type of plastic is clearly indicated for future reference when inspections and servicing are carried out.

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 Table 6.13 Discharge pipework D1/D2 pipe sizing chart

Maximum size Maximum size of Maximum resistance allowed, Resistance
Valve outlet of discharge discharge pipe expressed as a length of straight created by each
size to tundish (D1) from tundish (D2) pipe without bends or elbow bend or elbow
G½ 15 mm 22 mm Up to 9 m 0.8 m
28 mm Up to 18 m 1.0 m
35 mm Up to 27 m 1.4 m
G¾ 22 mm 28 mm Up to 9 m 1.0 m
35 mm Up to 18 m 1.4 m
42 mm Up to 27 m 1.7 m
G1 28 mm 35 mm Up to 9 m 1.4 m
42 mm Up to 18 m 1.7 m
54 mm Up to 27 m 2.3 m

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Let’s look at how Table 6.13 works. The maximum length of 22 mm discharge pipe, as
The temperature and pressure relief valves both have we have already seen, is 9 m so, at 10.8 m, 22 mm
½-inch BSP outlets. Therefore, the D1 pipework, as pipe is not large enough for the discharge pipe run.
can be seen from the table, can be installed in 15 mm Another pipe size will have to be chosen.
tube. The discharge pipe run is 6 m long to the final Looking at 28 mm, we see that the maximum run
termination and there are six elbows installed in the of pipe is 18 m but the 28 mm elbows now have a
run of pipe. resistance of 1 m and there are six of them. Therefore:
Using the first row in the table, the first option has 6×1=6m
to be 22 mm because the D2 pipework must be at
least one pipe size larger than the D1 pipework. Add this to the original length of 6 m:
The maximum length of 22 mm pipe is 9 m but there 6 + 6 = 12 m
are six elbows in the run and each of these has a
resistance of 0.8 m. In this case, the discharge pipework is well within the
18 m limit and so 28 mm discharge pipework can be
6 × 0.8 = 4.8 m installed.
If we add the original length of 6 m, we get:
4.8 + 6 = 10.8 m

ACTIVITY Correct termination of the discharge

A customer wishes to have an unvented hot water
pipework
storage system installed. You have been asked by A risk assessment is likely to be needed where any
the site supervisor to size the discharge pipework. termination point for the discharge pipework is to be
The temperature and pressure relief valves both have considered. This will determine whether any special
½-inch BSP outlets. Therefore, the D1 pipework can
requirements are needed in relation to the termination
be installed in 15 mm tube. The discharge pipe run
is 9 m long to the final termination and there are 5 point and its access. Points to be considered here are:
elbows installed in the run of pipe. ● areas where the public may be close by or to which

What size of discharge pipework should be they have access

installed? ● areas where children are likely to play or to which

they have access

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● areas where the discharge may cause a nuisance or D1 discharge pipe from the
temperature relief valve
a danger
● termination at height
● the provision for warning notices in vulnerable areas. 600 mm max.

The Building Regulations Approved Document G3 Tundish

states that the discharge pipe (D2) from the tundish
D2 discharge pipework must 300 mm
must terminate in a safe place, with no risk to any min.
have continuous fall of 1 in
person in the discharge vicinity. Acceptable discharge 200 minimum
arrangements are:
100 mm max.
(a) To trapped gully with pipe below gully
grate but above the water seal.
(b) Downward discharges at low level up
to a maximum 100 mm above external
surfaces, such as car parks, hard standings  Figure 6.51 The low-level termination of discharge pipework 1
and grassed areas, are acceptable provided
D1 discharge pipe from the
a wire cage or similar guard is provided temperature relief valve
to prevent contact, whilst maintaining
visibility.
600 mm max.
(c) Discharges at high level, onto a flat The gap between
Tundish the discharge pipe
metal roof or other material capable of and the wall must
withstanding the temperature of the water 300 mm
be 1 pipe diameter
D2 discharge pipework must minimum
may be used provided that any plastic have continuous fall of 1 in
min.
guttering system is at least 3 m away from 200 minimum
the point of discharge to prevent damage
to the guttering.
(d) Discharges at high level, into a metal
hopper and metal downpipe may be used
provided that the end of the discharge pipe
is clearly visible. The number of discharge  Figure 6.52 The low-level termination of discharge pipework 2
pipes terminating in a single metal hopper
Note: The discharge may consist of high temperature
should be limited to 6 to ensure that the
water and steam. Asphalt, roofing felt and other non-
faulty system is traceable.
metallic rainwater goods may be damaged by very high
(e) Discharge pipes that turn back on temperature hot water discharges.
themselves and terminate against a wall
or other vertical surface should have a gap Termination of the discharge pipework
of at least 1 pipe diameter between the where the storage vessel is sited below
discharge pipe and the wall surface. ground level
When storage vessels are sited below ground, such
as in a cellar, the removal of the discharge becomes
a problem because it cannot be discharged safely
away from the building. However, with the approval

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of the local authority and the vessel manufacturer it Water at atmospheric pressure boils at 100°C.
may be possible to pump the discharge to a suitable However, once the water is pressurised, the boiling
external point. A constant temperature of 95°C should point temperature rises. The higher the pressure,
be allowed for when designing a suitable pumping the higher the boiling point. So, a system without a
arrangement. The pump should include a suitable vent pipe to maintain 100°C maximum is classed as
switching arrangement installed in conjunction with an unvented system and this means that the water
a discharge collection vessel made from a material will exceed this – often, as we will see later, with
resistant to high temperature water. The vessel should catastrophic consequences.
be carefully sized in line with the predicted discharge
The vent pipe will also assist with the expansion of
rate, and should include an audible alarm to indicate
water by allowing the expanded water to rise within
discharge from either of the pressure or temperature
the pipe. The vent pipe must be sited over the cold feed
relief valves is taking place.
cistern in the roof space.

3 SYSTEM SAFETY Temperature relief valve

In an unvented hot water storage system, where there
AND EFFICIENCY is a risk of the water temperature exceeding 100°C, a
temperature relief valve must be fitted as part of the
three-tier level of safety. To evacuate the hot water
INDUSTRY TIP away from the building in the event of the water
reaching 95°C, the temperature relief valve must be
Frost protection is covered in detail in Chapter 5, Cold water connected to the discharge pipework.
systems

Hot water, by its nature, can be dangerous if:

The discharge pipework
● the temperature of the water is too high This pipework is connected to both the temperature
● the delivery system does not contain a vent pipe to and pressure relief valves via a tundish. It is designed to
keep the system at atmospheric pressure evacuate any discharged water quickly and safely away
● there are no means to accommodate the expansion from the building to a drain.
of the water due to the water being heated
● there are no means to relieve excessive pressure Thermostatic mixing valve
and/or temperature.
(TMV2 and TMV3)
Because of this, various safety features must be built in The object of any hot water storage system is to store
to hot water systems to prevent the water from: water at the relatively high temperature of 60°C to
● exceeding 60°C at the point of use ensure that it is free from any bacteria, to distribute the
● exceeding 100°C at the point of storage water at 55°C and yet to deliver the water at the hot
● over-pressurising the water beyond safe limits. water outlets at the relatively low temperature of 35°C
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the safety to 46°C, to ensure the safety of the end user. The most
features that prevent excessive pressure and water efficient way to do this is by the use of thermostatic
temperature. mixing valves (TMVs).
TMVs (sometimes known as a thermostatic blending
Open vent pipe valves) are designed to mix hot and cold water to a
Open vented systems contain a vent pipe, which predetermined temperature, to ensure that the water
remains open to the atmosphere, ensuring that the is delivered to the outlet at a temperature that will
hot water cannot exceed 100°C. The vent pipe acts not cause injury but is hot enough to facilitate good
as a safety relief outlet should the system become personal hygiene. There are three methods of installing
overheated. TMVs, as described below.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Single valve installations Thermostatic mixing valve Bath

This is probably the most common of all TMV
installations. The maximum pipe length to a single
appliance is 2 m from the TMV to the outlet. Back- Isolation
to-back installations are acceptable from a single valve
valve provided that the use of one appliance does
not affect the other, and that both appliances have
a similar flow rate requirement, e.g. two washbasins. Isolation valve
Typical installations are those listed below.
● Baths: it is now a requirement of Building

Regulations Approved Document G3 that all bath

installations in new and refurbished properties
incorporate the use of a TMV. This would normally
be set to a temperature of between 41°C and  Figure 6.53 A single thermostatic mixing valve installation
44°C, depending on personal comfort levels.
Temperatures above this can be used only in
exceptional circumstances.
Group mixing
● Showers: these installations usually require a Installations where a number of appliances of a similar
temperature of not more than 43°C. In residential type are fed from a single TMV are allowed in certain
care homes and other medical facilities, a installations. However, installations of this type are
temperature of not more than 41°C should be not recommended where the occupants are deemed
used according to NHS guidelines. to be at high risk, such as in nursing homes. If a group
● Washbasins: careful consideration must be installation is to be considered, then the points listed
applied to washbasin installations because this below should be followed.
is probably the only appliance used in domestic ● The operation of any one appliance should not

dwellings where the user puts their hands directly affect others on the run.
in the running water without waiting for the water ● When one TMV is used with a number of similar

to get hot. When the water reaches maximum outlets, the length of the pipework from the valve
temperature, scalding can occur. Therefore, typical to the outlets should be kept as short as possible
temperatures between 38°C and 41°C can be so that the mixed water reaches the furthest tap
used, depending upon the application. Again, NHS within 30 seconds.
guidelines recommend a temperature of no more ● With group shower installations, it is not unusual

than 41°C. to see pipe runs in excess of 10 m. Pipework runs

● Bidets: a maximum of 38°C should be used with of this length carry an unacceptable Legionella risk.
bidet installations. These situations can be dealt with by:
● Kitchen sinks: this is probably the area where ● careful monitoring of the water at the

the user is most at risk. The need to ensure showerheads and appropriate treatment should
that bacteria and germs are killed, and that Legionella be detected
grease is thoroughly removed, dictates that a ● regular very hot water disinfection when the

water temperature of between 46°C and 48°C system is not in use.

is used. However, as the kitchen is an area with Typical group installations are those listed below.
no published recommendations on hot water ● Group showers: with the correct-sized TMV, a
temperature, a safe temperature similar to that number of shower outlets may be served at a
of washbasins should be considered, to lessen the temperature of between 38°C and 40°C. For safety
risk of scalding unless notices warning of very hot reasons, the temperature must not exceed 43°C.
water are used. ● Washbasins: rows of washbasins may be served

from a single TMV. Temperatures of between 38°C

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

and 40°C are typical, but should not exceed 43°C ● The operation of any one outlet should not affect
for safety reasons. other outlets.

Washbasins
The types of thermostatic
mixing valve
Thermostatic mixing valves are certificated under
a third-party certification scheme set up and
administrated by BuildCert. Under the BuildCert
scheme, thermostatic mixing valves are certificated and
Isolation valve
Thermostatic approved for use depending on their application. They
mixing valve
are divided into two groups: TMV2 and TMV3.
Isolation
valve TMV2
Approved Document G – Sanitation, hot water safety
 Figure 6.54 A group thermostatic mixing valve installation and water efficiency of the Building Regulations in
England and Wales requires that the hot water outlet to
Centralised mixing a bath should not exceed 48°C. It also states that valves
conforming to BS EN 1111 or BS EN 1287 are suitable
Centralised mixing is very similar to group mixing for this purpose. Similar requirements exist in Scotland.
but occurs when there are groups of different hot
water appliances to be served from a single TMV. The TMV2 approval is for the domestic thermostatic
recommendations listed below should be followed. installations and uses BS EN 1111 and BS EN 1287 as a
● If the mixed water is recirculated within the basis for the thermostatic valves’ performance testing.
Legionella growth temperature range, then
anti-Legionella precautions similar to those TMV3
recommended for group mixing will need to be These valves are manufactured and tested for
implemented. healthcare and commercial thermostatic installations,
● If the mixed water is recirculated at about and use the NHS specification D08 as a basis for
Legionella growth temperature regimes, then the the thermostatic valves’ performance testing.
recommendations for single TMV installations are Table 6.14 presents a guide to the selection of TMVs for
appropriate. a given application.
 Table 6.14 Guide to TMVs for different applications

Is a TMV Is a TMV
required by recommended
legislation or by legislation Is a TMV
authoritative or authoritative suggested Valve
Environment Appliance guidance? guidance? best practice? type Reference documents
Private dwelling Bath Yes Yes TMV2 Part G – building regulations
Basin Yes Yes TMV2
Shower TMV2
Bidet TMV2
Housing Bath Yes Yes TMV2 Part G – building regulations
Association Basin Yes Yes TMV2
dwelling Shower TMV2
Bidet TMV2

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Is a TMV Is a TMV
required by recommended
legislation or by legislation Is a TMV
authoritative or authoritative suggested Valve
Environment Appliance guidance? guidance? best practice? type Reference documents
Housing Bath Yes TMV2 Housing Corp Standard
Association Basin Yes TMV2 (1.2.1.58 and 1.2.1.59) & Part
dwelling for the Shower Yes TMV2 G – building regulations
elderly Bidet Yes TMV2
Hotel Bath Yes TMV2 Guidance to the Water
Basin Yes TMV2 Regulations (G18.5)
Shower Yes TMV2
NHS nursing Bath Yes TMV3 HTM 04 01 & HTM 64. Care
home Basin Yes TMV3 Standards Act 2000, Care
Shower Yes TMV3 Homes Regulation 2001, D08
Private nursing Bath Yes TMV3 Guidance to the Water
home Basin Yes TMV3 Regulations (G18.6), Care
Standards Act 2000, Care
Shower Yes TMV3
Homes Regulation 2001, HSE
Care Homes Guidance
Young persons’ Bath Yes TMV3 DoH National Minimum
care home Basin Yes TMV3 Standards Children’s Homes
Regulations, Care Standards Act
Shower Yes TMV3
2000, Care Homes Regulations
2001, HSE Care Homes
Guidance
Schools, Basin Yes Yes TMV2 Building Bulletin 87, 2nd
including Shower Yes, but 43°C TMV2 edition, The School Premises
nursery maximum Regulations/National Minimum
Bath TMV2
Care Standards Section 25.8
Schools for Basin Yes Yes TMV3 Building Bulletin 87, 2nd
the severely Shower Yes, but 43°C TMV3 edition, The School Premises
disabled maximum Regulations, if residential, Care
Bath TMV3
including Standards Act
nursery
NHS hospital Bath Yes TMV3 HTM 04 01 & HTM 64, D08
Basin Yes TMV3
Shower Yes TMV3
Private hospital Bath Yes TMV3 Guidance to the Water
Basin Yes TMV3 Regulations (G18.6)
Shower Yes TMV3

4 PREPARE FOR THE INSTALLATION OF SYSTEMS

AND COMPONENTS
Preparing for installation deals with the preparatory ● marking out pipework runs
work required before an installation can commence: ● making a fittings list.
● consulting drawings and specifications This subject was dealt with in detail in Chapter 5, Cold
● positioning components in line with the regulations, water systems.
manufacturers’ instructions and the customer’s
wishes
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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

5 INSTALL AND ACTIVITY

TEST SYSTEMS AND To refresh yourself as to the tools, materials and
installation requirements of pipework within

COMPONENTS dwellings, check out Chapter 2, Common processes

and techniques, and Chapter 5, Cold water systems.

Here, we will look at the general requirements for hot

water systems within a dwelling, including: Installing storage cylinders and
● hot water pipework installation cisterns
● installing storage cylinders and cisterns
Where the storage of large amounts of water is
● temperature control
required, such as in hot water storage cylinders and
● the use of thermostatic blending valves
cold water storage cisterns, care must be taken to
● insulation of pipework
ensure that the substrate, where the component is to
● expansion of hot water pipework.
be installed, can withstand the weight of the stored
water. Water is heavy! Every litre of water has a mass
The installation of hot water of 1 kg and, wherever possible, stored water should
pipework to BS EN 806 be positioned over load-bearing structures and walls.
Where this is not possible, a suitable platform must be
The installation of hot water pipework is covered in BS
built that distributes the weight evenly to the entire
EN 806. Materials used are usually copper tubes to BS
structure or directs the weight to a load-bearing part
EN 1057 and polybutylene pipes and fittings as these
of the building. This was discussed briefly in Chapter 5,
are the only materials that do not cause contamination
Cold water systems.
of the water and can withstand the temperatures
associated with hot water distribution pipework. The Temperature control of hot water
pipework should be capable of withstanding at least
1.5 times the normal operating pressure of the system
systems
and sustained temperatures of 95°C, with occasional According to BS EN 806, hot water systems must not
temperature increases up to 100°C to allow for any be allowed to exceed 100°C at any time. A maximum
malfunctions of any hot water heating appliances normal operating temperature of 60°C is required to
that may occur. All systems must be capable of kill off Legionella bacteria. There are several methods
accommodating thermal expansion and movement by which we can maintain and control the temperature
within the pipework. Care should be taken when of hot water systems and prevent it from exceeding
pressure testing open vented cylinders to ensure that the maximum temperature specified. A thermostat
the maximum pressure that the cylinder can withstand should be installed and set to the temperature required.
is not exceeded. If necessary, the cylinder should be A second thermostat, called a high-limit thermostat,
disconnected and the pipework capped before testing operates should the maximum temperature be
commences. exceeded. This is known as a second-tier level of
temperature control.
The installation methods for hot water systems are ● Immersion heaters that have a re-settable
very similar to those for cold water installations. Care double thermostat: one thermostat can be set
should be taken when installing hot and cold water between 50°C and 70°C, the other is a re-settable
pipework side by side so that any cold water installation high-limit thermostat designed to switch off the
is not adversely affected by the hot water pipework. power to the unit when the maximum temperature
Installation techniques, such as installing pipework is exceeded. It can be reset manually.
below timber floors, solid floors, within walls, marking ● Immersion heaters with a non-resettable double

out, cabling plastic pipework and so on, are discussed at thermostat: one thermostat can be set between
length in Chapter 5, Cold water systems. 50°C and 70°C, the other is a high-limit thermostat
designed to permanently switch off the power to

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

the unit until the immersion heater is replaced and The insulation of hot water pipework
the fault rectified. When installing new hot water installations in
● Open vented double feed indirect cylinders with domestic properties, pipes should be wrapped with
gravity or pumped primary circulation: must be thermal insulation that complies with the Domestic
fitted with a minimum of a cylinder thermostat Heating Compliance Guide. There are four main
and a motorised zone valve, which closes when the considerations:
water in the cylinder reaches a pre-set level. 1 Primary circulation pipes for heating and hot water
● Open vented cylinders with no high-limit circuits should be insulated wherever they pass
thermostat: can be fitted with a temperature outside the heated living space, such as below
relief valve that opens automatically at a specified ventilated suspended timber floors and unheated
temperature to discharge water via a tundish and roof spaces. This is for protection against freezing.
discharge pipework safely to outside the property. 2 Primary circulation pipes for domestic hot water
circuits should be insulated throughout their entire
The use of thermostatic mixing length, except where they pass through floorboards,
valves joists and other structural obstructions.
As we have already seen, the maximum temperature of 3 All pipes connected to hot water vessels, including
hot water in a dwelling should not exceed 60°C but this the vent pipe, should be insulated for at least 1 m
is far too hot for bathing and showering. Water with a from their points of connection to the cylinder, or at
temperature as low as 51.66°C can cause serious burns least up to the point where they become concealed.
to a child if it is exposed to the skin for two minutes or 4 If secondary circulation, such as a pumped circuit
more. feeding bath and basin taps in a large property, is
In April 2013, new legislation under Building Regulation installed, all pipes fed with hot water should be
Document G required that all new-build properties insulated to prevent excessive heat loss through the
and renovations have temperature control to baths secondary circulation circuit.
not exceeding 48°C and all hot water storage cylinders
where the stored water may exceed 80°C (usually
Expansion of hot water pipework
solid fuel-heated cylinders). All properties to which the When the pipework of the hot water system is filled
public have access, such as schools, hospitals, nursing with hot water, the heated pipework will expand. As the
homes and so on, under the Care Standards Act 2000, pipework cools down, it will contract. This expansion
require that the temperature of water delivered to all and contraction must be accommodated for during the
hot outlets, except where food preparation is carried installation process or noise within the installation will
out, be limited to 43°C. This is done by the use of result. Pipes that pass through walls and floors where
thermostatic mixing valves for appliances and in-line not enough room has been left for expansion will ‘tick’
blending valves for storage cylinders. and ‘creak’ as the expansion and contraction takes
place.
A thermostatic mixing valve mixes hot and cold water
together and supplies it to an appliance at exactly the The rate of expansion will depend upon the material
correct temperature. They use a temperature-sensitive the pipe is made from. It is known as the coefficient
element, usually a wax cartridge, that expands and of linear expansion. Generally, pipework made from
contracts to maintain a specific temperature based on plastic materials tends to expand more than that made
the temperatures of the hot and cold water entering from copper. The coefficients of linear expansion for
the valve. The length of pipe from the mixing valve to polybutylene and copper are as follows:
the taps should be kept as short as possible. ● the coefficient of linear expansion of plastic pipe is

0.00018 per metre per °C

● the coefficient of linear expansion of copper pipe is

0.000016 per metre per °C.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

This means that, for every degree rise in temperature, 2 installations that include an inlet, twin impeller
polybutylene pipe will expand 0.00018 m in every metre shower-boosting pump (often called a ‘power
and copper will expand 0.000016 m in every metre. shower’)
3 installations that include a single impeller outlet
ACTIVITY pump
To calculate the amount of expansion that takes 4 installations that use mains cold and mains-fed hot
place on a given length of pipe: water systems
Length of pipe (m) × coefficient of linear 5 installations that use supplies where there
expansion × temperature rise is an imbalance in supply pressures, such as
those systems that use a combination boiler/
What is the expansion on a 15 mm copper pipe
6 m in length, when the pipe is heated from 10°C to instantaneous hot water heater for the hot water
60°C? supply.
6 × 50 × 0.000016 = 0.0048 m or 4.8 mm We will look at each of these installations in turn.
Now attempt these examples:
Installation of shower mixing valves
1 What is the expansion on a 15 mm polybutylene
pipe 6 m in length, when the pipe is heated from using cistern-fed supplies
10°C to 60°C? Shower mixing valves fed from a storage cistern
2 What is the expansion on a 15 mm copper pipe require equal pressures on both the hot and cold
20 m in length, when the pipe is heated from supplies to maintain the correct mixing ratio of hot
15°C to 50°C? and cold water. The safest type of valve to use is
3 What is the expansion on a 15 mm copper pipe the thermostatic type, which maintains a constant
30 m in length, when the pipe is heated from
temperature irrespective of the temperature of the
12°C to 58°C?
incoming hot and cold supplies to the valve. Ordinary
mixing valves also work well with cistern-fed supplies.
Installation of shower mixing valves It has to be remembered, though, that because
and shower boosting pumps ordinary mixing valves are not thermostatically
In Chapter 5, Cold water systems, we looked at shower controlled, the water will eventually become cooler
mixing valves and the various types of shower boosting the longer the shower is used. This is because of
pumps. In the next section of this chapter we will take stratification within the cylinder.
this a step further and see how we install these appliances
KEY TERM
within hot water systems.
Stratification: in a hot water storage cylinder, water
As we have already seen, there are a number of forms in layers of temperature from the top of the
different shower valves available, ranging from bath/ cylinder, where the water is at its hottest, to the base
shower mixer taps and simple shower mixing valves where it is at its coolest. Stratification is necessary if
to thermostatic and pressure balancing shower valves. the cylinder is to perform to its maximum efficiency
and manufacturers will purposely design storage
The method of installation is, in most cases, the same
vessels and cylinders with stratification in mind.
for each type of valve, with the requirement that equal Designers will generally design:
pressure and flow rate exist on both the hot water ● a vessel that is cylindrical in shape
and cold water installations. There are five methods of ● a vessel that is designed to be installed upright
installation: rather than horizontal
● a vessel with the cold feed entering the cylinder
1 simple installations from a storage cistern in roof
horizontally.
space supplying water to both hot and cold water
systems, thus ensuring equal pressures across
both systems

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To create enough pressure to give a reasonable shower,

there has to be a minimum of 1 m from the bottom of
the cistern to the showerhead at its highest position.

The shower mixer valve must be fed from

cold water cistern and hot water cylinder
providing nominally equal pressure

Connection of cold water 1 m minimum head

feed to the cylinder is higher
than the cold for the shower
so that the hot water runs
out first
Hot connection for the
Connection to the
shower below the
cylinder made at 45º
domestic hot water
connection

22 mm pipe taken as far as possible

before reducing to 15 mm

 Figure 6.55 Gravity-fed shower installation

Hottest water at a max. temperature

of 65ºC is at the top of the cylinder Installation of shower mixing valves
using cistern-fed supplies and a
65ºC booster pump: the ‘power shower’
60ºC There are two systems that use a shower booster
pump.
55ºC
Systems that use a twin impeller pump on
50ºC
the inlet to the mixer valve
45ºC The pump increases the pressure of the hot and cold
water supplies to the mixer valve independently. The
40ºC
water is then mixed to the correct temperature in the
Hottest water at a max. temperature valve before flowing to the showerhead.
of 40ºC is at the bottom of the cylinder

 Figure 6.56 Stratification

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

When water is heated, the air in the

water starts to form around the walls
of the pipe and the cylinder as little
bubbles. By making the connection at
30º−60º the air is allowed to pass
30º−60º through the open vent pipe where it
dissipates over the cistern. If the air
was allowed to get into the shower
pump, it would get trapped around
Connection of cold water
the impeller, eventually leading to
feed to the cylinder is higher
pump failure
than the cold for the shower
so that the hot water runs Hot connection for
out first the shower taken at
90º to the angled
cylinder connection

An alternative connection
direct to the cylinder
using an Essex flange

22 mm pipe taken as far as possible

before reducing to 15 mm

 Figure 6.57 Pump-assisted shower installation with twin impeller, inlet shower booster pump

Connection of cold water

feed to the cylinder is higher
than the cold for the shower
so that the hot water runs
out first

A connection
direct to the
cylinder using an
Essex flange

 Figure 6.58 Pump-assisted shower installation with single impeller, outlet shower booster pump

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Care must be exercised when making the hot a means of starting the pump is in place, such as a pull-
connection to the cylinder. There are two ways in cord switch.
which this can be done. The first method involves
installing the hot water draw-off from the cylinder at Installation of shower mixing valves
an angle of between 30° and 60°, with the hot shower from mains hot and cold supplies
pump connection being made at an angle of 90° with The installation of unvented hot water storage
a tee piece (see Figure 6.57). This allows any air in the cylinders is covered earlier in this chapter. You may
system to filter up to the vent and away from the hot be required to install or maintain shower mixing
shower pump inlet. valves that are installed on this type of system.
The second method involves making a direct With this type of installation, shower pumps are not
connection to the cylinder using a special fitting called required as the hot and cold supplies are fed direct
an Essex flange (see page 324). With this method, the from the mains cold water supply via a pressure
hot water is taken directly from the hot water storage reducing valve that reduces the pressure of the water
vessel, avoiding any air problems that may occur. to the operating pressure of the unvented hot water
storage cylinder. The obvious advantages of this are:
Systems that use a single impeller pump
● the amount of water that can be delivered to the
off the outlet from the mixer valve
showerhead
These boost the water after it has left the mixer ● the force of the water leaving the showerhead,
valve. They are usually used with concealed shower giving a powerful ‘continental’-type shower.
valves and fixed ‘deluge’-type, large water volume
showerheads. Because the unvented hot water cylinder usually
operates at a slightly lower pressure than the mains
In both of these installations, the pump increases the cold water supply, the cold water to the shower must
pressure of the water, which means that the minimum be at the same pressure as the hot water supply. This
1 m head is not necessary. However, a minimum head means that the cold supply needs to be connected
of 150 mm is required to lift the flow switches as after the pressure reducing valve but before the single
these switch the pump on. With some installations it check valve on the unit (see Figure 6.59) to ensure
is possible to install the pump with a negative head, equal hot and cold pressures.
where the cistern is lower than the pump, provided that
Expansion vessel
Mains cold water supply Expansion relief valve
Temperature relief valve
Isolation valve

In-line strainer

Pressure reducing valve

Balanced cold
connection
Single check valve

Tundish

Discharge pipework

 Figure 6.59 Installation of shower mixing valves from an unvented hot water storage cylinder

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

Water heater

Pressure-compensating
shower valve

Isolation valves

Mains cold water inlet

 Figure 6.60 Installation of a pressure-compensating shower mixing valve

Installations that use supplies where Protection against backflow and

there is an imbalance in supply back siphonage
pressures (instantaneous hot water This subject is dealt with in Chapter 5, Cold water
heaters/combi boilers) systems, where different types of basic backflow
Showers installed on instantaneous water heaters prevention devices and air gaps are discussed. That
and combination boilers require a shower valve that theme is continued in this chapter as hot water is
is pressure compensating. This is because as the cold itself categorised as fluid category 2 simply because
water passes through the hot water heater/combi heat has been added to the cold wholesome water.
boiler, it loses pressure and flow rate, and so an Other considerations here are that many of the
imbalance of pressure/flow rate between the mains bathroom appliances that are connected to the
cold water and the hot water from the heater occurs. hot and cold supply are also at risk from fluid
The pressure-compensating shower mixer valve categories 3 and 5.
adjusts both pressure and flow rate within the shower Appliances that may be at risk from backflow are listed
valve body to give a reasonably powerful shower. in Table 6.15.

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 Table 6.15 Appliances that may be at risk from backflow

Taps for use with washbasins should discharge at least 20 mm above the spill-over level of the
appliance (AUK2 air gap). Mixer taps should be protected by the use of single check valves on the
Washbasins hot and cold supplies. Twin-flow mixer taps do not require any backflow protection as the water
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk mixes on exit from the tap.
No backflow protection is required as the height of the outlet is well above the spill-over level of the
appliance. This is classified as an AUK3 air gap. If a mixer tap, where both hot and cold water mix
Kitchen sinks in the tap body, is installed then single check valves must be fitted on both hot and cold supplies.
Fluid cat. 5 risk Twin-flow mixer taps do not require any backflow protection as the water mixes on exit from the tap.
As for washbasins, except that the air gap should be 25 mm. Bath/shower mixer taps, where the
water is fed from the mains cold water supply and there is a risk of the showerhead being below the
Baths water level in the bath, should be protected by double check valves or a shower hose retaining ring
Fluid cat. 2, 3 and 5 risk that maintains an AUK2 air gap above the spill-over level of the bath.
There are two types of bidet that are at risk from backflow. These are:
1 the ascending spray type – special consideration must be made when fitting this type of bidet
(see Figure 6.61); these cannot be used with mains-fed hot and cold water systems; fluid cat 5 risk.
2 the over rim with shower hose connection – with this installation there is fluid cat. 5 risk as well as
a fluid cat. 2 risk.

The cold water supply must

only supply the bidet and the WC

Flexible hose and spray

Single check
valve Zone of backflow

Bidet represents
both ascending
spray and flexible
hose types

Hot supply to all

other hot outlets
Bidets
Fluid cat. 2, 3 and 5 risk  Figure 6.61 Installation of an ascending spray bidet and bidet with flexible hose
When both hot and cold supplies are fed from a cistern, no backflow protection is required.
However, when both are fed from mains-fed supplies, then single check valves are required with a
Shower valves hose retaining ring to prevent the hose entering the water. If no retaining ring is fitted, then both hot
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk and cold supplies should have a double check valve installed.
Electric shower units A double check valve is required where a hose retaining ring is not fitted.
Fluid cat. 2 and 3 risk

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

The installation of other It is obvious, then, that correct commissioning

procedures must be adopted if the problems stated are
common components to be avoided. There are four documents that must be
(taps, valves, pumps, consulted:
1 the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
cisterns and appliances) 2 British Standard BS 6700 and BS EN 806 (in
Many of the components and appliances installed on conjunction with BS 8558)
hot water systems are generic and share common 3 the Building Regulations Approved Document G3
installation techniques with cold water systems. These 4 the manufacturer’s instructions of any equipment
were dealt with in Chapter 5, Cold water systems. and appliances.
The documents required for correct testing and
Testing and commissioning of hot
commissioning were investigated in Chapter 5, Cold
water systems water systems.
Testing and commissioning of hot water systems is
probably the most important part of any installation, The checks to be carried out during a
as it is here that the system design is finally put into visual inspection of an unvented hot
operation. For an installation to be successful, it has water storage system to confirm that it is
to comply with both the manufacturer’s installation ready to be filled with water
instructions and the regulations in force. It also has to Before soundness testing a hot water system, visual
satisfy the design criteria and flow rates that have been inspections of the installation should take place. These
calculated and the customer’s specific requirements. should include:
Testing and commissioning performs a vital role ● walking around the installation; check that you are

and its importance cannot be overstated. Correct happy that the installation is correct and meets
commissioning procedures and system set-up often installations standards
make the difference between a system working to the ● check that all open ends are capped off and all

specification and failing to meet the required demands. valves isolated

● check that all capillary joints are soldered and that
In this part of the chapter, we will look at the correct
all compression joints are fully tightened
methods of testing and system commissioning.
● check that sufficient pipe clips, supports and

Information sources required to complete brackets are installed, and that all pipework is secure
● check that the equipment, i.e. unvented hot water
commissioning work on hot water
systems storage cylinder, shower boosting pumps, expansion
vessels and subsequent safety and functional
Inadequate commissioning, system set-up, system
controls, are installed correctly and that all joints
flushing and maintenance operations can affect the
and unions on and around the equipment are tight
performance of any hot water system, irrespective
● check that the pre-charge pressure in the expansion
of the materials that have been used in the system
vessel is correct and in accordance with the
installation. Building debris and swarf (pipe filings)
manufacturer’s data
can easily block pipes, and these can also promote
● check that any cisterns installed on open vented hot
bacteriological growth. In addition, excess flux used
water storage systems are supported correctly and
during installation can cause corrosion and may lead
that float-operated valves are provisionally set to
to the amount of copper that the water contains
the correct water level
exceeding the permitted amount for drinking water.
● check that all appliances’ isolation valves and taps
This could have serious health implications and, in
are off; these can be turned on and tested when the
severe cases, may cause corrosion of the pipework,
system is filled with water
fittings and any storage vessel installed.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● check that the D1 and D2 discharge pipework pressure. Any float-operated valves should be
complies with the Building Regulations and that it allowed to shut off. The system will then be deemed
terminates in a safe but visible position. to be at normal operating pressure.
Once the filling process is complete, another thorough
The initial system fill
visual inspection should take place to check for any
The initial system fill is always conducted at the normal
possible leakage. The system is then ready for pressure
operating pressure of the system. The system must be
testing.
filled with fluid category 1 water direct from the water
undertaker’s mains cold water supply. It is usual to Soundness testing hot water systems
conduct the fill in stages so that the filling process can be
The procedure for soundness testing hot water systems
managed comfortably. There are several reasons for this:
is described in BS EN 806 and the Water Supply
● Filling the system in a series of stages allows the
(Water Fittings) Regulations. There are two types
operatives time to check for leaks stage by stage.
of test:
Only when the stage being filled is leak free should
1 testing metallic pipework installations
the next stage be filled.
2 testing plastic pipework systems.
● Open vented systems: air locks from cistern-fed

open vented systems are less likely to occur, as Both of these test procedures are covered in detail in
each stage is filled slowly and methodically. Any Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
problems can be assessed and rectified as the filling
progresses without the need to isolate the whole Flushing procedures for hot water
system and initiate a full drain down. Allowing systems and components
cisterns to fill to capacity and then opening any gate Again, this subject was covered in detail in Chapter
valves is the best way to avoid air locks. This ensures 5, Cold water systems, but differs slightly in this case
that the full pressure of the water is available and because of the appliances and equipment installed on
the pipes are running at full bore. Trickle filling can hot water systems.
encourage air locks to form, causing problems later Like cold water installations, the flushing of hot water
during the fill stage. systems is a requirement of the British Standards. All
● Unvented systems: before an unvented hot water systems, irrespective of their size, must be thoroughly
storage system is filled, the pressure at the expansion flushed with clean water direct from the water
vessel (if fitted) should be checked with a Bourdon undertaker’s main supply before being taken into
pressure gauge to check the pre-charge pressure. service. This should be completed as soon as possible
Unvented hot water storage systems should be after the installation has been completed to remove
filled with all hot taps open. This is to ensure that potential contaminates, such as flux residues, PTFE,
pockets of air at high pressure are not trapped excess jointing compounds and swarf. Simply filling a
within the storage vessel as this can cause the system and draining down again does not constitute
system to splutter water, even after the system has a thorough flushing. In most cases, this will only move
filled. Water should be drawn from every hot water any debris from one point in the system to another.
outlet to evacuate any air pockets from the system. In practice, the system should be filled and the water
The taps can be closed when the water runs freely run at every outlet until the water runs completely
without spluttering. The temperature and pressure clear and free of any discolouration. It is extremely
relief valves should be opened briefly to ensure their important that any hot water storage vessels and
correct operation and to test the discharge pipework cold water storage cisterns should be drained down
arrangement. completely.
● When the system has been filled with water it

should be allowed to stabilise to full operating

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

It is generally accepted that systems should not be left permanently installed either side of a boosting
charged with water once the flushing process has been pump to indicate both inlet and outlet pressures.
completed, especially if the system is not going to be ● Both pressure (static and running) and flow rate can
used immediately, as there is a very real risk that the be checked at outlets and terminal fittings using a
water within the system could become stagnant. In combined pressure and flow rate meter.
practice, it is almost impossible to effect a complete ● The temperature should be checked using a
drain down of a system, particularly large systems, thermometer at the hot water draw-off to ensure
where long horizontal pipe runs may hold water. This, that it is at least 60°C but does not exceed 65°C.
in itself, is very detrimental as corrosion can often Each successive hot water outlet, moving away from
set in and this can also cause problems with water the storage vessel, should be temperature checked
contamination. It is recommended therefore that, to ensure that any thermostatic mixing valves are
to minimise the risk of corrosion and water quality operating at the correct temperature and that the
problems, systems should be left completely full and hot water reaches the outlet within the 30-second
flushed through at regular intervals of no less than limit. If a secondary return system is installed, then
twice weekly, by opening all terminal fittings until the the circulating pump should be running when the
system has been taken permanently into operation. If tests are conducted and the temperature of the
this is the case, then provision for frost protection must return checked just before it re-enters the cylinder,
be made. to ensure that the temperature is no less than 10°C
lower than the draw-off, 50°C minimum.
Taking flow rate and pressure readings
Once the hot water system has been filled and flushed,
the heat source should be put into operation and the
system run to its operating temperature. Thermostats
and high-limit thermostats should be checked to ensure
that they are operating at their correct temperatures.
When the system has reached full operating
temperature and the thermostats have switched off,
the flow rates, pressures and water temperatures can
then be checked against the specification and the
manufacturer’s instructions. This can be completed in
several ways:
● Flow rates can be checked using a weir gauge. This  Figure 6.62 Checking hot water flow rates
is sometimes known as a weir cup or a weir jug.
The method of use is simple. The gauge has a slot
running vertically down the side of the vessel, which
is marked with various flow rates. When the gauge
is held under running water, the water escapes
out of the slot. The height that the water achieves
before escaping from the slot determines the flow
rate. Although the gauge is accurate, excessive flow
rates will cause a false reading because the water
will evacuate out of the top of the gauge rather than
the side slot.
● System pressures (static) can be checked using a

Bourdon pressure gauge at each outlet or terminal

fitting. Bourdon pressure gauges can also be  Figure 6.63 Using an infrared thermometer

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Balancing a secondary circulation system ● Another cause of flow rate and pressure deficiency
Large secondary circulation systems should contain is the incorrect set-up of equipment such
bronze lockshield valves on every return leg of the hot as boosting pumps and accumulators. In
water secondary circuit. These should be fitted as close this instance, the manufacturer’s data should
to the appliances as possible and are used to balance the be consulted and set-up procedures followed
system so that the flow rates to each leg are such that: according to the installation instructions. It is here
● heat loss through the circuit is kept to a minimum that mistakes are often made. If problems persist,
● the temperature of each leg is constant then the manufacturer’s technical support should
● the temperature of the return at the cylinder is not be contacted for advice. In a very few cases, the
less than 50°C. equipment specified is at fault and will not meet
the design specification. If this is the case, then the
Correct balancing is achieved by opening the valves on equipment must be replaced.
the longest circuits and then successively closing the ● Poor installation techniques: installation is
lockshield valves a little at a time, working towards the the point where the design is transferred from
cylinder until the flow rates through each circuit are the drawing to the building. Poor installation
equal. The flow rate should be balanced so that all of techniques account for problems such as noise.
the circuits achieve the same temperature at the same Incorrectly clipped pipework can often be a source
time. This is especially important with those systems of frustration within systems running at high
that operate through a time clock. pressures because of the noise it can generate.
Incorrect clipping distances and, often, lack of clips
Dealing with defects found during
and supports can put a strain on the fittings and
commissioning
cause the pipework to reverberate throughout the
Commissioning is the part of the installation where the installation, even causing fitting failure and leakage.
system is filled and run for the first time. It is now that To prevent these occurrences, the installation should
we see if it works as designed. Occasionally, problems be checked as it progresses and any deficiencies
will be discovered when the system is fully up and brought to the attention of the installing engineer.
running, such as those described below. Upon completion, the system should be visually
checked before flushing and commissioning begins.
Systems that do not meet correct installation
● Leakage: water causes a huge amount of damage
requirements
to a building and can even compromise the
This can take several forms, as follows. building structure. Leakage from pipework, if left
● Systems that do not meet the design
undetected, causes damp, mould growth and an
specification: problems such as incorrect flow unhealthy atmosphere. It is, therefore, important
rates and pressures are quite difficult to deal with. that leakage is detected and cured at a very early
If the system has been calculated correctly and stage in the system’s life. It is almost impossible to
the correct equipment has been specified and ensure that every joint on every system installed
installed to the manufacturer’s instructions, then is leak free. Manufacturing defects on fittings and
problems of this nature should not occur. However, equipment, as well as damage, sometimes cause
if the pipe sizes are too small in any part of the leaks. Leakage due to badly jointed fittings and
system, then flow rate and pressure problems will poor installation practice are much more common,
develop almost immediately downstream of where especially on large systems where literally
the mistake has been made. In this instance, the thousands of joints have to be made until the
drawings should be checked and confirmation system is complete. These can often be avoided by
with the design engineer sought that the pipe taking care when jointing tubes and fittings, using
sizes used are correct before any action is taken. recognised jointing materials and compounds, and
It may also be the case that too many fittings or following manufacturers’ recommended jointing
incorrect valves have been used, causing pipework techniques.
restrictions.

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

● Low-corrosion materials (copper, plastic, stainless

steel, etc.) should be used where possible.

Defective components and equipment

Defective components cause frustration and cost
valuable installation time. If a component or piece of
equipment is found to be defective, do not attempt
a repair as this may invalidate any manufacturer’s
warranty. The manufacturer should first be contacted
as they may wish to send a representative to inspect
the component prior to replacement. The supplier
should also be contacted to inform them of the faulty
 Figure 6.64 A plumber’s nightmare! A badly designed plumbing component. In some instances where it is proven that
system makes fault finding almost impossible the component is defective and was not a result of
poor installation, the manufacturer may reimburse the
The risk from Legionella pneumophila in installation company for the time taken to replace the
hot water systems component.
According to the HSE, instances of Legionnaires’ disease
derived from hot water supply have diminished over The procedure for notifying works
recent years due to better installation techniques and carried out to the relevant authority
greater awareness of sterilisation methods. However, At all stages of the installation, from design to
large hot water systems can often be complex in their commissioning, notification of the installation will need
design and, therefore, still present a significant risk of to be given so that the relevant authorities can check
exposure. The environments where Legionella bacteria that it complies with the regulations and to ensure that
proliferate are listed below. the installation does not constitute a danger to health.
● At the base of the cylinder or storage vessel where It must be remembered that only operatives that are
the cold feed enters and cold water mixes with the registered to do so can install unvented hot water
hot water within the vessel. The base of the storage storage systems. The operative’s registration number
vessel may well eventually contain sediments, which must be given on any paperwork submitted to the local
support the bacterial growth of Legionella. authority.
● The water held in a secondary circulation system
Under Building Regulations Approved Document
between the outlet and the branch to the
G, hot water installations are notifiable to the local
secondary circulation system, as this may not
authority Building Control Office. Building Regulations
be subject to the high temperature sterilisation
approval can be sought from the local authority by
process.
submitting a ‘building notice’. Plans are not required
In general, hot water systems should be designed with this process so it’s quicker and less detailed than
to aid safe operation by preventing or controlling the full plans application. It is designed to enable
conditions that allow the growth of Legionella. They small building works to get under way quickly. Once
should, however, permit easy access for cleaning and a building notice has been submitted and the local
disinfection. The following points should be considered. authority has been informed that work is about to
● Materials such as natural rubber, hemp, linseed oil- start, the work will be inspected as it progresses. The
based jointing compounds and fibre washers should authority will notify if the work does not comply with
not be used in domestic water systems. Materials the Building Regulations.
and fittings acceptable for use in water systems
are listed in the directory published by the Water
Research Centre.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● all manufacturers’ installation, operation and

INDUSTRY TIP servicing manuals for the unvented hot water
storage vessel and associated controls
Notice should be given to Building Control not later than
● the commissioning records and certificates
five days after work completion and, until this is received,
no completion certificates can be issued. ● the Building Regulations Compliance certificate
● an ‘as fitted’ drawing showing the position of all
isolation valves, backflow prevention devices, etc.
Building Regulations Compliance
The customer must be shown around the system
certificates
and shown the operating principles of any controls.
From 1 April 2005, the Building Regulations have Emergency isolation points on the system should be
demanded that all installations must be issued with pointed out and a demonstration given of the correct
a Building Regulations Compliance certificate. This is isolation procedure in the event of an emergency.
to ensure that all Building Regulations relevant to the Explain to the customer how the systems work and
installation have been followed and complied with. ask if they have any questions. Finally, highlight the
need for regular servicing of the appliances and leave
Commissioning records for hot water
emergency contact numbers.
systems
Commissioning records, such as benchmark certificates
for hot water systems, should be kept for reference
during maintenance and repair, and to ensure that
6 DECOMMISSION
the system meets the design specification. Typical SYSTEMS AND
information that should be included on the record is as
follows: COMPONENTS
● the date, time and the name(s) and ID numbers of
Decommissioning hot water systems for maintenance
the commissioning engineer(s)
and the replacement of components can be a delicate
● the location of the installation
task. It is important to ensure that the heat source
● the amount of hot water storage and cold water
is totally isolated before work on the system begins.
storage (if any)
A notice should be placed next to the heat source
● the types and manufacturer of equipment and
informing people that the system is decommissioned
components installed
and must not be turned on. Fuses to electric heaters,
● the type of pressure test carried out and its duration
thermostats and motorised valves should be removed
● the incoming static water pressure
and retained. If appliances are removed, any open pipes
● the flow rates and pressures at the outlets
should be capped off. The customer should be informed
● the expansion vessel pressure
when the system is turned off.
● whether temperature and pressure relief valves have

been fitted The main components of hot water systems that

● the results of tests on the discharge pipework. require periodic maintenance are as follows.
● The hot water storage vessel: should be
The benchmark certificate should be signed by the
periodically checked for any signs of corrosion.
operative and the customer, and kept in a file in a
Diminishing flow rates could indicate scale build-up
secure location.
in either the cold feed connection or the hot water
Hand over to the customer or end user draw-off connection. These can be removed and
descaled as necessary. When replacing hot water
When the system has been tested and commissioned,
cylinders, the cylinder should be pre-assembled as
it can then be handed over to the customer. The
much as possible before installation begins, to reduce
customer will require all documentation regarding the
the time the hot water supply is off.
installation and this should be presented to them in a
file, which should contain:

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 Chapter 6 Hot water systems

● The hot water appliance: this should be ● Loss of hot water: this may be due to evaporation
serviced annually in line with the manufacturer’s of the water in the feed and expansion (F&E) cistern
instructions. installed on double-feed indirect cylinders, with
● The cistern (for open vented systems): cisterns gravity circulation to the heat exchanger. This is
should be checked periodically for sediment build- usually due to a sticking float-operated valve (FOV)
up on the bottom of the cistern. If a cistern is to be that fails to top the water up as evaporation occurs.
replaced, then the replacement cistern should be pre- Because the FOV is stuck in the off position, the
assembled before decommissioning the system. This water evaporates down to the primary flow pipe
will reduce the length of decommissioning time. and this stops circulation to the heat exchanger
● Taps and terminal fittings such as float-operated and prevents the cylinder getting hot. To rectify the
valves: taps should be re-washered and float- fault, the FOV in the F&E cistern should be removed
operated valves checked for correct shut-off, and and repaired/replaced.
water levels checked and adjusted as necessary. ● Immersion heater element failure: this is usually
● Isolation valves such as full-way gate valves and due to corrosion of the immersion heater element
service valves: these should be checked to ensure sheath, allowing water to penetrate the heater
that they shut off the flow of water fully. element. This causes a short circuit, which usually
● Thermostats: systems, such as immersion heaters blows the fuse. The immersion heater will need to
and boilers, should be run to operating temperature be replaced.
to ensure the correct operation of any thermostats. ● Cylinder thermostat failure: a very rare fault. The
They should be checked using digital thermometers. thermostat should first be tested to confirm that it
● Shower mixing valves and pumps: these should has failed before replacing it.
be inspected to ensure that they are functioning in ● Motorised valve failure: this is a common
accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. occurrence with fully pumped systems. The valve
Flow rates can be confirmed by using a weir cup. should be tested to confirm whether it is the
Filters can be removed and cleaned. The operation valve itself that has failed or just the motor in the
of the flow switch on shower boosting pumps actuator head.
should be checked, as these turn the shower pump ● Boiler failure: this is a more serious fault that
on. Showerheads should be cleaned of any scale may mean specialist diagnosis and repair by an
build-up as this can significantly reduce the flow experienced plumber.
of water. ● Airlocks: these can usually be traced to long
horizontal runs in the cold feed to the cylinder as
it leaves the cistern. The closer the horizontal run
7 REPLACE DEFECTIVE is to the cistern, the less head of pressure there is

COMPONENTS on the cold feed. This can create an airlock before

the cold feed drops vertically to the cylinder.
Low-pressure systems always work better when
The replacement of float-operated valves, taps, pumps
the pipework exits the roof space quickly. Long
and valves is covered in Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
horizontal runs create problems with flow rate
when the head of pressure is low.
Faults with open vented hot ● The cold feed has a backfall towards the cistern:
water systems air collects in the high point in the pipework. The
There are many faults that can occur with open vented pipework leaving the cistern should fall away from
hot water systems. Some of these may be due to poor the cistern to ensure a good flow rate.
system design but most occur with use. Some of the ● Noise in the system: this can be due to
more common faults are: oscillation of the float-operated valve. This may

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

be because of a faulty float-operated valve or a

missing cistern wall-strengthening plate, which
SUMMARY
prevents the cistern wall from vibrating. Vibration The choice of hot water system is a confusing task.
may also come from the immersion heater when There are so many systems to choose from, and
the electricity is turned on. The heater element each one has its advantages and disadvantages. In
vibrates quickly, making a humming sound. The this chapter, we have investigated a sample of the
only action here is to replace the heater. most popular systems from simple point-of-use
● Overheating of the water: this causes the water heaters to Building Regulations-compliant storage
to boil and is a problem found in some older direct and non-storage systems for whole-house hot water
systems with a coal-fired back boiler. distribution for a variety of property types and sizes.
● Expansion of the pipework: this causes ticking These systems should be considered carefully to
and creaking noises when not enough room has give the best possible combination of initial cost,
been allowed for expansion of the pipework. On efficiency, hot water control, maintenance costs and
new properties, this type of noise is not allowed and eventual replacement.
must be traced and rectified.
● Excessively hot water: this is usually caused by Hot water is a necessity. How we deliver it is a matter
immersion heater thermostat failure. This will need of choice.
testing and replacing with a thermostat that has a
high limit stat cut-out.
● Uncontrolled heat from a solid fuel appliance:
this may occur in direct systems.
● Cylinder collapse: due to the creation of a vacuum
in the cylinder caused by the hot water dropping
as soon as it leaves the cylinder before it enters the
vent pipe; having no vent pipe installed; a blocked
vent pipe; or an isolation valve installed on the vent
pipe which is turned off.

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 Test your knowledge

Test your knowledge 6 Where should a secondary return be connected

within a hot water storage cylinder?
1 What is the minimum recommended distribution a A quarter of the way down
temperature of hot water supplied by a storage
b Halfway down
cylinder?
c Two-thirds of the way from the bottom
a 48°C
d A quarter of the way up
b 55°C
7 Identify the components in the unvented hot
c 60°C
water system below.
d 65°C
2 Which Building Regulation relates to the hot
water delivery systems in dwellings?
a Part F
b Part G
c Part P
d Part L 1 2
3 Which one of the following is classed as a
localised hot water system?
a Under-sink single point heater 3 4
Balanced cold supply
b Thermal store to outlets
c Combination boiler
a 1: Strainer; 2: Isolation valve; 3: Expansion
d Open vented
relief valve; 4: Check valve
4 Within an open vented hot water system, which of
the following are the correct connection methods b 1: Isolation valve; 2: Strainer; 3: Check valve;
for the open vent pipe off the draw-off pipe? 4: Expansion relief valve
a Open vent a minimum of 15 mm diameter c 1: Pressure reducing valve; 2: Isolation valve;
connected within 450 mm of the draw-off 3: Check valve; 4: Strainer
connection from the cylinder d 1: Isolation valve; 2: Strainer; 3: Pressure
b Open vent a minimum of 15 mm diameter reducing valve; 4: Check valve
connected within at least 450 mm of the 8 What temperature should the temperature relief
draw-off point from the cylinder valve fitted to an unvented hot water storage
c Open vent a minimum of 22 mm diameter vessel be set to discharge at?
connected within 450 mm of the draw-off a 60°C
connection from the cylinder b 72°C
d Open vent a minimum of 22 mm diameter c 90°C
connected within at least 450 mm of the d 95°C
draw-off point from the cylinder
9 Which of the following types of thermostatic
5 The safety devices within an unvented hot water mixing valve (TMV) should be installed within
cylinder are designed to prevent the water from NHS and healthcare properties?
exceeding which of the following temperatures?
a TMV1
a 60°C
b TMV2
b 65°C
c TMV3
c 95°C
d TMV4
d 100°C

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

10 When considering discharge pipework from an 16 What can system noise can be caused by?
unvented storage cylinder, what is the minimum a Flow of water
size for D2 pipework if the D1 pipework is
b Water hammer
connected to a G1/2 valve outlet?
c Thermal expansion
a 15 mm
d All of these
b 22 mm
17 A new hot water cylinder must comply with
c 28 mm
what Building Regulation?
d 35 mm
a H
11 An unvented cylinder can only be installed by
b P
whom?
c L
a The customer
d G
b IPHE registered plumber
18 What component is installed inside showers to
c Any person who follows the manufacturer’s
prevent backflow?
instructions
a Drain-off valve
d A competent person
b Double check valve
12 What material must a secondary circulation
c Stop valve
pump be made from?
d Single check valve
a Pressed steel
19 If a hot water cylinder does not have a heat
b Zinc
exchanger coil and the water is being heated by
c Cast iron
an immersion heater, what type of cylinder is
d Bronze installed in the system?
13 The required controls for a hot water system a Indirect
must comply with:
b Radiated
a The Domestic Hot Water Guide
c Instantaneous
b The Domestic Heating Compliance Guide
d Direct
c Approved Document H
20 Where is the expansion in a hot water cylinder
d BS EN 806 taken up?
14 What does the 450 mm leg from the hot water a Cold feed from the cold water storage cistern
outlet to the base of the open vent prevent?
b Primary flow from the boiler
a One pipe circulation
c Hot distribution to the outlets
b Back flow
d Primary return to the boiler
c Back siphonage
21 A hot water cylinder contains 100 litres of cold
d One pipe pull water. When heated the water will expand.
15 What is the most likely cause of warm water Approximately how much will the water expand
coming out of the cold water tap when it is first by when heated?
opened up? a 10 litres
a The cold feed has been incorrectly installed b 2 litres
b The hot and cold pipe are touching c 4 litres
c The wrong pipe is insulated d 12 litres
d The hot distribution is wrongly sized

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 A Test your knowledge B

22AWhere on a domestic hot water cylinder should B

the cylinder thermostat be located?
a Top quarter of the cylinder
b Middle of the cylinder
c 1/3rd way up the cylinder
d Bottom of the cylinder
23 What does the term ‘heat recovery’ refer to?
a The time taken for the boiler to get to
temperature
b The time taken for a cylinder of water to get
to temperature
c The time taken for a cylinder thermostat to
activate the boiler
d The time taken for the primary waters to
start heating the heat exchanger coil
24 On an unvented system, what safety item will
be activated if the expansion vessel fails?
a Pressure relief valve
b Temperature/pressure relief valve
c Over heat button C

C d High limit cut out valve

25 Identify these three systems:
A B

26 Explain the purpose of a secondary return

circuit.
27 Name two types of shower pump.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

28 A cylinder measures 1050 mm in height

and has a diameter of 350 mm. What is its
Practical activity
With permission, in your training centre or on-
capacity?
site, locate a thermostatic mixing valve. Locate
29 What is the purpose of the sacrificial anode any relevant maintenance documentation (often
within a hot water system? this information can be downloaded from
30 Describe the difference between a localised and manufacturers’ websites) and safely decommission
centralised hot water system. the valve ready for routine maintenance.
31 Describe the difference between a modern Follow the maintenance instructions to adequately
direct and indirect hot water cylinder. clean the filters, check for operation and adjust to
32 Explain why a single check valve is installed a suitable temperature. Ensure that the supervising
on an unvented hot water system just after the person checks your work before leaving in
cold distribution connection. operation.
33 List the criteria for installing a thermostatic
mixing valve prior to a newly installed bath.
Answers can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction

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 CHAPTER 7
CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Some 97 per cent of homes in the UK have a central heating system, and most of these are in the traditional
form of a boiler and radiators. In the past ten years, central heating has developed into a sophisticated home
heating system that incorporates energy-saving appliances and controls designed to heat the dwelling quickly
and efficiently using as little fuel as possible and saving thousands of tonnes of CO2 from being released into
the atmosphere.
In this chapter, we will look at the subject of central heating from a domestic perspective. We will investigate
existing and modern systems, their pipework layouts, methods of control, the various types of appliances and
the fuels they use.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● central heating systems and their layouts
● how to install central heating systems and components
● the decommissioning requirements of central heating systems and their components.

1 UNDERSTAND CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS

AND THEIR LAYOUTS
The main purpose of central heating is to provide Regulations
thermal comfort conditions within a building or These are as follows:
dwelling. Central heating is preferable to open fires as it ● The Building Regulations:
heats the whole property. Thermal comfort is achieved ● Approved Document L1A: conservation of fuel
when a desirable heat balance between the body and and power in new dwellings, 2013 edition with
surroundings is met. How we achieve this balance is 2016 amendments
down to the design of the central heating system and ● Approved Document L1B: conservation of fuel
the way it is installed. and power in existing dwellings, 2010 edition
(incorporating 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2016
Sources of information amendments)
The recommendations for good central heating ● Approved Document L2A: conservation of fuel

installations are set out in the British Standards and and power in new buildings other than dwellings,
various other documents, some of which are legislative 2013 edition with 2016 amendments
and take the form of regulations. In this first part of the ● Approved Document L2B: conservation of

chapter, we will look at the criteria used for efficient fuel and power in existing buildings other than
central heating design. dwellings, 2010 edition (incorporating 2010,
2011, 2013 and 2016 amendments)

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Approved Document J: combustion appliances ● BS EN 442–1:2014. Radiators and convectors.

and fuel storage systems (incorporating 2010 Technical specifications and requirements
and 2013 amendments) ● BS EN 442–2:2014. Radiators and convectors. Test
● Approved Document F: ventilation (2010 edition methods and rating.
incorporating 2010 and 2013 amendments)
● The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations The recommendations
1999 These are as follows:
● The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) ● Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
Regulations 1998 2013 (amended in 2018) – this document offers
● The IET 18th Edition Wiring Regulations BS 7671. practical assistance when designing and installing to
Building Regulations requirements for space heating
INDUSTRY TIP and hot water systems, mechanical ventilation,
comfort cooling, fixed internal and external lighting,
Remember, you can access all of these Building, Water, and and renewable energy systems
Gas Regulations documents via the government’s database ● Central Heating System Specifications (CHeSS)
at: www.gov.uk/search 2008 – this publication offers advice for compliance
with good practice and best practice for the
installation of central heating systems
The British Standards ● HVDH Domestic Heating Design Guide (2021)
These are as follows: – this was produced to assist heating engineers to
● BS EN 12828:2012+A1:2014. Heating systems in specify and design wet central heating systems.
buildings. Design for water-based heating systems
● BS EN 12831–1:2017. Energy performance of
INDUSTRY TIP
buildings. Method for calculation of the design heat
load. Space heating load, Module M3-3 The documents are available from the following websites:
● BS EN 12831–3:2017. Energy performance of ● Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide 2013 –
buildings. Method for calculation of the design heat https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
load. Domestic hot water systems heat load and uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data?file/697525/
characterisation of needs, Module M8-2, M8-3 DBSCG_secure.pdf
● BS EN 1264–1:2021. Water based surface ● Central Heating System Specifications (CHeSS) 2008

embedded heating and cooling systems. Definitions – http://bpec.org.uk/downloads/CE51%20CHeSS%20

and symbols WEB%20FINAL%20JULY%2008.pdf
● HVDH Domestic Heating Design Guide (2021) –
● BS EN 1264–2. Water based surface embedded
www.cibse.org/knowledge/knowledge-items/
heating and cooling systems. Floor heating: Prove
detail?id=a0q20000008I7odAAC (note: this document
methods for the determination of the thermal
must be purchased)
output using calculation and test methods
● BS EN 1264–4:2021. Water based surface

embedded heating and cooling systems. Installation Manufacturers’ technical

● BS EN 1264–3:2021. Water based surface
instructions
embedded heating and cooling systems. Dimensioning
Central heating systems and components must be
● BS EN 1264–5:2021. Water based surface
installed, commissioned and maintained strictly
embedded heating and cooling systems. Heating
in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions. If
and cooling surfaces embedded in floors, ceilings
these are not available or have been misplaced, most
and walls. Determination of the thermal output
manufacturers now have the facility to download the
● BS EN 14336:2004. Heating systems in buildings.
instructions from their websites.
Installation and commissioning of water based
heating systems.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Operating principles and 1 Low pressure, open vented central heating

systems, fed from a feed and expansion cistern
system layouts of central in the roof space. These can be both modern fully
heating systems and pumped systems and existing gravity hot water/
pumped heating installations.
components 2 Sealed, pressurised central heating systems,
Central heating is a vast and complex subject. There fed direct from the mains cold water supply and
are now more options with regard to system types, incorporating an expansion vessel to take up the
sources of heat, pipe materials and heat emitters than expansion of water due to the water being heated.
ever before. Environmentally friendly technology and These are generally more modern fully pumped and
the re-emergence of underfloor heating have meant combination (‘combi’) boiler systems.
that the customer can now afford to be selective
The water in low pressure open vented central heating
about the system they have installed into their
systems is kept below 100°C. For existing systems the
property. The advent of heat pumps and solar systems,
flow water from the boiler is usually about 80°C and
with the accompanying savings on fuel and running
the return water temperature is usually 12°C to 15°C
costs, has dramatically lowered the carbon footprint
lower.
of domestic properties. No longer does the customer
have to rely on appliances that burn carbon-rich fuels Circulation of the water can be either by:
such as gas and oil. Zero-carbon and carbon-neutral ● gravity circulation to the heat exchanger in the
fuels have revolutionised domestic heating, while hot water cylinder and pumped heating to the heat
advances in technology have lowered the cost of the emitters, or
energy-saving appliances that formerly were available ● by means of a fully pumped system where both

to only a select few. the hot water heat exchanger and heat emitters are
heated using a circulating pump.
By far the most popular heating system in the UK is the
‘wet’ system, whether supplying radiators, convectors
or underfloor heating, but while wet systems have
KEY TERMS
enjoyed the monopoly thus far, other systems, such Combination (‘combi’) boiler:
as electric storage heaters and warm air, continue to a boiler that provides central heating and
instantaneous hot water.
be available. In some areas of the UK, district heating,
Gravity circulation: circulation that occurs because
supplied from a central source and serving many
heat rises through the water. No pump is required.
properties, is also commonplace.
Fully pumped system: a heating system that uses
Here, we will look at the following central heating pumped circulation to both heating and hot water
options that are available for today’s homeowner, their circuits.
layouts and operating principles:
● wet central heating Fully pumped systems have the advantage that system
● warm air systems resistance created by the pipework, fittings and heat
● electric storage heaters emitters can be overcome much more easily and
● district heating installations. this enables the system to heat up faster, giving the
occupants a much more controllable system.
Types of system Sealed heating systems operate at a higher pressure,
with modern systems incorporating condensing boilers
Wet central heating operating at a slightly lower temperature of 65°C for
Domestic wet central heating systems fall into two the flow temperature with a return temperature 20°C
different categories, based upon the way the system is lower at 45°C.
filled with water and the pressure at which it operates:

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Wet central
heating
systems

Open vented Sealed

(low pressure) (pressurised)
systems systems

Gravity hot
Pumped Fully pumped System boiler
water/pumped
heating only systems systems
heating systems
systems

Systems using
One-pipe Two-pipe Y-plan S-plan external
systems systems system system expansion
vessel

Microbore
systems
Combination
C-plan boiler
system systems

C-plan plus
system

p Figure 7.1 The development of pumped central heating

In both cases the difference between the flow and systems, with the central heating circulating pump
return temperatures is the amount of heat lost to the installed on the flow pipe.
heated areas.
Semi-gravity heating systems
Figure 7.1 illustrates the development of central heating,
from the open vented one-pipe system through to the Semi-gravity heating systems utilise gravity circulation
more modern sealed combination boiler systems and to heat the domestic secondary water and pumped
fully pumped systems using system boilers. central heating circulation. The heat exchanger within
the hot water storage cylinder is connected to the
Low pressure, open vented central boiler by the primary flow and return pipes, usually
heating systems 28 mm in diameter with a 22 mm vent pipe branched
from the primary flow and a 15 mm cold feed pipe
Pumped central heating only systems
connected to the primary return. They may still be
The simplest of all heating systems – pumped central
found as existing systems in older properties. There
heating only systems – do not contain any provision
are three old basic semi-gravity systems that are not
for heating the domestic hot water. They serve only
installed today, and each is an advance on the previous
the heat emitters, usually radiators/convectors, for
system. These are:
domestic installations. The cold feed and the vent pipe
1 the one-pipe system
can either be taken direct from the boiler or direct from
2 the two-pipe system (C-plan system)
the heating pipework. They are generally two-pipe
3 the C-plan plus system.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

INDUSTRY TIP
These systems are often referred to as ‘gravity’ or ‘pumped’
systems because they incorporate old heating technology in
the form of gravity circulation and forced circulation via a
Feed and expansion cistern central heating circulating pump.

Room thermostat

15 mm cold 22 mm vent pipe

feed pipe

Boiler 22 mm flow and return pipes with

heat emitters fed by 15 mm pipe

p Figure 7.2 Pumped central heating only

The one-pipe system the radiators is calculated from the temperature drop at
each successive radiator, with the last radiator always
The one-pipe system is an old system that is rarely found
being around 15°C cooler than the first. Balancing the
today as it is an early design of central heating. It is a
flow of water to each radiator is a simple process by the
simple ring circuit of pipework to and from the boiler
use of radiator valves, but this increases system resistance
and, for this reason, there are no separate flow and return
and slows the heating process.
pipes. The main ‘ring’ is pumped and the water circulates
through the radiators by gravity circulation. The size of
 Table 7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the one-pipe system
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap to install because The water in the system cools as it travels from one heat emitter to the next, which has the effect
there is less pipework of increasing the heat emitter sizes the further from the boiler they are
involved in the installation The system tends to circulate within the main pipework ring; circulation within the heat emitters
when compared to other can be induced only by a difference in the density of the water entering and leaving the system
heating systems (gravity circulation)
Uncontrolled heating of the primary circuit leading to overheating of the domestic secondary hot
water
Constant boiler cycling even when the hot water and heating are up to temperature leads to
wastage of fuel energy
The system is not Building Regulations Document L compliant and must be updated
The boilers fitted to this type of system are only about 78% efficient or less
Condensing-type boilers cannot be fitted to this type of installation because of the gravity
circulation needed by the hot water storage cylinder

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

KEY TERM
Boiler cycling: the constant firing up and shutting later the boiler will fire up again to top up the
down as the system water cools slightly. When a temperature as the system loses heat and, after a
heating system has reached temperature, the boiler few seconds, shuts down again. This wastes a lot of
shuts down on the boiler thermostat. A few minutes fuel energy.

An obsolete system of which there are many still in existence. The system
uses a ring circuit of pipework to which both radiator connections are
made. It was usual with this system to fit a circulating pump on the return
Feed and expansion cistern to the boiler. Unlike modern systems, hot water temperature control and
heating temperature control relied upon the boiler thermostat.

22 mm vent pipe

Time clock
15 mm cold
feed pipe

Boiler
28 mm primary
flow
28 mm primary
return

Central heating circulating pump

p Figure 7.3 One-pipe system

One-pipe systems will not work effectively when heat emitters and a return pipe from the emitters
installed with combination boilers, so these systems are back to the boiler. The heat emitters are connected to
not recommended for ‘combi’ boiler conversions. separate branches of the main flow and return pipes
so, in effect, each heat emitter has its own flow and
The C-plan (two-pipe) system
return pipework to the boiler. This means that all of the
Like the one-pipe system, the C-plan system has heat emitters achieve the same temperature and this
gravity circulation to the hot water circuit and pumped negates the need to increase heat emitter size due to
circulation to the central heating circuit. The system temperature loss. The temperature difference across
differs considerably from the one-pipe system by each flow and return is usually 12°C to 15°C with a
having two pipes: a flow pipe from the boiler to the flow temperature of around 80°C.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

An improvement on the one-pipe system, the general layout of the two-pipe

heating circuit is still used in modern systems. Heating temperature is
Feed and expansion cistern controlled by a room thermostat but water temperature is controlled by
the boiler thermostat.

22 mm vent pipe Room thermostat

controlling the pump

15 mm cold Programmer
feed pipe

22 mm flow and return

Boiler

28 mm gravity
primaries

p Figure 7.4 Two-pipe semi-gravity system

KEY POINT KEY TERM

The two-pipe semi-gravity system is no longer Semi-gravity system: a central heating system that
installed as it does not comply with Building has pumped heating circulation but gravity hot
Regulations Document L. Systems of this type water circulation.
must be updated to include full thermostatic
control over both hot water temperature and
room temperatures by the inclusion of separate One of the biggest problems with older central heating
controls. The updated system is known as the systems was the lack of temperature control on both the
C-plan plus. hot water and heating circuits, which meant that the hot
water and the radiators became as hot as the water in
the boiler. The C-plan went some way towards addressing
this problem with the inclusion of a room thermostat
that simply switched off the pump when the desired
room temperature was reached. The secondary water,
however, was still uncontrolled and was often too hot.
 Table 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the C-plan (two-pipe) system
Advantages Disadvantages
All of the heat emitters reach Uncontrolled heating of the primary circuit leading to overheating of the domestic secondary
the same temperature hot water
Constant boiler cycling even when the hot water and heating are up to temperature leads to
wastage of fuel energy
The two-pipe system is much The system is not Building Regulations Document L compliant and must be updated to C-plan
quicker at heating up than the plus system as a minimum standard
one-pipe system; this saves The boilers fitted to this type of system are only about 78% efficient or less
on fuel usage
Condensing-type boilers cannot be fitted to this type of installation because of the gravity
circulation needed by the hot water storage cylinder

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The C-plan plus (two-pipe) semi-gravity system has total thermostatic control with
the inclusion of a room thermostat and a cylinder thermostat linked to a single
two-port motorised zone valve on the gravity flow before it enters the heat exchanger
on the storage cylinder; the system must include controls to prevent boiler cycling.

Motorised v alve
Cylinder Room
ther mostat ther mostat
15 mm cold feed pipe

Wiring
centre

Programmer

28 mm
gravity
Pump
primaries

Boiler

p Figure 7.5 C-plan plus system

 Table 7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the C-plan plus system

Advantages Disadvantages
All of the heat emitters reach the same temperature The system is not as controllable as more modern fully pumped systems
The two-pipe system is much quicker at heating up Condensing-type boilers cannot be fitted to this type of installation because
than the one-pipe system; this saves on fuel usage of the gravity circulation needed by the hot water storage cylinder
The system is Building Regulations Document L The boilers fitted to this type of system are only about 78% efficient or less
compliant
Full control over both heating and hot water circuits
is possible

The C-plan plus (two-pipe) system Fully pumped systems

This is a two-pipe system that is basically an updated Modern heating systems utilise pumped primary
version of the C-plan system and incorporates full circuits as well as pumped heating circuits. By installing
thermostatic control of both heating and hot water 2 × two-port zone valves or a three-port mid-position
circuits. Room temperatures are controlled by a room valve, the user can have hot water only, heating only or
thermostat and thermostatic radiator valves, while a combination of both. There are three basic types:
the hot water temperature is controlled by a cylinder 1 the Honeywell Y-plan, which uses one three-port
thermostat linked to a single two-port motorised motorised mid-position valve
zone valve installed on the gravity flow before it 2 the Honeywell W-plan, which uses one three-port
enters the heat exchanger at the hot water storage motorised diverter valve
cylinder. 3 the Honeywell S-plan, which uses two two-port
motorised zone valves.
The C-plan plus system is accepted as Building
Regulations Document L1b compliant for the Fully pumped systems offer a better choice of both
updating of existing systems. Some advantages and system design and boiler choice and, because the
disadvantages of the C-plan plus system are listed in need for gravity circulation has been eliminated,
Table 7.3. fully pumped systems give much greater scope for
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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

This system uses a single three-port motorised mid-position valve to control

the flow of water to the central heating circuit and the hot water circuit.
Feed and It is controlled by a cylinder thermostat and a room thermostat.
expansion cistern Individual thermostatic radiator valves independently control the
temperature of each room.

Automatic Cylinder Room

22 mm vent pipe air valve thermostat thermostat

15 mm cold feed

Mid-position
valve

Programmer

System
bypass
Wiring
centre

22 mm flow and return pipes

p Figure 7.6 Y-plan system

installation options, especially when positioning the and heating circuits. The boiler fires up and the
boiler, as the need for the boiler to be lower than the circulating pump begins to circulate the water.
storage cylinder is no longer a consideration. 3 a or b:
a When the cylinder reaches temperature, the valve
Full thermostatic control is available to both hot water
is energised by the cylinder thermostat, which
and heating circuits by means of a cylinder thermostat,
closes the hot water port, preventing water flowing
a room thermostat and thermostatic radiator valves.
to the hot water cylinder heat exchanger, or
Fully pumped systems heat up much more quickly b When the room reaches its set temperature,
than semi-gravity systems, offering savings on fuel and the valve is energised by the room thermostat,
operating costs, and both Y-plan and S-plan systems which closes the heating port, preventing water
can be used with natural gas, liquid petroleum gas flowing to the heating circuit.
(LPG) and oil appliances. 4 With both the room thermostat and the boiler
The Honeywell Y-plan utilising a three-port thermostat satisfied, the pump and the boiler shut
motorised mid-position valve down and the valve returns to the mid-position. In
this condition, the system will only operate should
The three-port motorised mid-position valve controls either the room thermostat or cylinder thermostat
the flow of water to the primary (cylinder) circuit and call for heat. This is known as boiler interlock.
the heating circuit. The valve reacts to the demands of
the cylinder thermostat or the room thermostat.
KEY TERM
An outline of the operating sequence of the Y-plan Boiler interlock: this is not a physical item, but
system the way in which a modern system is wired up
1 At a set time, the programmer activates the system to prevent the boiler from firing unless there is a
calling for both hot water and heating. demand for heat.
2 With the motorised valve in the mid-position, water
from the boiler circulates around both primary

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

A B A B A B

In the MID-POSITION, CENTRAL HEATING ONLY

the valve allows the HOT WATER ONLY
With the ball shutting off With the ball shutting off
water to circulate port B, water is allowed
AB around both AB AB port A, water is allowed
to circulate around the to circulate around the
heating 'A' and hot central heating circuit hot water circuit (port B)
water 'B' circuits (port A)

p Figure 7.7 The mid-position valve in the p Figure 7.8 The mid-position valve with the p Figure 7.9 The mid-position valve with the
mid-position serving heating and hot water hot water port closed heating port closed

The system contains a system bypass fitted with an The Honeywell W-plan utilising a three-port
automatic bypass valve that simply connects the motorised diverter valve
flow pipe to the return pipe. The bypass is required The W-plan is very similar to the Y-plan. The main
when all circuits are closed either by the motorised difference is that the system uses a three-port
valve or the thermostatic radiator valves as the rooms motorised diverter valve. This means that either the
reach their desired temperatures. The bypass valve hot water circuit or the heating circuit can be opened
opens automatically as the circuits close, to protect but not both circuits at the same time. It is known as
the boiler from overheating by allowing water to a hot water priority system. If both circuits are calling
circulate through the boiler, keeping the boiler below its for heat, the heating circuit will not open until the hot
maximum high temperature. This prevents the boiler water circuit is satisfied.
from ‘locking out’ on the overheat energy cut-out.
The W-plan system is not recommended where a high
hot water demand is required as it would lead to the
INDUSTRY TIP
space heating temperature dropping below comfort levels.
On a three-port mid-position valve, it is important to pipe The pipework layout is identical to that of the Y-plan.
up the correct port: The Honeywell S-plan utilising two two-port
● AB: Flow from the boiler
motorised zone valves
● A: Flow to the central heating circuit
● B: Flow to the hot water cylinder The S-plan has two two-port motorised zone valves to
(Remember ‘B’ for bath where you need hot water!). control the primary and heating circuits separately by
the cylinder and room thermostats respectively. This
system is recommended for dwellings with a floor area
KEY POINT greater than 150 m2 because it allows the installation
of additional two-port zone valves to zone the upstairs
Locking out on the overheat high-limit
heating circuit from the downstairs circuit. A separate
thermostat
room thermostat and possibly a second time clock/
Modern boilers contain two thermostats. The
programmer would also be required for upstairs zoning.
first controls the temperature of the water inside
the boiler and can be set by the user up to a
maximum of 82°C. The second is for protection KEY TERM
of the boiler and is known as the ‘high- limit’
Zoning: a process where living spaces and sleeping
thermostat. Its job is to protect the boiler from
spaces are individually controlled via independent
overheating by shutting it down or ‘locking out’
time clocks, room thermostats and motorised zone
when a temperature of around 85°C is reached.
valves.
High-limit thermostats are manually resettable by
pushing a small button on the boiler itself.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

This system uses two two-port zone valves to control the flow of water to the
central heating circuit and the hot water circuit. They are controlled by a
Feed and cylinder thermostat and a room thermostat. Individual thermostatic radiator
expansion cistern
valves independently control the temperature of each room.

Automatic Cylinder Room

air valve thermostat thermostat
22 mm vent pipe
15 mm cold feed

Two-port
zone valve

Programmer

System
bypass Wiring
centre

Two-port
zone valve

22 mm flow and return pipes

p Figure 7.10 S-plan system

As with the Y-plan, a system bypass is required for OPEN

overheat protection of the boiler.
An outline of the operating sequence of the S-plan
system
1 At a set time, the programmer activates the system
calling for both hot water and heating.
2 Both of the two-port motorised zone valves open,
and water from the boiler circulates around both
primary and heating circuits. The boiler fires up and the
circulating pump begins to circulate the water.
3 a or b:
p Figure 7.11 Zone valve open
a When the cylinder reaches temperature, the
two-port zone valve is energised by the cylinder
thermostat, which closes the hot water zone CLOSED

valve preventing water flowing to the hot water

cylinder heat exchanger, or
b When the room reaches its set temperature, the
two-port zone valve is energised by the room
thermostat, which closes the valve preventing
water flowing to the heating circuit.
4 With both the room thermostat and the boiler
thermostat satisfied, the pump and the boiler shut
down. In this condition, the system will operate
only should either the room thermostat or cylinder p Figure 7.12 Zone valve closed
thermostat call for heat. This is known as ‘boiler
interlock’.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 7.4 The comparisons between the Y-plan, W-plan and

S-plan systems

Can be used with system

Recommended for larger

Can be used with sealed

Full thermostatic control

Document L compliant

(pressurised) systems
Building Regulations

Anti-cycling boiler
Can be zoned
properties

interlock
boilers
150 mm

The neutral point

Y-plan
ü ü û ü ü û ü
system

W-plan
ü ü û ü ü û ü
system

S-plan
ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
system
p Figure 7.13 Position of the cold feed and open vent pipes
S-plan
plus ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
system The circulating pump
The circulating pump must also be positioned with
*The S plan plus system has the extra two-port valve to zone
the downstairs and upstairs heating circuits separately (see
care to avoid design faults that could lead to problems
Figure 7.18). with corrosion by aeration of the water due to water
movement in the feed and expansion cistern. This
The open vent, cold feed and circulating occurs when water is either pushed up the cold feed
pump position for fully pumped systems pipe and the open vent pipe or is circulated between
The position of the open vent pipe, the cold feed pipe the cold feed pipe and the open vent pipe.
and the circulating pump to a fully pumped system is
an important part of the system design. If the open
vent pipe, the feed pipe and circulating pump are
positioned onto the system incorrectly, the system
will not work properly and may even induce system
System under posit
corrosion due to constant aeration of the system water. System under negative System under positive pressure. Correct
pressure. pressure. arrangement showing
Pushing into the cistern Pumping over the vent position of the vent an
The open vent and the cold feed should be positioned pipe behind the pump. Th
on the flow from the boiler on the suction side of the known as the neutral
circulating pump with a maximum of 150 mm distance
between them. This is called the neutral point, as the
circulating pump acts on both the feed pipe and the
open vent pipe with equal suction. If they are any
further apart, the neutral point becomes weak and the
System under positive
pump will act on the feed pipeunder
System withnegative
a greater force System under positive pressure. Correct
This pressure.
than the open vent pipe.Pushing creates an imbalance,
into the cistern
pressure.
Pumping over the vent
arrangement showing the
position of the vent and feed
which leads to a lowering of the water in the feed and pipe behind the pump. This is
known as the neutral zone
expansion cistern. When the pump switches off, the
water returns to its original position. The constant p Figure 7.14 The position of the circulating pump
see-sawing motion aerates the water creating corrosion
within the system.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

The use of air separators

KEY POINT
The use of an air separator helps in the positioning of
What is aeration of the water?
the feed and vent by ensuring that the neutral point is
Central heating systems do not like air. Air is
built in to the system. The positioning of the pipework
one of the biggest causes of corrosion in heating
systems because the air in the water contributes on an air separator creates a turbulent water flow in the
to rust occurring throughout the system and the separator body and this helps to remove air from the
formation of red oxide sludge. Water alone will system, which makes the system quieter in operation
not cause corrosion, even with ferrous metals and significantly reduces the risk of corrosion.
present, such as radiators and convectors. It is
the air present in the water that causes metals
to rust and constant water movement at the feed
and expansion cistern will aerate the water in the
system enough for corrosion to take place.

p Figure 7.16 An air separator; the top connection is the vent to

release the air

ACTIVITY
Air separator fitted to Work out which pipes are connected to each of the
ensure correct coupling air separator designs:
of the cold feed and
vent pipes ● flow for the boiler

● flow to the system

● open vent

● cold feed.

The feed and expansion cistern

Open vented systems contain a feed and expansion
cistern, which fulfils three important functions:
p Figure 7.15 The use of an air separator 1 it is the means by which water enters the system
for filling and top-up
The circulating pump, or to give it its correct name
2 it allows space for the system water to expand into
the ‘hydronic central heating circulator’, is a simple
when it is heated
electric motor with a fluted water wheel-like impeller
3 it provides a static head (or water pressure) to the
that circulates the water around the system by
system.
centrifugal force. The faster the impeller rotates, the
greater the circulation that occurs in the system. For Generally, the size of the F and E cistern will depend on
quiet operation of the system, the flow rate should not the size of the system, but for most domestic systems
exceed 1 litre per second and 1.5 litres per second for an 18-litre cistern is recommended. The bigger the
microbore systems (see page 371 of this chapter). Most system, the more water it will contain and so the water
domestic circulating pumps have three speeds, which expansion will be greater. The water level in the cistern
correspond to varying circulatory pressures or ‘heads’. should, therefore, be set at a low level.
Domestic circulating pumps have either a 6 m head The cistern must be located at the highest part of the
to circulate up to a height of 6 m, or a 10 m head to system and must not be affected by the operation of
circulate up to a height of 10 m. the circulating pump. For fully pumped systems, the

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

cistern must be at least 1 metre above the highest part Sealed (pressurised) heating systems
of the pumped primary flow to the heat exchanger in Sealed heating systems are those that do not contain a
the hot water storage cylinder. For gravity systems, the feed and expansion cistern but are filled with water direct
minimum height of the cistern can be calculated by from the mains cold water supply via a temporary filling
taking the maximum operating head of the pump and loop. Large systems would be filled via an automatic
dividing it by 3. pressurisation unit. The expansion of water is taken up
The cold feed for the system for most domestic properties by the use of an expansion vessel and the open vent
is 15 mm. The cold feed pipe should not contain any is replaced by a pressure relief valve, which is designed
service or isolation valves. This is to ensure that there is to relieve the excess pressure by releasing the system
a supply of cold water in the event of overheating and water and discharging safely to a drain point outside
leakage, preventing the system from boiling. of the dwelling. This is vital as the water may be in
Should the valve be inadvertently closed, a dangerous excess of 80°C. A pressure gauge is also included so that
situation could develop, especially if the vent is also the pressure can be set when the system is filled, and
blocked as the pressure will build up in the system, periodically checked for rises and falls in the pressure as
raising the boiling point of the water to dangerous these could indicate a potential component malfunction.
levels. Both the cistern and any float-operated valve The system is usually pressurised to around 1 bar. There
it may contain must be capable of withstanding hot are several types of fully pumped alternatives:
● sealed systems with an external pressure vessel
water at a temperature close to 100°C.
● system boilers that contain all necessary safety

Primary open safety vent controls

● combination boilers.
The purpose of the open vent pipe is one of safety. The
open vent is installed to: All fully pumped systems, such as those with two, or
● provide a safety outlet should the system overheat three or more, two-port zone valves (known as the
due to a component failure S-plan and the S-plan plus), or a three-port
● ensure that the system always remains at mid-position valve (known as the Y-plan) or a three-
atmospheric pressure limiting the boiling point to port diverter valve (known as the W-plan), can be
100°C. installed as sealed systems or can be purpose-designed
In a fully pumped system, the height of the open vent ‘heating only’ systems using a combination boiler
should be a minimum of 450 mm from the water level with instantaneous hot water supply. All the pipework
in the cistern to the top of the open vent pipe. This is to layouts described below can be used with the three
allow for any pressure surges created by the circulating boiler systems above.
pump. The minimum size of pipe for the open vent is
22 mm and this, like the cold feed pipe, should not be KEY TERM
fitted with any valves. Sealed heating systems: heating systems that
are sealed from the atmosphere and operate
under pressure. They do not contain a feed and
expansion cistern. Instead, they have an expansion
vessel to take up water expansion and a filling loop
450 mm to fill the system from the cold water main.

Fully pumped systems with three or more

two-port zone valves (known as the S-plan
plus)
Open vent pipe The S-plan plus has three or more two-port motorised
zone valves to control the primary and heating circuits
separately by the cylinder and room thermostats
p Figure 7.17 Height of the open vent pipe

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

respectively. This system is recommended for dwellings circuit. A separate room thermostat, and possibly a
with a floor area greater than 150 m2 because it allows second time clock/programmer, would also be required
the installation of additional two-port zone valves to for upstairs zoning. A system bypass is required for
zone the upstairs heating circuit from the downstairs overheat protection of the boiler.
Upstairs timer switch
Upstairs room
System bypass thermostat

Two-port zone Cylinder

valve to hot water thermostat
22 mm flow and
return pipework Two-port
zone valve for
Expansion upstairs circuit
vessel
Downstairs room
thermostat

Two-port
zone valve for
downstairs
circuit

Wiring centre
Programmer
Pressure gauge
Filling loop
Pressure relief valve
and discharge pipework

p Figure 7.18 The sealed S-plan plus system

Thermostat

Pressure gauge

Wiring centre Programmer

Temporary filling loop
with double check valve
arrangement

Pressure relief valve

and discharge pipework Expansion vessel

p Figure 7.19 The sealed Y-plan system

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Fully pumped systems with three-port arrangements that can be installed in domestic
mid-position valve (known as the Y-plan) premises. These are:
or a three-port diverter valve (known as the 1 the microbore system
W-plan) 2 the reversed return system.
The three-port mid-position valve (Y-plan) or diverter
valve (W-plan) controls the flow of water to the The microbore system
primary (cylinder) circuit and the heating circuit. The microbore system is a form of two-pipe system
The valve reacts to the demands of the cylinder that uses a very small-bore pipe to feed the heat
thermostat or the room thermostat. This was emitters. The system uses a multi-connection fitting,
discussed in detail earlier in the chapter (page 363). known as a manifold, fitted to the flow and return pipes
and, depending on the size of the system, these are
The system contains a system bypass fitted with an
either 22 mm or 28 mm in size. All of the flow pipes to
automatic bypass valve, which simply connects the
the heat emitters are taken from the flow manifold and
flow pipe to the return pipe. The bypass is required
all the returns to the return manifold. The heat emitters
when all circuits are closed either by the motorised
are supplied through microbore pipework, generally 8
valve or the thermostatic radiator valves as the rooms
mm or 10 mm in diameter. Manifolds are fitted in pairs
reach their desired temperature. The bypass valve
with the flow and return manifolds side by side.
opens automatically as the circuits close to protect
the boiler from overheating by allowing water to In small dwellings all the radiators may be taken from
circulate through the boiler, keeping the boiler below its one pair of manifolds, which can accommodate up to
maximum high temperature. This prevents the boiler eight radiators. It is usual, however, to fit a separate
from ‘locking out’ on the overheat energy cut-out. pair of manifolds on each floor in a house and larger
properties may have two pairs on each floor. The
Sealed system components pipework loops that serve the largest radiators should
As we have already seen, sealed systems do not be no more than 9 m in length.
contain a feed and expansion cistern, nor open vent
 Table 7.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the microbore
pipe. Instead, these systems incorporate the following system
components:
● an external expansion vessel fitted to the system
Advantages Disadvantages
return Contains only a small amount Microbore piping is easily
of water and so is heated damaged and not very
● a pressure relief valve
quickly resistant to knocks
● the system is filled via a temporary filling loop or a
Microbore tubing comes in Microbore tubes can easily
CA disconnection device fully annealed coils, is easily get blocked with sludge if the
● a pressure gauge. bent by hand and is easily system is installed poorly
hidden
These will be covered later in this chapter. It can sometimes be a
cheaper form of installation
INDUSTRY TIP Long lengths of tubing mean
fewer joints
Instead of an external filling loop, some boiler manufacturers Can be used with sealed and
open vented systems, Y-plan
have an integral CA disconnection device (see pages 247
or S-plan
and 391).
The system is Building
Regulations Document L
compliant
Alternative central heating
designs
Apart from the central heating systems we have
already looked at, there are two other pipework

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Manifolds connected to 8 mm
or 10 mm microbore tubing

15 mm

22 mm

22 mm
22 mm

22 mm

p Figure 7.20 Microbore system

The reversed return system

The reversed return system is designed for larger
systems and is a variation on the two-pipe system.
In the reversed return system, the flow and returns
are connected, as before, to separate flow and return
pipes, but the return travels away from the boiler in the
same direction as the flow before looping around to
be connected to the return at the boiler. By doing this,
the amount of pipe used on both flow and the return
is almost equal, which has the effect of ensuring that
all of the heat emitters reach full temperature at about
the same time. Reversing the return makes balancing
the system much quicker and easier and, in some cases,
balancing is eliminated completely.

p Figure 7.21 Microbore manifolds

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

22 mm
15 mm
15 mm

22 mm

22 mm

15 mm

15 mm

22 mm

p Figure 7.22 The reversed return system

 Table 7.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the reversed

return system
KEY POINT
The legal requirements for the installation of
Advantages Disadvantages solid fuel and oil heat-producing appliances,
Eliminates the need for It is difficult to install such as boilers, cookers and room heaters, are
complex balancing procedures It is a more expensive system covered in Building Regulations Document J: Heat
Can be used with sealed and due to the extra time taken Producing Appliances. The legal requirements for
open vented systems, Y-plan on installation and the extra the installation of gas appliances are given in the
or S-plan materials required Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations. In
The system is Building The system installation all cases, the manufacturer’s instructions must
Regulations Document L requires careful planning always be followed when installing heat-producing
compliant and design appliances of any kind.
The governing bodies for the different fuels used
with heating appliances are:
Heat-producing appliances ● gas – Gas Safe, www.gassaferegister.co.uk
So far in this chapter, we have looked at the different ● oil – OFTEC, www.oftec.org
central heating systems and their layouts. In this part of ● solid fuel – HETAS, www.hetas.co.uk

the chapter, we will investigate the different appliances

we can use to generate the heat required to warm the
systems and the different fuels they use. Solid fuel appliances
The most common types of solid fuel appliances are:
Boilers used for central heating systems are generally
● open fires with a high-output back boiler
heated by one of three different fuels. These are:
● room heaters
1 solid fuel
● cookers (Aga type)
2 gas
● independent boilers.
3 oil.

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 Table 7.7 Comparison of appliance types to fuel types

Room sealed (fan assisted)

Open fire with high output

Room sealed (natural

independent boilers

Non-condensing

System boilers
Freestanding /

Room heaters
Wall mounted

Condensing

(traditional)
Open flued

back boiler
draught)

Cookers
Solid fuel ü û û ü û û ü û ü ü ü
Gas ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü û û
Oil ü û ü ü ü ü ü ü ü û û

Open fires with a high-output back boiler They are installed directly into a chimney or open flue
High-output back boilers are installed behind a real capable of accepting solid fuel, and can either be stand
open coal fire. These appliances give their heat output alone or fitted into chimney breasts with a high-output
in two forms: back boiler capable of serving up to ten heat emitters.
1 radiation from the open fire for direct room heating Room heaters provide radiant heat for direct warmth
2 hot water from the boiler, which is available for and a constant circulation of convected heat.
domestic hot water supply and central heating.
Flue
Convected heat

Heating flow

Water jacket Radiated heat

Heating return

Ash

p Figure 7.23 Solid fuel high-output back boiler p Figure 7.24 A room heater cut-away

These appliances work on an open flue or chimney, and

contain a manual flue damper to regulate the amount
of updraught through the chimney. By regulating
the updraught, a certain amount of control can be
administered over the heat of the fire. Typically, with
the damper open, a fire of this type will give around 6.8
kW to 10 kW of hot water heating output and, with the
damper closed, outputs vary from 5.3 kW to 8.4 kW.
Radiated heat outputs from the coal fire directly into
the room peak at around 2.6 kW.

Room heaters
A solid fuel room heater is an enclosed appliance
usually with a glass door so that the fire can be viewed. p Figure 7.25 A solid fuel room heater

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Solid fuel cookers (Aga type) 2 Batch feed boilers: these are ‘hand fired’ appliances
Open-flued solid fuel cookers have been around for requiring manual stoking. They require much
many years. The concept of the solid fuel cooker is very more refuelling than hopper-fed boilers. They can,
simple: a controllable fire, burning continuously, inside however, be less expensive to run in some cases and
a well-insulated cast iron shell, which retains the heat. will often operate without the need for an electrical
When cooking is required, the heat is transferred to supply, thereby providing hot water and central
the ovens. The hot plates, because they are always hot, heating during power failure.
are covered with insulated cast iron covers, which lift Flue
up when hot-plate cooking is required. Many models
provide hot water and central heating as well as
Heating flow
radiated heat in the room where they are fitted. Fuel hopper

Solid fuel cookers burn a wide variety of solid fuels,

including wood, and all have easy to empty ash pans so Water jacket Combustion fan

that the fire never goes out. Air

Heating return

Ash door
Ash

p Figure 7.27 Gravity-fed boiler

Flue damper
Flue

Heating flow
Air

Refuelling door

Water jacket
p Figure 7.26 An Aga-type solid fuel cooker

Heating return
Independent boilers (freestanding)
Air
Domestic open-flued independent solid fuel boilers Ash Ash door
are designed to provide both domestic hot water and
central heating in a whole range of domestic premises,
from the very large to the very small. p Figure 7.28 Batch fed boiler

There are two main types of independent boiler for

domestic use. These are as follows. HEALTH AND SAFETY
1 Gravity feed boilers: often called hopper-fed The main danger with gravity feed boilers is the risk
boilers, these appliances incorporate a large hopper, of fire in the hopper. The fuel fed to the fire bed
needs to be regulated with care.
positioned above the firebox, which can hold two
or three days’ supply of small-sized anthracite. The
fuel is fed automatically to the fire bed as required
Gas central heating boilers
and an in-built, thermostatically controlled fan aids
combustion. This provides a rapid response to an Gas central heating boilers are the most popular of all
increase in demand. They are available in a wide central heating appliances. Over the years there have
range of sizes and outputs. been many different types, from large multi-sectional

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 Table 7.8 The different kinds of boiler and their flue arrangements

Room sealed (fan assisted)

Cast iron heat exchanger

Room sealed (natural

Sealed (pressurised)
Open vented system
Low water content
Energy efficient

Wall mounted

Freestanding
Open flue

draught)
system
Traditional boilers          
Condensing boilers          
System boilers          
Combination boilers          

cast iron domestic boilers to small, low water content Traditional boilers (condensing)
condensing types. Both natural gas (those that burn A condensing traditional boiler does not give
a methane-based gas) and LPG (those that burn instantaneous hot water. It requires to be installed
propane) types are available. Gas burning boilers may in conjunction with a hot water storage system and
be converted into hydrogen boilers in the future as heating system. It contains an expansion vessel, filling
environmental considerations are made. loop and pressure relief valve, and does not require a
Central heating boilers can be categorised as: feed and expansion cistern.
● traditional boilers (non-condensing)

● traditional (condensing)
Boilers with cast iron heat exchangers
● cast iron heat exchanger For many years, boilers were made with cast iron heat
● low water content heat exchanger exchangers. They were often very large and heavy, even
● combination boilers for small domestic systems. Some heat exchangers
● condensing boilers (system and combination were made from cast iron, which was cast in a single
boilers). block, while older types were made up of cast iron
sections that were bolted together. The more sections a
KEY POINT boiler had, the bigger the heat output.
The different types of commercially available Fuel efficiency was, typically, 55 to 78 per cent, with
gas are dealt with in Chapter 10, Domestic fuel much wasted heat escaping through the flue. Most
systems.
traditional boilers were fitted onto open vented
systems but sealed (pressurised) systems could also be
Traditional boilers (non-condensing) installed with the inclusion of an external expansion
vessel and associated controls.
Traditional non-condensing boilers have been around
for many years and in many different forms. Usually, Cast iron boilers can be found either freestanding
they contain cast iron heat exchangers, although (floor mounted) or wall mounted, using a variety of
some models are low water content with copper or flue types:
aluminium heat exchangers. ● open flued

● room sealed (natural draught)

● fan-assisted room sealed (forced draught).

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 Table 7.9 Advantages and disadvantages of cast iron heat Combination boilers (non-condensing)
exchangers
Combination boilers that supply instantaneous hot
Advantages Disadvantages water as well as central heating have been around for
Long lasting, typically Heavy many years. Early models, although wall mounted,
20 to 30 years Not energy efficient were very large. Most had a sealed (pressurised) heating
Very robust Do not comply with Building system but some were of the low pressure, open
Regulations Document L vented type. Hot water flow rates were often poor by
Noisy comparison to modern condensing types.
Very basic boiler controls
Early combination boilers can be found with a variety
of flue types:
Boilers with low water content heat ● open flued
exchangers ● room sealed (natural draught)
Low water content heat exchangers were usually made ● fan-assisted room sealed (forced draught).
from copper tube with aluminium fins or lightweight
Combustion air in
cast iron. They were an attempt to reduce the water
Flue gas outlet
content of the heating system, thus speeding up heating Combustion air in
Return Fan
times and improving efficiency. Typical efficiencies for Flow
this type of boiler were around 82 per cent.
The boilers were always wall mounted, very light in
weight and, as a consequence, often quite small in
High-limit thermostat
size, designed for fully pumped S- and Y-plan heating
Low water heat exchanger
systems only. They were the first generation of central
heating boilers to use a high temperature limiting Combustion chamber
thermostat (or energy cut-out) to guard against Pilot light
overheating, and often used a basic printed circuit
Gas burner
board to initiate a pump overrun, which kept the
Thermocouple
pump running for a short period after the boiler had
Interrupter
shut down. It was required to dissipate any latent heat
build-up in the water in the heat exchanger as this could Multi-function control
‘trip’ the energy cut-out resulting in boiler lock-out.
Low water content boilers can be found with a variety Gas pipe
of flue types: Boiler thermostat
● open flued

● room sealed (natural draught)  Figure 7.29 A fan-assisted low water content boiler
● fan-assisted room sealed (forced draught).
 Table 7.11 Advantages and disadvantages of non-condensing
 Table 7.10 Advantages and disadvantages of low water content combination boilers
boilers
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages Instantaneous Not energy efficient
Light in weight Not energy efficient hot water supply Very large in size
Often a Do not comply with Building Regulations Sealed system Do not comply with Building Regulations
cheaper Document L means no F Document L
appliance Could be very noisy and E cistern
Can be very noisy
Relatively fast required in the
Relatively short working life High maintenance compared with other
water-heating roof space
High maintenance compared with other boilers
times
boilers Poor hot water flow rates
Difficult to maintain

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Condensing boilers Modern condensing boilers are around 94 per cent

A more recent addition to the gas central heating efficient, releasing only 6 per cent of wasted heat in the
family is the condensing boiler. These work in a very cooler flue gases to the atmosphere. Some advantages
different way from the traditional boiler. and disadvantages of condensing boilers are listed in
Table 7.12.
Natural gas, when it is combusted, contains CO2,
nitrogen and water vapour. As the flue gases cool, the
 Table 7.12 Advantages and disadvantages of condensing
water vapour condenses to form water droplets. It is boilers
this process that condensing boilers use.
Advantages Disadvantages
With a condensing boiler, the flue gases first pass over Building Regulations Document L High maintenance
the primary heat exchanger, which extracts about 80 compliant compared with other
per cent of the heat. The flue gases, which still contain Very high efficiency boilers
20 per cent of latent heat, are then passed over a Sealed (pressurised) system gives Siting of the condense
better heating flow rates pipework can often
secondary heat exchanger where a further 12–14 per prove difficult
cent of the heat is extracted. When this happens, the System corrosion can be reduced
Does not work if the
gases cool to their ‘dew point’, condensing the water Very quiet in operation
condense line freezes
vapour inside the boiler as water droplets, which are Can be used with all modern fully during cold weather
pumped heating systems (system
then collected in the condensate trap before being Use more gas when not
boilers)
in condensing mode
allowed to fall to drain via the condensate pipe. The No F and E cistern required in the
process gives condensing boilers their distinctive roof space
‘plume’ of water vapour during operation, which is Very good flow rate on hot water
often mistaken for steam. supply (condensing combination
boilers)

KEY TERM
The types of boiler that can be used with wet central
Dew point: the temperature at which the moisture heating systems fall into three distinct categories:
within a gas is released to form water droplets.
1 system boilers
When a gas reaches its dew point, the temperature
has been cooled to the point where the gas can no 2 traditional boilers
longer hold the water and it is released in the form 3 combination boilers.
of ‘dew’, or water droplets.
System boilers
Flue gas A system boiler is an appliance where all necessary
outlet safety and operational controls are included and fitted
Combustion
air in
Flow directly to the boiler. There is no need for a separate
Primary heat expansion vessel, pressure relief valve or filling loop,
exchanger
Secondary and this makes the installation much simpler.
heat
exchanger
Return
Traditional boilers
A traditional boiler does not contain any form of
expansion vessel or operational controls, such as the
Fan
pump or filling loop. It is, however, a condensing boiler.

Condensing trap Combination boilers

In recent years, combination boilers have become one
p Figure 7.30 How a condensing boiler works
of the most popular forms of central heating in the
UK. A combination boiler provides central heating and

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The system boiler has all the components for a sealed system contained within the boiler unit. It is filled directly from the mains cold
water via a filling loop which is often fitted by the boiler manufacturer.

Expansion vessel

Pressure
gauge

Temporary filling loop with double check valve arrangement

Pressure relief valve and discharge pipe

p Figure 7.31 A sealed system with a system boiler

instantaneous hot water supply from a single appliance. Hydrogen is a very efficient fuel. For example, 1 kg of
Modern combination boilers are very efficient and hydrogen has the same energy as 2.8 kg of petrol.
contain all the safety controls (i.e. expansion vessel,
pressure relief valve) of a sealed system. Most ‘combis’ Oil-fired central heating appliances
also have an integral filling loop. Oil-fired boilers use two different firing methods:
1 pressure jets or atomising burners
Hydrogen boilers 2 vaporising burners.
In the UK, most domestic properties are connected to
the gas mains and run their boiler on gas. Hydrogen is Pressure jet or atomising burners
a low-carbon alternative that in the future could reach Pressure jet burners use an oil burner that mixes air and
each home through the same gas network. In this fuel. An electric motor drives a fuel pump and an air
way it could enable each householder to reduce their fan. The fuel pump forces the fuel through a fine nozzle,
carbon footprint. It is currently not possible to purchase breaking the oil down into an oil mist. This is then mixed
a hydrogen boiler, although manufacturers are already with air from the fan and ignited by a spark electrode.
manufacturing protypes. They will be similar to natural Once it is lit, the burner will continue to burn as long as
gas boilers except for the fuel they burn. Engineers there is a supply of air and fuel in the correct ratio.
would need to be re-trained to install, service and
Oil pressure jet-type boilers are installed on all modern
maintain hydrogen boilers. Currently it is too expensive
oil-fired central heating systems, including condensing
to produce large enough quantities of hydrogen to
system boilers, condensing ‘combi boilers’ and wall-
meet demand but technology will soon catch up.
mounted types.

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Fire valve Flue

Stop valve Flue
Heating
Control box flow
Heating
Oil pump flow
Oil tank Stop valve Oil tank Stop valve
Water
Water jacket
jacket Fire valve
Stop Heating
Heating valve return
return

Filter Oil flow Vaporising

Filter Blast Boiler
control burner
tube lining

p Figure 7.32 A pressure jet oil burner installation p Figure 7.33 A vaporising oil burner installation

 Table 7.13 Advantages and disadvantages of pressure jet oil

burner-type boilers Typical flue systems for
Advantages Disadvantages central heating appliances
Building Regulations Document L High maintenance
compliant compared with gas
All central heating appliances need a flue to remove
Very high efficiency boilers the products of combustion safely to the outside. The
Sealed (pressurised) system gives Noisy in operation basic concept is to produce an updraught, whether
better heating flow rates Needs an oil tank by natural means or by the use of a fan, to eject the
Can be used with all modern fully for fuel storage fumes away from the building. There are two flue
pumped heating systems (system concepts:
boilers)
1 open flues
No F and E cistern required in the roof
2 room sealed (balanced) flues.
space (system and combination types)
Very good flow rate on hot water supply  Table 7.15 Boiler/flue arrangements
(condensing combination boilers)
Can be used in areas where there is
Open flue (natural

Room sealed (fan

Open flue (forced

no gas supply (natural draught)

Room sealed

Vaporising burners
assisted)
draught)

draught)

Vaporising burners work on gravity oil feed. There is

no pump. The oil flows to the burner, where a small
Solid fuel ü ü  
oil heater warms the oil until vapour is given off and it boilers
is the vapour that is then ignited by a small electrode.
Gas boilers ü ü ü ü
As the oil burns, vapour is produced continually, which
Pressure jet  ü  ü
keeps the burner alight. oil burners
They are generally used only in oil-fired cookers. Vaporising ü   
oil burners
 Table 7.14 Advantages and disadvantages of vaporising oil
burner-type boilers
Advantages Disadvantages
Very quiet in operation Very limited use (cookers only)

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Open flues KEY TERMS

The open flue is the simplest of all flues. Because heat Terminal: the terminal of a flue system is the last
rises, it relies on the heat of the flue gases to create an section of the flue before the flue gases evacuate
updraught. There are two different types: to the atmosphere. Different boilers and fuels
1 natural draught require different terminals.
2 forced draught. Forced draught: the use of a purpose-designed
fan to create a positive updraught by forcing the
Terminal
products of combustion up the flue.
Products of combustion
escape through the terminal

Room sealed (balanced) flues

This boiler draws its air for combustion direct from
Secondary flue
outside through the same flue assembly used to
discharge the flue products. This boiler is inherently
safer than an ‘open flue’ type, since there is no direct
route for flue products to spill back into the room.
There are two basic types:
Deflector plate
1 natural draught
Draught diverter 2 fan assisted (forced draught).
Air drawn in through the
draught diverter Primary flue Natural draught
Natural draught room sealed appliances have been
Flow
around for many years and there are still many
Return
Combustion chamber
thousands in existence. The basic principle is very
simple – both the combustion air (fresh air in) and the
Combustion air products of combustion (flue gases out) are situated in
Gas burner
the same position outside the building. The products
p Figure 7.34 The operation of an open flue of combustion are evacuated from the boiler through
a duct that runs through the combustion air duct, one
With a boiler having this type of flue, air for
inside the other.
combustion is taken from the room in which the boiler
is located. The products of combustion are removed The boiler terminals are either square or rectangular
vertically by natural draught into the atmosphere, and quite large in size. Terminal position is critical
through a suitable terminal. The room must have a to avoid fumes going back into the building through
route for combustion air direct from outside. This is windows and doors.
usually supplied through an air brick on an outside
wall. All natural draught open flue appliances work in Fan assisted (forced draught)
this way. The material from which the flue is made, Fan-assisted room sealed appliances work in the same
however, will differ depending on the type of fuel used. way as their natural draught cousins, with the products
of combustion outlet positioned in the same place
Occasionally, an open flue may be forced draught. This
(generally) as the combustion air intake but there are
is where a purpose-designed fan is positioned either
two distinct differences:
before the combustion chamber or close to the primary
1 the process is aided by a fan, which ensures the
flue. The fan helps to create a positive updraught
positive and safe evacuation of all combustion
by blowing the products of combustion up the flue.
products and any unburnt gas that may escape
Forced draught open flues are not suitable for all open
2 the flue terminal is circular, much smaller and
flue types and their use will depend upon the boiler
can be positioned in many more places than its
manufacturer and the boiler/flue design.
predecessors.

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a positive pressure within the boiler casing. This

positive pressure caused some problems with
Fresh boiler seals, so the fan position was changed to the
air inlet
flue gas outlet sucking air through the boiler and
creating a negative pressure within the boiler. Nearly
all condensing boilers use this principle.

Flue
District heating
gases This is a form of heat that is produced centrally and
outlet
then supplied to either individual houses or larger
Gas burner
buildings. Often based on a combined heat and power
(CHP) system, it is a form of heating that has been
successfully used in many cities as it is most effective
Room sealed where there is a high density of properties or buildings.
boiler casing
There is one large heat source which is run very
efficiently. This is linked to properties by a network
of highly insulated pipes. Steam or high temperature
water passes down the pipework to a set of plate heat
p Figure 7.35 The operation of a natural draught room sealed
boiler exchangers or heat interface units (HIU), which in turn
transfer the required heat to each property’s system.
The overall effect is efficiency, an overall reduction in
Fresh CO2 emissions and a saving on running costs.
air inlet
Fan
Flue
gases
outlet
ACTIVITY
Fresh Read about the district heating project based in this
air inlet UK city: www.theade.co.uk/news/market-news/
how-a-hidden-london-power-plant-is-tackling-the-uks-
energy-needs

Gas burner
Common heat emitters
So far in this chapter, we have looked at heating
systems and the appliances that drive them. Here, we
will look at the methods of getting the heat into the
Room sealed
boiler casing
room or dwelling. For this, we need to look at the many
different types of heat emitter that are available. These
include:
● panel radiators
p Figure 7.36 The operation of a fan-assisted room sealed boiler
● column radiators
There are two very different versions of the fan- ● low surface temperature radiators
assisted room sealed boiler. These are: ● fan convectors
1 the fan positioned on the combustion products ● wall mounted
outlet from the heat exchanger; this creates a ● kick space
desired negative pressure within the casing ● towel warmers
2 the fan positioned on the fresh air inlet blowing a ● towel warmers with integral panel radiators
mixture of gas and air to the burner; this creates ● skirting heating.

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Panel radiators Connections to radiators

Modern panel convectors/radiators are designed to Radiator connections are classified by their
emit heat by convection and radiation (refer to Chapter abbreviations. For example:
3, Scientific principles, to read more about this); 70 per ● TBOE means top bottom opposite end (used on

cent of the heat is convected. They have fins (often heat sink radiators with solid fuel systems and one-
called a convector) welded to the back of the radiator, pipe systems)
which serve to warm the cold air that passes through ● BBOE means bottom bottom opposite end (the

them, creating warm air currents, which flow into the usual method of radiator connection)
room. This dramatically improves the efficiency of the ● TBSE means top bottom same end (used with some

radiator. Steel radiators that do not have fins rely on one-pipe systems).
radiant heat alone and this leads to cold spots in the The most common types of radiators are shown In
room. Positioning of the radiator is, therefore, critical. Figure 7.37.
Radiators should be sited on a clear wall with no
obstructions, such as window sills, above it. If this is not
possible, enough space should be left between the top
of the radiator and the obstruction to allow the warm
air to circulate. Single
Single
SingleSingleSingle
Single
SingleSingle Double
Double
Double
Double Double
Double
Double
Double
panel
panel
panelpanel panel
panel
panelpanel panel
panel panelpanel panel
panel
panelpanel
It is recommended by radiator manufacturers that single
single
singlesingle single
single
singlesingle double
double
double
double
convector
convector convector convector
convector convector
convector
convector convector
convector
convector
convector
radiators should be fitted at least 150 mm from finsfinsfins fins finsfinsfins fins finsfinsfins fins
finished floor level to the bottom of the radiator
(depending on the height of the skirting board), to allow
air circulation.

KEY POINT p Figure 7.37 Types of panel radiator

Radiator standard BS EN 442
Radiators must now meet the above BS EN Manufacturers provide a wide range of heights, from
number, which supersedes the old British 300 mm high through to 900 mm, and lengths from
Standard which was BS 3528. After years of 400 mm increasing by 100/200 mm increments
testing in Europe the certification of ‘rads’ was
through to 3 m.
brought up to date to ensure that all radiators
met the minimum thickness, pressure tolerance, It is important that radiators are fitted according to
treatment and paint quality which helps with the manufacturer’s instructions if the best output
limiting corrosion.
performance is to be achieved. Outputs vary from
Under these tests, the technical committee manufacturer to manufacturer.
responsible for the changes use something called
Delta T (ΔT) to set the new standard. Delta T There are three different styles of radiator, as follows.
defines the difference between the water (delta) 1 Seamed top: this is a very common style of radiator
temperature in the radiator and the ambient air that was for many years the market leader. Top
temperature (T) in a room. As water passes from
grilles and side panels are available for this radiator
the flow and returns through the radiator it will
give away the energy it has obtained from the style.
boiler. Delta T is set to certain data standards 2 Compact: these have factory-fitted top grilles and
to ensure that the least amount of energy is lost side panels, making them a more attractive radiator
from the radiator, helping to reduce the use of style. These are currently the most popular radiator
natural resources without reducing the radiator’s style available.
performance.
3 Rolled top: the least popular of all radiator styles.
They are somewhat old-fashioned looking, with
exposed welded seams either side.

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Hanging a radiator Decide which way the brackets are to be fixed, then
1 Before hanging the radiator, you must decide place the bracket against the marked position on the
how close you want it to be to the wall. Radiator wall, making sure that the bottom of the bracket is
brackets have two options – near and far – sitting on the bottom bracket mark. Mark the fixing
therefore, select the one that is best for the position.
installation and the customer. Maximising the 8 For masonry walls: using a suitable masonry drill
space between the radiator and the wall increases bit, drill the four bracket holes (a 7 mm masonry
convection. drill bit and brown wall plugs are usually suitable).
2 Mark the centre of the radiator and the position of Screw the brackets to the wall using 50 mm × no.
the radiator brackets. 10 screws.
3 Place a radiator bracket into position on the 9 For timber-studded walls: use plasterboard fixings
radiator and measure from the bottom of the that are capable of carrying the weight of the
bracket to the bottom of the radiator. This is radiator plus the water inside.
usually (depending on the manufacturer) 50 mm. 10 Hang the radiator onto the brackets. Check that it is
This is measurement A. level using a spirit level and that it is 150 mm from
4 Mark the centre of the position of the radiator on the finished floor level.
the wall where the radiator is to be hung. Position of radiator bracket
5 Place the radiator against the wall on the centre line
and mark the position of the brackets on the wall.
Using a spirit level, draw two vertical lines where
the brackets are to be fixed. Measurement from bottom
of the radiator to the bottom
6 Radiators are best hung at 150 mm from the floor of the bracket
(depending on the skirting board height) to allow air This is measurement A
circulation through the fins, so add measurement
A to 150 mm and mark across the two bracket Radiator centre line
marks on the wall, using a spirit level.
p Figure 7.38 Marking radiator bracket positions on the radiator
7 Radiator brackets can usually be hung either with
the radiator close to the wall, or with a larger gap.

Centre line of the radiator position

Radiator bracket position

Distance between bottom

of the bracket and the Radiator bracket height
bottom of the radiator (A)
Bottom of radiator
Skirting board 150 mm to bottom of the radiator (B)

(A) + (B) = height to the bottom of the radiator brackets

p Figure 7.39 Marking heights on the wall

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Centre line of the radiator position

Radiator bracket position

Radiator bracket height

Bottom of radiator
Skirting board

p Figure 7.40 Marking bracket positions on the wall

Dressing a radiator name suggests, they are made up of columns; the more
Dressing a radiator involves getting the radiator ready columns the radiator has, the better the heat output.
for hanging by putting in the valves, the air release They are increasingly being used with modern heating
valve and the plug. The process is as follows. systems, especially on period refurbishments.
1 Carefully remove the radiator from its packing. Column radiators can be made from three different
Inside the packing you will find the hanging metals, these being traditional cast iron, steel and
brackets, the air release valve and the plug – and, aluminium, with many modern column radiator designs
often, small ‘u’-shaped pieces of plastic, which are now being produced by a variety of manufacturers.
to be placed on the brackets where the radiator fits.
These are designed to prevent the radiator from
rattling.
2 Take out the factory-fitted plugs. Be careful here,
especially if you are working in a furnished property,
as the radiator often contains a small amount of
water from when it was tested at the factory.
3 Split the valves at the valve unions and wrap PTFE
tape around the valve tail. Between 10 and 15 wraps
will ensure the joint between tail and radiator does
not leak. This may seem an awful lot of PTFE but the
½-inch female sockets on radiators are notoriously
slightly oversized and this leads to leaks.
4 Make the tail into the radiator using a radiator p Figure 7.41 Modern column radiator
spanner.
5 Insert and tighten the air release valve and plug Low surface temperature radiators
using an adjustable spanner. (LSTs)
Domestic panel radiators have ½-inch BSP female Low surface temperature radiators (LSTs) were
threads at either side, top and bottom, and these will specifically designed to conform to the NHS
accept a variety of radiator valves. One end of the Estates guidance note ‘Safe hot water and surface
radiator has an air release valve, with the other end temperatures’, which states that:
being blanked by the use of a plug. These are usually Heating devices should not exceed 43°C when
supplied by the radiator manufacturer. the system is running at maximum design
output.
Column radiators
This has been adopted not only by the NHS but also
Column radiators (often known as hospital or church
local authorities and commercial buildings installations
radiators) have been available for many years. As the

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where the general public may have access, including

residential care homes and schools. LSTs are also
becoming popular in domestic installations, especially
in children’s bedrooms and nurseries, and where the
elderly, infirm or disabled are likely to come into
contact with radiators.

Fan convectors
Fan convectors work on the same basic principle as
traditional finned radiators. A finned copper heat
exchanger is housed in a casing, which also contains p Figure 7.43 Installation of a kick-space fan convector
a low-volume electrically operated fan. As the heat
exchanger becomes hot, a thermostat operates the
fan and the warm air is blown into the room. Because
Tubular towel warmers
the warm air is forced into the room, more heat can These are available in a range of different designs and
be extracted from the hot, circulating water. Once the colours, and are often referred to as designer towel
desired temperature has been reached, the fan is again rails. They can be supplied for use with wet central
switched off by the thermostat. heating systems with an electrical element option, for
use during the summer when the heating system is not
required. They are usually mounted vertically on the
wall and can be installed in bathrooms and kitchens.

p Figure 7.42 The operation of a fan convector

Fan convectors tend to be larger than traditional

radiators and they also require a mains electric
p Figure 7.44 A tubular towel rail
connection, usually via a switched fuse spur. There are
two separate types of fan convector, as follows.
1 Wall mounted: these tend to be quite large in size. Towel warmers with integral panel
The manufacturer’s data should be consulted to radiators
allow the correct heat output to be selected. Less popular than tubular towel rails, these heat
2 Kick-space heaters: specifically designed for kitchen emitters combine a towel rail and radiator into one
use where space to mount a radiator is limited. They unit. They allow a towel to be warmed without
are installed under a kitchen unit and blow warm air affecting the convection current from the radiator.
via a grille mounted on the kick plinth. They are generally installed only in bathrooms.

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In this section, we will look at the most common of the

mechanical components and controls used on domestic
central heating systems.

Radiator valves: thermostatic and

manual valves
There is a wide selection of radiator valves available
from many different manufacturers. There are three
basic types of radiator valve (thermostatic, wheel head
and lockshield), as described below.

Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs)

These control the temperature of the room by
controlling the flow of water through the radiator.
They react to air temperature. TRVs have a heat-
sensitive head that contains a cartridge, which is filled
with either a liquid, gas or wax, and this expands and
contracts with heat. As the room heats up, the wax/
gas/liquid cartridge expands and pushes down on a pin
on the valve body. The pin closes and opens the valve
as the room heats up or cools down. The valve head
p Figure 7.45 A towel rail with integral panel radiator has a number of temperature settings to allow a range
of room temperatures to be selected.
Skirting heating
Document L1 of the Building Regulations requires
Skirting heating consists of a finned copper tubular heat
that TRVs are installed on new installations to control
exchanger in a metal casing that replaces the skirting
individual room temperatures, and on all radiators
boards in a room. It is usually used where unobtrusive
except the radiator where the room thermostat is fitted.
heat emitters are required. Skirting heating can be used
as perimeter heating below glazing or for background Most TRVs are bi-directional. This means that they
heat in some areas. can be fitted on either the flow or the return. TRVs
are now available in a digital format to aid the control
The heat output, at 450 watts per metre, is quite low,
of water through the system and give more accurate
which means that, to be effective, the skirting heating
temperature control.
would need to be at floor level on all walls of the
room to off-set the room heat losses, although the Wheel head valves
heat coverage is very similar to that experienced with
These allow manual control of the radiator by being
specialist underfloor heating.
turned on or off. The valve is turned on by rotating the
One disadvantage is that efficiency is reduced by dust wheel head anti-clockwise and turned off by rotating
collecting in the fins. clockwise.

Mechanical central heating Lockshield valves

components These are designed to be operated only by a plumber
and not by the householder. They are adjusted during
Mechanical central heating components are those that
system balancing to regulate the flow of water
do not use electricity but still play a vital role in helping
through the radiator. The lockshield head covers the
to ensure the correct and efficient operation of the
valve mechanism. They can be turned off for radiator
system.
removal.

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other paths for the water close, such as circuits with

KEY POINT motorised valves and radiator circuits with thermostatic
What is balancing a central heating system radiator valves. This occurs as the hot water circuit
and what does it involve? and heating circuit/thermostatic radiator valves begin
Balancing a system is ensuring an even heat to reach their full temperature. As the circuits close,
distribution to all of the radiators in the system. the bypass will gradually open, maintaining circulation
Water will always take the line of least resistance
and this means that the radiators nearer to the
through the boiler and reducing noise in the system due
circulating pump will always get more than their to water velocity. Most boiler manufacturers require a
fair share of heat. This is detrimental to the bypass to be fitted to maintain a minimum flow rate
furthest radiators on the system and has the through the boiler, to prevent overheating.
effect of slowing down the heating effect.
Automatic bypass valves are much better than fixed
Balancing is simply evening out the heat
distribution by restricting the flow of water to the bypass valves, as these, being permanently open, take
quickest radiators by simply adjusting the flow the flow of hot water away from the critical parts
rate through the lockshield valves. This has the of the system, which increases the heating time for
effect of slowing the heat circulation through the both hot water and heating circuits. This reduces the
quick radiators and increasing the flow rate to the efficiency of the system and increases fuel usage.
slower, furthest-away radiators, thus balancing the
heat distribution throughout the system.

Automatic air valves

Automatic air valves are fitted where air is expected to
collect in the system, usually at high points. They allow
the collected air to escape from the system but seal
themselves when water arrives at the valve.
When water reaches the valve, the float arm rises,
Position of an automatic bypass valve
closing the valve. As more air reaches the valve, the
float momentarily drops, allowing the air out of the p Figure 7.47 Automatic bypass valve
system. These valves are often used with a check valve
that prevents air from being drawn into the system Thermo-mechanical cylinder control valves
backwards through the valve. Thermo-mechanical cylinder control valves are non-
electrical valves used to control the temperature of a
hot water cylinder. They are mainly used with gravity
Air outlet primary circulation as part of an upgrade to give some
Air cap control over secondary hot water temperature. The
Rubber Domestic Heating Compliance Guide states that:
sealing
washer
Float
For replacement systems where only the hot
water cylinder is being replaced and where hot
water is on a gravity circulation system, a
thermo-mechanical cylinder thermostat should
be installed as a minimum provision.
p Figure 7.46 Automatic air valve
This means that if the hot water cylinder only is
being replaced and no control over the hot water
Automatic bypass valves
temperature exists, then a thermo-mechanical
The automatic bypass valve controls the flow of
thermostat is the minimum standard of hot water
water across the flow and return circuit of fully
control required to comply with Document L of the
pumped heating systems by opening automatically as
Building Regulations.

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Thermo-mechanical thermostats work on the principle

of thermal expansion of a liquid or gas, in much the
same way as thermostatic radiator valves except,
with this valve, it is the temperature of the water that
is sensed by a remote sensor. The sensor should be
placed about a third of the way up from the bottom of
the cylinder.

p Figure 7.49 Expansion vessel

The expansion vessel

The expansion vessel is a key component of the
system. It replaces the feed and expansion cistern
on the vented system and allows the expansion
of water to take place safely. It comprises a steel
p Figure 7.48 Thermo-mechanical thermostat cylinder that is divided in two by a neoprene
rubber diaphragm.
Anti-gravity valves
On one end of the expansion vessel is a Schrader air
Anti-gravity valves prevent unwanted gravity
pressure valve where air is pumped into the vessel to
circulation to the upstairs radiators on semi-gravity
1 bar pressure; this forces the neoprene diaphragm to
systems when only the hot water is being heated. They
virtually fill the whole of the vessel.
are essential on all semi-gravity systems and especially
in those systems fuelled by solid fuel. Anti-gravity On the other end is a ½-inch male BSP thread and this
valves should be positioned on the vertical flow to the is the connection point to the system. When mains-
upstairs heating circuit. pressure cold water enters the heating system via the
filling loop and the system is filled to a pressure of
Anti-gravity valves are very similar in design to the around 1 bar, the water forces the diaphragm backwards
single check valves mentioned in earlier chapters. They away from the vessel walls, compressing the air slightly
allow water to flow in only one direction and, when the as the water enters the vessel. At this point, the pressure
heating system is off, they are in the closed position. In on both sides of the diaphragm is 1 bar.
this position, gravity circulation cannot take place. As
soon as the central heating circulating pump switches As the water is heated, expansion takes place. The
on, the flow of the water opens the valve to allow expanded water forces the diaphragm backwards,
heating circulation. compressing the air behind it still further and, since water
cannot be compressed, the system pressure increases.
Drain valves On cooling, the water contracts, the air in the expansion
Drain valves should be fitted at the lowest points in vessel forces the water back into the system and the
the heating installation to allow complete draining of pressure reduces to its original pressure of 1 bar.
the water in the system, and this includes all radiators, Periodically, the pressure in the vessel may require
especially if the flow and returns to the radiators are topping up. This can be done by removing the cap on
on vertical drops from above. For this purpose, radiator the Schrader valve and pumping the vessel up to its
valves with built-in drain valves are available. original pressure with a foot pump.

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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS So, the expansion factor (e) = 0.0330

Now, we must use this in another equation.
How much expansion takes place?
To find the amount of expansion of water in a
The amount of expansion that takes place will depend system containing 250 litres of water operating at a
on how many litres of water the heating system maximum temperature of 85°C, the equation is:
contains. As we have found in previous chapters, eC
water expands at atmospheric pressure by 4 per cent V=
when it is heated but, in this case, the water is under p1
1–
pressure, so by how much does pressurised water p2
expand? Where:
To answer this question, we must first calculate the V = The total volume of the expansion vessel
expansion factor, which can be used to calculate water C = The total volume of water in the system in litres
expansion for a given volume and pressure. If the (250 litres)
density of the cold water and the density of the water
p1 = The fill pressure in bar pressure (1 bar)
at maximum operating temperature are known, this is a
fairly simple exercise. The calculation is as follows: p2 = The setting of the pressure relief valve in bar
d1 – d2 pressure (3 bar)
e = The expansion factor (0.0330)
d2
If these are entered into the equation, the equation
Where:
becomes:
d1 = density of water at filling temperature (kg/m3)
0.0330 × 250
d2 = density of water at maximum operating = 12.36
1
temperature (kg/m3) 1–
3
If the system has 250 litres of water, and the system is As a percentage of 250, 12.36 is:
filled with water at 4°C and the maximum temperature 12.36 × 100
is 85°C, what is the expansion factor? = 4.94%
Water @ 4°C has a density of 1000 kg/m3 250
Therefore:
Water @ 85°C has a density of 968 kg/m3
Water under a pressure of 1 bar when cold expands
The equation therefore is:
by 4.94 per cent when heated to 85°C.
1000 – 968
= 0.0330
968

The pressure relief valve

INDUSTRY TIP
The pressure relief valve (also known as the expansion
valve) is installed onto the system to protect against Pressure relief valves are most likely to open because of lack
over-pressurisation of the water. Pressure relief valves of room in the system for expansion due to a malfunction with
are usually set to 3 bar pressure. If the water pressure the expansion vessel. This can be caused by:
rises above the maximum pressure that the valve is set l the diaphragm in the expansion vessel rupturing,
to, the valve opens and discharges the excess water allowing water both sides of the diaphragm
pressure safely to the outside of the property through l the vessel having lost its charge of air.

the discharge pipework. The pressure relief valve will

open if the expansion vessel fails and the system
pressure rises. When the valve opens it will drip hot
system water to a safe location.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

prevention device, when used with a pressure reducing

valve, can be used instead of a removable filling loop to
connect a domestic heating system direct to the water
undertaker’s cold water supply. This is possible because
the water in a domestic heating system is classified as
fluid category 3 risk. A CA device can also be installed
on a commercial heating system but only when the
boiler is rated up to 45 kW. Over 45 kW, the water in
the system is classified as fluid category 4 risk and so
any permanent connection would require a type BA
RPZ valve. An example of a CA backflow prevention
p Figure 7.50 A pressure relief valve device can be seen in Chapter 5, Cold water systems.

The filling loop KEY POINT

The filling loop is an essential part of any sealed An RPZ valve, or BA backflow prevention device,
system, and should contain an isolation valve at either is used to protect fluid category 1 water from fluid
category 4 water. They were described in detail in
end of the filling loop and a double check valve on the
Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
mains cold water supply side of the loop. The filling
loop is the means by which sealed central heating
systems are filled with water. Unlike open vented The pressure gauge
systems, sealed systems are filled directly from the
This is to allow the correct water pressure to be
mains cold water via a filling loop. The connection
set within the system. It also acts as a warning of
of a heating system to the mains cold water supply
component failure or an undetected leak should the
constitutes a cross-connection between the cold
pressure begin to inexplicably rise or fall.
main (fluid category 1) and the heating system (fluid
category 3), which is not allowed under the Water
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. The filling loop
The circulating pump
must protect the cold water main from backflow and Circulating pumps were discussed within the fully
this is done in two ways: pumped section (page 367).
1 a filling loop has a type EC verifiable double check
valve included in the filling loop arrangement Low loss headers
2 the filling loop must be disconnected after filling, For a boiler to work at its maximum efficiency, the
creating a type AUK3 air gap for protection against water velocity passing through the heat exchanger
backflow. needs to remain constant, with little fluctuation. This
is especially important for condensing boilers as they
rely on a defined temperature drop across the flow
and return before the condensing mode begins to work
effectively. Installation of a low loss header allows the
creation of two separate circuits. These are shown in
Figure 7.53.
p Figure 7.51 The filling loop 1 The primary circuit: the flow within the primary
circuit can be maintained at the correct rate for
Permanent filling connections to the boilers so that the maximum efficiency of the
sealed heating systems boilers is maintained regardless of the demand
It is possible to permanently connect sealed heating placed on the secondary circuit. Each boiler has its
systems to the mains cold water supply by using a type own shunt pump so that equal velocity through the
CA backflow prevention device. The type CA backflow boilers is maintained.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Pressure gauge

60
40
80

20
100

Type CA
device

Pressure relief valve

and discharge pipework Expansion vessel Cold water supply

p Figure 7.52 A sealed system with CA backflow prevention device

Boiler management control

Zone
controller

Zone
controller
Outdoor
sensor
Zone
valves
Shunt
pumps
Primary circuit Secondary circuit

Hot water cylinder

Boiler shunt pumps Low loss
header

Expansion
vessel
Boiler Boiler Boiler
Pressurising unit

p Figure 7.53 A multiple boiler installation with a low loss header

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

2 The secondary circuits: the secondary circuits 2 For a condensing boiler to go into condensing mode,
allow for varying flow rates demanded by the the return water temperature must be in the region
individual balanced zones or circuits. Each zone of 55°C. In some instances, temperature sensors are
would be controlled by a shunt pump set to the flow fitted to the low loss header to allow temperature
rate for that particular zone. A two-port motorised control over the primary circuit.
zone valve, time clock and room thermostat control
The low loss header is ideal for use with systems that
each zone independently, and these are often fitted
have a variety of different heat emitters. It is the
in conjunction with other controls such as outdoor
perfect place for installing an automatic air valve for
temperature sensors. In some cases, the flow rates
removing unwanted air from the system. Drain points
through each secondary circuit will exceed that
can also be fitted for removing any sediment that may
required by the boilers. In other cases, the opposite
collect in the header. Both of these features are usually
is true and the boiler flow rate will be greater
fitted as standard on most low loss headers.
than the maximum flow rate demanded by the
secondary circuits, especially where multiple boiler Buffer tanks
installations are concerned.
A buffer tank is basically an extremely well-insulated
vessel that holds hot water for circulation around the
INDUSTRY TIP heating system. The primary role of a buffer tank is
In essence, the low loss header can be used on multi-boiler to maintain a minimum volume of hot water in the
or complex systems to ensure correct flow rates throughout heating circuit when demand for the heating is low.
the system. They are usually used with renewable heat sources such
as ground or air source heat pumps. However, they can
also be used in conjunction with gas/oil/wood pellet
Water velocity is just part of the problem. Water
boilers and solar heating where the Sun heats the water
temperature is also important. There are two potential
during the day, which is then used at night to heat the
problems here:
dwelling when it is required.
1 If the difference in temperature between the flow
and return is too great, it puts a huge strain on the Once the water is heated, it acts like a battery,
boiler heat exchangers because of the expansion releasing hot water into the system when the demand
and contraction. This is known as ‘thermal shock’. for heating increases.

Heating circuit 2 Heating circuit 3

Heating circuit 1 Heating circuit 4

Heating zones controlled

4 Modular boilers by a 2 part zone valve, By-pass controlled by a three-port
a room thermostat and motorised valve
a time-clock
Expansion relief pipe By-pass Shunt pump
Twin pump sets with non-return
Pressurisation Flow header valves
unit Expansion Expansion Hot water calorifier
vessel vessel Buffer
vessel Return header

Mains cold water

p Figure 7.54 Installation of a buffer tank

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Expansion joints Electrolytic corrosion

Expansion joints are used in long runs of straight Within central heating systems, there are a number
pipework where excessive expansion would damage of metals; steel radiators, brass valves (brass
the pipework. The expansion is taken up within the contains zinc), copper tubes and stainless steel
joint, thereby protecting the pipework from distortion heat exchangers. On older systems there may also
and damage. They can either be prefabricated loops of be cast iron boilers or parts containing aluminium.
pipework or manufactured bellows that expand and All of these metals lie at different points on the
contract as the pipes heat up and cool down. electromotive series of metals (see Chapter 3,
Scientific principles, page 136) and, once they are
Corrosion protection connected via water (an electrolyte), corrosion begins
Corrosion is probably the biggest problem that takes immediately. This problem is accelerated when the
place within central heating systems and it commonly water becomes hot. The net result of this reaction
occurs in two forms: is that the steel of the radiators begins to be eaten
1 the formation of red oxide sludge (rust) because of away, with the fine particles of steel falling to the
constant air infiltration bottom of the radiator as a sediment, which forms a
2 the formation of black oxide sludge and sediment magnetic black sludge. As a by-product, the radiator
because of electrolytic corrosion; black oxide sludge may also fill with hydrogen that requires constant
can be prevented by the use of chemicals called venting. The sludge not only blocks pipework and
‘inhibitors’, which stop the sludge forming, or by finds its way into all of the low points of the system,
the use of magnetic filters that use magnetism to but also causes boiler noise and creates pitting
attract the metallic black oxide sludge. corrosion in the radiators. Figure 7.55 shows some of
the problems that can result from system sludging.
KEY TERM
Black water at the
Air infiltration: a process where air can get into a air release valve
system and cause air locks and corrosion. when the system
is bled

Sludge blocks
Corrosion can attack a system very quickly. As soon as boiler heat
The sludge is
attracted to
the system is filled with water, corrosion begins to work exchangers,
circulators
causing noise
to break down certain elements within it. The problems
of sludging
Air infiltration is a constant problem with some Sludge blocks
Sludge leads to pipework,
systems, especially those that are open vented. Central the formation of preventing the
heating systems last longer once the water in the hydrogen gas heat getting
to the radiators
system has lost all of its oxygen. Without oxygen, rust
The sludge sits at
cannot occur. Air infiltration happens for a number of the bottom of
reasons: radiators, creating
cold spots
● micro leaks that let air in but do not show as a water

leak; these are extremely hard to trace and usually p Figure 7.55 The problems of sludging
occur around the packing glands of lockshield
radiator valves and air release valves; they always Corrosion inhibitor
occur on the negative pressure side of any system
Corrosion inhibitor must be added to the system to
● air being sucked down the vent pipe due to poor
comply with the manufacturer’s warranty. Corrosion
system design
inhibitor stops corrosion from occurring and black
● the constant see-sawing of water within the F and
sludge from forming, and helps to lubricate pump
E cistern aerates the water
bearings and valves. Once added, corrosion inhibitor
● small leaks introduce fresh aerated water into the
does not need to be replaced except when the system
system.
is drained down.

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Corrosion inhibitor:
● stops a build-up of ‘black oxide sludge’, the major
Electrical central heating
cause of central heating problems controls
● helps to reduce fuel costs Modern central heating systems cannot function
● helps prevent the formation of hydrogen gas without electrical controls. They are required at every
● has a non-acidic neutral formation and so is stage of operation, from switching the system on to
harmless to the environment shutting it down when the temperature required has
● prevents pin-holing of radiators and pipework been reached. They provide both functional operation
● prevents scale formation. and safety, and are a requirement of Building Regulations
Document L: Conservation of fuel and power.
It should be remembered that corrosion inhibitor
must not be added to systems that contain a single No matter how good the central heating design, or how
feed self-venting cylinder as these use air entrapment accurate the calculations, the system requires proper
to separate the primary and secondary systems. control to be effective, efficient and economical to run. The
Should the air bubbles within the cylinder break, this types of control that are added to a system can greatly
would lead to the inhibitor chemicals mixing with the improve its performance. Even older systems can benefit
domestic hot water supply, causing contamination. from the addition of modern and effective controls.

The use of magnetic filters INDUSTRY TIP

As we have already seen, black oxide sludge is made
up of minute particles of steel that have been ‘robbed’ Note that, under ‘zoning’, it is recommended that one zone
by electrolytic corrosion and this is attracted to valve is used for the heating system. However, the notes to
the table state that: ‘The SAP notional dwelling assumes at
components such as circulating pumps, causing pump
least two space heating zones...’ (which was best practice
failure and damage to the system.
in CHeSS). This means that heating systems should be
Magnetic filters protect central heating systems by divided between living and sleeping areas.
using very powerful magnets to attract the suspended
black oxide steel particles in the central heating In this part of the chapter, we will look at the various
system water. This can remove almost 100 per cent controls for central heating systems, their function and
of suspended particles, preventing further build-up of how they ‘fit’ into modern systems.
black oxide sludge.
Before we look at the various controls, we must first
consider the implications of Document L, which was
amended in 2016 and 2018. This document is now
under consultation and is due to be re-published
in 2022. This reflects the continual environmental
considerations that governments have been striving
to achieve in the light of global warming. This new
publication of Building Regulations Part L is intended to
consolidate CHeSS, the Domestic Heating Compliance
Guide, Boiler Plus and the Building Services
Compliance Guide. The most up-to-date requirements
are to be found in the Building Services Compliance
Guide on pages 14–20. The main points are listed in
the tables below. Make sure you read the additional
note 3 with Table 7.16a, concerning ‘zoning’. Although
it is not required under Part L, it is good practice to
create two zones for space heating, usually upstairs
p Figure 7.56 A magnetic filter
and downstairs, in line with the SAP assumption.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

 Table 7.16a Recommended minimum controls for new gas-fired wet central heating systems
Control type Minimum standard
Boiler interlock System controls should be wired so that when there is no demand for space heating or hot water, the
boiler and pump are switched off.
Zoning Dwellings with a total floor area > 150 m2 should have at least two space heating zones, each with an
independently controlled heating circuit[1].
Dwellings with a total floor area[2] ≤ 150 m2 may have a single space heating zone[3].
Control of space heating Each space heating circuit should be provided with:
l independent time control, and either:
l a room thermostat or programmable room thermostat located in a reference room[4] served by
the heating circuit, together with individual radiator controls such as thermostatic radiator valves
(TRVs) on all radiators outside the reference rooms, or
l individual networked radiator controls in each room on the circuit.

Control of hot water Domestic hot water circuits supplied from a hot water store (i.e. not produced instantaneously as by a
combination boiler) should be provided with:
l independent time control, and
l electric temperature control using, for example, a cylinder thermostat and a zone valve or three-
port valve. (If the use of a zone valve is not appropriate, as with thermal stores, a second pump
could be substituted for the zone valve.)
The standards in this table apply to new gas-fired wet central heating systems. In existing dwellings, the standards set out in Table 4 will apply in
addition.
Always also follow manufacturers’ instructions.
[1] A heating circuit refers to a pipework run serving a number of radiators that is controlled by its own zone valve.
[2] The relevant floor area is the area within the insulated envelope of the dwelling, including internal cupboards and stairwells.
[3] The SAP notional dwelling assumes at least two space heating zones for all floor areas, unless the dwelling is single storey, open plan with a
living area > 70% of the total floor area.
[4] A reference room is a room that will act as the main temperature control for the whole circuit and where no other form of system temperature
control is present.

 Table 7.16b Recommended minimum standards when replacing components of gas-fired wet central heating systems
Component Reason Minimum standard Good practice[1]
1. Hot water Emergency For copper vented cylinders and combination units, the Upgrade gravity-fed systems to
cylinder standard losses should not exceed Q = 1.28 × (0.2 + fully pumped.
0.0521V2/3) kWh/day, where V is the volume of the cylinder Install a boiler interlock and
in litres. separate timing for space
Install an electric temperature control, such as a cylinder heating and hot water.
thermostat. Where the cylinder or installation is of a type that
precludes the fitting of wired controls, install either a wireless
or thermo-mechanical hot water cylinder thermostat or
electric temperature control.
If separate time control for the heating circuit is not present,
use of single time control for space heating and hot water is
acceptable.
Planned Install a boiler interlock and separate timing for space Upgrade gravity-fed systems to
heating and hot water. fully pumped.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

2. Boiler Emergency/ All boiler types except heating boilers that are combined Upgrade gravity-fed systems to
planned with range cookers fully pumped.
The ErP[2] seasonal efficiency of the boiler should be Fit individual radiator controls
a minimum of 92% and not significantly less than the such as thermostatic radiator
efficiency of the appliance being replaced. valves (TRVs) on all radiators
In the exceptional circumstances defined in the Guide to except those in the reference
the condensing boiler installation assessment procedure for room.
dwellings (ODPM, 2005), the boiler SEDBUK 2009 efficiency
should not be less than 78% if natural gas-fired, or not less
than 80% if LPG-fired. In these circumstances the additional
requirements for combination boilers would not apply.
Install a boiler interlock as defined for new systems.
Time and temperature control should be installed for the
heating system.
Combination boilers
In addition to the above, at least one of the following energy
efficiency measures should be installed. The measure(s)
chosen should be appropriate to the system in which it is
installed:
l Flue gas heat recovery
l Weather compensation
l Load compensation
l Smart thermostat with automation and optimisation.

3. Radiator Emergency Fit a TRV to the replacement

radiator if in a room without a
room thermostat.
Planned Fit TRVs to all radiators
in rooms without a room
thermostat.
4. New heating Planned The new boiler and its controls should meet the standards in In dwellings with a total floor
system – existing section 2 of this table. area > 150 m2, install at least
pipework retained Fit individual radiator controls such as TRVs on all radiators two heating circuits, each
except those in the reference room. with independent time and
temperature control, together
with individual radiator controls
such as TRVs on all radiators
except those in the reference
rooms.
Always also follow manufacturers’ instructions.
[1] Best practice would be as for a new system.
[2] Refers to the efficiency methodology set out in Directive 2009/125/EC for energy performance related products.

Source: BEAMA Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide 2021, Tables 3 and 4

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

To comply with the requirements, the correct however, is not always convenient, especially if the
electrical controls must be fitted. boiler is sited in a garage or roof space.

KEY POINT Room thermostats

Look up the Domestic Building Services A room thermostat senses air temperature. It is
Compliance Guide and print pages 18–19, but simply a temperature-controlled switch that connects
watch out for the new Part L to be published.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
or breaks an electrical circuit when either calling
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ for heat or shutting the circuit down when the
data/file/697525/DBSCG_secure.pdf correct temperature has been reached. Most room
thermostats contain a very small heater element
called an accelerator, which ‘tops up’ the heat to the
KEY POINT room thermostat by 1°C or 2°C, smoothing out the
Document L was implemented to save energy and temperature cycle, preventing the boiler from ‘cycling’
power. A great deal of heat is lost from a building when it isn’t required.
through not insulating properly and not having the
necessary controls on a heating system to prevent Programmable room thermostats allow different
the wastage of fuel. Document L prevents this by temperatures to be set for different days of the week.
ensuring that even existing systems are brought up It also provides a ‘night set-back feature’ where a
to date. It is vital for energy conservation that we
follow the rules it lays out.
minimum temperature can be maintained at night.
Some units also allow the time control of the hot
water cycle.
Time clocks and programmers
Time clocks are the simplest of all central heating
timing devices. They are suitable for switching on
only one circuit, such as the heating circuit, and so are
ideally suited for combination boiler installations. Both
mechanical and digital time clocks are available.
Programmers are two-way time clocks, being able to
switch on both heating and hot water at various times
throughout the day. There are three basic types:
1 A mini-programmer, which allows the heating and
hot water circuits to be on together, or hot water
alone, but not heating alone. Ideally suited to C-plan
and C-plan plus systems.
2 A standard programmer: these use the same time
settings for space heating and hot water. p Figure 7.57 A room thermostat
3 A full programmer: allows the time settings for space
heating and hot water to be fully independent. Some Cylinder thermostats
will allow seven-day programming of both heating A simple control of stored hot water temperature,
and hot water so that the two circuits can be used usually strapped to the side of the hot water cylinder
individually or both together. about a quarter of the way up from the bottom. It is
Programmers are often fitted to the front fascia of used with a motorised valve to provide close control
the boiler and integrated into the boiler design. This, of water temperature and should be set to 55°C.

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Frost thermostats and pipe Advanced controls: weather

thermostats compensation, optimum start and
The purpose of the frost thermostat is to stop the delayed start
boiler and any other vulnerable parts of the system Domestic central heating systems can benefit
from freezing in extremely cold weather. It is wired in from more advanced controls, which are often
to the system to override all other programmers and digital, especially when a condensing boiler is fitted.
thermostats. It should be set to between 3°C and 5°C, Condensing boilers respond better to lower flow and
and should be placed close to the vulnerable parts of return temperatures than non-condensing appliances.
the system, especially if they are fitted in unheated Advanced controls enhance system efficiency and
garages and roof spaces. include:
● weather compensation controls
Frost thermostats are much more effective when
● delayed start controls
installed alongside a pipe thermostat.
● optimum start controls.
A pipe thermostat is strapped to vulnerable pipework
and senses water temperature. It is designed to override Weather compensation controls
all other controls when the temperature of the water This type of control uses an externally fitted
is close to 0°C and works in conjunction with the frost temperature sensor fitted on a north- or north-east-
thermostat. The pipe thermostat and frost thermostat facing wall so as not to be in the direct path of solar
should be wired in series (see Chapter 11, Working with radiation. As the external temperature rises, the weather
electricity, page 536). compensator reduces the circulation temperature of
the flow from the boiler to compensate for the warmer
Motorised valves outside temperature. Similarly, the reverse occurs if the
We have already seen that both the two-port zone weather gets colder.
valve and the three-port mid-position valve are key
External
controls for the S-plan and Y-plan fully pumped temperature (°C)
20
systems, and the C-plan plus semi-gravity system. To
recap the key points of these valves: Warmer
● Three-port diverter valve: very similar in appearance
16

to the three-port mid-position valve, this valve is

designed to control the flow of water on fully pumped 12

central heating/hot water systems, where hot water Cooler Compensation

priority is required. 8 slope

● Three-port mid-position valve: used on fully

pumped central heating/hot water systems to 4

provide full temperature control of both the hot
water and heating circuits when linked to cylinder 0
and room thermostats. The circuits can operate
together or independently of each other. −4
0 20 40 60 80 100
● Two-port motorised zone valve: these can be found
Boiler flow temperature (°C)
on both C-plan plus systems, where a single valve
p Figure 7.58 A weather compensation graph
linked to a cylinder thermostat controls the hot water
temperature, and S-plan fully pumped systems where
Delayed start
two two-port zone valves control the heating and
hot water circuits via room and cylinder thermostats. Here, the end user sets the time to switch on
They can also be used to zone different parts of the the heating, taking into account the time it
heating circuit. would normally take to warm the dwelling – for

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

example, most people would set the heat to come Domestic boiler management
on at 5 pm if they were due to arrive home from systems (home automation systems)
work at 6 pm. A delayed start unit will, at the time
A boiler management system (BMS) is an electronic
the heat is due to come on, compare the current
controller that provides bespoke control solutions for
indoor temperature to that required by the room
domestic central heating systems.
thermostat. It will then delay the start of the boiler
firing if required. The benefits are that during milder Standard functions of BMS control include real-time
weather, when the heat requirement is less, energy temperature and boiler/controls monitoring, room
will be saved. Room thermostats with a delayed start temperatures (known as set points) and time schedule
function are now available. adjustment, optimisation, and night set-back control.
The system remembers key points, such as how quickly
Optimum start
the building heats up or cools down, and makes its own
With an optimum start system, the end user sets adjustments so that energy savings can be made. If it is
the required occupancy times and the required very cold outside at, say, 2 am, the BMS will switch the
room temperature, and the controller calculates the heating on at 4.15 am to allow the building to be at the
necessary heat-up time so that the rooms are at correct temperature by the time the user has set the
the required temperature irrespective of the outside heating to come on – say, 7 am – irrespective of the
temperature. The idea is based around comfort rather time that the user has set for the heating to activate.
than energy savings. On milder nights, the heating may not come on until
Internal 6.15 am but it will still reach its set point by 7 am.
temperature (°C)
It will also learn how well your house retains heat and
may shut down early if it calculates that your set point
will still be maintained at your ‘off’ time of, say, 10 pm.
20
These systems provide a cost-effective means of
Potential monitoring system efficiency and can reduce heating
Earliest energy saving
normal costs by up to 30 per cent.
16
start
Electronic sensors are fitted to the flow and return
pipework, and an external temperature sensor is fitted
12 Delayed start for weather compensation. The information is used
to accurately vary the system output according to
demand. This helps to significantly reduce fuel wastage
8 caused by temperature overshoot, heat saturation of
the heat exchanger, unnecessary boiler cycling and flue
gas losses, while maintaining internal comfort levels
and reducing CO2 emissions.
5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (hours)
Typical settings System design and control
Maximum heat-up period, e.g. 6am to 8am Now that we have seen the controls and the system
Normal occupancy period, e.g. 8am to 10am layouts, we must look at how the controls work
p Figure 7.59 Delayed/optimum start function together to ensure efficient operation of the systems.
We will concentrate on fully pumped systems as
these are the systems that we must install on new
installations.

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 Table 7.17 How the Y-plan system works

The three-port valve The flow from the boiler must be connected to the AB port, which is marked on the valve.
The A port must be connected to the heating circuit.
The B port must be connected to the hot water circuit.
The valve must not be installed upside down as leakage of water could penetrate the electric actuator.
Time control This must be provided by a programmer that allows individual use of hot water and heating circuits.
Heating circuit Must have a room thermostat positioned in the coolest room, away from heat sources and cold draughts. It
should be wall mounted at 1.5 m from floor level. The room thermostat controls the three-port valve.
All radiators must have thermostatic radiator valves fitted.
Hot water circuit The hot water temperature must be controlled by a cylinder thermostat placed a third of the way up
from the base of the cylinder. The cylinder thermostat controls the three-port valve.
Bypass An automatic bypass valve is required.
Frost/pipe thermostat Must be provided where parts of the system are in vulnerable positions.

 Table 7.18 How the S-plan system works

The two-port zone A single zone valve must be installed on the hot water circuit controlled by a cylinder thermostat.
valves The heating circuit must contain one or more (if the system is to be zoned) two-port zone valves. These
are controlled by individual room thermostats.
Time control This must be provided by a programmer that allows individual use of hot water and heating circuits.
A second time clock may be required if the system is zoned.
Heating circuit One or more room thermostats controlling downstairs and upstairs heating circuits. These should be
installed at 1.5 m from floor level.
Hot water circuit The hot water temperature must be controlled by a cylinder thermostat placed a third of the way up
from the base of the cylinder.
Bypass An automatic bypass valve is required.
Frost/pipe thermostat Must be provided where parts of the system are in vulnerable positions.

The S-plan gives better overall control of the system of energy and the effectiveness of the system.
and this improves system efficiency. Choosing the right controls will lead to:
● improved energy efficiency
Boiler interlock ● reduced fuel bills
The boiler interlock is not a single control device ● lower CO2 emissions.
but the interconnection of all of the controls on
The establishment of a minimum standard of heating
the system, such as room thermostats, cylinder
controls is vital if the heating system is to achieve
thermostats and motorised valves. The idea behind the
satisfactory efficiencies when the system is in use.
boiler interlock is to prevent the boiler firing up when it
The efficiency of the boiler is only part of the story.
is not required, a problem with older systems. A boiler
For the boiler to achieve these efficiencies, at least a
interlock can also be achieved by the use of advanced
minimum standard of controls must be installed.
controls, such as a BMS, usually reserved for larger
systems but now available for domestic properties. So, what is a good system of controls?
A good system of controls must:
The selection of system and ● ensure that the boiler does not operate unless there
control types for single- is demand; this is known as ‘boiler interlock’
● provide heat only when it is required to achieve the
family dwellings minimum temperatures.
The installation of an effective system of central
heating controls has a major effect on the consumption

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

There are two levels of controls for domestic properties b HC8 – Best practice for systems using
and these are set out in Central Heating System a combination boiler or Combined
Specification (CHeSS) CE51 2008: Primary Storage Unit:
1 Good practice: This set of controls i Programmable room thermostat
achieves good energy efficiency in line ii Boiler interlock
with Approved Document L 2010. This is iii TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms
described in detail in the CHeSS document: with a room thermostat
a HR7 – Good practice for systems with iv Automatic bypass valve (see note 2)
a regular boiler and a separate hot water
v More advanced controls, such as
store:
weather compensation, may be
i Full programmer considered.
ii Room thermostat Note 1 (from CHeSS): Boiler interlock is
iii Cylinder thermostat not a physical device but an arrangement
iv Boiler interlock (see note 1) of the system controls (room thermostats,
v TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms programmable room thermostats, cylinder
with a room thermostat thermostats, programmers and time switches)
vi Automatic bypass valve (see note 2). so as to ensure that the boiler does not fire
when there is no demand for heat. In a system
b HC7 – Good practice for systems using
with a combi boiler this can be achieved by
a combination boiler or Combined
fitting a room thermostat. In a system with a
Primary Storage Unit boiler:
regular boiler this can be achieved by correct
i Time switch wiring interconnection of the room thermostat,
ii Room thermostat cylinder thermostat, and motorised valve(s).
iii Boiler interlock (see note 1) It may also be achieved by more advanced
iv TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms controls, such as a boiler energy manager. TRVs
with a room thermostat alone are not sufficient for boiler interlock.
v Automatic bypass valve (see note 2). Note 2 (from CHeSS): An automatic bypass
2 Best practice: This standard uses enhanced valve controls water flow in accordance with the
controls to further enhance energy water pressure across it, and is used to maintain
efficiency in line with Approved Document a minimum flow rate through the boiler and
L1a/b 2010. This is described in detail in the to limit circulation pressure when alternative
CHeSS document: water paths are closed. A bypass circuit must
be installed if the boiler manufacturer requires
a HR8 – Best practice for systems with a
one, or specifies that a minimum flow rate has
regular boiler and a separate hot water
to be maintained while the boiler is firing. The
store:
installed bypass circuit must then include an
i Programmable room thermostat, with
automatic bypass valve (not a fixed position
additional timing capability for hot
valve).
water
Care must be taken to set up the automatic
ii Cylinder thermostat
bypass valve correctly, in order to achieve the
iii Boiler interlock (see note 1) minimum flow rate required (but not more)
iv TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms when alternative water paths are closed.
with a room thermostat Source: Energy Saving Trust (2008) Central heating system
v Automatic bypass valve (see note 2) specifications (CHeSS)
vi More advanced controls, such as weather
compensation, may be considered.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Underfloor heating emission is in the form of radiation, providing a much

more comfortable temperature at low room levels when
Underfloor heating has been around for many years. The
compared to a traditional wet system with radiators
Romans used a warm air system 1500 years ago, to good
and, with the whole floor being heated, furniture
effect. It is only fairly recently that its benefits have been
positioning no longer becomes a problem because as
rediscovered. With the arrival of new technologies such
the furniture gains heat, it too emits warmth.
as air and ground source heat pumps and solar heating,
underfloor heating becomes not only a viable option for During the design stage, the pipe coils are fixed at
the domestic dwelling but one that will also save money specific centres depending on the heat requirement of
and energy, reduce CO2 emissions and, as a consequence, the room and the heat emission (in watts) per metre
help save the fragile planet on which we live. of pipe. The whole floor is then covered with a screed
to a specific depth, creating a large thermal storage
The design principles of underfloor heat emitter. The water in the pipework circulates from
central heating systems and to a central manifold and heats the floor. The heat
is then released into the room at a steady rate. Once
An underfloor heating system provides invisible
the room has reached the desired temperature, a room
warmth and creates a uniform heat, eliminating cold
thermostat actuates a motorised head on the return
spots and hot areas. The temperature of the floor
manifold and closes the circuit to the room.
needs to be high enough to warm the room without
being uncomfortable underfoot. There is no need Such is the nature of underfloor heating that many fuel
for unsightly radiators/convectors because the heat types can be used, some utilising environmentally friendly
literally comes from the ground up. Underfloor heating technology. Gas- and oil-fired boilers are common, but
creates a low temperature heat source that is spread also biomass fuels, solar panels and heat pumps.
over the entire floor surface area. The key phrase here Floor coverings are an important aspect of underfloor
is low temperature. Whereas most wet central heating heating. Some create a high thermal resistivity, making
systems containing radiators and convectors operate at it difficult for the heat to permeate them. Carpet
around 70°C to 80°C, underfloor heating operates at a underlay and some carpets have particularly poor
much lower temperature, making it an ideal system for thermal transmittance, which means the heat is kept
air and ground source heat pump fuel sources. Typical in and not released. The thermal resistivity of carpets
temperatures are: and floor coverings is known as their TOG rating. The
● 40–45°C for concrete (screeded) floors
higher the TOG rating, the less heat will get through.
● 50–60°C for timber floor constructions.
Floor coverings used with underfloor heating should
Traditional wet central heating systems generate have a TOG rating of less than 1 and must never
convection currents and radiated heat. Around 20 per exceed 2.5.
cent of the heat is radiated from the hot surface of Quite often, underfloor heating is used in conjunction
the radiators and, if furniture is placed in front of the with traditional wet radiators, especially in properties
radiator, the radiation emission is reduced. A total of 80 such as barn conversions. The higher temperatures
per cent of the heat is convection currents, which makes required for radiators do not present a problem because
the hot air rise. This adds up to a very warm ceiling! the flow water for the underfloor system is blended
Underfloor heating systems, however, rely on both with the return water via a thermostatic blending
conduction and radiation. The heat from the underfloor valve to maintain the steady temperature required
heating system conducts through the floor, warming for the underfloor system. Zoning the upstairs and
the floor structure, making the floor surface a large downstairs circuits with two-port motorised zone
storage heater; the heat is then released into the room valves and independent time control for the heat
as radiated heat. Around 50 to 60 per cent of the heat emitters also helps in this regard.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

INDUSTRY TIP
A free copy of the CHeSS specifications is available at:
http://bpec.org.uk/downloads/CE51%20CHeSS%20
WEB%20FINAL%20JULY%2008.pdf

20ºC

80% convected heat

24ºC
Radiator heating
Underfloor heating
Hot air rises

21°C 20ºC

20% Cooler air

radiated Underfloor pipework
descends
heat at 35–40ºC

18–29ºC
Radiator
at 70ºC
18ºC

p Figure 7.60 The principle of underfloor heating

Theoretical Underfloor Radiator heating Warm air

ideal heating heating on inside wall heating
2.7 m

Eye level
1.7 m

16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º 16º 20º 24º

p Figure 7.61 Heating theory

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Hot water cylinder

Pump Two-way manifold

Pump

4
5
3

2 6

1 7

Top view

Boiler
Underfloor heating circuits

p Figure 7.62 Typical underfloor heating system combined with wet radiators

 Table 7.19 The advantages and disadvantages of underfloor heating

Advantages Disadvantages
The pipework is hidden under the floor. This allows better Not very suitable for existing properties unless a full renovation
positioning of furniture and interior design. means the removal of floor surfaces.
The heat is uniform, giving a much better heat distribution than Can be expensive to install when compared to more traditional
traditional systems. systems.
These systems are very energy efficient, with low running costs. Heat-up time is longer as the floor will need to get to full
Environmentally friendly fuels can be used. temperature before releasing heat.
Underfloor heating is almost silent, with low noise levels when Slower cool-down temperatures mean the floors may still be
compared to other systems. warm when heat is not required.
Cleaner operating, with little dust carried on convector currents. Longer installation time.
This can help those people who suffer from allergies, asthma More electrical installation of controls is required, as each room
and other breathing problems. will need its own room thermostat and associated wiring.
System maintenance is low, and decorating becomes easier as
there are no radiators to drain and remove.
Individual and accurate room temperatures, as every room has
its own room thermostat that senses air temperature.
Reduced possibility of leaks.
Greater safety, as there are no hot surfaces that can burn the
elderly, infirm or the very young.
Better zone control as each room is, in effect, a separate zone.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Hot water
cylinder
Ground source Two-way
heat pump manifold
Pump Pump

Buried captor or ‘slinky’ 2

3

1
4
5

7
6

Pump Top view

Underfloor heating circuits

The flow and return connections to
the thermostatic mixing valves
enter side by side

p Figure 7.63 Typical underfloor heating system using a ground source heat pump

The layout features of underfloor suitability to utilise the lower flow temperatures from
heating environmental technologies. See Figure 7.63 and
page 410. As we have already seen, underfloor heating
Underfloor heating uses a system of continuous
works by distributing heat in a series of pipes laid under
pipework, laid under a concrete or timber floor in a
the floor of a room. To do this, certain components are
particular pattern and at set centre-to-centre pipe
required to distribute the flow of heat to ensure that
distances. Each room served by an underfloor heating
the system warms the room. However, the components
system is connected at a central location to a flow and
must be controlled in such a way as to maintain a
return manifold, which regulates the flow through each
steady flow of heat while ensuring that the floor does
circuit. The manifold is connected to flow and return
not become too hot to walk on. This is achieved by the
pipework from a central heat source, such as a boiler
use of:
or heat pump.
● manifolds
The manifold arrangement also contains a thermostatic ● a thermostatic blending valve
mixing valve to control the water to the low temperatures ● a circulating pump
required by the system, and an independent pump to ● various pipework arrangements to suit the floor and
circulate the water through every circuit. its coverings
● the application of system controls – time and
Each underfloor heating circuit is individually controlled
by a room thermostat, which activates a motorised temperature to space heating zones.
head on the return manifold to precisely control the
The use of manifolds
heat to the room to suit the needs of the individual.
In technical terms, the manifold is designed to minimise
the amount of uncontrolled heat energy from the
The working principles of underfloor underfloor pipework. The manifold is at the centre of an
central heating system pipework and underfloor heating system. It is the distribution point
components where water from the heat source is distributed to all
Underfloor heating is becoming more commonly of the individual room circuits and, as such, should be
installed in new build properties where environmental positioned as centrally as possible in the property. Room
technologies have been installed. This is due to its temperature is maintained via thermostatic motorised
actuators on the return manifold, while the correct

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

flow rate through each coil is balanced via the flow The circulating pump
meters on the flow manifold. Both the flow and return The circulating pump is situated between the
manifolds contain isolation valves for maintenance thermostatic mixing valve and the flow manifold to
activities, an automatic air valve to prevent air locks and circulate the blended water through every circuit. Most
a temperature gauge so that the return temperature can models are variable speed.
be monitored.
Underfloor heating pipework
Most manifolds contain a circulating pump and a
arrangements
thermostatic mixing valve, often called a blending
valve. These will be discussed a little later. The success of the underfloor heating system depends
upon the installation of the underfloor pipework and the
floor pattern installed. There are many variations of pipe
patterns based upon two main pattern types. These are:
1 the series pattern
2 the snail pattern.
In general, underfloor heating pipes should not be laid
under kitchen or utility room units.

The series pattern

The series pattern (also known as the meander pattern)
p Figure 7.64 Typical underfloor heating manifold is designed to ensure an even temperature across the
floor, especially in systems incorporating long pipework
The thermostatic mixing (blending) valve runs. It is often used in areas of high heat loss.
Thermostatic mixing or blending valves are designed The flow pipe must be directed towards any windows
to mix the flow and return water from the heat or the coldest part of the room before returning
source to the required temperature for the underfloor backwards and forwards across the room at the defined
heating circuits. They are available in many different pipe spacing centres.
formats, the most common being as part of the
circulating pump module, as shown in Figure 7.65.
The temperature of the water is variable by the use of
an adjustable thermostatic cartridge inside the valve.

p Figure 7.66 The series pattern

The snail pattern

The snail pattern (also known as the bifilar pattern) is
used where an even uniform temperature is required,
such as under hardwood floors and vinyl floor tiles.
The flow pipe runs in ever decreasing circles until the
p Figure 7.65 Underfloor heating circulating pump/blending centre of the room is reached; it then reverses direction
valve module and returns with parallel runs back to the starting point.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

especially in rooms that face south, south-east or

south-west. This can be quite pronounced, even in the
winter sun. Significant savings on both energy usage
and fuel costs can be made by simply taking advantage
of the free heat that the Sun can provide. Outside
sensors linked to weather compensators, and delayed
start and optimum start controls, further help to
reduce energy usage and cost.

Zoning with separate time control

Zoning with separate time control offers another
p Figure 7.67 The snail pattern dimension to the concept of zoning by allowing the
heating to be controlled at different times of the day in
The application of different zones. The heat can be focused in those rooms
system controls: time that are occupied throughout the day, with the heating
to other parts of the dwelling timed to come on in
and temperature to space the early morning and evening. Separate zones reduce
heating zones energy usage and costs while maintaining improved
The number of homes that require both time and comfort levels throughout the property.
temperature zone control has increased in recent years.
In 2006, a survey showed that the average floor area of Zoning in practice
a domestic property with four bedrooms was around Zoning is required by Approved Document L1A/B of
157 m2 and more than 200 m2 for a five-bedroom the Building Regulations 2010 and the installer must
domestic property. With properties of this size, zoning make decisions on the best way to arrange those zones
becomes a necessity and, in 2006, Document L1A/B of to take the best advantage of energy savings while
the Building Regulations requested that zoning of the complying with the wishes of the customer/end user
heating system must be installed in all properties of as well as the regulations. The only way this can be
150 m2 or more. This was updated in 2010 to include achieved is by talking to the customer and finding out
any property. their usage patterns. The main aim of zoning is to avoid
overheating areas that require less heat to maintain the
In most instances, zoning requires the separating of
warmth or because the set point could be lower than in
the upstairs circuit from the downstairs or, in the
other areas. The point here is that the number of zones
case of single-storey dwellings, separating the living
laid down by Document L is the minimum and there are
space from the rest of the property. Separate time
real benefits to adding additional zones in key areas of
and temperature control of the individual circuits is a
the property.
necessity.
An underfloor system lends itself naturally to zoning
Zoning with separate temperature as each room is individually controlled by a room
control thermostat, which activates actuators on the individual
Separate temperature-controlled zones provides a circuits at the manifold. Further controls can be added
much better living environment because different where heat emitters and underfloor heating circuits are
parts of the dwelling can be maintained at different installed on the same system. In this case, the zones are
temperatures without relying on a single room to both individually temperature controlled and timed.
dictate the temperature across the whole system. The system can also be linked to other advanced
Lower temperatures can be maintained in those rooms controls such as night set-back and delayed start.
within the dwelling that are not occupied, allowing
The choice of controls for the zones should be decided
the dwelling to take full advantage of any solar gains,
by the predicted activity in those zones. There

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

are many options that can be used individually or long circuits become shorter. Even if the short circuits
collectively to achieve good system control: become longer, the time for the heating system to
● using individual temperature and timing controls in reach full temperature will be shortened and balancing
every zone the system will become much easier.
● multi-channel programmers allow the timing of
A potential problem that may occur where the manifold
individual rooms or multiple zones to be set from a
is located is that the area may become a potential
single point; this is often more desirable than many
‘hot spot’ on the system because of the pipework
individual programmers at different locations within
congestion around the manifold. This can be prevented
the dwelling
by insulating the pipework around the manifold until
● TRVs vary the heat output of individual heat
the pipework enters the room it is serving.
emitters; this can be beneficial where solar gain
adds to the room temperature as they are very fast Pipework arrangements (cabling)
reacting in most circumstances; some TRVs also
There are many variations to the two basic layouts.
have electronically timed thermostatic heads, which
The pattern should be set out in accordance with
can be linked to a wireless programmer.
the orientation and the shape of the room. Window
Zoning can help make significant energy savings. It areas may be colder and may require the bulk of the
allows the optimisation of the heating system while heat in that area. Other considerations include the
maintaining the dwelling at a comfortable temperature type of floor construction and the floor coverings.
and saving money at the same time. The pipework should be laid in one continuous length
without joints. In some instances, the pipe is delivered
Positioning components in on a continuous drum of up to 100 m to enable large
areas to be covered without the need for joints. Large
underfloor central heating rooms may require more than one zone and the
systems manufacturer’s instructions should be checked for
For an underfloor heating system to work effectively, maximum floor coverage per zone.
the components require careful positioning to ensure
that the efficiency of the system is maintained. All too
often, systems fail to live up to their potential because
of poor positioning of key components. Key areas
include:
● manifolds

● pipework arrangements (cabling)

● pipework installation techniques.

Manifolds
The longer the circuit, the more energy is needed p Figure 7.68 The series pattern laid out
to push the water around it. Water will always take
the line of least resistance and shorter circuits will
always be served first. In many instances, balancing
the system will help even out the circulation times
so that all circuits receive the heat at the same time,
but the system will only be as good as the slowest
circuit. If the longest circuit is slow, once the system is
balanced, then all circuits will be slow. In this regard,
the positioning of the manifold is of great importance.
By positioning the manifold centrally within the
dwelling, the length of each circuit is balanced so that p Figure 7.69 The snail pattern laid out

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

Pipework installation techniques made castellated grooves for a precise centre-to-centre

Solid floor guide for the pipework using a minimum radius bend.
There are many types of underfloor heating installation The panels are laid on to pre-installed sheets of
techniques for a solid floor. Figure 7.70 shows one of insulation to ensure a good performance and minimal
the more common types using a plastic grid where the heat loss downwards. Edge insulation is required to
underfloor heating pipe is simply walked into the pre- allow for expansion of the panels.

Tiled floor covering

Wall

Edge insulation 75 mm screed

Floor panel

Insulation
Solid floor plate

Underfloor heating pipes

p Figure 7.70 Solid floor underfloor heating installation

 Table 7.20 Key design and installation information: solid floor

Maximum heat output Approx. 100 W/m2
Recommended design flow temp. 50°C
Maximum circuit length 100 m (15 mm pipe)
120 m (18 mm pipe)
Maximum coverage per circuit 12 m2 @ 100 mm centres
22 m2 @ 200 mm centres
30 m2 @ 300 mm centres (18 mm pipe only)
Material requirements:
Pipe 8.2 m/m2 @ 100 mm centres
4.5 m/m2 @ 200 mm centres
3.3 m/m2 @ 300 mm centres (18 mm pipe only)
Floor plate usage 1 plate/m2 allowing for cutting
Edging insulation strip 1.1 m/m2
Conduit pipe 2 m/circuit

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Suspended timber floor Floating floor

This system is designed for use under timber suspended This system is designed for use where a solid floor
floors. It uses aluminium double heat spreader plates to installation is not suitable due to structural limitations.
transmit heat evenly across the finished floor surface. It can be installed directly onto finished concrete or
timber floors.
This system is suitable for any timber suspended floor
with joist widths up to 450 mm. The heat plates are Wall

simply fixed to the joists using small flat-headed nails Finished floor surface
or staples. A layer of insulation must be placed below
the plates to prevent the heat penetrating downwards.
Double heat spreader plates
Where the pipework must cross the joists, the joists
must be drilled in accordance with the building
regulations.
Wall

Tongued and grooved floorboards

Double heat spreader plates Floating

floor panels
Underfloor heating pipes
p Figure 7.72 Floating floor underfloor heating installation

The pipework is laid on top of 50 mm-thick polystyrene

panels, each having a thermal transmittance of 0.036
W/m2K. The insulation has pre-formed grooves that the
Insulation
pipe clips into after the heat spreader plates have been
Timber joists
fitted. The insulation is not fixed and ‘floats’ on the top
Underfloor heating pipes of the sub-floor. The finished flooring can then be laid
p Figure 7.71 Suspended floor underfloor heating installation directly onto the top of the pipework, completing the
‘floating’ structure.
 Table 7.21 Key design and installation information: suspended
floor
Maximum heat output Approx. 70 W/m2
Recommended design flow 60°C
temp.
Maximum circuit length 80 m (15 mm pipe)
Maximum coverage per 17 m2 @ 225 mm centres
circuit using a double
spreader plate
Material requirements:
Pipe 4.5 m/m2 @ 100 mm centres
Heat spreader plates 2 plate/m2

p Figure 7.73 Floating floor underfloor heating installation

method

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 Table 7.22 Key design and installation information: floating floor emissions and reduce carbon footprints that are
Maximum heat output Approx. 70 W/m2 contributing to climate change.
Recommended design 60°C As plumbers, we look to install systems that offer
flow temp.
practical, affordable and sustainable alternatives to the
Maximum circuit length 80 m (15 mm pipe)
use of fossil fuels that can heat and power the property.
100 m (18 mm pipe)
Maximum coverage per 28.5 m2 @ 300 mm centres We need to have a good working understanding of the
circuit using a double (15 mm pipe) systems that are being installed. This area of ‘green
spreader plate 30 m2 @ 300 mm centres technologies’ is developed further in Book 2, but this
(18 mm pipe) section will introduce you to the following systems:
Material requirements: ● solar thermal

Pipe 3.1 m/m2 @ 300 mm centres ● solar photovoltaic

Single heat spreader 3 plate/m2 ● ground source heat pump

plates ● air source heat pump
Floating floor panel 1 panel/1.4 m2 ● biomass

● micro combined heat and power

● rainwater harvesting
Environmental technologies ● grey water harvesting.
Environmental issues are becoming more important
to the plumbing industry. Environmental technologies With all systems being installed, environmental technologies
are being installed and used in domestic properties. come under a number of Acts, Building Regulations (see
Government and house builders are under pressure to Chapter 1) and British Standards, which have to be followed
include a variety of systems to help cut back carbon along with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Solar thermal
Solar collector

To hot taps
Differential
temperature
controller
Hot-water
storage cylinder

Auxiliary
heat source

Cold water in
Circulating
pump

p Figure 7.74 A solar thermal system

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

This system is designed to collect heat by absorbing which produce a charge which can either be stored in
heat radiation from the Sun in a collector panel often batteries for future use or can be connected to the grid
located on the roof of a property. This heat energy is to be used by the property straight away or sold ‘back
transferred into a fluid and transported down to the to the grid’. This means a household can generate extra
heat exchanger coil in a twin coil hot water cylinder. income by selling surplus energy back to the energy
This transfer of heat is carefully controlled by the provider via a government scheme.
differential temperature controller. As some of the
pipework in this system is vulnerable to freezing, being
on the roof line of the property, the water transferring
the heat would normally contain glycol (anti-freeze). In
the UK, there will be insufficient solar energy to provide
hot water to the property, so an auxiliary heat source,
generally a boiler, would be linked to the system by a
second coil heat exchanger or an immersion would be
used.
There are several considerations that need to be made
when locating the solar collectors: orientation of the
panel; the angle of the panel; any shading of the panel
during the day; suitability of the building to install the
panel.
This system will reduce the use of fossil fuels for the p Figure 7.75 A solar photovoltaic system
property while heating the domestic hot water.
The charge is carefully controlled by a charge controller.
Solar photovoltaic This system offers the property electricity from the
This system converts the sunlight into electricity. Sun, rather than using electricity produced by a power
Collector panels (PV cells) are installed on the roof line station.

Ground source heat pump

Ground source to water

heat pump with horizontal
closed-loop collector

Heat
pump

Building foundations
omitted for clarity

p Figure 7.76 A ground source heat pump

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

These extract low temperature free heat from the Biomass

ground, magnifying it to a higher temperature and then This is material that can be burnt to create heat, but
releasing it when required for space and water heating. biomass comes from animal matter or plants/trees that
Heat is collected from the ground by means of pipe have recently been sourced, whereas fossil fuels have
runs containing a mixture of water and glycol (anti- taken millions of years to source.
freeze) which are buried in the ground in one of three
different ways. Figure 7.76 shows the pipe work for a
horizontal loop. They can be vertical or slinkies.
The low temperature is passed through a heat
exchanger, where the heat is transferred to refrigerant
gas which is then compressed. It then passes through
a second heat exchanger and releases the increased
temperature to the domestic system.
The earth stores heat and maintains a constant low
temperature of around 10°C, which the ground source
heat pump utilises. The low temperature is constantly
being replenished by nature and therefore is not a cost
to the customer. p Figure 7.78 Biomass fuels

Biomass fuels have to be burnt to produce the heat

Air source heat pump which is used within the system, but they produce
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) when burnt. The
importance of biomass material is that the material
absorbs carbon dioxide when it grows, reducing carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere. When burnt, the
carbon dioxide is released, the net result being no
overall increase, so it is carbon neutral.
Biomass fuel does not have the same heat output as
fossil fuels, which are more dense. However, if managed
correctly, biomass is sustainable.

Micro combined heat and power

This is where the fuel source used to supply heat
and hot water to the property is also used to supply
p Figure 7.77 An air source heat pump electricity at the same time. The mCHP will achieve
These units extract free heat from low temperature similar efficiencies as a condensing boiler but in
air and release it where required for space and water different ways. 80 per cent of the heat is used to
heating. It works in a similar way to a refrigerator, with provide heat and 15 per cent is used to generate
the cooled area on the outside of the property and the power. This system is known as ‘heat led’ and is carbon
heat being released inside the property. reducing rather than carbon free.

Like the ground source pump, the system contains

refrigerants that pass the extracted heat on to the
property.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Flue gases

Heating flow

Gas supply

Helium

Heating return

Stirling
engine 2

Magnet

a.c. supply

Generator coils

p Figure 7.79 Micro combined heat and power

These domestic systems contain a Stirling engine Rainwater is captured off the roof line of a property
generator which uses the expansion and contraction and stored rather than letting it run off into the drains.
of internal gases to operate a piston. When the engine Instead of flushing the WC with potable water, it could
fires, the gas (helium) expands and when the return be re-filled with rainwater. The same goes for car
water cools the engine down it contracts, moving the washing, garden watering or even clothes washing, but
piston up and down, which creates power. rainwater must never be used for drinking because it is
classified as Category 5 water.
Rainwater harvesting There are two types of harvesting system: direct,
A further key area is water conservation due to which pumps the rainwater directly to the outlets, and
expanding demands on the water systems. The water indirect, which uses a header tank in the property’s loft
supplied to UK properties is potable drinking water, area to supply the outlets.
but this water is also used for washing, bathing and
watering gardens. Water conservation is one way to
make sure demand does not exceed supply.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

High level Grey Water

storage cistern

Grey Water
supply
Rainwater is collected from the
from the roof by the guttering
system where it flows down the
rainwater pipe, through a
rainwater filter and into an
underground storage cistern

Grey Water feed

to cistern in the
roof space

Grey Water
filter

Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

p Figure 7.80 Rainwater harvesting

Grey water harvesting Again, grey water is classified as Category 5 so it

This is water from baths, showers, basins and washing cannot be used for drinking but can be used to flush
machines and gets its name from the ‘grey’, cloudy toilets, wash cars, water gardens and wash clothes.
appearance of the water. Instead of this water entering Both these systems will reduce demand on the main
the sewers, it is captured and stored. This can be for a system and reduce water bills for the customers.
short while only, as bacteria will grow.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

High level Grey Water

storage cistern

Grey Water
supply

Grey water feed

Grey Water collection to cistern in the
roof space

Grey water
filter

Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

p Figure 7.81 Grey water harvesting

Filling and venting systems on the suction side of the circulating pump in the
same way as the cold feed and open vent pipe on the
The filling and venting of systems along with open vented system. Close to the expansion vessel
positioning of the circulator pump has been covered on is the pressure relief valve (sometimes called the
page 367. expansion valve) and a pressure gauge.

Sealed systems: positioning the The filling loop is generally fitted to the return pipe
expansion vessel, pressure gauge close to the expansion vessel and may even be supplied
as part of the expansion vessel assembly.
and filling loop
The expansion vessel is installed onto the return Methods of releasing air from
because the return water is generally 20°C cooler
heating systems
than the flow water and this does not place as much
temperature stress on the expansion vessel’s internal When filling the system, air must be released to allow
diaphragm as the hotter flow water. If installing the components such as heat emitters to work properly. Air
vessel on the flow is unavoidable, it should be placed is released by several methods:

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems
● The open vent (on vented systems) allows air to Solid fuel
escape from the pipework and the boiler as the
Solid fuel is still used in rural areas of the UK where
system fills with water.
access to piped fuel supply is difficult. Solid fuel is
● Air release valves are sited on every heat emitter.
available in many different forms, including:
These must be manually opened with a suitable
● coal
radiator air release key to enable the air to escape
● coke
as the system fills. Once water is detected, the air
● anthracite
release valve is then closed.
● biomass wood pellets (carbon neutral).
● Automatic air release valves may be fitted in those
places on the system where air is expected to
collect, such as high points in the pipework and the Warm air systems
coil heat exchanger on the cylinder. These were Warm air systems are not often fitted in modern
mentioned earlier in this chapter. domestic properties in the UK, although they remain
● Sealed systems must be filled, via the filling loop, popular in parts of the USA. They work by blowing
taking care to avoid over-pressurising the system. warm air through duct work into the rooms of the
The boiler manufacturer’s recommendations property via grilles, which can be located high on the
on filling, venting and final system pressure must be wall or in the floor. The air is heated usually by a gas
followed. boiler and the heated air is distributed by an electric
fan. Some boilers also contain a small water heat
Selection of fuels for heat- exchanger to heat the hot water for the property.

producing appliances Electric storage heaters

Types of fuels used for heat-producing appliances are:
Electric storage heaters were very popular in the 1980s
● gas (both natural and LPG)
and 1990s. They contain a series of ceramic bricks,
● oil
which are heated by electric elements overnight using
● solid fuel.
cheap rate electricity. The bricks store the heat and
Gas release it slowly during the day.
Natural gas is the most popular fuel for central heating The heaters have two settings that can be operated
in the UK. It comes from a variety of sources, including either automatically or manually:
the North Sea, the Middle East and Russia. It is a 1 Charge – this controls the amount of heat that is
naturally occurring gas that consists of a number of stored
other flammable and inert gases: 2 Draught – this controls the rate at which the heat is
● methane released.
● ethane They also have a day ‘top-up’ should the heaters
● propane require to be reheated for short periods during the day.
● butane

● hydrogen
This type of heater is expensive to install and run.
● carbon dioxide
Because of this, their use today is very limited.
● nitrogen.
District heating
Oil District heating utilises a very large central heat
Oil-fired appliances are popular where access to mains generating plant to heat hundreds of homes from the
gas is difficult. They offer a viable alternative to gas same system. They are very popular in Europe and
appliances. Most oil-fired appliances use C2 grade 28 some parts of the USA.
second viscosity oil (kerosene), although other types of Pipes laid beneath the street distribute hot water
oil, such as heavy heating oil, are available. (sometimes steam) from the central generating plant

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to a local substation. From here the heat is controlled plus can be installed and controlled in the normal way.
to around 120°C, where it is delivered to all properties District heating systems are often installed as part of
via a heating interface. The heating interface replaces a combined heat and power system, as discussed in
the property’s boiler as the heat source. From here, Chapter 10, Domestic fuel systems.
normal heating systems such as the S-plan and S-plan

2 INSTALL CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS AND

COMPONENTS
In this part of the chapter, we will consider the in the cistern. It is therefore important that the
materials we can use to install domestic central feed and expansion cistern is large enough to
heating systems and the installation methods for accommodate the expanded water.
both new-build properties and existing installations. ● Expansion in sealed systems (expansion vessel):
On any installation it is advisable to carry out a site the water in a sealed system expands into the
survey prior to the installation, which will highlight vessel. It is therefore important that the expansion
any considerations that may be present. On larger vessel is large enough to accommodate the
installations and new builds you may be working to expanded water without opening the pressure relief/
a works programme which will need to be regularly expansion valve, as this would release the pressure
updated so that other trades are informed. This can to 0 bar and prevent the system from working
also be uploaded onto information software so that it correctly.
can be sent to people off site, which will enable remote
management. INDUSTRY TIP
KEY POINT A radiator bleed key is a useful tool for bleeding air from
The installation of pipework within domestic radiator air valves.
dwellings is covered in detail in Chapter 5, Cold
water systems.
Connecting to existing
Effects of expansion and systems
● One pipe: one-pipe circuits are a continuous loop
contraction with the heat emitters/radiators taken from the
● Pipework expansion: if pipework expansion is loop (see the section on the one-pipe circuit at the
not catered for during the installation phase, it beginning of this chapter, page 360). Any extensions
can create ticking and creaking noises. To prevent or new circuits should follow the one-pipe layout
this, any notches in joists should be deep enough to prevent the new circuit from taking most of the
to allow free movement of the pipework and any heat flow. Swept tees should be used to encourage
drilled holes should be large enough so that the water flow around the new circuit.
pipework does not rub against them. Notches ● Two pipe: two-pipe systems are the easiest to
should be lined with hair felt to act as noise extend. New circuits can be taken from existing
suppression. circuits provided there are no more than three heat
● Expansion in open vented systems (cistern): emitters on the run of pipework. Ideally, new circuits
the water in an open vented system expands should be taken from the main heating flow and
into the feed and expansion cistern and up the return pipes. If the system is a modern installation
vent pipe. When the water in the system gets that has been zoned with two-port motorised zone
hot, the expansion of water raises the water level valves, care should be taken to ensure that the new

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

heat emitter is taken from the correct circuit, i.e. ● manufacturer instructions should always be read
living space heat emitters should be taken from before any installation takes place
the lounge/dining circuit and sleeping space heat ● specification drawings should be followed wherever
emitters should be taken from the bedroom circuit. possible; alterations to the original drawings should
● Manifold (microbore): when connecting extra be done with care
circuits to a microbore system, the circuit must ● verbal instructions from the customer must be
be connected to the flow and return manifolds. considered.
On no account must the circuit be connected to an
The installation of tubes and fittings has been covered
existing circuit via tee pieces. Microbore pipework is
extensively in earlier chapters of this book, but central
only capable of carrying a heat load up to 3 kW per
heating systems demand careful consideration because
circuit.
of the temperature that the systems run at. With
● Underfloor heating: connecting extra pipework
water at 80°C for the flow and 60°C for the return, the
loops to an existing underfloor system is possible
pipework, regardless of the material used, will expand
only if the manifold is replaced, allowing connection
and contract as the pipe heats up and cools down.
of the new circuit. The heat source/boiler and the
Obviously, not all of the materials expand at the same
circulating pump should be checked to ensure that
rate, but provision should be made at the installation
they can cope with the extra heat load.
stage to allow for expansion and contraction if
problems with noise are to be avoided. Here are some
Soundness test requirements points to consider:
for pipework ● Polybutylene pipe expands more than copper tube,

but copper is much more rigid than polybutylene.

Most domestic systems use three types of pipe
When installing pipes in wooden floors, enough
materials:
room should be allowed in any notches made. If the
1 Copper tubes and fittings: grades R220 and R250
pipes are too tight in the joist, they will ‘tick’ as they
are generally used for domestic central heating
expand and contract. This is very pronounced with
installations. Grade R250 in sizes 15 mm, 22 mm
central heating systems installed using copper tubes
and 28 mm are used for minibore installations, while
because the water reaches a higher temperature.
R220 is used for microbore systems, usually 10 mm.
● Clipping and securing pipework becomes very
2 Low carbon steel pipes and fittings: very rarely
important. The clipping distances for the various
used for domestic installations but used extensively
pipes and tubes we use are known from previous
on commercial and industrial systems.
learning, but become critical where polybutylene
3 Polybutylene pipes and fittings: fast becoming
pipe is concerned, especially when used with central
the material of choice for new-build installations
heating installations, because as the pipe becomes
because of its ease of installation. It should be
hot, it starts to soften and this leads to the pipe
remembered, however, that the connections to any
‘drooping’ between joists and between clips. This
heat-producing appliances must be made using
not only looks unsightly but can put excess strain on
copper for the first metre away from the appliance.
the joints.
● On new-build installations, it is common practice
KEY POINT to install microbore pipework behind the dry lining
Testing of pipework, both metallic and plastic, is plasterboard. In this instance, if the pipework
covered in Chapter 5, Cold water systems.
is made from copper, it should be clipped well
and wrapped to avoid noise and corrosion.
Installing and testing Polybutylene pipe should be wrapped too, but
because the expansion of pipe on a hard surface
components could cause undue abrasion on the soft plastic.
Types of information to be referred to for installation A metallic tape should be placed at the back of
work:

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

the polybutylene to allow the pipe to be found by ● for sealed (pressurised) systems working at 1 bar
metal-detecting tools when it is covered. pressure, the test pressure is 1.5 bar
● Pipes placed in chases should be wrapped against ● for open vented systems, where the head of pressure
corrosion and insulated where required. is, say, 8 m then the test pressure is 12 m, or 1.2 bar
● test timing should be in accordance with the Water
General installation requirements are as follows:
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations, BS 8558 and
● Feed and expansion cisterns must be fitted in
BS EN 806 and will depend on the material used in
accordance with the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
the installation. Although systems are commonly
Regulations.
pressure tested to the standards outlined in BS EN
● Filling loops, expansion vessels and associated
8558 and BS EN 806, central heating systems have
equipment should be installed where they do
their own pressure testing criteria outlined in BS EN
not create an eyesore but are accessible. The
12828 (Design for water based heating systems)
installation of expansion vessels should always be
and BS EN 14336 (Installation and commissioning
in accordance with the manufacturer’s installation
of water based heating systems).
instructions. With system boilers and combination
boilers this does not present a problem as they are Testing should be conducted using a hydraulic test pump.
an integral part of the appliance.
● Radiator position should be considered with care. It KEY POINT
is generally accepted that radiators be placed under ● Before initial testing takes place, the system
windows, but this is not always the best position if should be visually checked to make sure that
an even circulation of warm air is to be achieved. it is correct, that all visible joints are tight
On new builds and refurbishments, the radiator and that all clipping is in accordance with the
positions are usually marked on the detailed British Standard distances.
building plans. ● Pipework testing is covered extensively in
Chapter 2, Common processes and techniques.
● Pipework must be insulated in places where there

is a risk of freezing, such as under a suspended

timber floor and unheated garages. The Building
Filling
Regulations also advise that pipework in airing
cupboards must be insulated to prevent unwanted The procedure for filling central heating systems will
heat loss. again depend on the type of system that is installed.
● All pipework and metal parts within the system
We will look at two separate procedures here.
must be electrically bonded to earth.
Open vented systems
Filling open vented systems is a fairly simple procedure.
KEY POINT
Having conducted a pressure test at the installation
Cistern requirements are mentioned in Chapter 5,
Cold water systems. stage, there should be no surprises when it comes to
system filling:
● Ensure that all radiator valves and radiator air

Pressure testing and filling release points are closed.

● Check the F and E cistern to ensure that all joints
Testing are tight.
The testing procedure is very similar to both hot and ● Temporarily replace the pump with a short piece
cold water installations, but the test pressure will of tubing. This will ensure that no debris enters the
depend on the type of system installed. As with other pump.
systems, the test pressure is 1.5 times normal operating ● Ensure that all motorised valves are manually set to
pressure and that pressure will vary depending on the the open position for initial system filling.
type of system installed. For instance: ● Turn on the service valve to the F and E cistern and

allow the system to fill.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

● Starting with the furthest-away radiator on the ● radiator replacement

downstairs circuit, open the radiator valves and ● radiator valve replacement
fill and bleed the air from each radiator. Work ● tasks that may require system drain down
backwards towards the boiler, downstairs circuit ● power flushing a system
first, then the upstairs circuit. This will ensure that ● routine maintenance tasks
air is not trapped in pockets around the system. ● dealing with simple system faults.
● Once the system is full, allow it to stand for a short
Whatever maintenance activity is being undertaken,
while. Visually check for leaks at each radiator and
safe isolation of the system is paramount.
all exposed pipework and controls/valves, etc.
● Check the water level in the F and E cistern. Replacing a central heating
● Drain down the system. This will flush the system
through, removing any flux residues, steel wool, etc.
circulating pump, step by step
● Refit the pump and turn on the pump valves. You should attempt this task only under supervision.
● Refill the system as before. The system should not require draining when replacing
a pump.
Sealed systems Before attempting to remove the pump, the electricity
The main difference when compared to the open should be isolated at the switched fused spur and the fuse
vented system is that there is no F and E cistern, so the retained to prevent accidental switching on of the circuit.
system will have to be filled in stages or short bursts 1 Check that the electrical circuit is dead using a
via the filling loop. In other words, turn on the filling GS38 proving unit or some other effective electrical
loop, fill the system up to operating pressure, turn off testing device.
the filling loop, bleed the air from the radiators until 2 Make a simple drawing of the live/neutral/earth
the pressure has depleted and then restart the process connections on the pump and disconnect the cable.
until the system is full. All other points remain the 3 Turn off the isolating valves either side of the pump.
same as for open vented systems, above. 4 Carefully loosen the unions on the pump by turning
them anti-clockwise using water pump pliers. It
Commissioning may be a good idea to have some old towels handy
Full commissioning details will be found in the to catch any water.
manufacturer’s instructions along with Domestic 5 Once both unions have been disconnected, remove
Building Service Compliance Guide; Domestic the pump. The pump unions should have the old
Heating Design Guide; BS EN 12828 and BS EN washers removed and the union faces cleaned. The
14336. All commissioning paperwork needs to be new pump will include flat rubber washers in the box.
completed with a copy being handed to the customer 6 Position the new pump, with the sealing washers
and a copy kept for your records. This includes the in place between the valves, and hand tighten the
Benchmark certificates. unions. Take care to ensure that the pump is facing
the right direction for the system.
Replace defective 7 Fully tighten the unions with the water pump pliers.
components If the pump is installed horizontally, make sure that
the bleed point is slightly above horizontal as this
Maintenance of central heating systems takes many
will help to remove any air in the pump.
forms, from replacing valves to replacing boilers. It can
8 Turn on the pump valves and check for leaks.
also include adding to or altering an existing system.
9 Carefully reconnect the electrics to the pump: live
In this part of the chapter, we will look at some of to the L point, neutral to the N point and earth to
the more common maintenance activities and the the E point. Make sure that all electrical connections
processes involved. are tight.
Some of the general maintenance activities include: 10 Remove the centre bleed point on the pump and
● pump replacement
release any air.

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11 Reinstate the fuse in the consumer unit. Switch on 5 The new radiator should be dressed and hung as
and test for correct operation. previously described.
12 With open vented systems, check the F and E 6 Reconnect the pipework, ensuring that the old
cistern in the roof space to ensure that the pump compression nuts and olives are removed first. If the
is not pumping water over the cistern through the old olives have crushed the pipe too much, then the
vent pipe. pipe may have to be replaced.
7 Ensure all radiator unions and compression nuts are
Replacing a radiator, step by step fully tight.
If the new radiator is the same size as the one being 8 Turn off the drain valve. It may be a good idea to
replaced, the pipework should fit without too many replace the drain-off valve washer at this stage.
problems. If the new radiator is either larger or smaller, Drain valve washers quite often go stiff and brittle
then the pipework will either have to be altered or a with the heat from the water.
radiator valve extension will need to be fitted. It is 9 Turn off all air release valves.
desirable, when replacing a radiator, to replace the 10 Turn on the service valve to the F and E cistern or (if
valves as well, as they will probably be as old as the applicable) reconnect the filling loop and refill the
radiator you are replacing. If this is the case, then all system.
or part of the system will need to be drained. We 11 Bleed the air from all the radiators, starting
will assume that the radiator is downstairs, requiring downstairs then upstairs. Leave the new radiator
complete system drain down. isolated at this stage. This will be the last radiator
filled.
Before attempting to remove the radiator, the electricity
12 Open the valves to the new radiator and bleed the
should be isolated at the switched fuse spur to the
air from it. Check for leaks.
system and the fuse retained to prevent accidental
13 Replace the fuse in the fuse spur and run the
switching on of the circuit. The system should also be
system to full temperature to ensure that the new
cold. It may be a good idea to ask the customer to turn
radiator is working perfectly.
the central heating off before you get to the job. Before
14 If corrosion inhibitor had been added to the system
you begin, make sure you have protected carpets and
in the past, this will need to be replaced. It must
furnishings with lots of dust sheets.
be replaced like for like. If this is not possible, the
1 Isolate the F and E cistern at the service valve. If it is
system should be flushed several times to ensure
a sealed system, this will not be necessary.
removal of all previous inhibitors.
2 Locate a suitable drain valve, attach a hose and
drain the system. Take care that the system Replacing faulty radiator valves, step
contents are disposed safely to a drain as they will
probably be very dirty, especially if the system is an
by step
old one. The black water will stain all it comes into Faulty radiator valves are easy to replace provided
contact with. that the new valve is of the same body size as the
3 As the system drains, open the air release valves on valve being replaced. Over the years, there have been
all radiators, starting upstairs, then working to the many different styles and sizes of valve body and,
downstairs. sometimes, older valves are bigger than their modern
4 When the system is drained, carefully loosen the equivalents. In this case, pipe alteration may be needed,
two radiator valve compression nuts and remove which should be conducted with care to ensure that
the radiator. It is a good idea to leave the valves on the customer’s decorations and floor coverings are
the radiator and to turn them off before removal. not damaged. To replace a like-for-like valve (assuming
This will help in preventing any residual dirty water the radiator valves old and new are the same size), go
from leaking from the radiator. If possible, turn the through the following steps.
radiator upside down (turn the air release valve off 1 Isolate the F and E cistern at the service valve. If it is
first!) as this will further prevent accidental spillage. a sealed system, this will not be necessary.

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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

2 Locate a suitable drain valve, attach a hose and 17 If corrosion inhibitor had been added to the system
drain the system. Take care that the system in the past, this will need to be replaced. It must be
contents are disposed safely to a drain as they will replaced like for like. If this is not possible, the system
probably be very dirty, especially if the system is an should be flushed several times to ensure removal of
old one. The black water will stain all it comes into all previous inhibitors.
contact with.
3 As the system drains, open the air release valves on Tasks that may require system drain
all radiators, starting upstairs, then working to the down
downstairs. There are many situations where draining of the system
4 When the system is drained, carefully loosen the is needed, such as:
radiator valve compression nut and union and ● replacing the hot water storage cylinder
remove the valve. ● boiler replacement
5 Remove the old radiator union from the radiator and ● decommissioning of components such as radiators;
compression nut and olive from the pipework. here, the radiator, brackets and pipework should be
6 Wrap PTFE tape clockwise around the new valve removed and the pipes capped off at the branch to
union and screw it into the radiator using a radiator the flow and return pipes
valve Allen key. ● replacement of motorised valves
7 Slip the new compression nut and olive onto the ● cutting into an existing system to alter or extend
pipework. If the old olives have crushed the pipe too it; drain down should be conducted when all other
much, then the pipe may have to be replaced. installation work has been carried out
8 Put the new valve onto the pipe, then hand tighten ● power flushing.
both the compression nut and the radiator union.
9 Using an adjustable spanner, and taking care not Power flushing a system
to damage the chrome plating, tighten both the
During the last task we looked at, it may become
compression nut and the radiator union. You may need
apparent that the system contains a lot of black water
to hold against excessive valve movement by using
and even sludge. If this is the case, the system may
water pump pliers. Take care with the chrome plating.
be in need of a power flush. When replacing boilers, a
10 Ensure all radiator unions and compression nuts are
power flush is required to remove any sludge within
fully tight.
the system as part of the warranty. Manufacturers’
11 Turn off the drain valve. It may be a good idea to
warranties are void if this is not carried out.
replace the drain-off valve washer at this stage.
Drain valve washers quite often go stiff and brittle Power flushing involves using a special high-powered
with the heat from the water. pump to circulate cleaning chemicals and de-sludging
12 Turn off all air release valves. agents through the system. These powerful chemicals
13 Turn on the service valve to the F and E cistern or (if strip the old corrosion residue from the system, ensuring
applicable) reconnect the filling loop and refill the that the system does not contain sediment that may be
system. harmful to new boilers, controls and valves.
14 Bleed the air from all the radiators starting Once the power flushing is complete, the system may
downstairs then upstairs. Leave the radiator with have an inhibitor added to the system water to keep
the new valve isolated at this stage. This will be the the system free from corrosion.
last radiator filled.
15 Open the new valve to the radiator and bleed the air Routine maintenance tasks
from it. Check for leaks.
Whenever carrying out any maintenance task, always
16 Replace the fuse in the fuse spur and run the system
refer to the manufacturer’s instructions as they will
to full temperature to ensure that the new radiator
outline what is required. It is also good practice to
is working perfectly.
check with the customer to see if they have noticed

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

any problems or changes in the performance of the ● checking the correct operation of thermostats,
system before starting work. At this point, look out for motorised valves and thermostatic radiator valves
● any potential causes of delay ● checking the water level in F and E cisterns, and
● time to complete work adjusting as necessary
● delivery of parts ● ensuring that the system is reaching full
● need for additional labour or other trades. temperature.
● ensuring that there is no vibration from any
After work has been completed, remember to fill in components or appliances that could interfere with
the job sheet so that a permanent record is kept of or affect the operation of the system.
the work. It is worth looking at the parts that require
maintenance in case they are modularised (the Dealing with simple system faults
manufacturer in their parts list has a ‘unit’ that could
It is impossible to cover all scenarios when dealing with
be replaced). If pipework needs to be replaced, it is
system faults. Often, the reason for a fault developing
important to replace as little as possible, undoing as
is clear and stems from poor design when the system
few watertight seals as possible to correct the situation.
was installed; others take rather more investigative
Routine maintenance includes:
work. Sometimes the system itself will be leading you
● checking the pressure charge in expansion vessels
to the problem by the way it is behaving or the noises
on sealed systems, system boilers and combination
it makes, and so diagnosis becomes an easy task.
boilers
Long-term industrial experience will give you greater
● checking the operation of pressure relief valves on
knowledge about system faults and how to rectify
sealed systems, system boilers and combination
them. It is also good practice to keep up to date with
boilers
courses that manufacturers may be offering as these
● checking and topping up (if required) the pressure
will also add to your knowledge.
on system boilers and combination boilers
● visually checking for any signs of leakage on Here, we will look at some of the more common,
pipework, controls and appliances simple system faults only, and the signs to watch out
● boiler servicing for. We will not be dealing with appliance faults. This is
done at Level 3.

 Table 7.23 Common system faults and how to rectify them

Symptom Fault Rectification
Discoloured water appearing at hot water The cylinder heat exchanger coil has Drain down both hot water and heating
taps. System has a double feed indirect pin-hole corrosion, allowing water to systems and replace the hot water
cylinder fitted. either pass from the F and E cistern to storage cylinder.
The overflow of the F and E cistern runs the hot water, or vice versa.
constantly, even when the heating system
is off but the float-operated valve is
working correctly.
A radiator is cold at the top but works It is not air that is filling the radiator. It is A very common occurrence with systems
once the air has been bled. It then works hydrogen and a clear sign of electrolytic that contain single feed (Primatic)
for about four weeks before filling with air corrosion at the radiator. cylinders. Because inhibitor cannot be
again. used here, the only action is to replace
the cylinder with a double feed type,
power flush the system and add corrosion
inhibitor.
The hot water via the primary circulation Pump failure. Replace the pump.
pipes on a semi-gravity system is working
correctly. However, the radiators on the
system are lukewarm upstairs and cold
downstairs.

➜
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 Chapter 7 Central heating systems

The radiators on a semi-gravity system This is unlikely to be an air lock. Re-washer or replace the float-operated
work correctly but there is no hot water. The biggest cause of this problem is valve, and refill the F and E cistern.
The gravity primary circulation pipes are evaporation of water in the F and E
cold. cistern linked to the float-operated valve
in the cistern sticking in the ‘up’ position.
A radiator is cold in the middle. Black oxide sludge is blocking some of A temporary solution would be to take
the radiator’s water sections. the radiator off and flush it out with
cold water, but unless the problem is
identified, it will reoccur. The system
requires a power flush and corrosion
inhibitor adding to the system water.
A number of radiators on a downstairs Black oxide sludge is blocking the See above.
heating circuit only reach lukewarm circuit pipework, leading to poor water
temperature. All other radiators are circulation.
working correctly.
A boiler is noisy when the water begins to This is known as ‘kettling’ because the The system requires a power flush with
reach temperature. noise resembles that a kettle makes sludge remover and descaler before
just before it boils. Its correct name is corrosion inhibitor is added to the system.
‘localised boiling’; it occurs because It is also a good idea to do a litmus paper
the waterways of the boiler are partially test to see if the water is acid or alkali.
blocked with either black oxide sludge Alkali water tells us that the likely cause
or calcium deposits (limescale). As the is calcium deposits and a scale preventer
water heats up, it momentarily boils can then be added to the system to stop
before being moved away by the pump. the problem recurring.

3 UNDERSTAND THE DECOMMISSIONING

REQUIREMENTS OF CENTRAL HEATING
SYSTEMS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
The decommissioning of central heating systems
follows much the same process as with other systems
Decommissioning systems
we have looked at. There are a number of scenarios There are two types of decommissioning of heating
where systems would need to be decommissioned: system:
● where the system is being completely stripped out
1 permanent decommissioning is when a system is
prior to a new system installation or where the being taken out of service, completely dismantled
building is being demolished and stripped out of the property
● where the boiler is being replaced and the F and E
2 temporary decommissioning takes place when
cistern is being taken out the system is being worked on for a short period
● where the system is being added to or altered
of time, such as replacing the boiler, the pump or a
● where system components such as radiators are
radiator.
being permanently taken out
● general maintenance activities, such as:
Preparing for decommissioning
● a pump replacement When preparing to decommission central heating
● a radiator replacement systems, always remember to:
● replacement of valves and other controls. ● keep the customer and/or other trades informed of

the work being carried out, i.e. when the system is

being isolated and the expected length of time it
will be out of service

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● ensure that any services, such as electricity, gas, systems often contains chemicals that are very
etc., are safely isolated and pipework capped mildly toxic, such as inhibitors, scale preventers
● use warning notices, such as ‘do not use’ or ‘system and sludge removers. These must be disposed of
drained’ on any taps, valves, appliances, electrical carefully down a foul water sewer and not a top
components, etc. water or rainwater drain. Top water drains often
● if possible, make alternative heating methods, dispose of water straight into a watercourse, river
such as warm air heaters and fans, available to the or stream, and the chemicals may be harmful to
customer aquatic life.
● on larger systems or insurance repairs you may well ● Capping of pipework: no matter for how long the
have to undertake some calculations to put a value system is to be decommissioned, the capping of
on the downtime while work is carried out pipework is essential in case of the system being
● if required, complete the decommissioning records accidentally turned on. In the case of gas systems,
so that a permanent record of the work is kept. the cap should be installed and the system fully
tested according to the Gas Safety (Installation and
Decommissioning central heating Use) Regulations 1998 to ensure that, should the
systems system be accidentally turned on, it is completely
When decommissioning central heating systems, there gas tight and safe.
are a number of procedures to be observed: ● A system may need to be re-instated after it
● Isolation of services: ensure that all relevant
has been decommissioned: this is likely to be
services, such as gas, water and electricity, are after a temporary decommission where a repair
isolated before commencing the decommissioning or replacement has taken place. This will require
process. If possible, localised isolation, such as some or all of the commissioning procedure to be
removing fuses or isolating water at isolation valves, followed.
etc., is preferable so that the customer is not left ● Make sure that all items and fluids are disposed
without services for too long. You must seek the of correctly and any items that can be recycled
customer’s permission before isolating any services. are: metals like copper and brass hold a good value
● Warning notices and signs: warning signs saying
when recycled.
that the system is isolated and must not be
reinstated should be placed at the point of isolation,
so that other users/customers know that the system SUMMARY
is being worked on. If the isolation point is a long
This has been the most challenging chapter in the
distance from your point of work, leave a contact
book for us so far. The myriad of systems, layouts,
or mobile number so that the customer can contact
appliances, components and fuels are confusing, but
you with any queries.
each one has its tell-tale signs that make it unique. The
● Temporary continuity bonding: temporary
art to good system recognition is looking – just as the
continuity bonding must be carried out when
key to good system fault diagnosis is listening. This
removing electrical components, such as circulating
chapter gives us the foundation to do both.
pumps and motorised valves. Temporary continuity
bonding is absolutely essential when making new A good central heating system is one that is efficient
connections involves cutting into existing pipework. in use, warms the home to the right temperature,
It is here that the risk from electrocution is at is quiet in operation and is installed to the highest
its greatest, as earth leakage faults on electrical possible standards. This can be achieved only with the
systems are not always noticeable. knowledge that allows us to recognise the possibilities
● Drainage and disposal of systems’ contents of efficiency, design with the customer in mind and
and components: the water from central heating installation to the best of our ability.

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 Test your knowledge

Test your knowledge 5 Which one of the three images below shows the
best relative positions of the pump, cold feed
1 In a modern sealed CH system incorporating and open vent to allow for a positive system
a condensing type boiler, what is the expected pressure while minimising pumping over?
temperature difference between the flow and
return if designed correctly?
a 12°C
b 20°C
c 22°C A B C

d 30°C
2 Which pipe within an open vented central
a A
heating system allows the system to remain at
atmospheric pressure? b B
a Cold feed and expansion pipe c C
b Open vent pipe 6 Which type of boiler utilises increased efficiency
by recovering latent heat from the flue gases?
c Warning pipe
a Combination boiler
d Discharge pipe
b Traditional boiler
3 Which heating system incorporates 2 × two-port
valves? c Condensing boiler
a The C-plan d System boiler
b The Y-plan 7 What is the recommended installation height
from the floor for a radiator?
c The W-plan
a 100 mm
d The S-plan
b 150 mm
4 The image below shows a three-port mid-position
valve. How will the system function in its current c 200 mm
position? d 250 mm
8 Within a sealed heating system, which
component accommodates the expansion of
water during heating?
a Feed and expansion cistern
b Cold feed and expansion pipe
c Expansion bellows
A B
d Expansion vessel
9 Which of the following should be provided to a
central heating system within a dwelling that
AB has a useable floor space greater than 150 m2?
a Independent time-controlled zones
b A gravity hot water circuit
a Hot water only c Modular boiler arrangement
b Heating only d A low loss header
c Heating and hot water

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

10 What component is shown in the image below? 15 What is the main purpose of a domestic central
heating system?
a Thermal comfort
b Heat one room
c Thermal conductivity
d Heat the hot water
16 What is the primary purpose of the item circled
in green, in this diagram?

a Underfloor heating manifold

b Expansion relief valve
c Low loss header
d Boiler cascade system
11 Which Building Regulation does the Domestic
Heating Compliance Guide 2021 follow?
a Approved Document H
b Approved Document L
c Approved Document P
d Approved Document J
12 What is the most common type of copper used
in domestic central heating systems in the UK?
a R290 Hard copper
b R220 Soft copper
a To regulate the flow of system water
c R250 Half hard copper
b To remove air from the system
d R320 Straight copper
c To monitor water temperature in the system
13 Where would the automatic by-pass be installed
on a central heating system? d To connect the flow and return pipework
a On the primary flow pipe immediately above 17 What design of system incorporates a three-port
the boiler mid-position valve to control the flow of water
around the system?
b On the primary flow pipe after the circulator
a W-plan system
c Between the flow and return pipe near to the
hot water cylinder b C-plan system
d Between the flow and return pipe of the c Y-plan system
index radiator d S-plan system
14 Where does the water come from on the ‘AB’ 18 What heat emitter could be used in a kitchen
connection of a three-port mid-position valve? where wall space is limited?
a From the radiators a Skirting board convector
b From the cylinder b Single panel radiator
c From the return pipe c Double panel convector
d From the boiler d Kick-space heater

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 Test your knowledge

19 What is the main difference between a 25 Which of the following systems is approved by
condensing boiler and a non-condensing boiler? Part L?
a The flow of water through the boiler a C-plan system
b The type of gas valve b One-pipe system
c The heat exchanger c Fully pumped S-plan system
d The fan d Semi-gravity two-pipe system
20 What is the principle method that a standard 26 Describe a boiler interlock and its purpose.
radiator uses to heat a room? 27 What are the names of the two types of fully
a Convection pumped vented system that can be installed?
b Conduction 28 What is the purpose of inhibitor within a CH
c Radiation system?
d Infusion 29 Explain why a filling loop should be
disconnected after initial filling of the system.
21 You are called to a customer’s property where
a radiator is cold at the top and hot at the 30 Where should drain valves be installed within a
bottom. What course of action would you take? central heating system?
a Drain and re-fill the system 31 Explain how a thermostatic radiator valve (TRV)
works.
b Replace the radiator
32 A customer asks why an S-plan plus system is
c Remove the sludge from the radiator
better than an S-plan system. Describe why.
d Bleed the radiator
33 Outline the advantages of an underfloor heating
22 What is required to be installed either side of system against a standard central heating system.
the circulator pump?
34 Describe where a district heating system would
a Air release valves work best.
b Isolators Answers can be found online at
c Lock shield valves www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
d Zone valves
23 When replacing a syncron motor from a two- Practical activity
port valve, what should be your first course of As a trainee or apprentice plumber it is important
action? that you are able to position and fix (hang) a
a Release the motor from the housing and pull radiator. This may be a typical task an apprentice
the tab connectors off is asked to carry out on a regular basis. Develop
b Disconnect the wires making a note of the your confidence by marking out for the installation
connections of a given radiator.
c Isolate the flow of water in the system You will need to ask your supervisor or tutor for
d Isolate the electrics and test the supply is a radiator to work from, and a space to mark and
dead measure. Using the theory you have discussed at
your training centre, measure the radiator/brackets
24 Which of the following is an advantage of
and transfer the relevant marks onto a surface for
underfloor heating?
fixing your brackets.
a No visible heat emitters
Ask your supervisor or tutor to check this work. If
b Small heat emitters used possible and convenient, perhaps you could select
c High surface temperature suitable fixings and continue to hang the radiator.
d Instant heat Again, ask your supervisor or tutor to check once
complete.

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CHAPTER 8

RAINWATER SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
The UK has more than its fair share of rain. Rainfall varies greatly in the different regions. On average,
the south-east of the UK has around 500 mm of rainfall a year compared to around 1.8 m for the
north-west. Rain penetrating a building can do a vast amount of damage. Without guttering systems, the
rainfall will run off a roof and erode the ground around a dwelling, it will penetrate the structure and may even
affect a building’s foundations.
In this chapter, we investigate the need for guttering systems, their function and design. We will also look at
the various types of guttering system, the materials they are made from and their methods of jointing and
installation.
Guttering installation invariably involves working at height and this brings with it immediate danger. During
the course of the chapter, we will also review previous learning on working safely at height.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
l layouts of gravity rainwater systems

l installation of gravity rainwater systems

l the maintenance and service requirements of gravity rainwater systems

l the decommissioning of rainwater and gutter systems and components

l how to perform a soundness test, and commission rainwater, gutter systems and components.

1 UNDERSTAND LAYOUTS OF GRAVITY

RAINWATER SYSTEMS
All dwellings have some form of rainfall collection
system to take the rainfall that falls onto the building
Systems and materials used
structure away from the building. This is achieved by in gravity rainwater systems
the use of an eaves-level, usually fascia board-mounted, The principle of any guttering and rainwater system is
guttering system, which collects the water that runs off to remove the rainfall in such a way that it does not:
the roof and discharges it away harmlessly. The main l constitute a nuisance for the occupiers of the
purposes of a guttering system are: dwelling, or
l to protect the building’s foundations l damage the building structure or the building
l to reduce ground erosion foundations or those of any adjacent building.
l to prevent water penetration and damp in the
Domestic gutter and rainwater systems work by
building structure
removing the rainwater that runs off roofs, in channels
l to provide a means for collecting rainwater for later
known as gutters, and discharges the water, via
use, i.e. rainwater harvesting.
rainwater pipework, safely away from the building
structure by gravity. The water may be discharged into:

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

l a surface (rain) water drain, used where the dwelling l BS EN 607:2004 Eaves gutters and fittings made
has a separate system of drainage for both foul of PVCu
water and surface water l BS EN 122001:2016 Plastic rainwater piping
l a combined sewer – a combined system of drainage systems for above ground external use.
where both foul and surface water discharge into a
Most of the guttering systems used on domestic
common drainage system
dwellings today are made from PVCu, the
l a watercourse (stream, river, etc.), where the water
characteristics of which are studied in Chapter 2,
discharges direct into a flowing, nearby water source
Common processes and techniques.
l a soakaway drain – a specifically designed and
located pit, sited away from the dwelling, which q Table 8.1 The advantages and disadvantages of PVCu as a
material for guttering systems
allows the water to soak away naturally to the
water table Advantages Disadvantages
l a rainwater harvesting system for further use within It is easy to install It is adversely affected by
the dwelling; these are specifically designed to serve It is lightweight and easy to wood preservatives
WCs. handle It has a greater coefficient
Minimal maintenance is of thermal expansion (0.06
The types of materials used for rainwater systems required mm/m/°C) compared to
include: other materials (see Chapter
It requires no painting
3, Scientific principles)
l PVCu It does not support
It goes brittle in cold
l extruded aluminium combustion
temperatures and softens at
l cast iron It is economical a relatively low temperature
l copper. It is corrosion free
It has a smooth internal bore

Gutter systems and It has a life expectancy of 50

years
components
Over the years, gutters have been manufactured from PVCu gutter profiles
many different materials and in many different profile There are four main gutter profiles manufactured from
shapes. In the past, the gutter profile was designed in PVCu:
line with the housing styles of the time. For example, 1 Half round: the standard gutter profile, used on
the ornamental gutter profile (Ogee or OG) was many domestic properties throughout the UK.
designed during the Victorian era in the mid to late
1800s. As we shall see, a modern Ogee profile is still
available today to give a dwelling a ‘period’ feel to its
exterior.
In this part of the chapter, we will look at modern
materials and profiles, as well as the different types of 2 High capacity (often called deep half round or
fittings for guttering and rainwater pipework and the storm flow): a deeper version of the half round
typical methods of jointing: profile. It is slightly elliptical in shape and generally
l PVCu guttering systems used on larger or steeper-angled roofs where the
l cast iron guttering systems velocity and volume of the water entering the
l extruded aluminium guttering systems gutter is high.
l jointing guttering of different materials.

PVCu guttering systems

Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVCu) guttering
systems are manufactured to the following British
Standards:
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

3 Square section: very popular in the 1980s and PVCu gutter fittings and jointing method
1990s. Used with square section rainwater pipes.

4 Ogee (or OG, ornamental gutter): a modern

redesign of a Victorian gutter profile. It is used
where a ‘period’ look is important on new builds and
on many Victorian refurbishments.

p Figure 8.1 A typical PVCu gutter system

Figure 8.1 shows the fittings in a typical 112 mm half

round guttering system. The common fittings are
shown in Table 8.2 in all profile styles.
q Table 8.2 Styles of common PVCu gutter fittings

Running outlets

90° gutter angle

135° gutter angle

External stop end

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

Gutter unions

Rainwater pipe fittings

Cast iron guttering systems to BS Jointing cast iron guttering systems

460:2002+A2:2007 Cast iron rainwater
goods
Before PVCu guttering, cast iron was probably the most
common material for gutters and rainwater pipework. It
can still be seen on many older houses. It is strong and
durable but can be difficult to maintain as it requires
regular painting to prevent corrosion.
Cast iron may still be specified by the local authority,
English Heritage or the National Trust if a building is
listed or in a conservation area. The most common
profiles for cast iron are:
l half round section – visually very similar in shape

to PVCu half round profile

l Ogee section – there are several variations of the
p Figure 8.2 Cast iron gutter
Ogee profile manufactured in cast iron, some that As you can see from Figure 8.2, cast iron guttering has
are specific to a particular area, such as Notts Ogee, a socket on one end. The other end is a plain gutter. A
which can be found only in the Nottinghamshire successful joint involves fitting the end of one length
area of gutter into the socket of another with a jointing
l deep half round – found on larger buildings.
material in between. The two lengths of gutter are then
Cast iron-type fittings and guttering are also available bolted together using special zinc-plated gutter bolts.
in cast aluminium. The jointing material can be either:
l paint and putty joint – the traditional method of
q Table 8.3 The advantages and disadvantages of cast iron as a
jointing cast iron guttering systems; the method of
material for guttering systems
jointing is as follows
Advantages Disadvantages l the inside of the socket and outside of the spigot
Strong and durable Installation is expensive and time are first painted with black bitumen paint
consuming l linseed oil putty is then placed into the socket
Cast iron guttering is expensive before mating the socket and spigot together
Requires regular painting and l a zinc gutter bolt is inserted through the holes
maintenance to prevent corrosion
on the socket and spigot, and the two sections
Heavy
bolted together; care should be taken not to
Jointing is time consuming and messy
over-tighten the bolt or the gutter will crack
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

l after the excess putty is cleaned off, the outside q Table 8.4 The advantages and disadvantages of extruded
and inside of the joint can be painted to finish aluminium as a material for guttering systems
the joint Advantages Disadvantages
l a special silicone sealant – the silicone is placed Strong and durable An expensive system
inside the joint and then the two sections are bolted Lightweight Does not suit all properties,
together (normally only used on new cast iron Long lengths can be installed especially mid-terraced and
guttering installations) town houses where there are
Fewer leaks
gutters either side
l a rubber grommet – this method is not generic and A variety of profiles and
usually available only on specific manufacturers’ colours
gutter and fittings. Minimal thermal expansion

Extruded seamless aluminium Factors that determine the

guttering systems
type and size of guttering
This type of guttering system is usually installed by
specialist companies. Extruded seamless aluminium system
guttering systems are a modern innovation that A guttering system should have sufficient capacity
are light in weight and corrosion resistant. It is to carry the expected flow of water at any point on
manufactured ‘on-site’ from a roll of coloured the system. When designing a guttering system for a
aluminium sheet by a special machine that is carried dwelling, there are factors that must be considered
in the back of a van. The aluminium sheet is passed if the system is to cope comfortably with the rain
through the machine and this presses the sheet into that falls on the roof surface. The actual flow in the
the shape required. As the gutter exits the former, system depends on the area to be drained, the rainfall
strengtheners are fitted at regular intervals to give the intensity and the position of the rainwater outlets.
gutter added rigidity. In this section, we will look at the design factors that
enable us to install effective guttering systems. These
are:
l rainfall intensity

l roof area

l running outlet position

l the fall of the gutter

l changes of direction in the gutter run.

Rainfall intensity
In the introduction to this chapter, it was mentioned
that the amount of rainfall throughout the UK differs
greatly, with the south-east being considerably drier
p Figure 8.3 How extruded seamless aluminium gutters are made than the north-west. In England, the county of Cumbria
has the greatest total rainfall, at around 1.8 m per year,
It can be manufactured in one continuous length with Essex and Kent having considerably less at around
of up to 30 m without the need for an expansion 500 mm.
joint, reducing the amount of joints and, therefore,
Average rainfall, however, is only half the story. While
potential leaks. The gutter is installed with internal
it may rain much more in Cumbria than in Essex over a
brackets spaced at 400 mm and this means it is able to
12-month period, the number of litres discharged in a
withstand shock-load from ladders, etc.
single two-minute rainstorm is greater in Essex at 0.022
Most companies offer a variety of profiles, including l/s/m2 (litres per second per square metre) compared
half round and Ogee, in a variety of colours. with Cumbria at 0.014 l/s/m2. This is called rainfall

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

intensity and must be factored into any guttering Roof area

system design because the guttering system must be The angle and area of the roof is a key part of any
able to cope with the sudden, intense downpour. guttering system design. Take a look at the diagram in
Figure 8.5.

L
W

p Figure 8.4 Average rainfall in the UK p Figure 8.5 Roof angle and area

BS EN 12056–3:2000 gives rainfall intensity in litres The drawing shows the roof of a dwelling. If the area of
per second per square metre (l/s/m2) for a two-minute the roof increases, the amount of water collected and
storm event. The maps in the British Standard show discharged from it also increases. Similarly, if the angle
the intensity for various periods from one year to 500 of the roof increases then the area will increase, the
years. Rainfall intensity is divided into four categories amount of water will increase and the velocity at which
(Table 8.5); the different categories are used depending the water enters the gutter will increase also.
on the type of building. Domestic dwellings are
category 1. IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
The area of a roof can be calculated by using
INDUSTRY TIP the following formula in accordance with BS EN
12056–3:2000:
The Met Office website provides useful maps of rainfall Effective maximum roof area (allowance for wind)
in the UK, accessed at: www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/
climate/maps-and-data/uk-actual-and-anomaly-maps ( )
W + H × L = area in m2
2
 Table 8.5 Categories of rainfall intensity Where:
Cat. 1 Return period of 1 year Eaves gutters and flat W = horizontal span of slope
roofs H = height of roof pitch
Cat. 2 Return period of 1.5 Valley and parapet L = length of roof
× design life of the gutters for normal
Example 1
building buildings
A roof has a length of 10 m, a width of 6 m and
Cat. 3 Return period of 4.5 Valley and parapet
× design life of the gutters for higher-risk a height of 3 m. Calculate the effective area of the
building buildings roof:
Cat. 4 Maximum probable
rainfall
Highest-risk buildings ( )
6 + 3 × 10 = 75 m2
2

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

ACTIVITY
Calculation of effective roof area H
Using the formula given above, calculate the
following effective roof areas.
1 A roof has a length of 12 m, a width of 7 m and W
a height of 3 m. p Figure 8.6 Elevational area
2 A roof has a length of 8 m, a width of 8 m and a
height of 4 m. IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
3 A roof has a length of 10 m, a width of 8 m and In this instance, if the angle of the pitch of the roof
a height of 4 m. is known, the calculation is simplified. For example,
if we use the data from the previous example, we
arrive at the following.
The area of a flat roof should be regarded as the
Example 2
total plan area. If the roof has a complex layout,
with different spans and pitches, each area should be A roof has a length of 10 m and a width of 6 m.
Calculate the effective area of the roof if the pitch of
calculated separately. the roof is 30°.
Building Regulations Document H3 gives an acceptable Length of roof = 10 m
alternative for the calculation of roof area where the Width of roof = 6 m
area of the roof is multiplied by a pitch factor. This The pitch factor from the table = 1.29
is detailed in Table 8.6. For this calculation, only the Therefore:
length of the roof and the span are required.
10 × 6 × 1.29 = 77.4 m2

INDUSTRY TIP
ACTIVITY
The Building Regulations 2010 Document H3 can be
accessed at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ Calculation of effective roof area using pitch
uploads/attachment_data/file/442889/BR_PDF_AD_ factors
H_2015.pdf Using the pitch factors given in Table 8.6, calculate
the following effective roof areas.
 Table 8.6 1 A roof has a length of 12 m, a width of 7 m and
pitch of 45°.
Type of surface Design area (m2) 2 A roof has a length of 8 m, a width of 8 m and
Flat roof Plan area of relevant portion pitch of 60°.
Pitched roof at 30° Plan area of portion × 1.29 3 A roof has a length of 10 m, a width of 8 m and
Pitched roof at 45° Plan area of portion × 1.50 pitch of 30°.
Pitched roof at 60° Plan area of portion × 1.87
Pitched roof over 70° or any Elevational area × 0.5
wall IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
To calculate flow in litres/ We can now calculate the amount of rainwater to be
second for 75 mm/hour expected on any given roof area in a sudden storm
intensity, multiply effective deluge of 75 mm of rainfall per hour. To convert the
roof area m2 by 0.0208 area to litres per second (l/s), multiply the roof area
(m2) by 0.0208.
Source: The Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document H
Example 3
The area of the roof in Example 1 is 75 m2. What is
the expected rainfall in l/s?
75 × 0.0208 = 1.56 l/s

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

In drawing 1, the outlet has to be able to cope with

ACTIVITY the total rainwater run-off from the whole roof area.
Calculation of rainfall rate in litres per second The outlet in this situation could be positioned at
Using the effective areas calculated in the above either end of the roof, but the total flow rate would be
activity box, calculate the rainfall rate in litres per the same. Running outlets are designed to cope with
second. rainwater from two directions, so the outlet at either
end can cope with only half the flow rate. Only half the
capacity of the outlet can effectively be used. Placing
Running outlet position the outlet centrally would increase the total area of
Figure 8.7 shows a running outlet. It is the connection roof that the gutter can serve.
between the guttering and the rainwater pipe.
1. 8m

3m

A
2. 4m 4m

3m

p Figure 8.7 A running outlet

The position of the running outlets is usually based

upon the position of the gullies for the surface water
A C B
sewer/drain to the property. These can be found on the Alternative position C: Here the single
building layout drawing (Figure 8.8). outlet is equal to two outlets either end
because of the outlet design

Rainwater 3. 2m 2m 2m 2m
outlet
Rainwater 3m
outlet

Rainwater
outlet

A B
Surface water Inspection
chamber p Figure 8.9 Outlet positions
sewer in the road

p Figure 8.8 Building layout drawing

The more outlets there are on a gutter system, the

shorter the distance the water has to travel and
the more effective the system is at discharging the
rainwater. Consider Figure 8.9.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Outlet design The fall of the gutter

BS EN 12056–3:2000, Section 7.2.1 and NE.2.1
This is the least effective
outlet design. The corners states that:
are sharp edged, which 1 Gutters should be laid to a nominal gradient of
restricts the flow of water between 1 mm/m and 3 mm/m where practicable.
down the outlet by causing a
2 The gradient of an eaves gutter shall not be so steep
clash of water streams at the
shaded area. This creates that the gutter drops below the level of the roof to
turbulent water flow. Some such an extent that water discharging from the roof
water will travel across the will pass over the front edge of the gutter.
outlet and against the flow
on the opposite side of the In most cases, manufacturers interpret these two
outlet. points as a slight fall of 1:600 (25 mm in 15 m). Laying
Here the corners are slightly a gutter with a fall greatly increases the flow capacity
rounded, which assists the
flow of water down the outlet.
and, therefore, the area of roof that can be drained. It
However, the two water also ensures that silting of the gutter does not occur.
streams are likely to clash, However, manufacturers design guttering systems in
creating some turbulence. such a way that the performance of the gutter is not
compromised if it is laid level, with little or no fall. A fall
Fully rounded corners give
a much better flow of water
of 1:600 ensures that the gutter will not fall so low as
down the outlet. The two to be below the discharge point of the roof.
streams are kept more
or less separate, which
assists gravity flow down the INDUSTRY TIP
rainwater pipe. This is known
as hydraulic efficiency.
Gutter falls
The outlet position in drawing 2 is more effective than Not all manufacturers recommend a fall of 1:600. Some
drawing 1 simply because there are now two outlets manufacturers advocate a fall of 1:350. This increases
and each outlet is coping with half the expected the amount of fall, thereby increasing the flow rate of the
rainwater run-off. Again, an alternative, but equally gutter. It also, however, lessens the length of the run of
effective, layout would be one outlet placed in the gutter before the gutter will dip below the discharge point of
the roof. For instance:
centre of the gutter run.
l a fall of 1:600 is the equivalent of a 25 mm fall in 15 m
With outlets placed as in drawing 3, each half of the l a fall of 1:350 is the equivalent of a 22 mm fall in 8 m.
outlet has only a quarter of the flow rate to cope with A fall of 1:600 therefore ensures that the rainwater will
and so layout 3 is much more effective at discharging clear the gutter effectively and cause no problems with
the rainfall without the risk of flooding because both discharge from the roof.
outlets are being used to their full flow rate capacity. Before installing a guttering system, check the
Each manufacturer will have different rainwater flow manufacturer’s installation instructions for the fall gradient
that is recommended.
rates for its own running outlet designs. It should not
be assumed that all manufacturers’ flow rates will
be equal. Therefore, manufacturers’ data should be
considered before the installation begins. Changes of direction in the gutter run
In most domestic gutter systems, changes of direction
To find out how many outlets are required on a
cannot be avoided. Where changes in direction greater
rainwater system design, simply divide the expected
than 10° occur within a guttering system, they restrict
flow rate of the roof area by the flow rate for the outlet
the flow of water through the system. A 90° gutter
given in the manufacturer’s technical literature.
angle reduces the effectiveness of the run of gutter
where the angle is situated by 15 per cent, effectively

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

reducing the roof area that the gutter can usefully

serve. Each subsequent change of direction reduces the
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
PVCu has a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.06
gutter’s effectiveness still further. A gutter angle that is
mm/m/°C. This means that for every metre (1 m) of
placed near an outlet will also reduce the effectiveness gutter, PVCu expands by 0.06 mm for every degree
of the outlet. rise in temperature. For example:
If a 1 m length of gutter is subjected to a rise in
Thermal expansion of PVCu temperature of 10°C, it will expand by the following
amount:
gutters and fittings 1 × 0.06 × 10 = 0.6 mm
One of the problems with PVCu gutters is the large
This might not seem a lot, but let’s look at this in
expansion rate. This can cause the gutters to creak as
more detail.
they are warmed by the Sun and, in extreme cases, it
Example 4
can cause joint failure.
A south-facing gutter 15 m long is subjected to a
25°C temperature rise. What is the expansion of the
ACTIVITY gutter when the coefficient of linear expansion of the
gutter is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
Calculation of thermal expansion
All the information we need to be able to calculate
Using the method shown in the worked example this is in the question:
above, calculate the following:
Length of gutter = 15 m
1 A south-facing gutter 10 m long is subjected to
Temperature diff. (Δt) = 25°C
a 15°C temperature rise. What is the expansion
of the gutter when the coefficient of linear Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.06 mm/m/°C
expansion of the gutter is 0.06 mm/m/°C? Therefore:
2 A south-facing gutter 20 m long is subjected to 15 × 25 × 0.06 = 22.5 mm
a 30°C temperature rise. What is the expansion
of the gutter when the coefficient of linear
expansion of the gutter is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
3 A south-facing gutter 5 m long is subjected to a
20°C temperature rise. What is the expansion
of the gutter when the coefficient of linear
expansion of the gutter is 0.06 mm/m/°C?

KEY POINT
To counteract the expansion, all manufacturers build in to their fittings a 10 mm expansion gap. This must
be observed when installing PVCu gutters if problems with thermal expansion are to be avoided.

Guttering retaining clips

Rubber gutter seal

Gutter installed up to the
thermal expansion marks

Thermal expansion marks

 Figure 8.10 Expansion gap on PVCu gutter fittings 1  Figure 8.11 Expansion gap on
PVCu gutter fittings 2

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

2 INSTALLATION OF GRAVITY RAINWATER

SYSTEMS
The sources of information at some of the more important aspects of these
procedures.
required when carrying out In this part of the chapter, we will be revisiting some
work on gravity rainwater past learning with regard to working at height and
systems also investigating how we can protect the customer’s
property while we are working above ground level.
There are a number of documents we must consult
when designing and installing rainwater systems. Like
Working at height
all other aspects of the building process, gutters and
rainwater systems are subject to various legislative The safest way to install gutters and rainwater pipes
restrictions to ensure that the systems we design and is from a correctly erected and secured scaffold and
install collect the rainwater from the roof structure and on new-build housing, and this is usually the case.
dispose of it safely. To ensure the correct design and Unfortunately, erecting a scaffold for the purpose
installation of rainwater systems, we must, therefore, of replacing existing gutters and rainwater pipes is
refer to the following resources. uneconomical because of the cost and so most of
l Building Regulations Approved Document,
this type of work is performed using ladders. It should
Section H3: Rainwater drainage: this section states always be remembered that a ladder is not a safe
that adequate provision shall be made for rainwater working platform and extreme care should be taken
to be carried from the roof of a building. It contains when working from a ladder. Here are some points to
important information regarding design and remember:
l Always assess the work before any working at
installation of rainwater systems. It makes reference
to BS EN 12056–3:2000. height is performed. A risk assessment should be
l BS EN 12056–3:2000 Gravity drainage systems
performed.
l Never attempt the job alone. PVCu gutter is very
inside buildings. Roof drainage, layout and
calculation. Like all British Standards, this light but it can catch the wind.
l There is no height threshold but if you are high
document takes the form of recommendations.
It relays the more technical aspects of rainwater enough to become injured from a fall, you must
system design, such as rainfall intensity calculations adhere to the Work at Height Regulations 2005.
l Always select the most appropriate equipment for
and outlet provision. It should be used in
conjunction with the Building Regulations. the task, such as mobile scaffold towers or elevated
l Manufacturers’ instructions: the manufacturers of
working platforms. If working from a ladder is
gutters and rainwater pipework will have designed unavoidable, a ladder stand-off should be used,
their systems to accommodate both the Building especially when performing gutter maintenance
Regulations and British Standards. Wherever tasks.
l Ensure that you are properly trained in the use of
possible, manufacturers’ recommendations must be
followed. ladders and mobile scaffolds.
l Always check ladders to ensure that they are in

good order and free from defects.

Safe working practices l Always use the appropriate fall restraints and
In Chapter 1, Health and safety practices and systems, harnesses when working at height.
we looked at the dangers of working at height and, l Always be aware of what or who is below you when
since guttering installation takes place at heights working at height. Never drop tools, equipment or
above head level, it is relevant here that we look again materials.

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

l Always make sure that the ladder is secure before

attempting the work. If securing the ladder is not VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
possible, then a second person should ‘foot’ the
Precautions that can be taken to protect the
ladder.
customer’s property are:
l when using a ladder, a ladder stand-off should
be fitted to prevent the scraping damage
that can be caused by ladders to brickwork or
masonry
l if a ladder is to be erected on a lawn, first cover
the lawn with a plywood sheet to prevent
damage to grass and flower beds
l lawns should have walk boards placed on
them to prevent lawn damage
l take care where vehicles are parked on the
customer’s drive; to prevent possible damage,
ask the customer to move them
l take care not to erect ladders on soft ground
as they could sink, causing slippage; if this is
unavoidable, ensure the ground is supported
beforehand
l place barriers around where work is being
carried out, to prevent people from being
injured when walking near by.

Preparatory work to be
 Figure 8.12 Using a ladder stand-off
carried out on building
HEALTH AND SAFETY fabric
A ladder is not a safe working platform. Take Before starting the installation, fascia boards must be
extreme care and have proper supervision at all checked to ensure that they are straight and level, and
times. that they do not need replacing. Fascia boards that are
Be safe when working at height – don’t take risks! not level or straight can give the gutter a crooked or
More information about working at height can be wavy appearance, and rotted fascias will not hold the
found in Chapter 1, Health and safety practices and gutters properly. Occasionally, it may be necessary for
systems, and on the Heath and Safety Executive fascia boards to be painted before the gutter is installed.
website at: www.hse.gov.uk
The underfelt drip, which is a strip of felt positioned
under the front row of tiles, should also be checked to
Protecting the customer’s property ensure that it has not ripped or rotted. The felt stops
rainwater from leaking behind the gutter and should be
In previous chapters, we have seen how we should
replaced if it is found to be defective.
protect the customer’s property when working inside
the dwelling. The same care and attention should Existing rainwater systems should be removed with
extend to outside the property. care, to avoid damage to the outside wall surfaces and
existing fascia boards.
It is important that the outside of the property is
checked for any existing damage before work begins On new-build properties, it is likely that the gutters will
and this should be pointed out to the customer. be installed before the roof is laid.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

It is wise to establish the type of drainage for the

HEALTH AND SAFETY
premises, and plan your system around whether or not
All materials that are removed should be disposed of
it will be combined, separate or partially separate. If it is
safely and responsibly.
the latter, check that any soakaway is fit for purpose.
Occasionally, asbestos gutters may be found. Where
these are to be removed, this should be carried out Sometimes, a new building extension will require
by specialist asbestos removal companies. a rainwater system. This could be connected to a
functioning system already installed on the premises.
In this situation, a recalculation of the existing system
Installing PVCu gutters may be required to estimate whether the gutter
The hand and power tools that will be required when size and outlets are sufficient to accommodate the
installing PVCu gutters and rainwater pipes are listed in additional flow rates caused by the new extension.
Table 8.7.
There are many documents that need to be consulted
 Table 8.7 The hand and power tools required when installing
when designing or installing rainwater systems.
PVCu gutters and rainwater pipes
This is because there are a range of restrictions in
Hand tools Power tools the legislation to ensure that the water is collected
Pozidriv screwdrivers 110 V SDS power drill efficiently and safely discharged from a building.
Hacksaw 24 V battery-powered
Claw hammer cordless drill Installation of PVCu gutters, step by
String/plumb line step
Spirit level/line level 1 Establish the position of the outlets.
Bradawl 2 Establish the high point of the gutter and fix a
File/rasp fascia bracket at this high point onto the fascia
board using 25 mm × no. 10 zinc-plated roundhead
When installing a rainwater system, a survey of the
screws.
property must be carried out, and there must be a
3 Using a plumb line, centre the outlet over the gully
discussion with the customer about their requirements
or drain.
and choices. It could transpire that an existing installation
4 The distance between the high point and the outlet
may not be installed correctly. Therefore, it is beneficial to
should be measured and a fall of 1:600 determined.
ask the customer about how the system has performed in
Using this fall, fix the outlet at the low point on the
the past.
fascia board.
5 A line can now be strung between the high fascia
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH bracket and the outlet. For gutters that are to be
Remember: communication skills are key. When fixed level, a spirit level should be used against the
working on a new build or alteration, you need to string. (See Figure 8.13.)
understand the customer’s needs and requirements. 6 Screw further fascia brackets onto the fascia board,
You could use visual aids, such as manufacturers’
working away from the running outlet. The brackets
brochures to show the customer, so they can select
an aesthetically pleasing style. This can also help should just touch the line but not distort it. Most
a plumber specify a suitable style as the discharge manufacturers recommend a distance between the
rates will be provided. fascia brackets of 1 m (750 mm in areas that suffer
heavy snowfall), but the manufacturer’s instructions
should be checked beforehand. (See Figure 8.14.)
There is no need to fix a bracket close to the
running outlet as it is secured using screws and
therefore acts as a bracket.

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

Running outlet

Fascia bracket

String line

Plumb line

Gully

 Figure 8.13 Setting the gutter fall

Gutter bracket 1 m maximum

The amount of fall = 1:600 String line Fascia board

p Figure 8.14 Installing fascia brackets

For buildings without fascia boards

There are two methods of fixing to dwellings without
fascia boards. These are as follows.
1 The use of top-or side-fitted rafter brackets:
these are galvanised steel brackets that are screwed
to the top or the side of the roof rafters. The fascia
brackets are then bolted to the rafter brackets. It is
often necessary to replace sections of rafters that
have been exposed to the elements. The rafters
should be checked before installation.
2 The use of drive-in rise and fall brackets (also
known as rise and fall irons): these are flat pointed
strips of galvanised steel that are built into the
brickwork joints. Threaded rod is then fitted with a
gutter bracket attached, which can be adjusted up
or down to give a fall.  Figure 8.15 Top-fitted rafter brackets

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Cutting the gutter

1 Manufacturers recommend that gutter and
rainwater pipes are cut using a fine-tooth saw or a
hacksaw with a 24-teeth/inch blade.
2 Measure and mark the gutter to the required length.
3 Cut the gutter or rainwater pipe carefully using a
fine-tooth saw and de-burr the cut using a file or
rasp.

 Figure 8.16 Side-fitted rafter brackets

p Figure 8.19 Cast iron gutter fitted to rafter brackets

 Figure 8.17 Rise and fall brackets

Installation of the guttering

When installing gutter angle fittings, stop ends and
gutter unions that are unsupported, fascia brackets
should be fitted no more than 150 mm away from p Figure 8.20 Rise and fall iron
either side of the fitting or end of the gutter.
Once all the fascia brackets have been fixed, the gutter Making the guttering into the fittings
can be fitted. It is advisable to work away from the PVCu gutter systems use a snap-fit jointing system. To
outlet towards the high point – this will save time on make a watertight joint, simply insert the gutter into
installation as fewer cuts will be needed. the fitting up to the expansion mark. Push the gutter
up into the back of the gutter fitting clip. Pull the front
of the gutter down and clip the gutter in with the front
gutter fitting clip using the thumb.
x 15
ma 0m
m
mm ma
150 x
15
0m
m
ma
x

 Figure 8.18 Installing gutter angles

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

1
Back locking
clip location

3
Pull front of gutter down
and clip the front of the
gutter with the locking clip
using thumb
2
Locate back of gutter
up into back locking clip

p Figure 8.21 Installing the gutter

Installation of the rainwater pipe

1 Before installing the rainwater pipe, it is advisable to
fabricate the swan neck bend at the top of the pipe
where it connects to the running outlet:
l measure the distance between the two 112.5°

bends marked ‘L’ on Figure 8.22 Gutter

l cut the length of rainwater pipe, de-burr the pipe

and, using solvent weld adhesive, glue the swan

Off-set bend
neck bend together; this should be left for 5
minutes to set.
2 Install the swan neck onto the outlet and measure Rainwater pipe
the distance to the shoe at the base of the rainwater
pipe (if the pipe is to be fitted directly to the drain,
measure the distance to the drain connection).
3 Cut the length of pipe required and de-burr. Install
the pipe onto the bottom of the swan neck and,
using a level, mark and drill the bottom rainwater
pipe clip, and screw the clip and pipe against the
wall using wall plugs and 50 mm × 10 alloy or
stainless steel screws.
4 There is no restriction to the number of bends that
can be installed on rainwater pipes.
5 Where two rainwater pipes converge, it is possible
to take both into a hopper head (Figure 8.23).
6 The distance between the rainwater pipe clips is  Figure 8.22 Making the swan neck bend
shown in Table 8.8. Before installing the rainwater
pipe clips, always check the clip distances in the
manufacturer’s instructions.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 8.9 Styles of gutter adapter fittings

Gutter-to-gutter adapters

 Figure 8.23 A hopper head

 Table 8.8 Distance between the rainwater pipe clips

Rainwater clip support centres
 Figure 8.24 Rainwater pipe clips
Pipe size Vertical (m) Horizontal (m)
55 mm 1.2 0.6
62 mm 2.0 1.2
68 mm 2.0 1.2
70 mm 2.0 1.2
82 mm 2.0 1.2
110 mm 2.0 1.2
p Figure 8.25 Connections to existing cast iron gutters
7 Measure the required distance for the clips, mark
and drill the rainwater pipe clips, and screw the clips
and pipe against the wall using wall plugs and 50
Handling and storage of
mm × 10 alloy or stainless steel screws. materials
Care should be taken when handling PVCu gutter and
Jointing guttering of rainwater pipes. Excessive scratching can ruin the
different materials and aesthetic appearance of the gutter and affect joint
sealing. Cold weather reduces the impact strength of
profiles PVCu and extra care is needed in wintery conditions.
Occasionally, it may be necessary to make joints
When pipe is delivered to site, it is recommended that
between systems of guttering that use different
loading and unloading of pipe and gutter lengths is
materials or profile shapes. This can be done
performed by hand without the use of mechanical
easily using specific adapter fittings. Gutter adapters
lifting aids.
include:
l half round PVCu to half round cast iron Always store pipes and gutters on flat surfaces,
l half round PVCu to Ogee PVCu ensuring that the surface is free from sharp protrusions.
l half round PVCu to Ogee cast iron Bundles of pipes and gutters can be stored up to 3 m
l half round PVCu to square section PVCu. high without support. Loose gutter and pipe requires
supports every 2 m. Fittings should remain in their
packaging until needed to reduce damage by scratching.

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

Testing completed rainwater  Table 8.10

systems Fault Remedy

Leaking joints Carry out rectification
Once the system installation is complete, testing can operations (see below)
be carried out by discharging water, from a hosepipe, Cracked and broken gutters Carry out rectification
at all high points in the system and checking to make and rainwater pipes operations (see below)
sure that the water discharges down the outlets and Bad falls and bowing gutters These will require
through the rainwater pipes without leakage or pooling realigning with the correct
of water in the gutter. fall or the installation of
extra fascia brackets
Blocked gutters and rainwater These require cleaning

3 THE MAINTENANCE pipes causing water to overflow

at the outlets
and clearing (see below)

AND SERVICE Incorrectly spaced fascia and

rainwater pipe brackets
Fascia brackets at 1 m
distance, vertical pipework

REQUIREMENTS OF brackets at 2 m and

horizontal at 1.2 m

GRAVITY RAINWATER Water overflowing from the

gutter during periods of heavy
Generally, a sign of too big
a roof area – install more

SYSTEMS rain after a major extension to

the gutter system
rainwater pipe outlets, or
replace the gutter with
high-capacity gutter
Maintenance of guttering systems is an essential
activity to keep systems working correctly. In this Leakage repairs
next section of the chapter, we will look at those There are different visual signs for leaking joints
essential items of maintenance that are carried out depending on the material that the gutter is made from.
during planned preventative maintenance or fault
rectification. Leaking PVCu gutters
These include: The leak may not be obvious until water is discharged
l visual inspections and fault finding down the gutter, especially if the gutter is black in
l leakage repairs colour. In some instances, leaks may show on the
l replacement of defective gutters and fittings surface of the gutter as a black/green moss growth.
l cleaning and clearing blockages. A joint that is leaking, usually because the rubber seal
has either shrunk or become misaligned, is generally an
Different gutter materials require different methods
easy problem to fix by replacing the defective fitting.
of working and repair, and it is important that we
have knowledge of the basic repair techniques
required. INDUSTRY TIP
It should be remembered, however, that some gutter
Visual inspections and fault manufacturers use different fitting dimensions and one type
finding of gutter may not fit another. Most manufacturers produce
‘compatibility charts’ showing which gutter fits another.
Visual inspections are the first part of the maintenance
and repairing activity. Visual inspections help in
With leaking PVCu fittings, remember:
establishing the overall condition of the gutter and
l always try to replace like for like; this is
rainwater pipe installation, joints and fittings, and in
sometimes not possible as there have been many
pinpointing specific problems, such as those listed in
manufacturers in the past that no longer exist or
Table 8.10.
the company has changed its specifications and
fittings have been improved/updated

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

l do not be tempted to repair leaking joints with Where the gutter is compatible with other systems,
silicone sealant; while the joint may be sealed the replacement of gutter is a fairly simple process, as
initially, as soon as the gutter expands and described below.
contracts, it will break again and begin to leak. 1 Visually inspect the job and assess the risks. A risk
assessment should be carried out. Guttering is a
Leaking cast iron fittings two-man job if working from a ladder.
These are generally visible from the ground without the 2 The correct PPE should be worn when attempting
need to pour water down the gutter. Leaking cast iron this task. Eye protection is essential.
joints have visual tell-tale signs, such as: 3 If it is possible to remove the cracked section
l rust staining on the mouth of the joint between two fittings, this will be the simpler option.
l moss and lichen growth on the mouth of the joint It is advisable to replace the fittings either side as
l water staining in the joint area well as the length of gutter as the rubber seals may
l rust around the gutter bolt. not create a seal when the new gutter is installed.
4 Unclip the gutter from the fittings and begin to
Repairing a leaking cast iron joint is a reasonably easy
remove the gutter from the fascia brackets by
task that involves removing the gutter bolt, breaking
pulling the gutter and bracket towards you and
(parting) the joint, cleaning out the old jointing medium
down. Unclip the gutter by lifting the front edge of
(usually paint and putty), repainting and re-puttying
the fascia bracket and clicking it over the gutter. Be
the joint before remaking the joint with a fresh gutter
careful here. The brackets may be as brittle as the
bolt. Care should be taken, however, as movement of
gutter itself.
the gutter can break further joints down the gutter
5 Once all the brackets and fittings have been
run. Again, silicone sealant is not a satisfactory jointing
unclipped, carefully lift out the gutter by twisting
medium in this situation and the joint must be dry
the front face of the gutter upwards and out of the
before jointing is attempted.
brackets.
6 Replace the fittings (gutter unions, angles, etc.) as
Replacement of defective necessary, taking care not to alter the fall of the
gutters and fittings gutter.
Perhaps the most obvious of all gutter defects are 7 Measure the distance between the expansion marks
cracked and broken gutters and rainwater pipes. of the fittings, and cut and de-burr the new length
of gutter.
PVCu gutters and rainwater pipes are at constant 8 Install the new gutter by inserting the back edge
risk from ultraviolet (UV) rays from sunlight. This can first, and twisting down and away from you.
often lead to gutters becoming brittle, causing them to 9 Carefully re-clip the gutter into the first fitting and,
shatter or crack. Placing ladders directly against PVCu working towards the second fitting, re-clip the
gutters, when undertaking maintenance and cleaning, gutter into the fascia brackets.
can also damage them further. 10 When the gutter has been clipped into the last
Look back at Chapter 2, Common processes and fitting, testing the gutter with a hosepipe can begin.
techniques, for more information on the effects of UV 11 Check for leaks and clearance of the water from the
light on plastics. gutter.
The main problem here, especially where replacement
is necessary, is compatibility. Most manufacturers
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Take care when working in the same space as cast
now use generic gutter and rainwater pipe sizes, but
iron gutters as, occasionally, the gutter may fall
older guttering systems are often smaller in size with without warning.
no adapters available. In this case, replacement of the
entire system is the only option.

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

Problems with cast iron gutters 8 There should be no need to cut the gutter if it is a full
Cast iron gutters present very different problems length being replaced as cast iron gutter is supplied in
to PVCu. Cast iron gutters, if not regularly painted, 6 ft (imperial) lengths to be compatible with existing
rust from the back edge towards the front, causing systems. Should cutting be required, a hacksaw or
weakness of the metal. The rust also attacks the rafter angle grinder with an appropriate metal-cutting blade
brackets so they too become weak. When this happens, can be used. Eye protection is essential.
the weight of the gutter will cause the gutter to drop 9 Mark and re-drill the bolt hole (if required after
and become unstable. cutting).
10 Paint the inside of the socket and outside of the
The procedure is as follows. spigot of the new length, and place a 20 mm-thick
1 Visually inspect the job and assess the risks. A bead of soft linseed oil putty in the socket.
risk assessment should be carried out. Removing 11 Place another bead of putty in the existing gutter
sections of cast iron guttering is a two-man job if socket.
working from ladders. The guttering is very heavy 12 Carefully lift the new section of gutter to roof height
and this task should not be handled alone. and, ensuring spigot is to socket, lift the new section
2 It may be beneficial to clean the gutter out of gutter into place by inserting the back edge first,
beforehand as this often reduces the weight. and twisting down and away from you.
3 Carefully cut through the gutter bolts above the nut 13 Gently press the joints together and insert the
with a junior hacksaw. gutter bolts at both joints. Re-tighten the gutter
4 Using a nail punch, punch the cut bolts upwards bolts. Do not over-tighten as the gutter may crack.
from the cut end. 14 Remove any excess putty from inside and outside
the joints, and paint the joint both internally and
INDUSTRY TIP externally.
15 Test the gutter by discharging water from a
Do not be tempted to punch downwards as gutter bolts are
hosepipe down the guttering and check for leaks.
either large dome-headed or countersunk-style bolts and
you risk breaking further lengths of gutter.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The correct PPE should be worn when attempting
5 Once the bolts are removed, carefully break the
this task. Eye protection is essential.
joints at either end. Be careful as cast iron gutter
often has only one rafter bracket in the centre of
the gutter length and the gutter may drop suddenly. INDUSTRY TIP
6 Carefully lift out the gutter by twisting towards you
and upwards. Replacement of broken or rusted cast iron gutter sections is
7 With the section of gutter removed, clean the often difficult and time consuming, and should be attempted
socket and spigot of the gutter either side of the only with an experienced plumber to supervise the activity.
removed length to remove the old jointing material,
and paint the inside of the socket and the outside of
Replacing cast iron with PVCu
the spigot using black bitumen paint.
Replacing cast iron gutters with PVCu is possible
with special adapters that convert from cast iron to
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS PVCu (see page 444 of this chapter). When replacing
Always try to maintain the customer’s property as cast iron gutters, do not be tempted to reuse the
it was – the original colour paint of the gutter can rafter brackets as these are not secure enough for
be used if the customer requests it. PVCu and the new gutter may flap in the wind.
Any existing rafter brackets should be removed
beforehand and a string line put up between the
sockets of the cast iron gutter. This can be done

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

by installing the line between the bolt holes of out during the scheduled preventative maintenance
the existing cast iron to maintain the correct fall. programme on a yearly basis.
The new fascia can then be installed to the line as
previously described.
Cast iron rainwater pipes are easily replaced with PVCu
equivalents. The cast iron rainwater pipe should be
replaced to the nearest downstream joint or, better still,
replace the whole length of cast iron with PVCu pipe.

Cleaning and clearing

blockages
Probably the most common of all maintenance
procedures is the cleaning and painting (cast iron only) p Figure 8.26 Blocked gutters
of gutters. Over a period of time, silt can build up in
gutters, especially when the roof tiles are made from HEALTH AND SAFETY
concrete. Silting can lead to moss growth and eventual Where the gutter is found to contain bird droppings,
blockage, causing gutters to overflow, and this could this should be handled with extreme care as these
carry disease and should not be ingested into the
possibly cause fascia boards and roof joists to rot away
body by breathing in. A face mask and waterproof
and walls to become damp. Cleaning (and painting both gloves should be worn at all times.
inside and out on cast iron gutters) should be carried

4 DECOMMISSION RAINWATER AND GUTTER

SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Decommissioning rainwater systems can be messy and l Appropriate access equipment: gutters should be
often dangerous as most of the work is done at height. removed and installed from a properly constructed
The following points must be considered. and erected scaffold. Gutters should not be installed
l Notify relevant person: inform the customer that or removed from a ladder.
you are going to start removing the old guttering l Removal of components: remember, some
and rainwater pipework. gutter components are heavy, such as cast iron.
l Apply warning notices and signs: position warning Gutters and rainwater pipes should be removed
signs and notices that there are operatives working with care.
overhead. l Dispose of materials appropriately: old gutter
l Wear the correct PPE: gutters are often full of systems should be disposed of responsibly at a
sludge and plant life and, occasionally, dead birds and recognised disposal point or recycling centre.
small mammals. These can present a health hazard. Alternatively, the hire of a mini-skip would prove
It is therefore important to use the correct PPE, useful.
including goggles, face mask and rubber gloves.
l Check for hazardous materials: asbestos was used

for both gutters and rainwater pipes. This must

not be touched and must be removed by specialist
asbestos removal contractors.

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 Chapter 8 Rainwater systems

5 PERFORM A SOUNDNESS TEST, AND

COMMISSION RAINWATER AND GUTTER
SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Visual inspection On completion
On completion of the gutter and rainwater pipe Complete any commissioning documentation
installation, a visual inspection should be conducted. required. This is often a requirement on new housing
Check that: construction sites.
l the gutters are clear of any debris that may hinder

the free flow of water

l the gutters and rainwater pipes are adequately and SUMMARY
correctly supported to the manufacturer’s instructions
l the fall of the gutter complies with the
This chapter has shown the importance of correctly
manufacturer’s installation data. designed and installed gutter and rainwater systems.
But this is only half the story. All too often, good,
well-installed gutter systems are neglected and
Before testing takes place left to depreciate in the elements. The important
Before undertaking testing procedures, notify the points of this comprehensive insight into rainwater
customer or the responsible person of what you are management are:
about to do, and give a rough estimate of how long this l think about the design and comply with Building
will take. Ask the customer to move any obstructions Regulations Approved Document H3 and the
or property that may hinder the testing process. recommendations of British Standard BS EN
12056–3
Testing the gutters and l use manufacturers’ installation instructions for

rainwater pipes fall ratios, clipping distances and rainwater pipe

positioning
All gutter and rainwater pipes should be wet tested
l protect the customer’s property during installation
after completion. This can be done either using a
operations
hosepipe or a bucket full of water. Do not discharge
l be aware of health and safety at all times.
the water directly into the gutter as this often causes
spillage, which can be mistaken for a leak. Instead,
spread the water over the roof to simulate how rainfall
would enter the gutter naturally. While the gutters are
full of water, check for:
l leaks at the gutter and rainwater joints

l clearance of the water from the gutter without

pooling in the gutter bottom

l free flowing of the water down the rainwater

pipework without any backing up and spilling over

the top of the gutter
l a gentle flow of water without the water flowing

too fast, which is an indicator of an incorrect fall

l any signs of dampness on the gutter or the building

structure.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Test your knowledge 6 Which part of the Building Regulations

specifically covers rainwater systems?
1 What are the most important factors to a Document G
be considered when sizing and selecting a
b Document H
guttering system?
c Document J
a Drainage connection, rainfall direction,
durability d Document P
b Rainfall intensity, roof area, gutter fall 7 What is the recommended clipping distance for
PVCu gutters to fascia boards?
c Material type, height, drainage system type
a 650 mm c 800 mm
d Environmental factors, weight, labour
availability b 750 mm d 1000 mm
2 On completion of the installation of a rainwater 8 What is the component marked ‘X’ in the image
gutter system, how would you check that the below?
system does not leak?
X
a Return on a day when it is raining to visually
check
b Carry out a visual inspection
c Discharge water on the roof with a hosepipe
d Use a manometer and weir cup
3 What type of gutter profile is shown in the a Rainwater shoe
image below? b Expansion joint
c Gulley
d Hopper
9 Which of the following is not a common material
used in the manufacture of rainwater systems?
a PVCu
a Half round
b MDPE
b Deep flow
c Copper
c Ogee
d Extruded aluminium
d Square
10 Which of the following British Standards gives
4 Which is the most suitable gradient of fall for a specific information on the intensity of rainfall
standard gutter installation? in the UK?
a 2 mm/m a BS EN 12056–3:2000
b 8 mm/m b BS EN 806
c 10 mm/m c BS EN 1057
d 60 mm/m d BS 6565–4
5 A south-facing gutter 20 m long is subjected to 11 Which item would be used to inspect a
a 30°C temperature rise. What is the expansion guttering system located on the first floor for a
of the gutter when the coefficient of linear blockage?
expansion of the gutter is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
a Trestle c Step ladder
a 12 mm c 36 mm
b Step-up d Extension ladder
b 18 mm d 42 mm

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 Test your knowledge

12 What is another common term used to describe 19 Give at least three advantages to the use of
the offset from a running outlet to the vertical extruded aluminium rainwater systems.
downpipe? 20 What tools are required to install a PVCu gutter
a Swan neck c Goose neck including running outlet to a wooden fascia?
b Cranked turn d Direct change 21 Show your full calculations to find the drop or
13 What is a common diameter for round domestic fall of a 5.25 m length of guttering.
downpipe? 22 A customer complains that the same section
a 32 mm c 68 mm of guttering is overflowing every time it
rains. Outline what could be wrong with the
b 50 mm d 75 mm
installation.
14 Which of the following factors needs to be
Answers can be found online at
considered before the installation of a guttering
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
system?
a How tall the d What type of
building is brickwork the Practical activity
b What type of tiles building is made Practise your cutting and measuring by producing
are on the roof line from the gutter arrangement shown in the image
below. Ensure cuts are straight and smooth, and
c The roof area
brackets are installed at the correct distance to
15 What is the recognised ratio of fall for the gutter allow for support of the bend. This does not need
length? to be fixed but if your training centre allows it or
a 1:200 c 1:600 you have the facility and time on-site, then try
b 1:300 d 1:800 positioning and fixing using suitable fixings. The
16 A roof has a length of 12 m and a width of short length shown will have very little fall but if
7 m. If the pitch of the roof is 45° then what is possible (and, again, if time permits) a 3 m length
the effective area of the roof? of gutter could be installed, ensuring correct fall is
provided.
17 How is expansion accommodated within PVCu
guttering? x 15
ma 0m
m
m
18 Calculate the amount of rainwater expected at 15
0m ma
x
15
any one time from a roof with an effective area 0m
m
ma
of 104 m2 in an area where the number of litres x

discharged in a single two-minute rainstorm is

0.022 l/s/m2.

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CHAPTER 9

SANITATION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Some 200 years ago, waste water and sewage simply ran down the centre of streets and alleys. These were
open sewers breeding disease that, on many occasions, caused severe illness and death. Today, the effluent we
produce is directed safely away from our homes by a network of pipes called sanitation systems.
In this chapter, we will investigate domestic sanitation systems. We will look at the many different sanitary
appliances available and the systems of above-ground sanitation pipework they are connected to, which
ensure hygienic living conditions in our homes and in the surrounding environment.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● sanitary pipework and appliances used in dwellings

● installing sanitary appliances and connecting pipework systems

● service and maintenance requirements for sanitary appliances and connecting pipework systems

● the principles of grey water recycling.

1 SANITARY PIPEWORK AND APPLIANCES USED

IN DWELLINGS
Types of sanitary pipework All sanitary systems contain two sections:
1 The soil pipe: also known as the soil stack, this is
system the lower, wet part of the system, which takes the
Without the system of pipework to take waste solids effluent away from the building.
and liquids away from the dwelling, sanitary conditions 2 The vent pipe: also known as the vent stack, this
within buildings would not be hygienic and could is the upper part of the system that introduces air
potentially be damaging to our health. into the system to help prevent loss of trap seal.
Ventilation of a soil and waste system is necessary
In this first part of this chapter, we will look at the
to prevent water seals in traps being broken due to
various systems of sanitary pipework, often called
negative pressure or pressure fluctuations within
above-ground discharge systems (AGDS), and
the system. Broken seals allow foul air and smells to
investigate where these systems should be installed.
enter the building. The vent pipe is the dry part of
The systems are:
the system.
● primary ventilated stack system

● ventilated branch discharge system

● secondary ventilated stack system

KEY POINT
● stub stack.
Together, the two sections are referred to as the
soil and vent pipe.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Before we look at sanitary systems, we must remember entering the building. Also, the waste pipe diameter and
that all sanitary pipework and drainage systems gradient must maintain a water seal in the trap of at
need to comply with Approved Document H of the least 25 mm after the appliance has been used.
Building Regulations. These requirements will be met
if the recommendations of BS EN 12056:2000 – INDUSTRY TIP
which contains recommendations for design, testing,
installation, and maintenance for all above-ground Access Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document
non-pressure pipework systems – are followed. H at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/442889/BR_PDF_AD_H_2015.pdf
To comply with Document H, all appliances must be
fitted with a water trap seal to prevent foul air from

Primary ventilated stack system

A B

D
Staggered bath branch
to prevent cross-flow

A B E C

450 mm to the
invert of the drain
Large-radius bend
A: WC branch
B: Washbasin and bidet
C: Washing machine/dishwasher
D: Bath
E: Kitchen/utility sink

 Figure 9.1 The primary ventilated stack system

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Table 9.1 Branch and waste pipe sizes, gradients and trap seal depths
Appliance Pipe size (mm) Max. length (m) Gradient (mm/m) Trap seal depth (mm)
A WC branch 75–100 6 18 50
18–22
B Washbasin and bidet 32 1.7 75
(see Figure 9.2)
C Washing machine/dishwasher 40 3 18–90 75
D Bath 40 3 18–90 50
E Kitchen/utility sink 40 3 18–90 75
Where these lengths are exceeded, then the next pipe size up should be used; 40 mm appliances will need to increase to
50 mm pipe, the length and gradient of which are listed below.
Appliances with 50 mm waste pipe 4 18–90 75

The primary ventilated stack is probably the most Reading the graph is a simple task. The horizontal line
common system installed in domestic dwellings. It is the length of the waste pipe. The vertical line is the
relies on all the appliances being closely grouped gradient. So, decide on the length, trace the line up
around the stack and therefore does not need an until it meets the curve, then follow it across to the left
extra ventilating stack like other systems. It is used in side to read the gradient.
situations where the discharge stack is large enough
For example, if a 32 mm waste pipe is to be installed that
to limit pressure fluctuations without the need for a
is 1 m in length, then the gradient will be 40 mm/m.
separate ventilating stack.

Waste pipe sizes and lengths ACTIVITY

Waste pipes need to fall away from the appliances with The gradient curve
enough of a fall for the water to reach what is known Try the gradient curve for yourself. Determine the
answers to the following questions:
as a ‘self-cleansing velocity’. The fall is known as the
1 A waste pipe has a length of 1.5 m. What is its
gradient.
gradient?
Table 9.1 shows the size of waste pipe for a given 2 A waste pipe has a length of 750 mm. What is
appliance installed on a primary ventilating stack, and its gradient?
its maximum length and gradient. 3 A waste pipe has a gradient of 120 mm/m.
What is its length?
The rules regarding the gradient for washbasins are
slightly different to those for other appliances. If the
maximum length of 1.7 m is used, then the gradient is Branches at the base of the primary
18–22 mm/m. For shorter lengths than this, the gradient ventilated stack system: low-level
can increase and a gradient graph, like that shown in connections
Figure 9.2, can be used to calculate the gradient needed. For systems up to five storeys high, the distance
between the lowest branch connections and the invert
32 mm waste pipes
120
of the drain should be at least 750 mm. This can be
Gradient (mm per m length)

100
reduced to 450 mm for single low-rise dwellings. For
multi-storey systems, the ground floor appliances
80
should be connected to their own stack or drain but
60
not into the main stack. For buildings that have more
40
than 20 storeys, the ground and first floors should be
20
connected in this way.
0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75
Length of branch (m)

 Figure 9.2 Gradient graph

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

within 750 mm of the off-set. If an off-set is to be

placed in the wet part of a soil stack, in a building of up
to five storeys, then the stack must be ventilated both
above and below the off-set.

Branch connections for waste pipes

Invert of
the drain 45°
450 mm for low-rise buildings
2.5 diameter
750 mm minimum for multi- of pipe
storey buildings 87.5° – 67.5

200 mm
 Figure 9.3 Branch connections at the invert of the drain max

Bends and off-sets 50 mm radiu

Radius not more 200 mm
Bends at the base of discharge stacks should be large than 25 mm
radius, the minimum radius being 200 mm. Two 45° Permitted
connection
bends can be used as an alternative. This ensures the
smooth flow of water and solid waste into the drainage
system. Tight bends can cause a problem called 45°
compression, where 2.5
thediameter
water hitting the bend forces
of pipe which can blow the water
a shock wave of air upwards, 87.5° – 67.5°
out of waste pipe traps, causing them200 to
mmlose their seal
and let obnoxious smells into the dwelling.
max

KEY TERM 200 mm

50 mm radius
Radius not more
Compression: the process than
of water
25 mmhitting
a bend
Permitted
at forces that cause a shock wave of air upwards. connections

 Figure 9.5 Branch connections

In Figure 9.5, the upper drawing shows that junctions,

including branch pipe connections of less than 75 mm,
should be made at a 45° angle or with a 25 mm bend
200 mm minimum
200 mm minimum radius. The prohibited zone in the lower drawing shows
the area (opposite the WC connection) in which a
branch pipe may not be connected to a distance of 200
mm. Branch connection pipes of over 75 mm diameter
must either connect to the stack at a 45° angle or with
Large-radiusLarge-radius
bend bend Double 45° Double
alternative
45° a minimum bend radius of 50 mm.
alternative

 Figure 9.4 Large-radius bends at the base of the stack Prevention of cross-flow
Off-sets in the wet part of the stack should be avoided A branch pipe should not discharge into a stack in such
if possible. Where there is no option, again large-radius a way that it could cause cross-flow into any other
bends should be used, with no branch connections branch pipe. This can cause loss of trap seal by effluent
back-flowing up the opposite connection.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Branch diameter Centre line of opposed Small branch

82 mm to 160 mm branch not to be below diameter
this point 82 mm max

Unopposed
200 mm connection 200 mm (see
permissible below)
in this area

Section Centre line of opposed Section Section

branch not to be above
this point

Plan Plan

(a) Restricted connection (b) Examples of permitted (c) Opposing waste pipes
area on stack connections

 Figure 9.6 Preventing cross-flow

Figure 9.6 shows the areas of a soil stack where branch The ventilated branch discharge
connections directly opposite are restricted. In general, system
there are several rules, as follows.
● Where a branch connection into a stack is between

82 mm and 160 mm in diameter (e.g. a WC branch), Main ventilating stack

no other connection is allowed to be installed Branch ventilating
pipe
opposite for a distance of 200 mm vertically Rodding eye
downwards. The left-hand drawing in Figure 9.6
shows the restricted area shaded.
● The middle drawing shows that side connections at 90°

to the branch are allowed.

Branch discharge pipe
● Where the branches are of similar size – say, two 40 Branch ventilating pipe
mm connections – then the restricted distance will
depend upon the size of the main stack: Main discharge stack
● on a stack up to 82 mm in diameter, no

connection is allowed for a distance of 90 mm

● on a stack up to 110 mm in diameter, no
To sewer
connection is allowed for a distance of 110 mm
● on a stack up to 160 mm in diameter, no  Figure 9.7 Ventilated branch discharge system
connection is allowed for a distance of 250 mm.
The ventilated branch discharge system is used on
Where it is not possible to meet the requirements of larger systems where there is a risk of trap seal loss
the primary ventilated stack (e.g. excessive waste pipe because the waste pipe lengths are excessive. Control
lengths), then extra ventilation to the system will need of the pressure in the waste pipe (the discharge branch)
to be added to safeguard the trap seal. This can be is achieved by ventilating it no further than 750 mm
done by installing either of the following: from the appliance as this safeguards against trap seal
● a ventilated branch discharge system, where each
loss by induced or self-siphonage. Alternatively, small
waste pipe branch is separately ventilated air admittance valves may be used at each appliance.
● a secondary ventilated stack system, where the
These allow air into the system when the appliance is
waste stack is directly ventilated. in operation.
These are described below.
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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Secondary ventilated stack system 15 m, or the ventilating pipe serves more than one
appliance, then the size must be 32 mm.
● The main ventilation stack must be a minimum
Secondary ventilating stack of 75 mm. This also applies to the dry part of the
primary ventilating stack.
Rodding eye
Stub stack system: low-level WC
connections to the drain
When a group of appliances are connected direct to the
Branch discharge pipe
drain, under certain circumstances a 110 mm stub stack
may be used. Figure 9.10 shows a typical ground-floor
stub stack. Ventilation is required when the connection
Main discharge stack
from the invert of the drain to the highest connection
of an appliance to the stack exceeds 2 m, or the WC
crown connection to the invert of the drain exceeds
 Figure 9.8 Secondary ventilated stack system 1.3 m. Ventilation of a stub stack is via an air
admittance valve.
With a secondary ventilated stack system, only
the main discharge stack is ventilated. This system Access cover or air
110 mm stub stack admittance valve
arrangement safeguards against positive and negative
pressure fluctuations.

The rules regarding branch ventilating

pipes H1 = 2 m max. (Scotland only)
H2 = 1.5 m max.
H3 = 1.3 m max. (England &
Wales only)

Invert connection above the spill-over level

H2 H3 H1
Ventilation pipe
Appliance
spill-over level d
d (single appliance) = 6 m max.
d (group of appliances) = 12 m max.

 Figure 9.10 The stub stack

300 mm
Branch discharge pipe Air admittance valves
max.

An air admittance valve allows air into a stub stack to

prevent the loss of trap seals. The subsequent suction
 Figure 9.9 Branch ventilating pipe rules action, when an appliance is used, opens the valve. This
stabilises the air condition in the stack because air is
Where branch ventilating pipes must be installed, the
sucked into the stack through the valve, also preventing
following rules apply.
smells and foul air escaping out. When the appliance has
● Any branch ventilating pipe must be connected to
finished its operation, the valve closes, preventing smells
the discharge stack above the spill-over level of the
escaping into the space where the valve is installed.
highest appliance fitted to the stack. The ventilating
pipe must also rise away from the appliance. Air admittance valves should be fitted in an
● The minimum size of any ventilating pipe to a single uninhabited space such as a roof space. This minimises
appliance is 25 mm. However, if it is longer than the risk of freezing while keeping the valve accessible.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

On no account should they be fitted outside because The requirements are that one stack in five must be
of the risk of the valves freezing up in the closed ventilated to the outside air using a conventional
position during cold weather. If air admittance valves ventilation stack, and that this should usually be done
are installed within a boxing, the boxing must be at the head or start of the drain run. The general rules
ventilated. In all cases, the valve must be accessible for are as follows:
repair or replacement. ● Up to four domestic properties of no more than

three storeys high can be ventilated using air

admittance valves.
● Where an underground drain serves more than four

properties fitted with an air admittance valve, the

following rules apply.
● Where five to ten buildings exist, additional

conventional ventilation stacks must be installed

at the head of the drain run.
● Where 11 to 20 buildings exist, additional

conventional ventilation stacks must be installed

at the head of the drain and at the mid-point in
the run of the drain.
● All multi-storey domestic properties will require

additional conventional ventilation if more than

one property is fitted with an air admittance
valve and is connected to a common drain that is
not ventilated by a conventional ventilation stack.

 Figure 9.11 The operation of an air admittance valve Connecting multiple waste
appliances to branch discharge
KEY POINT pipework
An important point to remember is that air The connection of two or more appliances on a single
admittance valves are not a substitute for waste pipe is often installed incorrectly on the primary
ventilation stacks and any drain where an ventilated stack. This is usually the cause of baths
air admittance valve is fitted will still require pulling the water from the trap of a washbasin.
conventional venting at some point. This is simply
to minimise the effects of back pressure, which Where multiple appliances are to be installed, then
could occur if the underground drainage system the use of ventilating branch pipework should be
becomes blocked. considered to avoid trap seal loss (see the section on
the ventilated branch discharge system, page 456).

32 mm
50 mm 40 mm

To prevent induced siphonage on a multiple appliance installation from a

single waste pipe connected to a primary ventilation system, the waste pipe
must increase in size to 50 mm as shown before entering the soil stack

 Figure 9.12 Multiple appliance installations

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

General sanitary pipework Access cover positioned above the

requirements spill-over level of the highest appliance

As well as the requirements we have already looked at,

sanitary pipework systems should follow the general
rules listed below.
● Where a ventilation stack is installed within 3 m of

an opening window, the stack should be installed at

least 900 mm above the window.
● A cage should be fitted to the top of the vent pipe

to prevent birds nesting at the top of the stack.

Birds’ nests have the effect of blocking off the air
supply to the stack, causing waste pipes to lose their
trap seal.
 Figure 9.14 The position of access
● A vent cowl should be fitted in exposed or windy

positions to prevent ‘wavering out’, where the wind ● Waste pipes may discharge over a gulley provided
blowing across the top of the stack causes the that:
● the gulley is capable of accepting discharge from
trap water to move from side to side, potentially
resulting in trap seal loss by the momentum of the a waste pipe and is not connected to a rainwater
water. drain
● the waste pipe discharges below the gulley grate
● Access should be provided above the spill-over

level of the highest appliance, to allow for clearing but above the water level in the trap
● appliances connected to the gulley may use a
blockages.
● When installing a soil stack for waste pipes only, the
trap with a 38 mm trap seal.
size of the stack must be at least the same size as
the largest trap or branch connection to it. Sanitary appliances
There are two purposes of sanitary appliances: to
maintain personal hygiene by washing, bathing or
showering, and the removal of solid and fluid human
900 mm
waste. In this part of the chapter we will look at the
types of sanitary appliances used in dwellings and their
working principles, including:

● materials used for sanitary appliances

Less than 3 m ● conventional WCs
● washbasins
● bidets
● baths
● shower trays and cubicles
● sinks
 Figure 9.13 The position of a vent stack next to an opening
● urinals.
window
Materials used for sanitary
appliances
The materials used in the manufacture of sanitary
appliances are listed in Table 9.2. They must be robust,
hygienic and easy to clean.

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q Table 9.2 Materials used in the manufacture of sanitary appliances

Material Description Appliance
Vitreous china Made to BS 3402:1969 High grade ceramic ware used for WC pans and cisterns
sanitary appliances. Washbasins
Made from white burning clays and finely grained material Bidets
mixed with ball clay, a fluxing agent and water, into casting
Urinals
clay known as slip. The slip is fired to a high temperature
and, even in its unglazed state, cannot be contaminated by
bacteria and remains hygienic in all situations.
Glazed vitreous china is stain-proof, burn-proof, rot-proof and
non-fading, and is resistant to acids and alkalis.
Available in many colours and shades.
Stainless steel Made from 304- or 316-grade stainless steel to European WCs and cisterns
Standard BS EN 10088–2. Washbasins
Usually fitted where the general public has access and highly Kitchen sinks
resistant to vandalism.
Urinals
All stainless steel sanitary ware conforms to the Department
of Health specification.
Fireclay Made from buff-coloured ball clays from Devon and Dorset Belfast sinks
in the UK. London sinks
Fireclay is very robust to withstand rough treatment but, Butler’s sinks
unlike vitreous china, it is porous. Because of this, it requires
Urinals
‘firing’ with a ceramic undercoat to seal the clay before being
coated with two coats of white glaze and then re-fired. Heavy-duty WC pans and washbasins
for hospitals
High-impact plastic Usually manufactured by injection moulding techniques. WC seats
WC cisterns
Bath panels
Acrylic Comes in varying thicknesses, between 3 mm and 8 mm. Baths
Heated until it becomes soft and pliable, and then placed Bath panels
over an aluminium mould, where it is sucked into place Washbasins
(known as vacuum forming).
Shower trays
Warm to the touch.
Can be moulded into many shapes.
However, easily damaged by scratching and abrasive
cleaners. Acrylic baths are often strengthened by a base
board made from chipboard and glass-reinforced polyester
(GRP).
Very lightweight; appliances are usually aimed at the
domestic market.
Acrylic baths require a supporting cradle.
Enamelled cast iron Extremely robust but is very heavy and very cold to the Baths
touch.
Because of the nature of cast iron, bath designs tend to be
very traditional.
Porcelain enamelled The steel sheet used in the manufacture of sanitary ware Baths
pressed steel must be of the highest grade low-carbon steel. The enamel is Washbasins
sprayed on and then kiln fired.
It is rigid but light, very robust but the enamel is easily
damaged.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Conventional WCs

INDUSTRY TIP Flush pipe

Smaller versions of WC pans are available for use in infant

schools.

WC stands for water closet. It consists of a WC pan and

a flushing cistern. There are different types of WC pan,
as follows:
● The wash down type: the most common type of

WC fitted in the UK. The pan is cleared by a carefully

designed water distribution system, which uses the 100 mm
force of the water flush and volume of water delivered
to the bowl to clear the contents. Wash down-type
WC pans are usually around 400 mm high, depending  Figure 9.16 A single trap siphonic WC pan
on the manufacturer, and have 50 mm of water seal
in the trap. The bowl is shaped to provide efficient 2 The double trap siphonic WC pan: very rarely
effluent clearance while maintaining easy cleaning. sold in the UK since the flushing volume of WC
cisterns was reduced to six litres by the Water
Flush pipe Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999. This
kind of WC pan is very quiet and extremely
efficient at removing the pan contents. Unlike
the single trap siphonic pan, the double trap
siphonic has an unrestricted outlet and two
water traps. A special pressure reducing valve,
called an aspirator (or bomb), is fitted to the
bottom of the siphon.
50 mm
When the cistern is flushed, a negative pressure
195 mm is caused in the chamber between the two traps
by the aspirator. The aspirator follows Bernoulli’s
principle (see page 317). It sucks out the air from
the chamber as the water from the flush passes
 Figure 9.15 A wash down WC pan through it, which causes the contents of the
● The siphonic type: the flushing operation creates bowl to be sucked through the two traps. The
a vacuum, which contributes to clearing the pan. aspirator holds a little water back to refill the
There are two pan types: second trap after the flush is complete.
1 The single trap siphonic WC pan (or ‘Malvern Double trap siphonic WCs tend to be longer than
type’): this pan has a lower outlet than other wash down types because of the extra water trap.
pan designs. It is usually installed only on
replacements as the design tends to look very INDUSTRY TIP
outdated. They work by restricting the flow of
water from the cistern, which allows a build- Access the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
up of water in the pan, which is then forced at: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1999/1148/contents/made
through the restricted neck of the trap creating a
vacuum behind it and clearing the pan contents
completely.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Cistern
Brass large headed bolt
Pressure reducing valve sealed
Rubber and metal washers
against the pan
Sealing washer

Rubber and metal washers

Wing nut

195 mm

 Figure 9.17 A double trap siphonic WC pan  Figure 9.19 A diagram showing how the cistern is fixed to the
WC pan
WC styles 4 Back to wall/concealed: becoming more popular
WCs can be manufactured in five main styles, as due to the fact that the cistern is concealed in a
described below. cabinet or behind a panel. The WC pan sits close to
1 Close coupled: the WC pan is designed to have the the cabinet or panel.
cistern bolted to the back of the pan to form one 5 Wall hung: these give the effect of space as the WC
unit. pan is hung on the wall and is completely free of the
2 Low level: the cistern is connected to the WC pan floor.
by a short flush pipe to convey the water from the
cistern to the WC pan.
3 High level: similar to the low level but the flush
pipe is much longer and the cistern is at high level.
Usually used when designing period bathroom
suites.

 Figure 9.20 A back to wall WC suite

 Figure 9.18 A close coupled WC suite

 Figure 9.21 A modern wall-mounted WC pan

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

'S' trap WC pan with a 90º 'P' trap WC pan with a straight
bent pan connector pan connector

 Figure 9.22 ‘P’ trap and ‘S’ trap WC suite

In the past, WC pans were manufactured with a variety There are many different styles and sizes of WC
of ‘P’ trap and ‘S’ trap configurations formed as part siphon available and the correct one must be chosen
of the pan casting, but this proved expensive. Today, depending on the cistern size. Some siphons allow
most WC pans are manufactured with the ‘P’ trap different flushing volumes to be set by adjusting the
configuration. However, with the use of an angled height at which air is let into the siphon bell to stop
WC pan connector, they can be made into an ‘S’ trap the siphonic action.
or left or right outlet depending on the installation ● By the use of a dual flush valve (also known as
requirements. a drop valve): these can be operated by pressing a
button on the top of the WC cistern, or remotely by
The WC cistern air, which is blown through a tube when the button
is depressed. They work by simply opening up a
Prior to 1986 regulations, the flush volume was 9 litres.
valve when the button is activated and this allows
This was lowered in the Model Water Bylaws of 1986
water to flow by gravity to the cistern. Siphonic
to 7.5 litres. The WC cistern is the method by which the
action is not needed. Flush valves have a 6-litre and
water is discharged into the WC pan. Today, the Water
4-litre flush action. Flush valves have an integrated
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 restrict the
overflow that allows water to flow straight to the
flushing volumes of new WC cisterns to 6 litres for a
WC pan should the float-operated valve begin to
long flush and 4 litres for a short flush. The water can
overflow, so a separate overflow pipe is not required.
be delivered to the WC pan in several different ways,
depending on the cistern design:
● By the use of a siphon: the traditional way to INDUSTRY TIP
flush a WC cistern. The cistern is flushed using
siphonic action (see Chapter 3, Scientific principles, Older WC pans will not flush with such a low water volume,
so 9- and 7.5-litre cisterns are still available for the
page 153). The WC flushing handle is connected
replacement market.
to the siphon by a link pin. When the WC cistern
handle is depressed, the link pin lifts a plunger in
the siphon bell, which has a large thin plastic or thin
ACTIVITY
rubber diaphragm at the end of it. The diaphragm
lifts a column of water up and over the top of the Refresh your knowledge of service valves and float-
operated valves; these were covered in detail in
siphon to begin the siphonic action.
Chapter 5, Cold water systems.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

When the handle is depressed, a column

of water is lifted up and over the siphon,
which starts the siphonic process,
emptying the cistern until the water
reaches the bottom of the siphon. As air
enters the siphon, the process stops.

 Figure 9.23 How a WC siphon works  Figure 9.24 A WC siphon

The water in the cistern is controlled using a float-

operated valve conforming to BS 1212 Parts 2, 3 and
4. The cistern must also have a service valve fitted as
close to the cistern as possible. A separate overflow
must be installed with WC cisterns not having an
integral overflow, and this must discharge safely in a
conspicuous position, usually outside the building.

INDUSTRY TIP
Float-operated valves and service valves are covered in
 Figure 9.25 A dual flush  Figure 9.26 A flapper valve detail in Chapter 2, Common processes and techniques, and
valve Chapter 5, Cold water systems.

When the handle is WC cisterns can be made from a variety of materials,

depressed, the flap lifts, including vitreous china, plastic and hard rubber, but
allowing water to flow to
the pan by gravity other materials such as cast iron and lead-lined wood
have also been used in the past.

Washbasins
There is a huge variety of different styles of wash hand
basin and many of these also come in various sizes and
tap arrangements. Corner washbasins are also available.
Washbasins should be installed approximately 800 mm
 Figure 9.27 The operation of a flapper valve
from the floor to the front lip of the basin. Washbasins
● By the use of a flapper valve: a very simple valve can be divided into three basic types:
that allows water to flow by gravity to the cistern. 1 Wall-hung washbasins: this type of washbasin is
In the closed position, it is the weight of the water mounted on wall-fixed brackets or bolted directly
that makes a watertight seal. When the WC handle to the wall. There are several different types of
is depressed, a link pin simply lifts the valve up. mounting bracket, including towel rail type or
These are not dual flow and will flush only as long concealed, depending on the washbasin style. The
as the handle is pressed down. Most flap valves mounting wall must be able to take the weight of
have an integral overflow. the washbasin. If there is any doubt, either a centre
leg or a pair of legs should be used.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

3 Countertop washbasins: there are several different

types of countertop basins:
● countertop style washbasins are also known

as inset washbasins; they sit snugly into a

worktop surface
● semi-countertop style, also known as the

semi-recessed basin, this basin style sits half on

and half off a work surface
● under-countertop style, as its name suggests,

 Figure 9.28 A wall-hung washbasin is mounted under a work surface; the work
surface is usually marble, agglomerate marble or
2 Pedestal washbasins: there are two different types granite
of these: ● vessel washbasins are designed to be supported
● pedestal washbasins are fixed to the wall but
by a mounting surface such as a worktop or
rely on the pedestal for their main support; the cabinet.
pedestal is designed to hide the pipework
● semi-pedestal washbasins are becoming

increasingly popular; the pedestal does not carry

the weight of the basin as it does not reach the
floor, and is designed to hide the associated
pipework.

 Figure 9.31 A countertop washbasin

 Figure 9.29 A pedestal washbasin

 Figure 9.32 A semi-countertop washbasin

 Figure 9.33 An under-countertop washbasin

 Figure 9.30 A semi-pedestal washbasin

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Washbasins can be made from a variety of materials,

including vitreous china, stainless steel and porcelain
enamelled pressed steel (refer back to Table 9.2).

Tap hole and waste arrangements for

washbasins
There are four main tap hole arrangements for
washbasins; these are shown in Table 9.3.
 Figure 9.34 A typical vessel washbasin

q Table 9.3 The main tap hole arrangements for washbasins

One tap hole basin with monobloc mixer tap Specifically designed for use with a monobloc mixer tap.

Two tap hole basin with hot and cold taps The traditional tap hole arrangement, for use with hot and cold ½-inch
BSP pillar taps.

Three tap hole basin with remote mixer tap This is a little used tap arrangement where the tap bodies are fitted
below the basin with just the wheel heads showing. The spout and the
tap bodies are connected secretly below the washbasin.

No tap hole basin with wall-mounted taps Becoming more popular for bespoke bathrooms. These use wall-
mounted bib taps with concealed pipework.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Washbasins are manufactured with an integral overflow

for use with a 1¼-inch slotted waste for connection to
a 32 mm waste trap. There are two basic waste types
available, as follows.
1 Slotted waste, plug and chain: the old-fashioned
method of providing a waste stopper. The slots in the
waste are to allow water that has flowed down the
integral overflow to find its way safely down to the
trap. These are usually ‘made in’ to the basin with
silicone sealant, with a plastic poly-washer inserted
between the securing nut and the basin. Care should
 Figure 9.37 The over-rim bidet
be taken when using gold-plated fittings and silicone
sealant as some sealants can discolour the gold 2 Ascending spray bidet: very rarely seen in the
plating. UK, the ascending spray bidet uses a special tap
2 Pop-up waste: these provide a handle, typically arrangement to discharge water upwards from
designed as part of the tap, which, when pushed inside the bowl of the bidet in a spray similar to a
down, pops the waste plug up. They tend to have small showerhead.
specific sealing washers to seal the waste into the Ascending spray mixing valve
basin.
Ascending
spray

 Figure 9.38 The ascending spray bidet

HEALTH AND SAFETY

 Figure 9.35 Waste, plug  Figure 9.36 Pop-up waste Special installation arrangements exist for the
and chain arrangement arrangement ascending spray bidet because of the risk of
contamination of water by backflow through the
Bidets spray head. It must not be installed on mains
pressure systems, and the Water Regulations should
Very similar in design to a WC pan, the bidet is often be consulted for all installations of this type of
called a ‘sit-on washbasin’. It is a hygienic method of appliance.
ensuring personal cleansing, especially after using the
WC. It is often also used as a footbath. There are two
distinctly separate types, as described below. INDUSTRY TIP
1 Over-rim bidet: the over-rim type is the most
common bidet. It is installed in the same way we The installation of ascending spray bidets will be covered in
would install a washbasin. It is available with one or later phases of your qualification.
two tap holes, depending on the bidet design, and can
be fitted with a variety of taps, including monobloc Bidets are usually made from vitreous china. Styles
mixers, pillar taps and hand spray-type mixers with a include floor mounted, back-to-wall and wall-hung
hose connection. types (Figures 9.39–9.41).

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

 Figure 9.39 Floor-mounted bidet  Figure 9.40 Back-to-wall bidet  Figure 9.41 Wall-hung bidet

INDUSTRY TIP

Bidet bolted to the mounting

In Europe, pressed steel baths are more common than
Mounting bracket bracket through the plaster wall acrylic.
bolted to the floor
Other materials are also available, such as:
● a resin-bonded cementitious slurry, known as resin
stone
● gel-coated reinforced polyester but this is generally used
in specialist and niche markets.
Mounting bolt head is covered
with a dome to hide it
Each material has its own unique characteristics that
influence the bath design. Baths can be manufactured
 Figure 9.42 Wall-hung bidet fixed to the wall mounting bracket
in a wide variety of styles and designs, including those
described below.
Baths ● Standard baths: rectangular shaped with many size
Baths are manufactured to BS EN 198:2008 and can and design options. They are usually fitted with a
be supplied manufactured from the following materials front panel and/or end panels as required.
(refer back to Table 9.2). ● Corner baths: these fit into the corner of the
● Reinforced cast acrylic sheet: this is the most bathroom. They require a curved bath panel, which
common material for baths. Some acrylic baths is easily cut and trimmed to specific installation
require reinforcement in the form of glass-reinforced requirements.
polyester (GRP), and all types require a steel tubular ● Off-set corner baths: similar to a standard corner
cradle, a top frame and a base board. bath but they have sides of unequal length. This
● Porcelain enamelled steel: these tend to be used design utilises the space available while optimising
in commercial situations such as hotels, hostels, the bathing space. They are available left or right
etc., or in housing association and local authority handed, depending on the installation requirements.
housing, where durability is important. ● Freestanding baths: these are designed to stand on
● Porcelain enamelled cast iron: these are much their own feet and are not usually fitted against a
less common and tend to be used for the more supporting wall. A range of styles are available, from
traditional designs, such as roll top freestanding and traditional roll top and ball-and-claw styles to more
rectangular shapes. contemporary designs.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

 Figure 9.43 Off-set corner bath  Figure 9.44 Freestanding ball-and-claw  Figure 9.45 Double-ended bath
feet bath

2 two tap hole – the standard arrangement; they can

be either on the end of the bath or the side
3 three tap hole – for remote-type taps (one hole for
the spout and two holes for the taps).
Waste connections for baths can be made by the
following methods.
● ‘Banjo’-type bath waste fitting: this uses a long

threaded waste fitting with slots on opposite

sides near the top. The waste from the overflow
comes via a flexible pipe connected by a ‘banjo’
connection. This is assembled over the waste
fitting and is held in place on the underside of
 Figure 9.46 Shower bath the bath by a large 1½-inch BSP nut fitted to
the bottom of the waste fitting and tightened
● Double-ended baths: usually rectangular in shape against the banjo. Silicone sealant should be used
but they have two ends and are designed with two at the joint between the bath and the banjo, and
people in mind. the banjo and the nut. This type of bath waste
● Tapered baths: designed for situations where connection is very prone to leakage.
space is limited. They are wider at one end than the
other, and are usually fitted with a shower at the
wider end.
● Shower/baths: again, usually bulged at one end to
maximise the space available for showering.
The most common sizes range from 1600 mm to
1800 mm in length and 700 mm to 800 mm wide.
The most popular shapes require a front bath panel
and, very often, end panels to hide the frame, the
cradle and the plumbing.

Tap hole and waste arrangements for

baths
Tap holes for baths come supplied in three ways:
1 no tap hole – this type of bath needs to be drilled  Figure 9.47 The ‘banjo’-type bath waste fitting
so the taps can be installed in the position of the
customer’s choice

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Bath waste and overflow kit: where there is Whirlpool and air spa baths are considered luxury
sufficient space underneath the bath, this is the fittings and can take many forms, such as jetted
easiest bath waste connection to fit. It uses a baths, hydro-pools, hydro-spa and air spa types, all
one-piece bath waste connection, which is held in of which use the pumping of air and water through
position by a long bolt placed through the centre nozzles installed into the side or floor of the bath.
of the bath waste grille. Both the waste connector They can also be retro-fitted to any acrylic or pressed
and the grille have sealing washers. The bath waste steel bath. The pump is usually situated at one end of
connection incorporates the overflow connection. the bath.
The bolt pulls the waste connector and the bath
waste grille together, and this compresses the
washers to make a watertight seal.
● Bath pop-up waste and overflow fitting: bath
pop-up waste systems are becoming increasingly
popular. They are fitted in the same way as a bath
waste and overflow kit, but feature a ‘twist action’
chrome or gold plate overflow, which operates a
 Figure 9.50 The workings of a whirlpool bath
lever to raise or lower the bath waste plug.
● Combined waste and trap: this is a fitting that All whirlpool baths require regular cleaning to remove
combines the bath waste and overflow with the any build-up of soap and other impurities. Circulation
bath trap. cleansers should be run through the system every
month to six weeks depending on use. Additionally,
sanitiser tablets can be used after each bath to sanitise
the system ready for the next user (particularly
important in hotels and guesthouses).
All baths of this type incorporate a safety cut-out to
suspend the pump or suction if anything blocks the
water suction pipe.

Shower trays and cubicles

Shower trays (also known as shower bases) vary in
 Figure 9.48 The bath  Figure 9.49 The bath waste size from compact square shapes to large rectangular,
waste and overflow fitting and trap combination fitting quadrant and five-sided models. They are made from
a variety of materials, such as heavy-duty reinforced
Whirlpool and air spa baths acrylic sheet, fireclay and resin bonded. The choice of
The whirlpool and air spa bath is a recent addition to shower tray depends largely on the space and budget
the bath range. available.
Many shower trays have a raised lip that, when
INDUSTRY TIP placed against the wall, allows tiles to be placed over
it to help the sealing of the tray. Some trays have
The idea of the whirlpool bath to relax the body is not a new adjustable feet to assist in levelling the tray. Resin-
one. It was used by the Ancient Romans. In the 1950s, the
bonded and fireclay trays are bedded on a weak bed
idea resurfaced when the Jacuzzi brothers developed the
of sand and cement.
whirlpool bath for domestic use.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

 Figure 9.51 Square shower tray  Figure 9.52 Rectangular shower tray  Figure 9.53 Five-sided shower tray

Waste arrangements for shower trays and a half, and double bowl. They are usually
The most common waste arrangement for a shower set into the work surface and can be made from
tray is by use of a combined shower waste and trap. a variety of materials, such as stainless steel,
Most modern trays are bedded to the floor and, granite, astro-cast and polycarbonate materials.
because of the position of the waste on the tray, Vitreous china sinks are also available, but these
the trap is often inaccessible, making cleaning and tend to chip easily and will shatter if heavy pans
clearing of blockages almost impossible. The combined are dropped into them.
shower waste and trap allows the trap to be cleaned
of potential blockages, such as hair, from the top of
the waste on the shower tray. The inside of the trap is
removable from above.

Shower cubicles and enclosures

Shower enclosures are available in three distinct forms,
as described below.
1 The freestanding shower cubicle: as the name
suggests, a freestanding shower cubicle is one that
does not use any of the walls of the building in its
construction. However, the cubicle may be fixed to
the wall for support.
2 The shower enclosure that uses one or more
walls: where a shower enclosure uses either one
or two walls to form part of the showering area.
This is the most common of all shower enclosures
installed.
3 The shower door: a single shower door is fixed
between two opposing walls. This uses three walls
of the building to form the enclosure.

Sinks  Figure 9.54 The styles of kitchen sink

Sinks are appliances typically fitted in a kitchen or
utility room. The ideal sink has to be hardwearing and
robust enough to be able to withstand the abuse it is INDUSTRY TIP
likely to receive. There are several different types, as
Stainless steel sinks will require bonding to the electrical
described here.
earthing in the property.
● Kitchen sinks: these come in a variety
The bonding of metalwork and pipes is covered in detail in
of different shapes and sizes. Common
Chapter 3, Scientific principles.
arrangements are single bowl and drainer, bowl

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Butler’s sinks: similar to the London sink with two 2 Trough urinals: generally made from stainless
main differences: the sink has a high splash-back, steel and installed where the risk of vandalism is
and also has a bucket grille. high – for example, in public conveniences. The
● Cleaners’ sinks: there are three types of cleaners’ trough is available in different lengths according to
sink, and all are large, deep, rectangular sinks made the number of people that are expected to use it.
of very thick white-glazed fireclay. They are usually The trough has a waste connection and the trough
mounted on cast iron cantilever brackets, but floor has a built-in slight fall to allow the urinal to be
modern installations allow them to be fitted into installed level.
kitchen units. 3 Slab urinals: manufactured from fireclay and
● The Belfast sink: originates from the early 18th assembled on-site. The channel in the base of
century when they were fitted into the servants’ the urinal is laid to a slight fall and the waste
quarters and the butler’s area. Today, they are connection is made directly to the drain via the
primarily used in utility and cleaners’ rooms, channel into a trapped gulley.
although they can also be used in period-style
Hydraulic flush valve
kitchens. Recognisable from their integral weir-type
overflow. The taps are usually bib type, fixed to the
Automatic flushing cistern
wall above the sink.
● The London sink: visually very similar to the Belfast
sink, but does not have a weir overflow. Flush pipe
685 mm min.

Spreader

600 mm

 Figure 9.56 The bowl urinal layout

 Figure 9.55 The butler’s sink

Urinals
Urinals are fitted in non-domestic buildings and there
are three different styles:
1 Bowl urinals: usually made of vitreous china and
stainless steel, these are the most commonly used
urinal type and are the easiest to install. Dividers
may be placed between the urinal bowls to give a
little privacy. The bowl should be fixed at around
600 mm from the floor to the front lip. This can be  Figure 9.57 The stainless steel trough urinal
reduced for urinals installed in schools.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

There are two ways that urinals can be flushed:

1 by the use of an automatic flushing cistern
2 by the use of a flushing valve.

KEY POINT
How an automatic flushing siphon works
Refer to Figure 9.60. When the level of the water
reaches the top of the dome, the head of water
at point A becomes greater than the pressure at
point B. The water pressure in the trap (point C)
overcomes the air pressure inside the siphon and
 Figure 9.58 The slab urinal this initiates siphonic action, emptying the cistern.
Hydraulic flush valve

Automatic flushing cistern

Flush pipe
450 mm - 610 mm Sparge pipe
Divider A

Back slab

Channel C
B

 Figure 9.59 The slab urinal layout

Flushing the urinal

 Figure 9.60 Automatic flushing siphon
Defra’s guidance to the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulations 1999 states that urinals may be flushed
with either:
a manual or automatically operated cistern;
or
b a pressure flushing valve directly
connected to a supply or distributing pipe
which is designed to flush the urinal, either
directly manually or automatically, provided
that the flushing arrangement incorporates a
backflow arrangement or device appropriate to
fluid category 5.
Clause G25.13 states:
Where manually or automatically operated
pressure flushing valves are used for flushing
urinals, the flushing valve should deliver a flush  Figure 9.61 Bowl urinals can be fed by an automatic flushing
volume not exceeding 1.5 litres per bowl per siphon
position each time the device is operated.

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The automatic flushing cistern Manual valves are lever operated and are located just
As the name suggests, automatic flushing cisterns above the urinal bowl. Automatic valves are activated
use an automatic flushing siphon to flush the urinals via an infrared sensor. The sensor should sense a person
automatically when the water reaches a predetermined for at least ten seconds to prevent accidental activation
level in the cistern. The Water Regulations state that by someone walking by. The sensor activates a solenoid
any auto-flushing cistern must not exceed the following valve and this allows the minimum short flush.
water volumes: Automatic flushing valves require a backflow prevention
● 10 litres per hour for a single bowl or stall device to be included, which prevents backflow of fluid
● 7.5 litres per hour per urinal position for a cistern category 5 contaminated water.
serving two or more urinal bowls or 700 mm of
slab. WC macerators
The maximum flow rate from any automatic flushing Macerators use a series of very sharp rotating blades
cistern must be regulated by the inflow of water from to turn solids into a liquid slurry, which is then pumped
the cold supply. This can be done quite easily by the through a small-diameter pipe to a soil stack. They also
use of urinal flush control valves such as a hydraulic offer a solution to installing sanitary appliances where
flush control valve fitted to the incoming water supply. access to the main soil stack is not practical from a
The hydraulic flush control valve allows a certain conventional gravity outlet appliance.
amount of water through to the cistern when other Macerators offer the plumber many options when
appliances like taps and WCs are used, rather than have installing sanitary appliances in remote locations.
a constant supply of water dripping into the cistern. However, if a WC macerator is installed, Building
The sudden reduction in pressure on the mains supply Regulations Part G requires that there must also be a
opens the hydraulic flushing valve to allow a certain gravity WC located in the same building.
amount of water through. The amount of water can
be varied depending on the installation requirements There are many versions of macerators available, some
and number of urinals. The idea here is to prevent the purely for pumping from a WC, while others may be
urinals flushing when the building is not being used, used to install entire bathrooms in difficult locations
thus saving on wasted water. such as a basement or cellar.

 Figure 9.62 The hydraulic flush control valve

The flushing valve

This is a new method of flushing a urinal that involves the
use of either a manual or automatic valve, which delivers
a short 1.5-litre flush to an individual urinal bowl. The
water can be supplied either direct from the water main,
from a boosted cold water system, or by low pressure
 Figure 9.63 WC with a macerator
from a cistern supplied by a distribution pipe.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Pump stations used in domestic The installation of a waste water lifter can be below
dwellings or on the same finished floor level of a dwelling or
premises. The discharge pipework enters the soil stack
Compact pump systems for small domestic waste
and forms a backflow loop as shown in Figure 9.64. The
water applications are suitable in situations where foul
vent pipe must discharge in accordance with BS EN
drainage by gravity is not possible. Larger domestic
12050–1 for faecal lifting plants to above roof level, to
pumping stations are recommended for 8 to 13 people,
avoid foul smells from entering the dwelling.
for the removal of sewage and effluent. They are fitted
with an alarm in the event of high fluid levels.

Waste water lifters used in domestic

dwellings
Waste water lifters are used for pumping waste water
and sewage from a low level to a higher level. They
are used when it is not possible to remove waste
and sewage from a normal gravity drainage system.
They are usually factory-manufactured units. Key
components of waste water lifters include a waste
water treatment receiving well called a ‘wet well’,
equipped with lift pumps and piping with valves, a
junction box, and an equipment control panel with an  Figure 9.64 A waste water lifter
alarm system.
89 mm approximately hole in sink to accommodate the unit

Sink
Reversable plug
Rubber
washer
Retaining
plate Retaining ring

Flange Splashback
guard

Cutter ring

Rotor
Retaining
ring

Motor
flange

Motor
housing
Outlet (40 mm)

Motor

Gland nut

Electrical connections

 Figure 9.65 A waste disposal unit

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Sink waste disposal units provided for each appliance for both personal use,
These units are installed in kitchen sinks and need a and for an adult to supervise the bathing and washing
pre-made hole, 89–90 mm in diameter, in the sink to fit of children. British Standard BS 6465-2 2017 Code
the unit. A standard 40 mm trap will fit on the outlet of of practice for space requirements for sanitary
the waste disposal unit. appliances, recommends the minimum space required
by each appliance for adequate usage.
These are installed under sinks to dispose of waste
food and cooking products from a kitchen, and then British Standard BS 6465–1:2006 Code of practice
discharge into the drainage system. The cutting or for the design of sanitary facilities informs us that
grinding blades can deal with a large range of food there must be a minimum number of appliances within
matter, including bones. The process turns anything a dwelling based on the number of people occupying
in the unit into a paste solution, then water flushes the property.
this into the drain via a 40 mm waste outlet. The
electric motor that turns the rotor where the blades q Table 9.4 Minimum number of appliances within a dwelling
based on the number of people occupying the property
are attached is located at the base of the unit. A
sink housing one of these units requires a larger
Sanitary
waste outlet than normal, approximately 89 mm, appliance Number per dwelling Notes
and manufacturers usually supply this on the cutlery
WC 1 for up to 4 people There should be
bowl. The motor on the unit should be connected to a washbasin in or
2 for 5 or more people
an electrical supply via the correctly sized fused spur adjacent to every
Washbasin 1 WC in the property
outlet, with a fuse appropriately sized in relation to the
load (typically 10 amp). Bath or 1 for every 4 people
shower

Bathroom layout Kitchen sink 1

specifications Figure 9.66 illustrates the amount of activity space to

Sanitary appliances within a dwelling should be be allowed for each of these appliances, as specified in
installed so that the minimum amount of space is BS 6465-2 2017.

600 mm
700 mm
800 mm 700 mm

1000 mm
1100 mm
Hand rinse washbasin Domestic washbasin Bath

600 mm 600 mm 400 mm

700 mm
900 mm
800 mm 800 mm
900 mm
Bidet WC Enclosed shower tray Unenclosed shower tray

 Figure 9.66 Space provision for sanitary appliances

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

In some cases, it is not possible to maintain these of trap, to suit numerous appliances and applications.
distances, especially when the bathroom is small. In Traps are generally manufactured from polypropylene
these situations, the British Standard allows overlap of to BS EN274 PT1-3 for domestic applications but can
the appliance space. also be made from copper or brass. Jointing methods
include push-fit type joints and compression type with
In this layout, the
activity spaces of a rubber compression ring.
the bath and
the washbasin
overlap. INDUSTRY TIP
The space for the
WC usage is not
affected. Copper- and brass-made traps can be chrome plated for
a luxury finish and are usually used with chrome-plated
copper waste pipe.
In this layout, the
activity space of
the bath, wash
hand basin and Trap depths and sizes
WC all overlap.
The overlap is To recap pipe sizes and trap depths, remember where a
shown by the
dotted line trap diameter is 50 mm and above, the trap seal must
rectangle on the be 50 mm, such as the traps in WC pans. There are
drawing.
This one is the
two reasons for this, both of which are reliant upon the
most common of cohesive quality of water:
all bathroom
layouts. 1 A trap with a diameter of 50 mm and over contains
 Figure 9.67 Overlap of the appliance space more water than, say, a 32 mm or 40 mm diameter
trap. This makes the water much more difficult
600 mm
to move by induced siphonage, wavering out or
compression.
2 Because of the pipe size, it is unlikely that an
appliance will discharge at full bore. If a pipe runs at
800 mm full bore it will try to pull air along with it. If there
is no air to pull, then the water in the trap is pulled
200 mm activity
instead until the trap is empty and the pipe can pull
space overlap air, thus breaking the siphonic action.

INDUSTRY TIP
Water has both cohesive and adhesive qualities and these
400 mm

were explored in Chapter 3, Scientific principles, page 141.

600 mm Where a waste pipe runs into a hopper head or a

 Figure 9.68 Overlap in a downstairs WC gulley, the trap depth can be reduced to 50 mm for
washbasins, kitchen sinks and electrical appliances
INDUSTRY TIP such as washing machines and dishwashers, and 38
mm for baths and shower trays. The reason for the
Overlaps often occur in cloakrooms and downstairs WCs. bath trap difference is that baths and shower trays are
large, flat-bottomed appliances, which by their nature
discharge water more slowly than, say, a washbasin.
Traps The flat bottom of the bath means that the last drops
The purpose of a trap is to stop obnoxious smells from of water run away more slowly than the water from a
entering the dwelling. There are many different types washbasin and so trap seal is retained.

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● Swivel traps: often used on new work and

appliance replacements, they have a union
connection in the centre that allows the trap to
swivel 360°. This facilitates multi-positioning,
allowing many different pipe connection options.
They can be either ‘P’ trap, ‘S’ trap or running
Depth trap types.
of trap
seal

 Figure 9.69 Trap seal depth

q Table 9.5 Appliance waste pipe size and trap seal depth

Trap seal depth

when fitted
to a primary
Waste Diameter ventilated  Figure 9.70 ‘P’-type swivel traps
fitting size of trap system (BS EN
Appliance (inches) (mm) 12056–2) (mm)
Washbasin 1¼ 32 75
Bidet
Bath 1½ 40 50
Shower
Bowl urinal 40 75
Washing 40 75
machine
Dishwasher
WC pan N/A 75 50  Figure 9.71 ‘S’-type swivel traps
100 50 ● Running traps: the idea behind a running trap is
that an appliance or group of appliances can be
The way that trap seal depth is measured is shown in
trapped away from the appliances themselves, the
Figure 9.69.
trap being installed on the waste pipe run. They are
sometimes used where space to install a trap at the
Tubular traps appliance is limited.
Tubular traps can take several different forms.

INDUSTRY TIP
‘P’ traps and ‘S’ traps are named after their shape. A ‘P’
trap is used where the waste pipe is installed from the
appliance horizontally, directly through the wall and into a
gulley or stack. The ‘S’ trap, because of its shape, will allow
pipework to be installed vertically downwards from the trap
into a waste pipe serving a number of appliances or into an
underfloor waste pipe.
 Figure 9.72 Running trap

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

● In-line traps: specifically designed with washbasins

in mind, the in-line trap is essentially an ‘S’ trap
where both inlet and outlet are in line. They allow
washbasin wastes to be completely hidden behind
a pedestal, but can be restrictive and tend to
block easily.

 Figure 9.75 Swivel-type 50 mm seal bath trap

 Figure 9.76 38 mm seal bath trap

Bottle traps
Bottle traps are used on washbasins because of
their neat appearance. However, they can be very
 Figure 9.73 In-line trap restrictive to the flow of water. There are certain
appliances where a bottle trap is not suited, such as
● Washing machine traps: generally used
on a kitchen sink where they could become blocked
for appliances such as washing machines and
with foodstuff. Regular trap cleaning is important
dishwashers with a ‘P’ trap configuration. They
to maintain an adequate water flow. There are two
have an extended neck to facilitate a washing
different types:
machine/dishwasher outlet hose.
1 Bottle traps: used with washbasins and bidets.
Access for cleaning is via the bottom of the
trap, which unscrews to facilitate the removal of
blockages.

 Figure 9.77 Bottle trap

2 Shower traps: although not strictly a bottle
 Figure 9.74 Washing machine trap trap, the operating principle of the shower trap
● Bath traps: two different types are available. is exactly the same as that of a bottle trap. The
One is a swivel type with a 50 mm trap seal and main difference here is that the trap seal depth is
the other has a 38 mm trap seal. They are made much less than 75 mm and access for cleaning is
specifically to be fitted in the restricted space through the grille on the top of the trap rather than
under a bath or shower tray.
underneath.
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Anti-vac and resealing (anti-siphon)

traps
There is no substitute for a well-planned, well-designed
system of sanitary pipework. If the system is designed
in accordance with BS EN 12056, then problems with
trap seal loss should not occur. Anti-vac (anti-vacuum)
and resealing traps are not an alternative to a good
sanitary pipework system, but they can reduce the  Figure 9.78 The self-sealing trap
problems that occur with existing systems due to
upgrades to appliances and additions to the system.

Anti-vac (anti-vacuum) traps

Anti-vac traps use a small air admittance valve that is Vertical closed Vertical open
located after the water seal. The valve opens if a drop
in pressure occurs when the appliance is used, and
this allows air into the system to break any siphonic
action that may occur.
Horizontal closed Horizontal open

INDUSTRY TIP
Fitting an anti-vac trap is not recommended on new systems  Figure 9.79 The operation of the self-sealing trap
as they have a habit of not holding an air test at the
installation and testing stage. The self-sealing trap has certain advantages over
conventional traps:
● The valve removes the problems associated with

Resealing traps negative pressure within a system by opening

Externally, resealing traps are identical to a normal to allow air in, in much the same way as an air
bottle trap. Internally, however, they are quite different: admittance valve. This creates a state of equilibrium
the trap has a bypass within the body of the bottle within the system, and means that air admittance
trap, allowing air to enter the trap, via a dip pipe, in the valves and extra vent pipes are not required.
event of siphonic action occurring. They are available ● Because there is no water in the valve, the problems

only as a bottle trap and so are not suitable for all of self-siphonage and induced siphonage are
installation situations. eliminated.
● The valve operates silently. This eliminates the

Self-sealing traps noises generally associated with water-filled traps.

● The valve allows a greater number of appliances to
The self-sealing trap is a waterless valve that uses
be installed on the same discharge system without
a thin neoprene rubber membrane to create an
the risk of compromising system efficiency.
airtight seal preventing foul air from entering the
● The valve can withstand back pressures equivalent
dwelling, while maintaining equal pressure within
to ten times greater than those experienced in a
the soil and vent system.
typical sanitary pipework system.
The membrane opens under the pressure of water from
an appliance, closing again when the water discharge KEY POINT
has finished. The self-sealing trap is so effective that it can be
used safely on primary ventilated stack systems
and ventilated discharge branch systems.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

50 mm 50 mm 50 mm
A range of washbasins installed on a ventilated discharge branch system

40 mm 40 mm 32 mm
The same installation using self-sealing valves
There are no ventilation pipes and the main waste pipe is of smaller diameter

 Figure 9.80 Multiple installations of the self-sealing trap

Loss of trap seal ● momentum

Provided the recommendations in BS EN 12056:2000 ● foaming.
are followed, problems of trap seal loss should be
avoided. Most trap seal problems occur even before
Self-siphonage
water has been let down the trap, simply because they Self-siphonage occurs when water is discharged from
can be attributed to design and installation issues with an appliance. The water forms a plug, which, as it
the sanitary pipework system. When loss of trap seal disappears down the appliance waste, creates a partial
occurs, obnoxious smells will permeate the dwelling. vacuum in the waste pipe between the plug of water
Most trap seal problems can be traced back to the and the water in the trap. This then pulls the water
following faults: from the trap.
● waste pipes that are too long
Atmospheric pressure Negative pressure zone 'Plug' of flowing water
● waste pipes that are too small for the appliance

● waste pipes that are laid to an incorrect fall

● incorrect bends at the foot of the soil stack

● too many appliances on the same waste branch

● too many changes of direction.

Water seal sucked out of trap

Reasons for loss of tap/trap seal
There are various ways in which tap/trap seal loss
occurs:  Figure 9.81 Self-siphonage
● self-siphonage
In most cases, self-siphonage will not occur if the waste
● induced siphonage
pipe length is kept within the recommended lengths of
● compression
BS EN 12056. If it does occur, the installation of a vent
● wavering out
on the waste pipe branch may be necessary or an anti-
● evaporation
siphon trap could be fitted.
● capillary attraction

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Induced siphonage
INDUSTRY TIP
Induced siphonage can occur by one appliance causing
Self-siphonage is most common on washbasins due to the the loss of trap seal of another appliance connected
rapid evacuation of the water from the bowl and the small to the same waste pipe. When water is discharged
size of the waste pipe. down an appliance, the water in the trap of the next
appliance is drawn out by a negative pressure as the
plug of water passes the branch connection.
Atmospheric pressure Water flowing from the appliance

Water sucked
out of trap

Negative pressure zone

'Plug' of flowing water

 Figure 9.82 Induced siphonage

INDUSTRY TIP
Connecting two appliances on a single waste pipe often leads to incorrect installation on the primary ventilated stack, and is
regularly the reason that baths pull the trap of the washbasin in many bathroom installations. This will always become a problem
unless the pipe size leading to the final branch connection is increased to 50 mm (see Figure 9.83).

32 mm

50 mm 40 mm

To prevent induced siphonage on a multiple appliance installation from a single waste

pipe connected to a primary ventilation system, the waste pipe must increase in size to
50 mm as shown before entering the soil stack

 Figure 9.83 Multiple appliance installations

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Compression
When water is discharged from a WC at first-floor Wind direction
level, it falls rapidly to the base of the stack. If the
Positive or negative pressure
bend at the base of the stack has a tight radius, the zone depending upon
water momentarily stops flowing, causing the water wind direction
to back up, which creates a back pressure of air. The
Air movement
back pressure travels up the stack and moves through
ground-floor waste pipes, eventually blowing the water
out of the traps.
The use of large-radius bends, or two 45° bends, at Loss of water
depth due to
the base of the stack (see page 455) prevents this from pressure
happening by allowing the easy flow of water from the fluctuation

soil stack to the drain, allowing the water to maintain

its forward motion and velocity.
 Figure 9.85 Wavering out

Water
discharging Evaporation
from Evaporation is a natural form of trap seal loss caused by
above
lack of use of the appliance. Traps, to some extent, rely
on the appliance being used regularly to keep the trap
Water blown back into
‘topped up’ with water. When the appliance is not used,
Positive pressure appliance the water in the trap will begin to evaporate away until
all the water is gone.
Bend too tight in soil
system or at foot of stack

INDUSTRY TIP
 Figure 9.84 Compression The rate of evaporation can vary but, on average, the rate
of evaporation is about 2.5 mm of trap seal per week,
Wavering out increasing when the weather is hot and dry.
Wavering out is caused naturally by the wind. In high
winds or exposed positions, the effect of the wind Evaporation
blowing across the top of the vent pipe will cause the
water in the traps of appliances to move with a wave-like Average UK seal loss
2.5 mm per week
motion because of pressure fluctuations. This momentum
can often cause water to disappear over the top of the
trap, resulting in trap seal loss. It can be prevented by
fitting a wind cowl onto the top of the vent pipe.

KEY TERM
Wavering out: the process of water in traps
in appliances moving with a wave-like motion
because of pressure fluctuations due to exposure
Loss of seal depth
to winds.

 Figure 9.86 Evaporation

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Capillary action Foaming

Capillary action generally occurs only in ‘S’ traps, when Foaming is a direct result of too much detergent
long fibres or long hairs get lodged over the weir of (soap) being used. The excessive foam can back up
the trap. Capillary action draws the water out of the waste pipes and soak away the water in the trap. It
trap and down the lodged material, and the trap water can usually be detected by the appearance of foam
slowly drips away. emerging from traps in appliances.

Sanitary pipework
systems, positioning fixing,
Strand of material or hair
connection and operation of
hanging over the trap weir
draws water out of the
components
Loss of trap by capillary action This subject was covered in detail in Chapter 2,
seal depth
Common processes and techniques, which covers the
installation of all pipework within a dwelling. There
are, however, components and systems that are
specific within sanitation and these are discussed in the
sections that follow.

 Figure 9.87 Capillary action Suitability of below-ground

drainage systems
INDUSTRY TIP A below-ground drainage system takes the soiled
Capillary action is covered in Chapter 3, Scientific water away from the dwelling and deposits it into a
principles, page 140. main sewer in the road. From here it will flow to the
sewerage plant. The systems of below-ground drainage
are:
Momentum ● the separate system
Loss of trap seal by momentum occurs only when a ● the combined system
large amount of water is suddenly discharged down ● the partially separate system (sometimes called the
the trap of an appliance. The force of the water will partially combined system)
dislodge most of the water in the trap in a similar way ● soakaways
to self-siphonage. ● cesspits

● septic tanks.

The separate system

This is the system favoured by local authorities.
With this system, foul water and rainwater flow into
separate drainage systems. These are then connected
to a separate foul water sewer and surface water
Water poured at high speed drain in the road. The foul water from WCs, baths,
directly above outlet
washbasins and kitchen sinks is conveyed to the sewage
treatment plant and the rainwater flows to the nearest
watercourse. The layout of the design is shown in
Momentum of water carries away Figure 9.89.
the water seal
 Figure 9.88 Momentum

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

IC
S&VP RWG
IC
S&VP: Soil and vent pipe
RWG: Rainwater gulley
IC: Inspection chamber

Rainwater drain
RWG Foul water drain
S&VP

IC

RWG
IC
IC
Road gulley

Surface water sewer

Foul water sewer

 Figure 9.89 Separate drainage system

 Table 9.6 The advantages and disadvantages of the separate system

Advantages Disadvantages
Because the drains are separate, the sewerage plant does not It is an expensive system to install because two drains are
get inundated with water when it rains heavily required
Trapped gulleys are not required for the rainwater connections. The foul water drain does not get flushed and cleaned out by
This helps to identify the drainage system in use the rain
There is a risk of making incorrect connections onto the
rainwater drain
The number of inspection chambers required is excessive

The combined system  Table 9.7 The advantages and disadvantages of the combined
system
With the combined system, both foul and rainwater
Advantages Disadvantages
drains discharge into a common sewer. This makes
connections to the drains much simpler. It is a simple Maintenance of the drains is All discharge must pass
much easier through the sewage
and economic system to install. treatment plant, which is
It is a cheaper system to
install expensive and difficult to
KEY POINT It is impossible to connect to
handle during heavy rainfall
The combined system is no longer recognised by the wrong drain
the Building Regulations as a viable system on All drains are flushed out
new installations. when it rains

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IC
RWG IC

S&VP: Soil and vent pipe

RWG: Rainwater gulley
IC: Inspection chamber

Rainwater drain
Foul water drain
RWG S&VP

IC

RWG

IC
Road gulley

Combined surface and

foul water sewer

 Figure 9.90 Combined drainage system

The partially separate system systems are used: one that carries part of the rainwater
The partially separate system is a compromise between discharge from the roof, and one that carries foul water
the separate and the combined systems. Two drainage and part of the rainwater discharge.

IC
S&VP RWG IC

S&VP: Soil and vent pipe

RWG: Rainwater gully
IC: Inspection chamber

Rainwater drain
RWG Foul water drain
S&VP

IC

RWG

IC
Road gully

Surface water sewer

Foul water sewer

 Figure 9.91 Partially separate drainage system

 Table 9.8 The advantages and disadvantages of the partially separate system

Advantages Disadvantages
It can reduce costs by allowing isolated rainwater connections Care must be taken when installing foul water outlets to ensure
to the foul water drain the correct system is used
Rodding eyes can be used at strategic points, instead of costly
inspection chambers

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Soakaways KEY TERM

Soakaways are also used with partially separate Soakaway: a pit, usually 1 m × 1 m × 1 m, dug
systems to collect water from a roof not connected into the ground and filled with gravel, into which
to the surface water drain. This is also known as the the rainwater pipe discharges. It allows rainwater
partially combined system. to soak naturally away to the water table. A
soakaway should be situated at least 5 m away
from the property.

1 m3 soakaway pit

1m 5m

1m

 Figure 9.92 Soakaway

Appliance connections to existing WC connections to ground-floor drains

below-ground drainage systems Where a WC is to be connected to a ground-floor drain,
The method we use for connecting appliances to this can be simply done by the use of a WC pan connector.
below-ground drainage systems will depend on the Pan connectors are available in a number of lengths and
appliance and the material that the below-ground outlet sizes to suit 75 mm to 110 mm drainage systems,
drainage pipework is made from. and to fit both modern and existing WC pans.

Waste pipes up to 50 mm diameter

Appliances such as kitchen sinks, cleaners’ sinks
and washbasins may discharge direct into the back-
inlet gulley of a below-ground drainage system. The
waste pipe must discharge below the grating but
above the water line in the gulley. This ensures an
air break is maintained and that no smells can enter
the building.
 Figure 9.93 WC pan connectors

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Cesspits
INDUSTRY TIP
In rural areas, many homes and villages are self-
contained, and the combined waste ends up in a local Sometimes even the inlet connections to cesspits can leak.
cesspit, septic tank or treatment plant. This has no
connection to the public sewer system and is known as
off-mains. Septic tanks
A septic tank is a multi-chamber storage tank allowing
A cesspit is an underground tank that stores sewage until
liquid and solid waste to separate. The liquid is then
the time of its disposal. The design of the cesspit will
allowed to flow out of the tank and be disposed of
incorporate an inlet pipe but will have no outlet pipework.
separately. First, the sewage enters a settlement
chamber, allowing solid waste (sludge) to sink and
INDUSTRY TIP the liquid to rise to the surface. The surface liquid
makes contact with oxygen and the organic matter
Older cesspits were usually constructed of brick, but
starts to break down biologically. This liquid still
modern ones are made from glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) (also
referred to as ‘fibreglass’). contains sewage but the particles are small enough to
be carried through the discharge outlet and into the
ground (soakaway).
Cesspits must be constructed so that they are
watertight, to prevent the leakage of any foul water or
KEY POINT
the ingress of surrounding groundwater.
Many areas of the UK prohibit the installation of
There are problems that may arise, such as overflow septic tanks.
of effluent, so cesspits must be emptied on a frequent
basis. This process must be carried out by a drainage Basic septic tanks only partially treat sewage and
contractor, who will use the principle of mechanical discharge effluent of low quality. In all instances, a
suction to draw up the contents of the cesspit into a sewage treatment plant should be considered as the
tanker vehicle. first option. Septic tanks may be installed, subject to
consent, in applications where:
KEY TERM ● the soil is of suitable porosity

Mechanical suction: suction that is created by an ● installation complies with Building Regulations

electrical/mechanical pump installed onto a tanker (Approved Document H)

truck. ● the installation will not contaminate any ditch,

stream or other watercourse.

KEY POINT Septic tanks must be at least 7 m minimum from

In the past, older cesspits had overflow pipes that buildings and within 30 m of access for a vehicle if
no longer conform to the recommended current being emptied by pumping truck.
design requirements.

Leakage is another problem that is more common with

brick-built designs because the fabric of the structure
can break down, leading to the ingress of groundwater
and leakage of foul effluent, and resulting in foul smells
and pollution of the surrounding area. As a result, the
use of cesspits is no longer an option in most instances.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

The condense pipe should be made of a proprietary

Suitable termination ●

drainpipe material, such as PVCu, ABS, PP or PVC.

of condensing boiler ● Metal pipework of any kind is not acceptable due to
condensate drain ●
the acidic nature of the condensate.
The pipework must be at least 21.5 mm diameter
connections and fully supported with suitably spaced clips to
Condensing boilers, during the course of their prevent sagging.
operation, make condensate. ● The pipe must be installed to a minimum angle of
fall of at least 2.5° or 50 mm in every 1 m.
KEY TERM ● The length of pipe should not exceed 3 m.
Condensate: the water vapour that is present in the ● External runs should be as short as possible, and a
CO2 emissions resulting from burning gas. As the minimum of 32 mm diameter waste pipe.
flue gases cool down, the water vapour condenses ● External pipework must be protected against
back into water droplets that are collected in the freezing by insulation of an appropriate thickness
boiler and discharged via the condense pipework. along its entire run.
● Connections to rainwater drains are not permitted
Condensate is very acidic and needs to be dealt with unless the rainwater drain connects to a foul drain.
correctly. The important points are as follows. ● Since most combination boilers contain a 75 mm
● The condensate outlet on boilers will accept 21.5 condensate trap, external traps are not required
mm overflow pipe and it is strongly recommended unless the boiler manufacturer states otherwise.
that this discharges into the building drainage Manufacturers’ data should be checked before the
system. Where this is not possible, it may discharge installation of condense pipework.
into an outside drain, provided that precautions
have been taken to prevent freezing.

Internal
soil pipe

Pipe must be insulated.

Condense pipework It must terminate above
Min. 2.5° fall the water level but below
Condense pipework the surrounding surface.
Min. 2.5º fall Pipe end cut to 45°
Trap installed
if required

 Figure 9.94 Termination to a soil stack  Figure 9.95 Termination to a drain or gulley

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

500 mm min.
Sink Condense pipework
Min. 2.5° fall Pipe must be Condense pipework
insulated. It must Min. 2.5º fall
terminate above the
water level but below
It is not recommended the surrounding surface.
to connect to a waste Pipe end cut to 45° Holes in the
pipe upstream of an
soakway must be
appliance
positioned away
from the building
 Figure 9.96 Connection to an existing waste pipe  Figure 9.97 Connections to a purpose-made soakaway drain

2 INSTALL SANITARY APPLIANCES AND

CONNECTING PIPEWORK SYSTEMS
Sources of information INDUSTRY TIP
Sanitation systems must comply with Building
You can access Building Regulations 2010 Approved
Regulations Approved Document H1. The general
Document H1 at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/
requirements of this document are that a foul
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/442889/BR_PDF_
water system must: AD_H_2015.pdf
● convey the flow of foul water to a foul water outfall;

this can be a foul or combined foul/rainwater sewer,

To successfully achieve this, we must consult several
a cesspool or septic tank
documents.
● minimise the risk of blockage and/or leakage

● prevent foul air from entering the building under

BS EN 12056–5:2000: Gravity
working conditions
● be ventilated
drainage systems inside buildings.
● be accessible for clearing blockages
Installation and testing, instructions
● not increase the vulnerability of the building to for operation, maintenance and use
flooding This applies to waste water drainage systems that
● be large enough to carry the expected flow at any operate under gravity. It is applicable for drainage
point in the system. systems inside dwellings and commercial, institutional
and industrial buildings.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Part 5 of this standard gives information that should be to above-ground drainage and sanitary appliance
followed when installing and maintaining waste water installation.
gravity drainage systems, as well as the materials that
can be used. The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulations 1999
BS 8000 Part 13: 1989: Workmanship This is not strictly relevant with regard to sanitation,
on building sites. Code of practice but sanitary appliances require hot and cold water
for above ground drainage and supplies, and appliances are used in connection
sanitary appliances with foul and waste water. Consequently, the Water
This provides recommendations on basic workmanship, Regulations must be consulted to guard against
and covers tasks that are carried out in relation backflow of contaminated water.

 Table 9.9 Key British and European standards for system installation and materials

BS EN and BS Standards for the installation of sanitation systems

BS EN 12056–2:2000 Gravity drainage systems inside buildings. Sanitary pipework, layout and calculation

BS EN 12056–5:2000 Gravity drainage systems inside buildings. Installation and testing, instructions for operation,
maintenance and use

BS 8000–13 Workmanship on building sites

Part 13 covers the installation of drainage and sanitation systems

BS Standards for materials

BS 5627 Plastics connectors for use with horizontal outlet vitreous china WC pans

BS EN Standards for materials

BS EN 1329 Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) within the building
structure – Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVCu)

BS EN 1451 Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) within the building
structure – Polypropylene (PP) requirements and test methods

BS EN 1453 Plastics piping systems with structured-wall pipes for soil and waste discharge (low and high
temperature) inside buildings – Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVCu)

BS EN 1455 Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) within the building
structure – Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
BS EN 1519 Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) within the
building structure – Polyethylene (PE)
BS EN 1566 Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) within the building
structure – Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (PVCc)
BS EN 12380 Air admittance valves – for use in drainage systems
BS EN 274 Waste fittings for sanitary appliances
BS EN 14680:2015 Solvent cement for non-pressure pipe systems

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Manufacturer technical instructions all times. The way we install them is also an important
Manufacturers’ instructions should be used when issue and is subject to a code of practice. This is BS
assembling, installing, repairing and maintaining 8000 Part 13: Workmanship on building sites. Code
sanitary equipment, components and appliances. of Practice for above ground drainage and sanitary
Installing to the written instructions provided is the appliances: 1989.
best way to ensure compliance with the Regulations
in force and the recommendations of the British KEY TERM
Standards. Code of practice: similar to a British Standard, this
is a set of rules that explains how people should
behave in their chosen profession.
INDUSTRY TIP
Following the manufacturer’s installation and servicing
instructions is a requirement of any guarantee or warranty INDUSTRY TIP
given with the appliance or component.
You can access Building Regulations 2010 Approved
Document H3 (Rainwater Drainage) at: www.gov.uk/
Design requirements government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/442889/BR_PDF_AD_H_2015.pdf
The design of the system will give vital information
with regard to the position and number of appliances
installed, and the pipework size and material type. It is Preparation before installation
important that the design is followed.
On new-build installations such as multi-dwelling
housing developments, the position of the soil
Storage and protection of sanitary and vent pipework will be determined by the drain
appliances connection installed to the architect’s drawings. Any
Sanitary appliances are expensive, and require great preparation work required to allow the installation
care when handling, transporting, storing and installing of the sanitary pipework should be agreed with the
them. To protect sanitary appliances: relevant trades beforehand. For instance, on some
● store in a clean, dry place away from cements, sites, any holes required in brickwork or timberwork is
mortars and plaster undertaken by the building or joinery contractors. This
● always leave the protective cover on for as long as must be completed prior to our installation to avoid
possible; the protective wrappers should be removed unnecessary and costly delays.
before installation so that a check can be made for
damage and defects
INDUSTRY TIP
● always store the items on timber battens and not

directly on the ground It is a good idea to check the preparation work to ensure
● stack items very carefully that pipe and fitting clearances are adequate.
● leave plenty of space for removing and replacing

items from storage.

Types of materials
We must remember that the installation of AGDS
Generally speaking, the materials used on modern
is covered both by Building Regulations Document
AGDS are made from plastic. The range of plastics
H3 (Rainwater Drainage) and BS EN 12056. These
used are covered in Chapter 2, Common processes and
important documents restrict the systems we install
techniques, but are briefly summarised here in Table
and the materials we use, to ensure that hygienic
9.10.
conditions are maintained in dwellings and buildings at

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

 Table 9.10 Plastics used on modern AGDS

Material BS number Characteristics

PVCu BS EN 1329–1 These three materials can be either solvent welded using solvent cement to
MuPVC BS EN 1566–1 BS EN 14680:2015 for waste pipes from 32 mm to 50 mm diameter, or push-fit and
solvent welded for soil and vent pipes from 82 mm to 160 mm diameter.
ABS BS EN 1455–1 Push-fit soil and waste fittings should be to BS 4514. Pipe is available in lengths of
2.5 m, 3 m or 4 m, either plain ended or socket and spigot ended.
Polypropylene BS EN 1451–1 Polypropylene is a push-fit waste system with sizes ranging from 32 mm to 50 mm
diameter. It cannot be solvent welded and is identifiable by a warm but slightly greasy
feel to the pipe. It is more flexible than PVCu or ABS, and does not break or shatter.

The choice between push-fit and solvent weld waste will be specified. Each system has its benefits and
pipes and fittings is down to personal preference, drawbacks, as listed in Table 9.11.
although on some housing contracts, solvent weld

 Table 9.11 The advantages and disadvantages of different waste pipe types

Waste pipe type Advantages Disadvantages

Push-fit Easy to make a watertight joint Pipe tends to sag if not clipped correctly
Pipe is light and easy to install Joints can pull apart easily, causing unsuspected
Easy to take apart for unblocking and maintenance leaks
Joints allow movement for thermal expansion and Suffers from UV light degradation so may require
multi-positioning painting if installed outside
Can be tested immediately after jointing
Solvent weld The pipe is much more rigid than polypropylene pipe Joints are permanent and will not allow for
and does not suffer as much from sagging repositioning
Neater appearance Joints must be left for a period of time before testing
Joints will not push apart can begin
Will resist most acids, alkalis and chemicals Fumes from the solvent cement can be damaging to
health
Suffers from UV light degradation so may require
painting if installed outside

Other materials: cast iron INDUSTRY TIP

Cast iron was used for many years in both domestic
and industrial installations. Cast iron has the advantage Today, cast iron is restricted to large installations and
of being very robust, but it is also very heavy and public buildings such as hospitals. You still may be required
difficult to work with. The jointing system is much to work on cast iron, especially when refurbishing existing
easier than it used to be. Today, cast iron is jointed dwellings.
using a special jointing system called ‘timesaver’, which
is simply bolted together using special torque wrenches
so that the joints are not over-tightened.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Waste pipe connections to the soil 7 The boss must be left for at least five minutes for
stack the solvent cement to cure enough for testing to be
carried out.
Waste pipe connections to the soil stack can be made
in two ways:
KEY POINT
1 By the use of a boss pipe: these can be push-fit
Not all strap bosses have nuts and bolts to keep
or solvent cement type. Each connection for the them in place. Some just clip together to make a
waste pipe will need to be drilled out using an watertight seal. All strap bosses, however, must
appropriately sized hole saw beforehand, and the be solvent welded.
correct insert for the waste pipe size used.
Waste pipes that are to be installed on an internal soil
stack can use a waste pipe manifold. This is an adapter
that allows multiple waste pipe connections and avoids
problems with cross-flow exclusion zones.

 Figure 9.98 Boss pipe adapter

2 By the use of a strap boss: these are solvent

welded onto the soil pipe.  Figure 9.99 A waste pipe manifold
Both methods were featured in Chapter 2, Common
processes and techniques. Care should be taken to Access to pipework
ensure we install them the right way up, as both boss Access to AGDS pipework for cleaning, clearing
pipes and strap bosses have a slight gradient in the blockages and maintenance is a requirement of the
moulding to ensure the correct fall for the waste pipe. Building Regulations. There are various ways that we
can fulfil this requirement:
Installing a strap boss, step by step ● by the use of access plugs inserted into soil pipe
1 Determine where the strap boss is to be installed junctions and waste pipe tees
and mark the centre of the hole. ● by the use of purpose-designed access covers and
2 Using the correct size of hole saw and a cordless fittings.
drill, drill the hole for the strap boss, ensuring that
the lip on the inside face of the strap boss fits
snugly inside the hole. It is important not to have
too much play in the hole as this may result in
leakage once the solvent cement has set.
3 Clean around the hole and the surface of the strap
boss with cleaning fluid.
4 Apply solvent cement to the strap boss first and
then around the hole on the soil pipe.
5 Place the strap boss into position, insert the nut and
bolt at the back of the boss, and tighten gently.  Figure 9.100 Access plug in soil  Figure 9.101 Purpose-
6 Clean away any excess solvent cement with a clean, junctions made access fitting
dry cloth.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

PVCu HepSleve Salt-glazed earthenware Cast iron

These two sockets are simple push-fit types. The soil pipe These sockets require jointing with a strong 2:1 ratio sand and
should be chamfered and silicone lubricant applied before cement mortar. They should be left for 24 hours before testing
inserting into the socket. is carried out.

Soil stack connection to the drain of all the installations that we undertake. Customers
The connection to the drain could be one of several can invest a great deal of money replacing their
materials depending on the age of the building and bathroom suites and it is vital that we get it right.
its use. Older properties tend to have salt-glazed
earthenware drains, and public buildings often use cast The preparations we make before we install sanitary
iron drains. Connection to these materials is usually by appliances need very careful consideration. Good
a collar, which is sealed with a sand and cement mortar planning includes:
● making sure that the hot and cold pipework has
joint. Modern houses use either PVCu or HepSleve clay
piping. The jointing methods to these materials are been installed in accordance with drawings
● making sure that any chases and holes necessary
shown below.
have been prepared
Multi-fit pipe adapters are also available for connecting ● checking that sanitary ware has been delivered on
differing pipe materials below ground. The drain time, is correctly stored and is free from damage; it
connection, as we have already seen, is made to a is a fact that one in four bathroom suites delivered
large-radius bend. to site are either damaged, incorrect or have parts
If the soil stack is external (outside the building), an missing; these hold-ups can be costly in terms of
access pipe can be used as the drain exits the ground. time and repeat customer business.
On internal soil stacks, access must be above the spill- Remember, when ordering and receiving delivery of
over level of the highest appliance. materials:
● contact the merchant before you start the job to

INDUSTRY TIP ensure that the bathroom suite is going to be delivered

to the correct address and on the correct day
On new dwellings, the position of the drain connections
will be marked on the building plan. On older buildings,
we will have to use what is already in place, so careful VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
consideration should be made as to the method of jointing
British Standard BS 8000 Part 13 gives essential
we are going to use.
guidance on the class of workmanship that is
expected of us when installing above-ground
Installation requirements of sanitation systems and sanitary appliances.

appliances and systems

Good preparation for the installation of sanitary
appliances is essential as it is probably the most visual

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● always check the delivery note to ensure that the provided for sealing the taps to the appliance
equipment on the sheet is the same as that being should always be used, and care should
delivered be taken to ensure that they are not over-
● always handle sanitary ware with care – most tightened in the appliance or we risk cracking
appliances are easily scuffed or damaged the appliance itself.
● when storing materials, ensure that the store ● Wastes will either be slotted for appliances
is secure and the materials have been stacked with integral overflows, unslotted or a pop-
correctly. up waste system; wastes should be made into
the appliance with silicone sealant or specific
Before the job commences, you should ensure that:
washers if the manufacturer provides them.
● the work area is completely clear of all debris

● the customer’s carpets and furniture are protected

● you have all the manufacturers’ instructions to

INDUSTRY TIP
hand; these will need to be left with the customer at Never use bare grips to hold a tap as this will mark the
the end of the job chrome/gold plate.
● you consult with the customer so that there are no

last-minute changes that may need the intervention

of your supervisor. INDUSTRY TIP

Dressing the appliances If silicone sealant is used with the wastes, try not to use
too much as it is difficult to remove from the glaze of the
Dressing of sanitary ware includes the following stages. appliance.

KEY TERM
Dressing: the term used by plumbers to describe VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
the preparation of the appliances ready for
installation. Taps are a personal choice and will have been
chosen by the customer with a lot of thought. We
must treat them with care to ensure that they are
● Installing the taps and wastes to the bath, not damaged during the installation.
washbasin and bidet:
● Taps should always be fitted in accordance with

the manufacturer’s instructions; the washers

 Figure 9.102 Taps and waste being fitted to a bath and washbasin

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

● Assembling the WC cistern: this means installing the

siphon, float-operated valve, overflow (if applicable), INDUSTRY TIP
flushing handle and close coupling bracket (if the
WC is a close coupled model). Specialist tools you will need to install sanitary appliances
will include: box spanner, tap spanner, basin wrench, soft
● Carefully fixing the bath cradle and feet to the bath:
jaw pliers, toilet seat installation tool, tap reseating tool,
the bath should be carefully turned upside down
magnetic telescopic mirror.
on a clean dust sheet for this operation. The bath
feet are adjustable to enable the bath to be fitted
level and to the correct height. Great care must be
taken here as the cradle comes with specific screws
for different positions. If we use the wrong screws,
we could pierce the bath itself. Always read the
manufacturer’s instructions beforehand.

 Figure 9.103 A WC cistern being assembled  Figure 9.104 A bath being assembled

Install and test systems and INDUSTRY TIP

appliances The protective tape around the sanitary ware should
The installation process for bathrooms for be removed before installation takes place so that the
refurbishments is quite different from that for new- appliances can be checked for damage prior to being fitted.
build installations. Here, we will deal only with the
installation of the three most common appliances:
1 the bath New-build installations
2 the washbasin On new-build installations, the choice of bathroom
3 the WC suite. suite is often not as varied as it is for a private customer,
especially on housing contracts where there are only
two or three house styles being constructed. The work
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS can become very repetitive, with the same suite types
Before work begins, make sure the customer being installed time and again, and always in the same
is aware that appliances will be taken out of positions. The appliance positions are set by the architect
commission, and that warning notices have been and it is often difficult to deviate from these plans. It is
placed in strategic areas to prevent the accidental usual for the first fix to have been installed beforehand,
turning on of water supplies and unintentional with hot, cold and waste pipework tails visible.
use of partially fitted appliances such as WCs.
KEY TERM
Deviate: change; do differently from the original plan.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

4 Once the bath has been fixed into place, it can be

INDUSTRY TIP connected to the hot and cold pipework. How this is
done will depend on the first-fix pipework material:
The hot and cold will have been hydraulically pressure
● polybutylene is by far the easiest material to
tested previously.
work with
● copper adds rigidity to the installation.
Installing the bath, step by step 5 Make sure that both tap connectors are fully
Although there are no set rules for the order that tightened. The waste pipe to the bath can also be
appliances are installed, it is common practice to install installed at this stage while all other appliances are
the bath first as this is the largest of all the appliances out of position. It is often difficult to work under
and is much easier to manoeuvre into position in an a bath, especially if the washbasin pedestal or WC
empty bathroom. pan is in the way. Ensure that the service valves are
1 The bath should be placed into position and the feet in the off position prior to commissioning.
adjusted until it is level on all sides at the correct 6 Once the bath is fixed, it is normal practice for
height to suit the bath panel (if one is being fitted). the bathroom to be tiled and grouted before any
2 When you are sure that it is ready to be fixed to further appliances are installed.
the wall, mark the brackets that hold the bath to
the wall. Remove the bath temporarily, and drill the INDUSTRY TIPS
fixing holes. The type of fixings you use will depend
on the type of wall it is: It may be a good idea to fix timber to the floor where the
● for masonry, concrete block and thermalite
bath feet will sit as this helps to spread the weight of the
bath, the water and the person using it.
block walls, wall plugs and brass screws may be
used It is a good idea to install service valves to both taps, as
● plasterboard studded walls will require
this will facilitate easier maintenance in the future.
plasterboard fixings unless wooden noggins
have been placed in the wall previously. Installing the washbasin, step by step
3 Fix the bath in its permanent position and, after The washbasin often comes next. This can be a tricky
checking once more to ensure correct level and installation.
height, screw the feet to the floor. Make sure 1 The centre line of the basin should be marked
that all the feet are screwed down as this is often lightly in pencil on the tiles. This is usually the
missed and can cause bath movement later if not centre between the hot and cold pipework. Also,
done correctly. mark the centre on the washbasin itself. This will
allow both centre lines to be lined up, ensuring that
the basin is in the correct position for the pipework
and the drawing specification.
2 Place the pedestal into position and gently lower
the washbasin, complete with the waste trap fitted,
onto the pedestal, ensuring that the centre lines
match. Do not use any silicone on the pedestal face
at this time. It is important first to ensure that the
washbasin’s position is correct, that the basin and
pedestal match properly, and that the basin is level.
Place a level on the top of the washbasin and, once
the appliance has been adjusted level, mark the
 Figure 9.105 A bath being levelled fixing holes underneath the basin and also mark
around the pedestal at floor level. This will ensure
that both pedestal and basin go back into the same
position once the wall has been drilled.
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Installing the WC suite, step by step

Most WC suites today are of the close coupled style.
The following procedure is based on this type of
installation.
1 When installing the WC suite, the distance between
the WC pan outlet and the wall should be measured
so that the soil pipe can be trimmed to the correct
length. The distance from the wall can also be
obtained from the manufacturer’s instructions.
Remember to put the pan connector on the pan
 Figure 9.106 Washbasin fixing holes being marked outlet first so that an accurate measurement can be
taken.
3 Carefully drill the tiles and the wall, ensuring that the
2 Once the soil pipe has been cut to length, insert the
fixing holes are deep enough to allow the wall plugs
pan connector into the soil pipework and carefully
to be inserted below the tile surface. Reposition the
place the WC pan into position. Now place the
pedestal in line with the previous floor mark.
cistern onto the pan, and fix it using the nuts, bolts
and washers provided. At this stage, it is better to
INDUSTRY TIP step back from the pan and look to make sure that
the pan and cistern sit correctly. Place a spirit level
It is a good idea at this stage to put a thin bead of silicone across the back of the cistern to ensure that it is
sealant around the face (lip) of the pedestal where the
level and mark the cistern fixing holes with a pencil.
washbasin sits. This will ensure that both washbasin and
If an overflow pipe is required this can also be
pedestal are fixed together once it has cured.
marked. Remove the cistern and carefully drill the
fixing holes, again ensuring that the holes are deep
4 Again, carefully reposition the washbasin and
enough for the wall plugs to be pushed below the
carefully screw back to the wall using brass or
surface of the tiles. Carefully drill the hole for the
stainless steel screws. Do not over-tighten the
overflow (if required).
screws or the fixing holes will break. Once again,
3 Refix the cistern to the WC pan, ensuring that the
check for level and clean any surplus silicone
large foam or rubber sealing washer, often referred
sealant from the pedestal.
to as a ‘doughnut’, that seals the cistern to the pan
5 The hot and cold pipework is placed behind the
is in place around the WC siphon tail on the bottom
pedestal to hide it as much as possible. It is often
of the cistern.
difficult to install the pipework inside the pedestal
4 You can then proceed to screw the WC pan down,
itself. Any bends in the pipework need to be as
again using the correct gauge and length of screw.
high as possible so that they cannot be seen when
Brass or stainless steel screws are best used in this
a person is standing up. Do not be tempted to
situation to prevent the screw from corroding.
solder pipework joints near to the pedestal or
5 The water connection should be installed as neatly
cracking of the pedestal (and washbasin too) may
as possible as it will be on view all the time. It is a
occur. Again, it is considered good practice to
requirement of the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
install service valves on the pipework. Ensure that
Regulations that the cold water supply to WC
both the tap connectors (or compression joints
cisterns contains a service valve. Be careful when
if a monobloc mixer tap is being used) are fully
connecting the tap connector as it is very easy to
tightened. The waste pipe can now be finished onto
strip the thread of the plastic float-operated valve.
the previously fitted trap. Some pedestals have
Do not over-tighten the connector as this may also
fixing holes at floor level and, if these are present,
strip the thread. Ensure that the service valve is in
carefully screw the pedestal to the floor. Ensure
the off position prior to commissioning.
that the service valves are in the off position prior
to commissioning.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Refurbishments of existing bathrooms

This is where plumbers can show their creativity by
designing bespoke installations to suit the customer’s
requirements. The customer may already have an
idea of how they want their bathroom to look, so it is
important that we consider the ideas that they may put
forward. It may also mean that the original bathroom
layout will be altered, with appliances occupying
different positions than they did originally.

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

As noted, customers often invest a lot of thought,
planning and money into achieving their dream
bathroom design. It is your job to listen carefully to
their wishes and offer them all feasible options that
can be achieved for their space and budget.

 Figure 9.107 A WC pan and cistern being assembled We will presume here that the appliances are returning
to their original positions and that the first-fix pipework
has been completed.

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS

Remember: customers, particularly those in
domestic properties, cannot be left without a WC.

Although the method of installing the appliances is

identical to that for the new-build installation, the
order in which they are fitted might not be. In this
situation, the customer cannot be without a WC,
especially if the one you are replacing is the only
one in the property. There are two choices in this
situation:
 Figure 9.108 A WC pan being screwed to the floor and cistern to 1 Leave the existing WC in place until all other
the wall appliances have been fitted: if the appliances are
to be installed in the same positions as the original
INDUSTRY TIP bathroom suite, this is probably the better option as
the WC will eventually be removed and any damage
Before screwing the cistern to the wall, it is worth considering done to it while installing the bath will not matter. If
putting spacing washers (tap washers will work for this) the new WC is fitted first, in this situation damage
between the cistern and the wall. This helps to prevent could be costly in terms of materials and labour
the build-up of condensation at the back of the cistern by charges.
allowing air movement, which in turn prevents the build-up 2 Replace the WC first: if the bathroom layout
of black mould on the tiles where the cistern is fitted. Also, is being altered, with the WC occupying a new
to prevent breaking the cistern, place a tap washer over both
position, this will obviously be the only option as the
brass screws before the cistern is screwed back to the wall.
soil stack connection will need to be altered before

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

the bathroom installation can begin. It is pointless Commissioning process for

installing the original WC on a new soil stack as this
wastes precious installation time. appliances and systems
By using the job specification and manufacturers’
In both cases, the soil pipe to the WC should be blanked
instructions during a visual inspection of a sanitary
off (temporarily capped) when there is no WC fitted. system, a plumber can verify that all complies with the
This will prevent obnoxious smells from entering the original design and nothing has been changed.
working area. This can be done by the temporary use of
a drain plug or PVCu cap end. Once the plumber is satisfied that the installation of a
sanitary system is complete, it is important to check
Once the bathroom suite has been installed, we can that all connections are properly fitted, such as any
think about testing the sanitary pipework. push-fit spigots are completely engaged in the fitting
socket and any solvent welding is complete on waste
Jointing methods used and soil pipe joints.

in sanitary appliances It is essential that none of the joints or components

leaks. Appliance pipework falls should be inspected and
pipework systems tested to confirm a smooth and efficient discharge. If
a macerator is fitted, make sure there are no push-fit
INDUSTRY TIP connections on the discharge pipework.
Any WC cistern mechanisms should be adjusted to
A full range of fittings are available for both polypropylene discharge so that they comply with requirements for
and PVCu, and some of these are looked at in Chapter 2,
low water consumption. Mixing valves should be tested
Common processes and techniques. It may be a good idea
to make sure they are operating at a safe temperature,
to keep a fittings catalogue handy when working on-site so
that you are aware of the full range of fittings available. and the flow rates of showers and basins confirmed as
being satisfactory.
The fixing details for polypropylene and PVCu (ABS and Clips are often overlooked but they must be checked to
MuPVC) are covered in Chapter 2, Common processes confirm that they are properly anchored and spaced in
and techniques, pages 100–102. accordance with the Standards, as their performance
will be tested under load conditions.
ACTIVITY
If problems are identified during the commissioning
Soil and waste fittings process, then an apprentice plumber should consult
For more information on soil and waste pipe and with their supervisor and seek guidance as to a remedy.
fittings, revisit Chapter 2, Common processes Quite often only an adjustment is required to a float-
and techniques, or check out the manufacturers’ operated valve or temperature settings to a mixing
literature. Most manufacturers produce fittings
valve. On some occasions, though, there could be a
catalogues and these are available from your local
plumbers’ merchant or by downloading as pdf files more serious problem, such as very slow discharge
from the manufacturers’ websites. Check out the from an appliance that previously performed normally.
following websites: It could be that, since the first fix, some debris has
● www.hunterplastics.co.uk entered a trap or discharge pipe. It is possible that an
● www.wavin.com/en-gb/Catalog/Potable-Water/ improvised plug of compressed plastic has travelled
Plumbing-Systems/Push-fit-Hep2O down the soil stack and caused a major blockage,
● www.osma.co.uk affecting all the appliances that are connected. The
● www.marley.co.uk solution would be to remove it via an access point on
● www.polypipe.com the soil stack.
Once the installation procedures of all the sanitary
appliances to a new soil stack have been completed,

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

soundness testing can begin. In the case of multi-storey 4 The hand pump is pumped until a measurement of
property installations, testing of appliances on a floor-to- 38 mm is reached and the air inlet valve is turned
floor basis is required. The installation needs to be checked off; 38 mm is the maximum pressure that should
in accordance with BS 12056–2:2000 to ensure that be pumped into the system so that the pressure
there are no leaks as this will result in the ingression of foul does not push water out of any trap in the system
odours into a property. (38 mm shallow bath trap being the minimum
trap seal). The 38 mm test pressure must remain
constant for a minimum of three minutes.
Soundness and performance
testing of above-ground Air inlet valve
Test plug
sanitation systems Manometer
The testing of above-ground sanitation systems is the Hand pump 38 mm
final part of the installation process. When we test
sanitary pipework, there are two elements we are
looking at:
1 ensuring that the pipework is sound and does not
have any leaks All traps filled with water

2 ensuring that it performs to the recommendations

of BS 12056.

Soundness testing, step by step

Before testing begins, make a visual inspection of
the system to ensure that it conforms to the British
Standards, that you are happy with the clipping
Hand pump Test bag
distances and that all joints appear to be made
correctly.
Testing should be completed in accordance with  Figure 9.109 The test equipment and procedure
BS 12056–2.
Performance testing, step by step
INDUSTRY TIP With the soundness test complete and the test
equipment removed, performance testing can begin.
If the system is installed in a multi-storey property, it may This is done to confirm that the system meets the
need to be tested in stages or floor by floor. recommendations of the British Standards and the
Building Regulations.
1 First, seal the pipework at the top and the bottom 1 Fill all of the appliances with water up to their
by using either drain plugs or drain testing bags. overflow levels and release the water from the
The bottom drain plug can be inserted through the appliances simultaneously.
access cover at the base of the stack. 2 At the same time, flush the WCs.
2 Fill all the traps on the system by letting a little 3 When all of the appliances have emptied and
water down each appliance and a little water down the WC flushes have finished, the traps of all the
the WC to cover the bottom plug. This will ensure appliances can be checked for water seal depth.
the plug’s airtightness. The trap seal depth after all of the appliances have
3 On the top plug, a rubber tube is fastened. The discharged their water must be at least 25 mm. This
tube needs to have a tee piece inserted. On one can be checked with a dipstick.
side of the tee is a hand pump and an air inlet valve,
on the other side a manometer (water gauge) is
installed. The manometer is measured in mm.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

KEY POINT Expansion and contraction

Testing trap seal depth in sanitary appliances
The dipstick is a thin piece of wood painted matt
black (wooden coffee stirrers painted matt black
pipework systems and
are sometimes used). It is inserted down the centre negative effects
of the waste fitting until it reaches the bottom
of the trap. When it is withdrawn, the wetness
One of the problems with PVCu soil and waste pipe is
should be measured and the diameter of the trap the large expansion rate. This can cause the joints to
deducted. What is left is the depth of trap seal. move as they get warmed by hot water discharging
down them or the Sun and, in extreme cases, can cause
joint failure.

INDUSTRY TIP
To counteract the expansion, push-fit soil and vent pipe
should be withdrawn 10 mm. This will also prevent joint
Depth of failure.
trap seal

Deduct diameter of trap

 Figure 9.110 Testing trap seal depth after a performance test

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Example

PVCu has a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.06 A south-facing external soil and vent pipe 10 m high
mm/m/°C. This means that, for every metre (1 m) of is subjected to a 25°C temperature rise. What is the
pipe, PVCu expands by 0.06 mm for every degree expansion of the pipe when the coefficient of linear
rise in temperature. expansion of the pipe is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
For example: All the information we need to be able to calculate
this is in the question:
If a 1 m length of pipe is subjected to a rise in
temperature of 10°C, it will expand by the following Length of pipe = 10 m
amount: Temperature diff. (Δt) = 25°C
1 × 0.06 × 10 = 0.6 mm Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.06 mm/m/°C
Therefore:
This might not seem a lot, but let us look at this in
more detail. 10 × 25 × 0.06 = 15 mm

ACTIVITY
Calculation of thermal expansion 2 A south-facing waste pipe 10 m long is subjected
to a 30°C temperature rise. What is the expansion
Using the method shown in the worked example
of the pipe when the coefficient of linear
above, calculate the following:
expansion is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
1 A south-facing soil and vent pipe 15 m high is
3 A south-facing soil and vent pipe 5 m long is
subjected to a 15°C temperature rise. What is
subjected to a 20°C temperature rise. What is
the expansion of the pipe when the coefficient of
the expansion of the pipe when the coefficient of
linear expansion is 0.06 mm/m/°C?
linear expansion is 0.06 mm/m/°C?

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The procedure for notifying However, if you are a member of a certification

scheme and you have completed your commissioning
works carried out to the paperwork, you have 30 days to submit your details.
relevant authority It is important to keep a record of all the tests that
you have carried out as this will help in the event of
Once an installation is finished, the appropriate
a query at a later date, and will help you diagnose
commissioning form should be completed and, if an
any problems that may have occurred since the
installer is not part of a self-certification scheme,
installation. Invariably, you will also be installing
then the Local Authority Building Control (LABC)
sanitary fittings so the forms shown in Figures 9.111–
department should be informed.
9.113 may require completion.

Regulation 5.
(3) The notice required by paragraph (1) shall include or be accompanied by-
Notification (a) the name and address of the person giving notice, and (if different) the name
5.-(1) Subject to paragraph (2), any person who proposes to install a water fitting in and address of the person on whom notice may be served under paragraph (4) below;
connection with any of the operations listed in the Table below- (b) a description of the proposed work or material change of use, and
(a) shall give notice to the water undertaker that he proposes to commence work; (c) particulars of the location of the premises to which the proposal relates, and the use
(b) shall not begin that work without the consent of that undertaker which shall or intended use of those premises;
not be withheld unreasonably; and (d) except in the case of a fitting falling within paragraph 4(a), (c), (h) or 5 in the
(c) shall comply with any condition to which the undertaker’s consent is subject. Table above,
(i) a plan of those parts of the premises to which the proposal relates; and
TABLE (ii) a diagram showing the pipework and fittings to be installed; and
(e) where the work is to be carried out by an approved contractor, the name of the
contractor.
1. The erection of a building or other structure not being a pond or swimming pool. (4) The water undertaker may withhold consent under paragraph (1), or grant it
subject to conditions, by a notice served before the expiry of the period of ten
2. The extension or alteration of a water system on any premises other than a house. working days commencing with the day on which the notice under that paragraph
was given.
3. A material change of use of any premises. (5) If no notice is given by the water undertaker within the period mentioned in
paragraph (4), the consent required under paragraph (1) shall be deemed to have
4. The installation of- been granted unconditionally.
(a) a bath having a capacity, as measured to the centre line of overflow, of more
than 230 litres;
(b) a bidet with an ascending spray or flexible hose;
(c) a single shower unit (which may consist of one or more shower heads within
a single unit), not being a drencher shower installed for reasons of safety or NOTICE OF INTENTION TO INSTALL WATER FITTINGS
health, connected directly or indirectly to a supply pipe which is of a type
specified by the regulator; I hereby give notice as required under Regulation 5 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999
(d) a pump or water booster drawing more than 12 litres per minute, connected that I intend to install water fittings as follows:
directly or indirectly to a supply pipe;
Intended installation date
(e) a unit which incorporates reverse osmosis;
(f) a water treatment unit which produces a waste water discharge or which
Location of premises where work is to be done.......................................................................................................
requires the use of water for regeneration or cleaning;
(g) a reduced pressure zone valve assembly or other mechanical device for ..................................................................................................................................................................................
protection against a fluid which is in fluid category 4 or 5; Use of the buildings to which the notice refers........................................................................................................
(h) a garden watering system unless designed to be operated by hand; or ..................................................................................................................................................................................
(i) any water system laid outside a building and either less than 750 mm or Description of proposed work/fittings......................................................................................................................
more than 1350 mm below ground level. ..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
5. the construction of a pond or swimming pool with a capacity greater than 10,000 litres Is plan of proposed installation included? Yes No
which is designed to be replenished by automatic means and is to be filled with water
Will there be a material change of use of the premises? Yes No if yes give details
supplied by a water undertaker.
Name of installer......................................................... Approved Contractor Number...........................................

(2) This regulation does not apply to the installation by an approved contractor of a water ..................................................................................................................................................................................
fitting falling within paragraph 2, 4(b) or 4 (g) in the Table. Company name and address.....................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
Name of person on whom the notice may be served (if different to above)............................................................
and address................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
Signed....................................................................................................................... Date.......................................

 Figure 9.111 Water undertaker’s notification

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

To the customer: please keep this certificate safe, you may need to show it to an authorised water inspector.

Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999

1: Installation of water fittings at: (insert name and address of premises where work has been undertaken)

Certificate of compliance

I certify that the work indicated below, carried out at the above premises complies with the requirements of the
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999

2: Installation work carried out at the premises indicated by this notice

the erection of a building or other structure, not being a pond or swimming pool
the extension or alteration of a water system in premises other than a house
a material change of use of premises
the installation of:-
a bath with a capacity, measured to the centre of the overflow, of over 230L
a bidet with an ascending spray or flexible hose
a single shower unit of a type specified by the regulator
a pump or booster drawing more than 12 litres per minute from a supply pipe
a unit that incorporates reverse osmosis
a water treatment unit with waste water discharge or use of water for regeneration or cleaning
a reduced pressure zone valve assembly or mechanical device for fluid category 4 or 5 protection
an automatic garden watering system
an outside water system laid less than 750 mm or more than 1350 mm below ground level
an automatically filled pond or swimming pool with a capacity greater than 10,000L

3: Name and address of contractor supplying this certificate

4:

Signature .........................................................................................................Date..............................................................................................

 Figure 9.112 Certificate of compliance

Regulation 6.

Contractor’s certificate
6.-(1) Where a water fitting is installed, altered, connected or disconnected by an
approved contractor, the contractor shall upon completion of the work furnish a
signed certificate stating whether the water fitting complies with the requirements
of these Regulations to the person who commissioned the work.

(2) In case of a fitting for which notice is required under Regulation 5(1) above,
the contractor shall send a copy of their certificate to the water undertaker.

 Figure 9.113 Contractor’s certificate

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Handing over a completed HEALTH AND SAFETY

system to the end user Try not to damage vitreous china sanitary ware such
as WCs and washbasins when you are removing
Once all the tests have been carried out satisfactorily, them. Vitreous china is extremely sharp when
the system operates as planned, and the work area, broken. Always wear rubber gauntlets and eye
appliances and fittings are clean and ready for use, it protection during these operations.
is time to hand over to the customer. The customer
will need to know how their newly installed system Cast iron baths are often broken into four pieces
works, and will need to be given clear information on before being carried outside. This is quite a dangerous
how appliances such as macerators, waste water lifters task as the enamel on the bath is glass and will fly
and showers operate. A full demonstration of how they in all directions when it is hit. It is best to use a lump
operate is required, and advice on the limitations of hammer for this. Start at the waste hole, as this is the
an appliance’s performance should be discussed in line weakest and thinnest point, and work down the spine
with the manufacturer’s instructions. of the bath, then work across the bath. Eventually, the
bath will break into four almost identically sized pieces,
Decommissioning process which are much easier to carry. PPE required will be eye
for appliances and systems protection, gloves and ear defenders. It may be that the
bath has more value in one piece as there is a market
When we remove old sanitary appliances and replace
for second-hand cast iron baths. In this case, help will
them with new ones, we are decommissioning the
be needed to manoeuvre the bath outside safely.
above-ground drainage system. In many cases, this
will mean the removal of the soil and vent stack, and
waste pipes too. These are procedures that need careful VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
consideration. The following sections will assess the
You must be aware that this task is extremely
most effective way of decommissioning an existing
noisy and can be alarming to the customer, so
system of above-ground drainage.
advise them of your intentions beforehand.

The old sanitary appliances

Removal of the old appliances should be carried out When all of the appliances have been removed from
with care. We must use appropriate personal protective the property, they should be stripped of any scrap
equipment (PPE) for this as we will be handling sanitary metal as this is recyclable.
ware that has been used for personal ablutions and will
most definitely be carrying disease. The old sanitary pipework
Old sanitary pipework can be made from a variety of
HEALTH AND SAFETY materials, including cast iron, lead and asbestos. Each
A risk assessment must be carried out as some of these materials has its own health and safety issues,
of the appliances, such as cast iron baths, will be which must be observed. We will look at the methods
heavy and may require the assistance of a second of removal individually.
person, especially if the bath is to be carried out
of the property in one piece. Ensure the area and
pathway to outside the property is clear and free
HEALTH AND SAFETY
from obstacles. Remember: old sanitary pipework can be made of
a variety of materials, and each one has particular
health and safety considerations.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

Lead: health and safety considerations

KEY POINT
Traditionally, lead pipe was used for WC branches and
A risk assessment must be carried out when
dealing with the removal of all old sanitary waste pipes. Occasionally, soil and vent pipes made
pipework materials. from lead can be found, though this is extremely rare.
As with all lead, it should be handled with great care.
Lead can sometimes corrode, leaving a fine white
Cast iron: health and safety considerations powder residue known as lead oxide. This material is
Cast iron is a heavy material. As you will be working extremely dangerous as it offers the quickest way of
at height when removing this kind of pipework, being ingested into the body through breathing in the
precautions must be taken so that the pathway around powder. Always wear the correct PPE when handling
you is blocked off and signs posted warning of the lead, such as barrier cream on the hands, or wear
dangers of falling debris. The most common type of gloves, a face mask and goggles. Lead is also a heavy
fixing for cast iron was nails and bobbins fixed through material so, again, take care when lifting.
lugs on the cast iron pipe sockets, known as ears. It is
usual practice to break the ears of the pipe to free it General points about
from the wall. Care should be taken as these can fly decommissioning
off when being broken. Breaking the pipe in sections, ● When working at height, place barriers and warning
working from the top, is the best way of removing notices around where you are working.
this pipe but you must take care that pieces of broken ● Large systems should be decommissioned in
pipe do not enter and block the drain. The correct PPE sections to minimise any disruption.
should be worn during this process, which includes ● If the system is being decommissioned for a short
hard hat, goggles, gauntlets and eye protection. period, ensure that warning notices are placed at
the appliances to prevent accidental usage while
you are working on the system.
VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS ● Inform the customer of the length of time you
All metals, like cast iron and lead, have scrap expect the system to be out of action.
value. They should be disposed of for recycling ● If possible, arrange for decommissioning to be
purposes so ensure you are working with the completed outside normal working hours to
environment and sustainability in mind. minimise disruption to users and residents.
● Arrange for alternative welfare facilities,
such as portaloos and temporary showering
Asbestos: health and safety considerations accommodation, if the system is going to be out of
If you suspect that the soil and vent pipes are made commission for long periods.
from asbestos, you must seek advice from your ● Always wear an appropriate level of PPE and
supervisor. On no account must you break the pipe or conduct a risk assessment.
you risk releasing potentially dangerous fibres into the
atmosphere.
Permanent and temporary
decommissioning
INDUSTRY TIP Decommissioning can be either temporary or
permanent.
If the material is asbestos, it is the law that this is removed
by a specialist asbestos removal company (see Chapter 1, Temporary decommissioning
Health and safety practices and systems, page 26). Temporary decommissioning is usually carried out
when replacing bathroom suites or updating soil stacks
and vent pipes.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

General points to consider: typically enters the body through cuts, scrapes, or the
● Pipework should be properly capped or plugged lining of the nose, mouth, throat or eyes. This disease
with purpose-made fittings to prevent smells from kills up to two or three people a year in Britain because
infiltrating the building. the correct precautions and PPE have not been used or
● Keep the customer informed of the probable length put in place.
of time the system will be out of use.
● Keep mess and disruption to a minimum, and Hepatitis
always clear away any waste or unwanted materials. There are three known strains of hepatitis that you
could contract. They are known as A, B and C. While
Permanent decommissioning not commonly contracted in Britain, the risks are higher
Permanent decommissioning is usually carried out when working in close contact with waste products.
when a soil and vent stack is being removed and not Symptoms are flu-like, which can continue for months
replaced. In this case, the stack and all appliances and finally turn into liver failure. A ‘healthy carrier’ may
should be removed, and the drain properly capped at not realise they have the disease until organ failure
ground level. begins. Normal precautions in your day-to-day routine
will limit your chances of contracting it.
Health hazards working with
Dermatitis
drainage systems Dermatitis means ‘skin inflammation’, and in most
cases the early stages are characterised by red, itchy
Weil’s disease skin, which can be mistaken for eczema. Acute attacks
Weil’s disease is an acute human form of a bacterial may result in crusty scales or blisters that results in
infection with an array of different names – it is also pussy fluid discharges. Dermatitis is contracted by
known as mud fever, swamp fever, haemorrhagic coming into contact with hazardous chemicals in the
jaundice, swineherd’s disease and sewerman’s flu. system. People who discard chemicals or other harmful
Weil’s disease is also known as leptospirosis and is substances down the drain network are putting other
caught through contact with infected animal urine, people’s health at risk. PPE is the best way to prevent
mainly from rodents which are found in drains, and yourself from harm.

3 SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

FOR SANITARY APPLIANCES AND CONNECTING
PIPEWORK SYSTEMS
Like all the systems we have seen in this book,
maintenance of AGDS should be carried out regularly
Simple maintenance tasks
to ensure problem-free operation. This is especially The simple tasks that can be performed are described
important with older systems, as some of the materials below.
used in the past corrode over time, such as cast iron,
Cleaning out traps
and others, such as asbestos pipework, may bring
health and safety issues. On larger systems or housing Traps, especially bath and shower traps, accumulate
contracts, periodic maintenance will be carried out to hair and soap residue that will eventually cause slow
a maintenance schedule that lists the properties and discharge of water, or even complete blockage. If left,
systems to be checked. this will eventually begin to smell.

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Kitchen sink traps collect grease; this can be a constant

source of problems as the grease clings to the waste
KEY POINT
Make a note of all actions taken on the
pipework, making the smooth flow of water less likely
maintenance report.
in the future. These can be cleaned by disconnection
from the appliance and thorough cleaning. Cleaning
chemicals can be used but should be administered with
caution as some can burn the skin on contact.
Dealing with blockages
Unblocking drains and soil stack pipework is probably
HEALTH AND SAFETY the most unpleasant of all the jobs a plumber
● Always wear appropriate PPE when using undertakes, and can pose a real health risk.
chemicals or cleaning traps, such as rubber gloves
and eye protection, and always read the dosage HEALTH AND SAFETY
instructions. When dealing with blockages, always wear the
● Never mix different cleaning chemicals as this correct PPE, including rubber gauntlets, eye
protection, a face mask, full boiler suit and
could result in dangerous fumes developing and
wellington boots.
even explosive mixtures.

Blocked soil pipes

Cleaning out the overflows of the
appliances There are a number of reasons why soil pipes and
drains block. Often, it can be attributed to three
Belfast sink overflow are notorious for blocking. These
possible causes:
can be cleaned with stiff wire and then thoroughly
1 A broken drain: if this is suspected, there is very
flushed out.
little we, as plumbers, can do. The drain will
Checking access covers probably need a camera inspection to accurately
pinpoint the problem. Broken drains often occur
These should be checked for leakage and tested to
because of ground compression or movement.
ensure that the bolts on the access door are free
2 A tree root growing through the drain: again,
moving. A little silicone grease will prevent the bolts
if this is suspected, a camera inspection will be
from rusting. Also, check the rubber seals to make sure
necessary.
that they are not showing signs of perishing.
3 A physical blockage: these are usually caused
by something being flushed down the toilet and
Checking the pipework
eventually becoming wedged in the drain. These can
Pipework is often neglected during periodic
be moved by the use of drain rods (Figure 9.114),
maintenance. Always check for signs of leakage and
which come with various attachments to deal with
that the clips are in good order, especially if the soil
a variety of blockage situations.
and waste pipes are external as they can be affected by
the weather. Direct sunlight is especially damaging to Sinks, washbasins and baths can often be cleared by a
pipework and clips. Damaged or broken clips should be tool known as a force cup (Figure 9.115) (also known
replaced. Also, check the cage on the top of the stack as a plunger). The blockage is cleared by filling the
as these often blow off in high winds. These should be appliance with water and pressing down repeatedly
replaced as necessary. on the handle of the force cup. This creates a positive
pressure on the downward push and a negative
Check for signs of overflowing WC pressure on the upward pull. This results in movement
cisterns of water in the waste pipe, which is usually enough to
Adjust the water levels and check their correct dislodge the blockage. The force of the water when the
operation. force cup is removed will move the blockage down the
wastepipe, breaking it up as the water flows.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

4 THE PRINCIPLES
OF GREY WATER
RECYCLING
Grey water
About a third of all water used in the average
household is for WC flushing. The grey water used for
 Figure 9.114 Drain rods and  Figure 9.115 A force cup bathing from baths, showers and washbasins can be
attachments collected, cleaned and reused for this purpose.

Blocked WCs KEY TERM

Again, a blocked WC can often be cleared using a Grey water: waste water from baths, showers,
special kind of force cup, designed specifically to washing machines, dishwashers and sinks.
unblock WC pans and external gullies. It is known as a
WC plunger (Figure 9.116). Grey water is usually clean enough for use in WCs
with only minimal disinfection or micro-biological
Blocked waste pipes
treatment. Problems can arise, however, when
Blocked waste pipes can often be cleared by the use the warm grey water is stored because it quickly
of a hand spinner (Figure 9.117). An auger at the end deteriorates and the bacteria it contains quickly
of the hand spinner rotates as it enters the waste multiply, making the water smell; this can be overcome
pipe, breaking up the blockage on contact. Care must by filtration and treatment with chemicals. There must
be taken if this tool is being used with push-fit waste also be a means of protecting the mains water against
systems to ensure the joints are not being forced contamination by backflow from a grey water system
apart. Thorough testing should be conducted after in order to comply with the Water Supply (Water
use to make certain that leaks have not been created. Fittings) Regulations 1999.

Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting has the potential to save a large
volume of mains water and reduce pressure on resources
because water that would otherwise be lost can be used to
flush toilets, to water gardens and feed washing machines,
instead of using water direct from the mains supply.

 Figure 9.116 A WC plunger  Figure 9.117 A hand spinner

VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS
Water is a precious resource and rainwater
harvesting is another means by which we can
minimise our impact on the environment.

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 Chapter 9 Sanitation systems

High level grey water

storage cistern

Grey water
supply

Grey water feed

Grey water collection to cistern in the
roof space

Grey water
filter

Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

 Figure 9.118 Grey water system feeding a WC

Rainwater harvesters can be installed at domestic or Harvesters are usually installed beneath the ground
commercial sites, and average households can expect in an underground storage cistern, or on the roof of a
to save up to 50 per cent of their water consumption flat-roofed building. A typical four-bedroom house will
by installing a rainwater harvesting system. capture enough water to keep a 5000-litre cistern in
use through most of the year.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

High level grey water

storage cistern

Grey water
supply
Rainwater is collected from
the roof by the guttering
system where it flows
down the rainwater pipe,
through a rainwater filter
and into an underground
storage cistern

Grey water feed

to cistern in the
roof space

Rainwater filter
Underground
storage cistern

Submersible
pump

 Figure 9.119 Simple rainwater harvesting system

SUMMARY
We have seen as we have worked through this chapter Properly installed sanitary appliances and pipework
just how important above-ground sanitation systems are a visual reminder of how well we can portray our
are with regard to both personal and environmental plumbing skills while providing a necessary, hygienic
hygiene. Correctly installed and functioning sanitary environment for ourselves, the customer and the
appliances and pipework protect us from diseases environment at large.
that were rife in the UK just 200 years ago, and still
continue to cause severe illness in other parts of the
world to this day.

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 Test your knowledge

Test your knowledge 7 What problem can be caused by the use of

short-radius bends at the bottom of discharge
1 Which building regulation must sanitation stacks?
systems comply with? a Compression
a Part G c Part F b Evaporation
b Part H d Part L c Excessive velocity
2 What is the correct pressure for the soundness d Induced siphonage
testing of above-ground drainage systems?
8 Where a branch connection into a stack is
a 21 mm c 32 mm between 82 mm and 160 mm in diameter (e.g.
b 28 mm d 38 mm a WC branch), no other connection is allowed
3 What is the minimum trap seal depth for a bath? to be installed within which of the following
a 25 mm c 75 mm distances vertically downwards?

b 50 mm d 100 mm a 90 mm c 200 mm

4 What is the maximum length of waste pipe from b 110 mm d 250 mm

a bath when connecting to a primary vented 9 Which of the following British Standards offers
stack? specific guidance on the space requirements for
a 1.7 m c 5m sanitary appliances?

b 3m d 6m a BS 6465–2 c BS 12056–2

5 When a stack is installed within 3 m of an b BS 3943 d BS 4305

openable window, what minimum distance 10 What is the cause of loss of trap seal in the
above that window should it terminate? image below?
a 300 mm c 900 mm
b 500 mm d 1000 mm
6 What type of trap is shown in the image below?

Loss of
seal
depth

a Self-siphonage
b Compression
c Evaporation
d Capillary action
11 If a discharge branch is 4.5 m long and has a
fall of 18 mm/m, what is the vertical drop?
a 250 mm
a Bath trap c Waterless trap b 45 mm
b In-line trap d Washing machine c 22.5 mm
trap d 81 mm

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

12 What type of fitting is NOT used on a drainage 17 At what pressure is a soil stack tested to prove
system? soundness?
a Compression a 1 bar
b Push fit b 1.2 times working pressure
c Solder c 38 mm
d Solvent weld d 75 mm
13 Which one of the following is an essential 18 What is the best way to prevent crossflow in a
installation requirement for an air admittance soil stack?
valve located in boxing? a Ensure branches are not positioned directly
a Coolness for operation opposite each other
b Access for maintenance b Ensure only one strap boss is used on the
c Consistent temperature for operation system
d Condensation for watertight seal c Ensure branches are positioned leaving
50 mm vertical distance
14 What equipment do you piece together (join) to
help unblock drains? d Ensure the same size branches are not
opposite each other
a Plunger
19 Which item is used if a soil stack needs to be
b Drive in wedge
temporarily decommissioned?
c Boss strap
a End cowl
d Drain rods
b Drain plug
15 What type of soil stack is shown in this diagram?
c Manifold plate
d Access cap
20 Identify this style of trap:

a Ventilated discharge stack

b Secondary ventilated stack
c Primary ventilated stack
d Combined discharge stack
a Running trap
16 What appliance is unsuitable for a bottle trap to
b Waterless valve
be installed under?
c In line trap
a Basin c Urinal
d P trap
b Sink d Bidet

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 Test your knowledge

21 What style of below-ground drainage system 28 Explain the purpose and operation of the
allows all the surface water and sewage to enter component in the image below.
the foul water sewer in the road?
a Separate
b Combined
c Partially separate
d Integrated
22 What is the sole purpose of a trap below an
appliance?
a To aid the self-cleaning process of the
appliance
b To stop noxious smells entering the property
c To prevent blockages in the discharge branch
29 Give at least three advantages of the waterless
d To prevent the fast flow of liquids in the
(self-sealing) trap.
system
30 A 32 mm diameter waste pipe is to be installed
23 The vent termination must rise 900 mm above
from a wash hand basin. The length of the
an opening window if the window is within what
branch is 1.5 m, what is the recommended
distance?
gradient in mm/m?
a 6.0 m
31 Describe what self-siphonage is and where it
b 9.0 m
could occur.
c 10.0 m
32 What advantage does a secondary ventilated
d 3.0 m stack have over a primary ventilated stack in
24 When would an anti-vac trap be used? larger installations?
a When there is a possibility of bad weather 33 Explain why care must be taken when installing
b When there is a possibility of trap seal loss a bidet in a customer’s property.
c When there is a possibility of large fluid 34 Outline how a self-sealing trap operates.
discharges Answers can be found online at
d When there is a possibility of small fluid www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
discharges
25 How many times must a performance test be Practical activity
carried out? Ask your tutor, or perhaps your supervisor on-site,
a Once if you could try installing a trap to a basin (or other
b Twice appliance). First, you will need to install a suitable
c Three times waste to the basin to allow for the trap to be
connected. Select a suitable trap for the appliance
d Four times
and connect the trap and waste. Be careful not
26 What hazards are involved in the removal of a to damage the appliance, which could easily be
cast iron bath from an existing bathroom? chipped or marked if not handled carefully.
27 What are the maximum flush limits for toilet
cisterns for both long and short flushes?

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CHAPTER 10

DOMESTIC FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
For hundreds of years humans relied on solid fuel in the form of wood and coal to heat their homes. Then, in
the 1850s, gas in the form of coal gas was used to heat and light dwellings and factories. This was followed soon
after by oil.
These fuels – coal, gas and oil – are known as hydrocarbons and, because of the way they were formed millions
of years ago, they are very carbon rich. When they are combusted, they produce copious amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2), which has systematically altered the Earth’s climate and this has led to the phenomenon known as
global warming.
Now, less than 300 years later, fossil fuels are all but depleted and the damage to the climate they have caused
is practically irreparable. With gas and oil reserves set to last only 50 years, and much of the coal left below the
Earth’s surface unreachable, we have to look for alternative forms of energy for our heat and light.
This chapter will investigate the types of fuels used in the appliances we install and identify the reasons that
certain fuels are chosen. We will also take a look at how these fuels are supplied and stored.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● types of fuels used in appliances
● factors that affect the selection of fuels
● sources of information for fuel supply installation
● the regulatory bodies that govern the installation of fuel systems
● storage requirements for fuels
● considerations that could affect the storage requirements of fuels.

1 IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF FUELS USED IN

APPLIANCES
The heating appliances that we install are fuelled by a There are five categories of fuels:
selection of energy sources, some of which have been 1 natural gas
around for many years and some that are relatively 2 liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
new technology. In this first section, we will investigate 3 oil
these fuels, both old and new. We will learn where they 4 solid fuel
come from and the consequences of using them. 5 biomass fuel.

KEY POINT Natural gas

The information in this chapter relates to the Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon
Plumbing and Domestic Heating Technician
gases and is probably the most widely used
Apprenticeship only. It covers LO1 of Unit 11,
Domestic fuel systems. hydrocarbon fuel on Earth. It is colourless and
odourless in its purest form and, when it is combusted,

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

it releases a vast amount of energy with fewer

emissions than many other common fossil fuels.
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
Liquid petroleum gas, like natural gas, is a fossil
Natural gas is naturally occurring and is usually found
hydrocarbon fuel that is closely linked to oil. About
during the extraction of oil from deep below the Earth’s
two-thirds of all LPG used is extracted direct from oil
surface, but it can also be found near coal formations
wells; the rest is extracted during the manufacture of
and seams.
petroleum from crude oil.
Natural gas is composed primarily of five combustible
There are many types of LPG but, generally, only three
gases, two inert gases and water vapour (see Table 10.1).
of these are used commercially: propane, butane and
 Table 10.1 The composition of natural gas iso-butane. These gases share common elements but
in different quantities and these are reflected in their
Gas Chemical symbol Percentage
chemical symbols:
Methane CH4 70–90%
● propane – three atoms of carbon and eight atoms of
Ethane C 6H6 0–5%
hydrogen (C3H8)
Propane C 3H8 0–20%
● butane – four atoms of carbon and ten atoms of
Butane C 4H10 0–5% hydrogen (C4H10)
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0–5% ● iso-butane is butane that has the same elements,
Nitrogen N2 0–5% but these are connected in a slightly different way.
Carbon dioxide CO2 0–8%
The composition of LPG fuels is shown in Table 10.2.
Water vapour H2O
 Table 10.2 The composition of LPG fuels
The distinctive ‘rotten eggs’ smell of natural gas is LPG attributes Propane Butane
added to the gas when it is cleaned of the impurities Chemical formula C 3H8 C 4H10
and naphtha it contains at the refinery. The smell is a
Energy content: MJ/m3 95.8 111.4
chemical called mercaptan, which is added to aid the
Energy content: MJ/kg 49.58 47.39
detection of gas leaks.
Boiling temp.: °C −42 −4
Natural gas is lighter than air, having a specific gravity Pressure @ 21°C: kPa 858.7 215.1
of 0.6–0.8. It is available in most cities, towns and Flame temp.: °C 1967 1970
villages through a national grid of underground pipes, Gas volume: m3/kg 0.540 0.405
with only the most isolated of places not connected to
Relative density: H2O 0.51 0.58
this.
Relative density: air 1.53 2.00
The calorific value (CV) of gas is usually 37.8–43 MJ/ L per kg 1.96 1.724
m3 depending on where the gas was extracted from. kg per L 0.51 0.58
Most natural gas used in the UK comes from the North Specific gravity @ 25°C 1.55 2.07
Sea, but other sources include Russia and the Middle Density @ 15°C: kg/m3 1.899 2.544
East. Combustion temp.: °C 482–540 410–470

KEY TERMS  Table 10.3 The uses of LPG fuels

Naphtha: a waxy oil deposit that is present in Compound Uses
natural gas in its unrefined state. It is removed and Butane C 4H10 Used for portable supplies, such
later reused in other products such as cosmetics. as camping equipment, boats and
Calorific value: the amount of energy stored in the barbecues. Not much use for plumbing
or heating installation as it boils (turns
gas in its uncombusted state. It is the amount of
from a liquid to a gas) at −4°C.
energy released when the gas is combusted. It is
measured in megajoules (MJ) per cubic metre or
➜
MJ/m3.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Compound Uses refining. There are two main categories under which it
Propane C3H8 Has a very low boiling point at −42°C. is classified:
Can be used in domestic situations as 1 distillate oils – such as diesel fuel
an alternative to natural gas where the 2 residual oils – includes heating kerosene, generally
mains gas supply is not available. Many
used for home heating.
appliances are available for use with
propane, including boilers, cookers, Around 95 per cent of boilers burning fuel oil in
fires and water heaters.
domestic properties use kerosene, which is also known
Iso-butane Used as a refrigerant in domestic generically as C2 grade, 28 second viscosity oil. This is
refrigerators and fridge-freezers.
the preferred oil fuel grade for domestic heating, due to
its clean combustion. Modern oil central heating boilers
Both of these compounds are heavier than air in their
require only a single annual service if being used with
gaseous form, with propane having a specific gravity of
an atomising pressure jet burner. It is the only oil grade
1.5 and butane having a specific gravity of 2.0. In liquid
that can be used with balanced or low-level flues.
form, both are thinner than water, butane having a
relative density of 0.58 and propane 0.51. Kerosene has very good cold-weather characteristics
and remains fluid beyond minus 40°C, although it does
When LPG gas is subjected to high pressure it turns
tend to thicken slightly during extremely cold weather.
into a liquid, but it also takes up less space than the
gas; 1 litre of LPG in its liquid state makes 274 litres of Kerosene is a high-carbon fuel and is clear or very
LPG gas. This means that one cylinder of LPG liquid is pale yellow in colour. Newer boilers have a label inside
equivalent to 274 cylinders of LPG gas. the casing, with information on nozzle size and pump
pressure, which show that the boiler has been set up to
use kerosene. It may also reference the British Standard
for kerosene BS 2869 grade C2.
274 litres
LPG gas

1 litre
LPG liquid

 Figure 10.1 Liquid to gas ratio

Environmentally, LPG is relatively clean when compared

to other fuels such as coal or oil, creating far less air
pollution in the form of soot and carbon particulates,
sulphur and carbon dioxide, and therefore adds less to
global warming than might be realised.
 Figure 10.2 A domestic kerosene oil tank for oil-fired heating
 ost, however, is an issue, since LPG is much more
C
expensive than conventional natural gas.
Solid fuel (coal, coke and
Fuel oil (kerosene grade C2, peat)
28 second viscosity oil to BS There are three main types of solid fuel. These are:
2869:2017) 1 coal
2 coke
A simple definition for fuel oil is a liquid by-product 3 peat.
of crude oil, which is produced during petroleum

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

 Table 10.4 The different types of commercially available coal

Coal type Heat content kW/kg Carbon content % Description
Lignite 2.2–5.5 25–35 The lowest type of coal, lignite is crumbly and has
high moisture content. Most lignite is used to produce
electricity.
Sub-bituminous 5.5–8.3 35–45 Typically contains less heating value than bituminous
coal, but more moisture.
Bituminous 7–10 45–86 Formed by added heat and pressure on lignite. Made
of many tiny layers, bituminous coal looks smooth and
sometimes shiny. It has two to three times the heating
value of lignite. Bituminous coal is used to generate
electricity, and is an important fuel for the steel and iron
industries.
Anthracite 10 86–97 Created where additional pressure combined with very
high temperature inside the Earth. It is deep black and
looks almost metallic due to its glossy surface.

Coal Coal is still used for central heating boilers, both

This is a fossil fuel created from the remains of plants domestic and industrial, and for steam and electricity
that lived and died between 100 and 400 million years generation.
ago, when large areas of the Earth were covered with
huge swamps and forest bogs.
The energy that we get from coal comes from the
energy that the plants absorbed from the Sun millions
of years ago. The process is called photosynthesis.
When plants die, this stored energy is usually released
during the decaying process, but when coal is formed
the process is interrupted, preventing the release of the
trapped solar energy.
As the Earth’s climate evolved and the vegetation
died, a thick layer of rotting vegetation built up that  Figure 10.3 Open-cast coal mine
was covered with water, silt and mud, stopping the
decaying process. The weight of the water and the Coke
top layer of mud compressed the partially decayed Coke is produced by heating coal in coke ovens to
vegetation under heat and pressure, squeezing out around 1000°C. During this process, the coal gives off
the remaining oxygen and leaving rich hydrocarbon methane gas and coal tar, both of which can be cleaned
deposits. What once had been plants gradually and reused. Coke burns clearly and without a flame,
fossilised into the combustible carbon-rich rock we and gives out a lot of heat. However, it has to be mixed
call coal. with coal as it will not burn by itself.
Types of coal Coke is a smokeless fuel that is valued in industry
Coal is classified into four main types (see Table 10.4), because it has a calorific (heat) value higher than any
depending on the amount of carbon, oxygen and form of natural coal. It is widely used in steel making
hydrogen present. The higher the carbon content, the and in certain chemical processes, but can also be used
more energy the coal contains. in some domestic boilers and room heaters.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Peat supply to off-set the water heating demand from

Peat is an organic material that forms over hundreds other sources, such as electricity or gas.
of thousands of years from the decay of plant material ● Solid fuel (biomass): the term biomass can be used
in the absence of oxygen, in boggy, waterlogged to describe many different types of solid and liquid
ground. This encourages the growth of moss, which fuels. It is defined as any plant matter used directly
forms the basis of the peat. As the plants die, they do as a fuel or that has been converted into other fuel
not decompose. Instead, the organic material slowly types before combustion. When used as a heating
accumulates as peat because of the lack of oxygen in fuel, it is generally solid biomass including wood
the bog. Peat is a poor-quality fossil fuel that is easily pellets, vegetal waste (including wood waste and
cut and dried. crops used for energy production), animal materials/
wastes and other solid biomass.
Peat has a high carbon content but much less than ● Heat pumps: a heat pump is an electrical device
coal, with large amounts of ash produced during with reversible heating and cooling capability.
combustion. It extracts heat from one medium at a low
It is used in many domestic fires, room heaters and temperature (the source of heat) and transfers it to
peat-burning stoves. another at a high temperature (called the heat sink),
cooling the first and warming the second. They
Sustainable, low-carbon work in the same way as a refrigerator, moving heat
from one place to another. Heat pumps can provide
fuels space heating, cooling, water heating and air heat
Low carbon can be classified as fuels made from recovery. There are several different types:
renewable sources like those described below. ● ground source heat pumps

● Solar thermal: solar thermal technology utilises the ● air source heat pumps

heat from the Sun to generate domestic hot water ● water source heat pumps

● geo-thermal heat pumps.

Hot water
storage
cylinder
Secondary heat
exchanger Hot water outlet

Expansion
Pressure vessel Expansion
relief vessel
Boiler Pressure Solar collector
relief

Control system

(System fill points

omitted for clarity)

Mains cold inlet Primary heat exchanger Circulating pump

 Figure 10.4 Solar thermal system

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

areas. District heating relies on high efficiency

and areas of dense population. There is one highly
efficient heat source and this heat is transferred
through plate heat exchangers into the primary
pipe network. The primary pipe network transports
the heat to individual properties. Each property
has its own heat interface unit (HIU). This interface
becomes the ‘boiler’ for the property, which
allows the heat to enter the systems within the
property.

Vapour Vapour
 Figure 10.5 Biomass wood pellets Compressor

● Combined heat and power (CHP): combined heat

and power is a plant where electricity is generated
and the excess heat generated is used for heating.
It is used primarily for district heating systems but Evaporator Fan Condenser
micro-CHP has also been developed for domestic
properties.
● District heating: This uses the CHP principle
to supply low-carbon, high-efficiency heat to
high-density homes, businesses and public buildings.
This system is used extensively over Europe to Liquid & vapour Liquid
good effect. In the UK there are now more than Expansion valve

17,000 district heating systems, mainly in city  Figure 10.6 Heat pump theory

Services
distribution Domestic
properties Flow Return

Stack
Electrical distribution station
Heat exchanger
Power supply

Control
panel
Thermal
store

Gas
turbine

Transformer

Natural gas supply Generator

 Figure 10.7 A CHP system

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP): very

similar to CHP, combined cooling, heat and power INDUSTRY TIP
uses the excess heat from electricity generation to
achieve additional building heating or cooling. Watch this video clip: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MhJVsSkxg7s

2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SELECTION OF

FUELS
There are many reasons why the fuels used in domestic as soot and sulphur emissions from coal and oil
appliances are chosen: combustion, or saturation of the atmosphere by
● Availability: the availability of fuels plays a big part CO2. Some gases released by fossil fuel combustion,
when choosing the right fuel for an installation. For such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are extremely toxic
example, for most of the UK, natural gas is available in large quantities.
piped to the home with no interruption of supply. With solid fuels, there is an added environmental
However, in many rural areas, the piped gas supply problem in the form of ash and clinker left over
is many miles away. In this instance, like other fuels from the combustion process that requires careful
such as coal and oil, gas is delivered by suppliers and consideration and disposal. Consultation and advice
the customer is dependent on a regular fuel delivery. should be sought from the fuel supplier and local
While, in most cases, this does not pose a problem, authority as to the recommended disposal methods.
in times of inclement weather, deliveries may be ● Smoke control legislation: under the Clean Air Act
interrupted or cancelled, leaving the customer with of 1993, local authorities may declare that a district
no means of heating or cooking. is a smoke control area. It is an offence under this
● Appliance type: the type of fuel available will Act to emit smoke from a chimney from a boiler or
dictate the type of appliance used, and vice versa. furnace located within an area designated a smoke
Some appliances may be dual-fuel types, where two control area.
types of fuel may be used in the same appliance. It In Greater London, the Clean Air Act of 1993 is
must be remembered that gas appliances must be used to control the emissions, not just from oil
purchased in line with gas type available. A natural and solid fuel boilers but also biomass appliances
gas appliance cannot be used on an LPG supply. that may also emit other noxious fumes, fly ash
Similarly, a coal-fired boiler will have solid fuels particulates and low levels of ozone gas.
recommended by the manufacturer and must not In some instances, certain appliances and
be used with other types of solid fuel. smokeless-type fuels may be exempt from the
● Fuel storage requirements: with the exception Clean Air Act. In these circumstances, advice should
of natural gas, all fuels require storage space be sought from the Department for Environment,
within the boundary of the property. With solid Food & Rural Affairs (Defra).
fuels and biomass, these can take up considerable ● Cost: this is a major factor when choosing the right
space. Biomass also needs to be kept reasonably fuel. Heating oil prices fluctuate widely, depending
dry. Where oil and LPG are concerned, space may on the price of crude oil, while LPG prices remain
not be the issue. However, safe distances from the consistently high. By far the cheapest of the fossil
property to store the fuel may be dictated either by fuels is natural gas.
legislation or manufacturers’ instructions. ● Client preference: in towns and cities, the choice
● Environmental considerations: most fuels used in of fuel for heating appliances is limited. Natural gas
hot water and heating systems directly or indirectly is the preferred fuel chosen by customers for both
create waste products that are harmful to the heating and cooking appliances, simply because it is
atmosphere. These may be by direct pollution, such readily available. Solid fuel, in the form of smokeless

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

fuel, is still used in some areas. In rural settings,

heating oil is preferred. LPG is expensive, and this INDUSTRY TIP
is often the reason that this fuel is rejected. Many
The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs’
new-build properties are actively seeking greener
website can be accessed at: www.gov.uk/government/
alternatives to fossil fuels, with heat pumps and organisations/department-for-environment-food-rural-affairs
electric boilers being chosen because of their very
low carbon emissions.

3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR FUEL

SUPPLY INSTALLATION
Boilers, cookers, room heaters and fires require a supply ● British Standards: there are many British Standards
of fuel, whether that fuel is piped direct to the door or and European Standards that give recommendations
delivered by a tanker. Each fuel has specific supply and when installing fuel systems.
storage requirements that must comply with certain ● Manufacturers’ instructions: manufacturers of
documents: appliances and components will often give advice
● Regulations: there are certain regulations that fuel about the installation of the fuel system to the
supply systems must comply with to maintain the appliance. These may sometimes conflict with the
safety of the property where the appliances are Regulations and British Standards. In this instance,
installed and the safety of the building occupants. the manufacturer’s instructions must always be
Solid fuel and oil systems, such as coal, coke, followed.
biomass and heating oils, are simple to understand, ● Guidance notes: guidance notes are produced by
since the fuel is readily visible. However, gaseous fuel regulatory bodies and professional associations to
systems such as those for natural gas and LPG tend assist in compliance with the Regulations. Many
to be much more stringent, since these fuels are at guidance notes are produced by the HSE. They
pressure and cannot be seen. Regulations include: should be read in conjunction with the Regulations
● the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations and manufacturers’ instructions.
1998
● Approved Document J of the Building KEY POINT
Regulations – Combustion Appliances and Fuel There is a comprehensive list of British Standards
Storage systems (2010 edition incorporating in Approved Document J of the Building
2010 and 2013 amendments) Regulations – Combustion Appliances and Fuel
● the 18th Edition of the IET Regulations.
Storage Systems.

4 REGULATORY BODIES THAT GOVERN THE

INSTALLATION OF FUEL SYSTEMS
Before we investigate the regulatory bodies concerned the interests of public safety, those installers who refuse
with the installation of fuel systems and appliances, we to comply with regulations. In the plumbing and heating
must first understand what a regulatory body is. Its aims industry, it is compulsory to belong to the regulatory
are to protect consumers, and to educate and guide bodies if you engage in the installation of either gas, oil or
installers in the ways of good practice. Occasionally, it solid fuel appliances and fuel supply systems.
may be necessary for a regulatory body to prosecute, in

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

KEY TERM
Regulatory body: an organisation set up by the
government to monitor, control and guide various
sectors within industry.

In the plumbing and heating industry, there are three

regulatory bodies related to fuels:
1 Gas Safe: this is the UK registration body for
the installation, maintenance and repair of gas
installations and appliances. By law, all operatives
engaging in domestic natural gas and LPG
 Figure 10.9 HETAS logo
installations must be registered with Gas Safe and
must hold various qualifications within the gas
industry. INDUSTRY TIP
2 OFTEC: this is the registration body for the ● More information can be found on the Gas Safe website
installation and maintenance of oil-fired heating at: www.gassaferegister.co.uk
appliances and fuel systems. Registration is ● More information can be found on the OFTEC website
voluntary, but being a member is considered at: www.oftec.co.uk/technicians/industry-news-and-
good practice. OFTEC registration means that training/training-courses-assessments
installers are able to self-certify installations ● More information can be found on the HETAS website at:
without the need for local authority intervention www.hetas.co.uk/professionals/training-courses/
and inspection. OFTEC also administers
recognised and authorised training courses for
installers.
3 HETAS: this is the official body recognised by
5 STORAGE
the UK Government for approving solid fuel
and biomass domestic heating systems, fuels
REQUIREMENTS FOR
and appliances. HETAS also manages a register FUELS
of approved, competent installers and servicing
businesses, and oversees HETAS-registered In this section, we will investigate the methods of safely
training courses. storing:
● coal and smokeless fuels

● oil

● LPG

● biomass.

Storing coal and smokeless

fuels
The Solid Fuel Association recommends that coal
should be stored outside of any dwelling in a purpose-
made bunker, to protect the fuel from damage. There
are a number of recommendations as to how coal
should be stored:
● Coal may be stored inside or outside the property.

● Coal should be covered to reduce the contaminants

 Figure 10.8 OFTEC logo that can enter the fuel.

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

● A smooth, hard floor is important as it allows easy Oil tanks should be inspected annually as part of
shovelling of the fuel. the heating system’s regular servicing. Oil tanks
● If the fuel is stored in a coal bunker, a slight slope have a useful working life of around 20 years and
on the base of a coal bunker prevents water from using a tank beyond this time carries the risk of
collecting inside it. Keeping the fuel dry makes it failure.
easier to combust.
● The area around the coal bunker should be well lit to Protection of the environment
ensure safe bagging and shovelling. Some tank installations require a secondary
● Good ventilation of the bunker helps to prevent a containment system, known as a bund, to
build-up of moisture, allowing the fuel to stay dry. counteract the risk of pollution from oil spillage.
This may be achieved by using an integrally bunded
INDUSTRY TIP oil tank with secondary oil containment built in,
or building an oil-impermeable containment wall
Unlike other fuel sources, there are no special rules, around the tank installation. These are generally
regulations or restrictions when it comes to storing coal and required where the tank is close to a river or water
smokeless fuels, other than storing it away from the heating source. The bund must be capable of holding 110 per
appliance or boiler. cent of the oil tank’s contents. Usually, a standard
risk assessment is required by a registered oil
installer to ascertain whether a bunded installation
Storing fuel oil is required.
The following information is intended as a general
Contents gauge
guide as the Regulations regarding oil storage may Tank and bund overfill
vary slightly, depending on the location of the alarm probes Anti–siphon valve
Fill point
installation. Vent

Oil storage tank specifications

Generally, oil storage tanks of up to 3500 litres
capacity, supplying oil to a single domestic property,
can be made of either plastic or steel. The actual size Bund or secondary
for any given installation will depend on the individual containment
requirements. Any tank installed should conform to the
following specifications:
● OFS T100 for plastic storage tanks
Internal tank
● OFS T200 for steel storage tanks

● BS 799 PT5:1987.
 Figure 10.10 Secondary containment tank

Over-fill prevention
Contents dial Anti–siphon
device
Vent valve

Oil tank sloping Gate

towards drain valve
point
Non–return valve
Fill point
Drain/sludge
Secondary
point containment (bund)
rendered with oil-
resistant sealant

 Figure 10.11 An oil tank with an oil-proof bund wall

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Garden shed

1.8 m
Boundary of
property
1.8 m
Dwelling
760 mm

Oil storage tank

Terminal of an
oil–fired appliance

Access for oil tanker

 Figure 10.12 Siting oil tanks

The location of fuel oil tanks Storage of liquid petroleum

The siting of oil tanks must comply with fire separation
distances, to protect the fuel oil from a fire or heat source
gas (LPG)
that may occur within the building itself. It is very unlikely It should be remembered that LPG is heavier than
that any fire would occur within the tank itself. The air and will ‘search’ for the lowest position if a leak
regulations state that fuel oil tanks should be sited: occurs – and, although LPG has a distinctive smell, this
● 1.8 m from non-fire rated eaves of a building
will not be apparent until a person is at the same level
● 1.8 m from a non-fire rated building or structure
as the low-lying gas.
such as a garden shed
● 1.8 m from openings such as doors or windows in a
KEY POINT
fire rated building or structure such as a brick-built Above all else, LPG is extremely flammable and
house or garage explosive. The siting of any LPG storage tanks
must comply with certain recommendations and
● 1.8 m away from oil-fired appliance flue terminals
any gas installation is subject to the Gas Safety
● 760 mm from a non-fire rated boundary such as a (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998.
wooden boundary fence
● 600 mm from any trellis or foliage that does not

form part of the boundary. Siting the LPG storage tank

If any of these requirements cannot be met, then a fire LPG storage tanks can either be sited above or below
protection barrier with at least a 30-minute fire rating ground. Below-ground tanks are subject to ground
must be provided. A minimum separation space of conditions and the proximity of the water table.
100 mm is required between the tank and any fire- According to HSE recommendations, there should be a
resistant barrier unless the tank manufacturer specifies minimum separation distance between the LPG storage
a larger distance. tank and any building, boundary line or fixed source of
ignition. These distances are shown in Table 10.5. There
should be no drains or gullies in the vicinity of the tank,
unless these are protected by a water trap to prevent
the gas from entering the drainage system.

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

 Table 10.5 The distances from buildings and structures for LPG storage tanks

Maximum LPG capacity of any single vessel in a group Minimum separation distances of all vessels in a group
LPG capacity Typical water LPG capacity From buildings, boundary, property line or Between
(tonnes) capacity (litres) (tonnes) fixed source of ignition vessels (m)
Without a fire wall (m) With a fire wall (m)
0.05 to 0.25 150 to 500 0.8 2.5 0.3 1
> 0.25 to 1.1 > 500 to 2500 3.5 3 1.5 1
> 1.1 to 4 > 2500 to 9000 12.5 7.5 4 1

Ventilation and conditions around

the LPG storage tank
There should be plenty of room around the tank
to allow good air circulation so that pockets of the
heavier-than-air gas cannot build up around it should a
leak occur. The area should also be kept free of rubbish
and weeds, and any grass should be kept short.

Protection against impact

Tanks and their associated pipework should not be
located in areas where motor traffic is likely. However,
if this is unavoidable, then a suitable protective barrier
should be installed in the form of either bollards or
crash barriers. A security fence is not suitable since this
is unlikely to offer the required protection.
 Figure 10.13 LPG gas cylinders
KEY POINT
Further guidance on location and spacing for
vessels and requirements concerning fire wall Storage requirements for
provision and for buried vessels can be found at:
www.liquidgasuk.org
biomass fuels
The storage requirements of the various types of
biomass fuels can influence a client’s decision because
The LPG gas cylinder option key points, such as site access, space requirements and
It is often a good idea to start using LPG with an even the aesthetics of the storage vessel itself, need
LPG cylinder installation until the exact usage of careful consideration before the installation begins.
the installation is known. Large bulk storage tank Storage considerations for biomass fuels such as wood
installations become viable only when usage exceeds chips or pellets should be considered early on in any
2000–2500 litres per year. The average bulk storage biomass system design.
tank user uses around 2300 litres per year. There are many storage options for biomass, and all of
An LPG gas cylinder installation typically uses 47 kg them need to be watertight. Water ingress can severely
propane gas cylinders located at the dwelling in a affect biomass fuel quality and, as a consequence,
lockable cabinet. This type of cylinder installation usually the operation of the biomass boiler. Wood pellets, for
uses either 2 × 47 kg cylinders or 4 × 47 kg cylinders. example, that have a low moisture content will expand
if they get wet and this can even damage the wood
store itself.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

● Container or hook bin: wood chips can be special delivery equipment to maintain the biomass
delivered in a container, often called a hook bin, supply.
where the container forms the fuel storage, which
connects direct to the fuel extraction system.
However, these are quite expensive because at least
two bins are required.
● Covered shed: these are relatively cheap and easy
to install. Fuel delivery is quite straightforward. For
large stores, the use of manual handling equipment,
such as a front-end loader or mechanical grab, is
recommended.
● Hoppers: the hopper is a chute with extra storage
capacity. They are relatively inexpensive to
install. The hopper has a ‘V’-shaped floor, sloped
at approximately 40°. This allows the fuel to fall
directly onto the boiler feed screw located at the
 Figure 10.15 A biomass silo
base of the floor.
● Flexible silos: these are prefabricated, collapsible
25 mm flat wooden
boards structures designed specifically for smaller
installations where access may be restricted, such as
40º
Pressure relief angle in a confined space or a roof space. The fuel delivery
system is usually where the fuel is blown into the
hopper. This system uses two hoses: one to blow in
the fuel and the other to extract any dust.
● Underground bunker: underground bunkers
are ideal for larger installations with easy access
for tipper-truck delivery. The feasibility of an
underground bunker will depend upon such factors
as ground type, water table and cost.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Archimedes–type screw feed Safety masks should be worn when moving wood
chips or wood pellets as the dust can pose a health
 Figure 10.14 A biomass hopper floor
risk. Dust can also pose a significant explosion risk if
● Silos: these are purpose-made rigid structures that the area is not ventilated sufficiently.
are relatively inexpensive to install but may require

6 CONSIDERATIONS THAT COULD AFFECT THE

STORAGE REQUIREMENTS OF FUELS
When considering the type of fuel system to be used ● safety
in a dwelling, there are several factors that need special ● weather conditions
consideration: ● distribution
● space for fuel storage ● proximity to dwelling.
● delivery requirements

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

Space for fuel storage heating systems. The Domestic RHI scheme aims
to support homeowners and landlords who have
Space for fuel storage is a major factor when deciding
invested in renewable heating technologies. This
which fuel system to use. Most fuels require specific
includes biomass, heat pumps and solar thermal
distances in which to site storage vessels, tanks or silos.
panels. The idea behind the RHI scheme is to reward
This may take the form of environmental concerns, as
those people that stick to the RHI rules regarding
with heating oil, or explosion or fire risks, as with LPG.
sustainable supplies of fuel by paying them a tariff
Where biomass is concerned, it may be the sheer mass
per kW/h. Payments are made every three months
of the fuel that is problematic.
for a period of seven years.
● Access for biomass fuel deliveries: biomass pellets
Delivery requirements can be blown up to 30 m via hoses, but this distance
The transportation and delivery requirements for often causes problems such as clogging of the hose
domestic fuels differ according to the fuel, as described and break-up of the fuel. It is recommended that
below. deliveries of biomass should be within a 20 m limit
● Heating oil: most oil tankers carrying domestic of the fuel store. A lorry of around 2 m wide will
heating oil carry 45 m of hose. This is suitable for need to be able to gain access to the property.
most installations. However, extra-long hoses can be
requested. Consumers should remember to measure Safety
around any corners or obstacles when stipulating the
All fuels, by their very nature, are flammable and some
oil tank distance from the access point.
are even explosive. With this in mind, the storage of
fuels should be considered with care. Here are some
points to consider:
● Confined spaces: solid fuels, such as biomass and

coal, are kept in confined spaces. There are several

problems with this:
● Fire: although rare, bunker and fuel store fires

can occur, especially where the store is directly

connected to the boiler room. Generally, biomass
wood chips are too wet to ignite but if they
begin to decompose they may self-ignite.
Liquid fuels, such as kerosene, do not usually
 Figure 10.16 A typical small LPG tanker for domestic deliveries combust unless they are either atomised or
vaporised, but they can become dangerous near
● LPG: LPG bulk deliveries are usually delivered in excess heat because the vaporisation process begins
mini-LPG tankers. These are 2.6 m wide and require at a relatively low temperature of around 65°C.
access 2.75 m wide with a minimum access road ● Explosion: LPG, because it is heavier than air,
width of at least 3 m. It is a requirement that a line settles at low level. In the event of a leak, the
of sight is maintained between the storage vessel build-up of gas may not be noticed, despite the
and the tanker, with a maximum hose length of fact that a chemical called mercaptan is added
40 m, to ensure the safe delivery of LPG to the bulk to make the gas detectable by smell.
storage tank. Some fuels, such as coal and biomass, create
● Coal/smokeless fuels: solid fuels such as coal and dust. Excessive dust in the atmosphere can also
smokeless fuels are delivered in sealed 25 kg bags. be extremely explosive. A good air-extraction
Deliveries are arranged as required. ventilation system is vital in confined spaces.
● Biomass: in October 2015, rules to support The HSE recommends building in an ‘explosion
sustainable fuels for the Domestic Renewable Heat relief’ into any storage space used for solid fuels
Initiative (RHI) came into effect for all biomass that create dust. This can be a plywood panel

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

in a bunker or silo that creates a weak spot to Similarly, bad weather can render some fuels, such as
release the explosive energy. The HSE produces a wood chip and wood pellet biomass, almost unusable.
fact sheet, HSG103 Safe handling of combustible Coal and coke too suffer from the negative effect of
dust, which is available from its website at: excessive rain, whereby the fuel can become too wet to
www.hse.gov.uk burn effectively. Wood pellets swell from the effects of
● Carbon monoxide build-up: for any confined the rain and these then clog fuel delivery to the fuel bed
space close to the place of combustion of a of the boiler. Wood chip biomass can begin to de-compost
fossil fuel, combustion problems may lead to if it gets too damp and this, paradoxically, can cause the
a build-up of carbon monoxide (CO), which is fuel to heat internally and spontaneously combust.
highly toxic. An audible CO alarm installation is
recommended in fuel storage facilities. KEY POINT
● Slips, trips and falls: fuel stores of all kinds are It is vital that fuels are kept dry and that they
dangerous places. Build-up or spillages of fuel are delivered in good condition for optimum
create slip, trip and fall hazards. Some hazards combustion efficiency to occur.
may be limited by fuel store design. However,
where solid fuel and biomass are concerned, the
fuel storage space height may be high and so
Distribution
safety nets and harnesses should be considered. The distribution of fuels becomes a vital consideration,
● Fuel delivery: fuels are delivered to properties by especially the further outside a major town or city
either tanker (heating oil, LPG, biomass) or flat-bed you live. Natural gas coverage in the UK through the
truck (solid fuels – coal, coke, etc.). Care should national grid stands at around 7000 km of pipelines, but
be exercised while fuel deliveries are taking place. there are still many rural areas that are too far away
Follow the recommendations of the fuel delivery from the grid for a supply to be economically viable. In
driver. these cases, other fuel supplies have to be considered.
● Personal hygiene: there should be no reason for By far the most viable fuel in rural areas is domestic
the fuel itself to be handled. However, in the event heating oil, otherwise known as C2 grade, 28 second
that contact with the fuel must be made, always viscosity kerosene. Distribution of this still vital
wear appropriate PPE, such as overalls, gloves, hard fuel is nationwide. However, kerosene poses an
hat, goggles and respirator (especially in dusty environmental risk if leakage occurs, especially where
environments). the installation lies close to a watercourse, river or
stream or where the water table is high.
Weather conditions LPG distribution is also very comprehensive, with most
The prevailing weather can have a severe effect on areas in the UK reachable by tanker. However, there
the storage of fuels. Bad weather, such as wind, rain, are certain restrictions with LPG that do not exist with
hail and snow, is often a cause for late deliveries and heating oil, such as that the delivery driver must have
even cancellations of fuel deliveries, especially in line of sight to the LPG storage tank at all times during
rural areas. In almost all cases, fuel is delivered by delivery of the liquid gas. LPG is also very expensive as
large tanker or flat-bed vehicles that find it next to a domestic heating fuel.
impossible to negotiate small, narrow roads when Coal and coke solid fuels continue to be readily
the weather conditions are poor. While the weather available all over the UK, although many areas
can be unpredictable in the UK, good planning of fuel now forbid the use of these fuels because of the
deliveries can reduce the impacts of bad weather. environmental pollution they release. If solid fuel is to
Ordering more when severe weather is forecast can be used, then local authority advice should be sought.
often mean the difference between running out of fuel
and keeping the heating on. The use of biomass in rural and suburban areas is
permitted under the Permitted Development legislation,

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 Chapter 10 Domestic fuel systems

which came into force in 2008. However, some areas,

especially suburban districts, may put restrictions on its
Proximity to dwelling
The installation of fuel storage and its requirements
use if they lie within a smoke control zone. Outside of
with regard to the proximity of the dwelling is covered
these zones, there are no major restrictions other than
elsewhere in this chapter (page 524).
a requirement not to emit ‘dark smoke’. In most cases,
domestic biomass does not fall into this category.
SUMMARY
INDUSTRY TIP Fossil fuels, and more specifically coal and coal related
Access the Permitted Development legislation at: products, have fallen out of favour over recent years
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/596/contents because of the damage fossil fuel combustion and the
resulting CO2 is causing to the climate of Planet Earth.
Yet, as far as the ‘home’ is concerned, natural gas
INDUSTRY TIP continues to be the fuel of choice for home heating and
cooking. Similarly, natural gas still has the largest fuel
Biomass fuel sources are available the length and breadth usage in the generation of electricity in the UK.
of the UK, with many companies supplying a wide variety of
In both of these uses – electricity generation and
biomass pellets and chips, as well as liquid biofuels such
home heating/cooking – natural gas looks set to be
as biodiesel. A list of local biomass suppliers is available at:
www.hetas.co.uk the leading fuel for many years to come until a viable
renewable, cheaper and less polluting alternative
becomes available.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Test your knowledge 7 What is the minimum recommended distance

between an oil storage tank and the flue from
1 What is the chemical formula for propane? an oil-fired appliance?
a CH4 a 600 mm
b C3H8 b 760 mm
c C4H10 c 1000 mm
d CO2 d 1800 mm
2 What is the approximate calorific value of 8 Which of the following toxic gases that can lead
natural gas? to dizziness, nausea and, in some cases, death
a 38 MJ/m3 is produced from a fossil fuel-burning appliance
b 38 KJ/m3 if not adjusted properly?

c 21 MJ/m3 a CO

d 21 KJ/m3 b H2O

3 Which of the following types of coal has the c CH4

highest heat content? d CO2
a Lignite 9 What grade of oil is domestic kerosene?
b Anthracite a C
c Bituminous b D
d Sub-bituminous c E
4 Which Building Regulation document gives d F
specific guidance on the requirements for fuel- 10 Which of the following fuels is deemed carbon
burning appliances? neutral?
a Part A a Natural gas
b Part L b Oil
c Part J c Coal
d Part P d Biomass
5 When a bund wall is required for an oil storage 11 Which phrase best describes ‘calorific value’?
tank, what volume of oil must it be capable of a The amount of heat energy stored in a fuel
holding?
b The amount of dynamic energy stored in a
a 150 litres fuel
b 230 litres c The amount of energy per kilogram of fuel
c 100% of the volume of the tank d The amount of combustion within a fuel
d 110% of the volume of the tank 12 What is the specific gravity (relative density) of
6 Which regulatory body monitors, controls and natural gas?
guides on the use of solid fuel and biomass fuels? a 0.2–0.3
a Gas Safe b 0.6–0.8
b OFTEC c 1.1–1.3
c HETAS d 1.8–1.9
d Defra

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 Test your knowledge

13 Which of the following fuel systems is not a low- 18 How often should an oil storage tank be
carbon fuel? inspected?
a Solar thermal a Every 3 months
b Heat pumps b Every 6 months
c Peat c Annually
d Biomass d Bi-annually
14 Which regulatory body oversees solid fuels? 19 Natural gas is made up of eight different
a Gas Safe components. What is the main combustible gas
in natural gas?
b HETAS
a Ethane
c OFTEC
b Propane
d HSE
c Methane
15 What is the minimum distance an oil storage
tank must be from a property? d Butane
a 2.7 m c 1.8 m 20 What are the five categories of fuel?
b 2.1 m d 1.3 m 21 What is added to natural gas to give it a smell
that enables better detection?
16 Which of the following is not a consideration for
LPG cylinder locations? 22 List at least five factors that might be
considered when a client is selecting a fuel type.
a Minimum of 760 mm from a property
boundary 23 What is the role of Gas Safe?
b Should be kept clear of weeds and plants 24 What is combined heat and power (CHP)?
c Must be well ventilated 25 Explain the important criteria for the use of a
district heating system.
d Should be clearly labelled
17 Which of the following fuels does not require Answers can be found online at
any storage facilities? www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction.
a Biomass
b Oil
c Natural gas
d Liquid petroleum gas

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CHAPTER 11

WORKING WITH ELECTRICITY

INTRODUCTION
When working on most plumbing systems such as heating, hot-water, or renewable technologies, you are likely
to come into contact with electrical parts and components. Having a good understanding of basic electrical
principles will reduce the risks that electricity can bring.
In this chapter, we will explore what electricity is and how it behaves in a circuit, causes of electric shock and
how to protect against the risk of it occurring, common electrical components you will encounter, how to work
safely around electricity, and basic electrical tasks.
By the end of this chapter, you will have knowledge and understanding of the following:
● electrical principles
● conductors and insulators
● resistors in series and in parallel
● protection against electric shock
● electrical supply systems
● protective devices
● working on electrical systems, including safe isolation procedures
● how to install wiring systems.

1 ELECTRICAL other end. Similarly, if three amperes of current flows

into one end of a circuit, three amperes will flow out of
PRINCIPLES the other end. Amperes (or amps for short, symbol A) is
the unit used to measure current flow.
Electricity is a flow of electrons in a material. You
cannot see electricity flow, you cannot smell it, and Voltage
you must not touch it. Voltage is the pressure or electromotive force (emf)
To understand the basic principles of something you that pushes the current around a circuit. It is measured
cannot see, it helps to liken it to something you can, in volts (V). If you need to force water through a pipe
so it is useful consider the flow of electricity as being you can use a pump to push it. Voltage is essentially
similar to the flow of water in a pipe. the same. Like water pressure, voltage can drop through
a circuit if there is resistance. This pressure drop in a
There are three main quantities that you need to focus
circuit is called volt drop.
on to understand electricity.

Current Resistance
Resistance is opposition to current flow. Like putting
Current measures the rate of flow of electrons in a a kink in a pipe, it restricts the amount of current that
circuit; it represents the amount of electricity that can flow unless you increase the pressure. Different
flows. If you push three litres of water through one materials, for example electrical loads such as heater
end of a pipe, three litres of water will come out of the elements, offer different resistances. In this case, the

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

resistance causes the current flowing through the Answer

element to release thermal energy.
Using

Ohm’s law R=
V
The relationship between current, voltage and I
resistance can be expressed using Ohm’s law:
230
R= = 23 Ω
V = I×R 10
where
V represents the electromotive force measured in ACTIVITY
volts (V) A circuit has a total resistance of 1500 Ω when
connected to a 12 V supply. Calculate the current
I represents the current flow in the circuit measured in drawn.
amperes (A) Answer
R represents the resistance in the circuit measured in V
ohms (Ω). I=
R
Ohm’s law states that if you know any two electrical so
values, you can always find a third since
12 V
V V I=
V = I × R or I = or R = 1500 Ω
R I = 0.008 A or 8 mA (milliamperes )
A good way to remember the Ohm’s law relationship is
by using a formula triangle.
Electron flow
V Current is a flow of electrons. So, what are electrons?
Electrons are parts of an atom. Every solid, liquid or
I R gas is made of atoms. Atoms consist of a nucleus,
containing neutrons and protons, and electrons which
orbit the nucleus. This can be seen in Figure 11.2.
V V V
E
I R I R I R

V =I R I =V R =V
R I
P N
p Figure 11.1 Ohm’s law triangles E
N N P E
P
Example
Nucleus
An electric heater element draws 10 A when connected
to a 230 V supply. Calculate the resistance of the
E Electron
element.
P Proton

N Neutron

p Figure 11.2 Protons, neutrons and electrons making an atom

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

The number of electrons orbiting a nucleus is equal to Materials of the same size have different values of
the number of protons in the nucleus, and this number resistance depending on their resistivity.
is the atomic number of the material. For example,
copper has an atomic number of 29 and so has 29 KEY TERM
electrons orbiting the nucleus and 29 protons in the Resistivity: the measure of the resistance of a
nucleus. 1 m3 block of a material at 20°C; it is measured in
ohm-metres (Ω m).
Because the atoms in a metal are packed closely
together, some of these electrons may get transferred
from one atom to another so that they are no longer In a two or three-core electric cable, such as a flexible
associated with a single atom. These delocalised cable from a plug to an appliance, the conductor is the
electrons are free to move when the metal is subjected copper wire that carries the current, and the insulation,
to an electromotive force, or voltage. This flow of which prevents contact between conductors, is the
electrons in a particular direction results in an electric coloured PVC surrounding the copper. The colour
current. coding of the insulation indicates the function of the
conductor. Around the insulation there is a further layer
Electrons have a negative charge. Charge in a circuit
of PVC known as the sheath, which acts as mechanical
is measured in coulombs (C); when one coulomb of
protection.
charge flows in one second, it creates a current of one
ampere (1 A).

ACTIVITY
Insulation
Use the internet to find out how many electrons
flowing is equivalent to one coulomb (1 C).
Answer Conductor
6.24 × 1018 electrons make up one coulomb. This is
6,240,000,000,000,000,000 electrons!
Sheath

p Figure 11.3 A flexible cable having a conductor, insulation and

2 CONDUCTORS AND sheath

INSULATORS KEY TERM

Colour coding: the colour coding of electric cable
Because different materials have different atomic insulation is
structures, some are better than others at conducting Brown – line conductor (L)
electricity. Blue – neutral conductor (N)
A good conductor is a material that has a low Green/yellow – earth (E) or circuit protective
resistance to the flow of current. An example is copper. conductor (cpc)

A good insulator (or poor conductor) is a material that

does not allow a current to flow at a given voltage. HEALTH AND SAFETY
An example is PVC. These materials are useful for The line and neutral conductors are both classed as
preventing contact with live parts of a circuit. LIVE conductors as they both carry a current under
normal operating conditions.

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

Temperature effects KEY TERMS

As previously stated, good conductors have a low Overload: where more is drawn into a circuit
resistance, so the opposition to current flow is minimal. than the circuit is designed for. This is usually
Temperature also influences the ability of a conductor caused by misuse such as plugging in too many
to carry a current. The warmer a conductor gets, the appliances.
higher its resistance, so the greater the opposition to Capacity: the ability of a cable to carry current.
the current flow. This is directly linked to the cable csa.

Temperature also affects common materials used as

insulators. As some materials, like PVC, get warmer, INDUSTRY TIP
they begin to melt, which reduces the resistance of
the insulation and causes current to leak between Typical cross-sectional areas (csa) for cables commonly
conductors. This increases the risk of contact and used in domestic installations are
therefore electric shock. 1 mm2, 1.5 mm2, 2.5 mm2, 4.0 mm2, 6.0 mm2 and 10 mm2
If cables are allowed to become overloaded, it will
cause the conductor to heat up sufficiently for the If there is too great a voltage drop in a cable, then the
insulation to break down and cause failure of the voltage at an appliance that it is connected to will
circuit. be reduced. This will have a negative effect on the
performance of the appliance. Remember that voltage
Voltage drop drop in an electrical circuit is like pressure drop in a
It is also worth considering at this point that the higher pipe. As a result, it is better to use conducting cables
the resistance of a conductor, the greater the voltage with a low resistance so that the voltage drop will be
drop across it. Several factors affect voltage drop. These lower.
include:
● Length – the longer a circuit or cable, the more INDUSTRY TIP
resistance it has and therefore the more volts lost.
● Current flow – the more current that flows, the
BS 7671: The IET Wiring Regulations states that the
maximum permitted voltage drop is:
hotter the conductor gets and the greater is the
● 3% of the supply voltage for lighting circuits
resistance of the conductor. A higher resistance
● 5% of the supply voltage for power circuits.
means a greater voltage drop.
● Conductor material – different materials have

different resistivities and therefore different IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

conductors have different resistances. For example, What is the maximum permitted voltage drop for
steel has a higher resistivity than copper, so its the following circuits connected to a 230 V supply?
resistance will be higher than a copper cable of the a Lighting circuit
same diameter and length. b Socket-outlet (power) circuit
● Cross-sectional area (csa) – the csa of the cable
Answer
is the area of the end face. The bigger the csa, a Lighting is 3% of 230 V which is 6.9 V
the thicker the cable, so it can take more current
b Socket-outlets is 5% of 230 V which is 11.5 V
without significantly heating up. The bigger the csa,
the better the capacity of the cable.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

3 RESISTANCES IN Consider the three resistors shown in the circuit in

Figure 11.4. Suppose:
SERIES AND PARALLEL ● resistance R is 0.4 Ω
1
● resistance R is 12 Ω
2
How components and equipment are arranged has an ● resistance R is 0.4 Ω
3
effect on the behaviour of the current and voltage in a ● supply voltage (V) is 36 V

circuit. ● circuit current (I) is not yet known.

Circuits can be arranged with resistances in: In a series circuit, because there is only one path for
● series – where each resistance follows on from another the current and it flows through each resistor one after
● parallel – where each resistance is in line with another. another, the total resistance is found by adding all the
resistances together. So
Series circuits Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
The resistances in a series circuit follow after one
another, as shown in Figure 11.4. For the circuit in Figure 11.4, the total resistance is
Rtotal = 0.4 Ω + 12 Ω + 0.4 Ω = 12.8 Ω
R1 R2 R3

l
INDUSTRY TIP
Remember the Ohm’s law triangle:

V
V

p Figure 11.4 Three resistances in series I R

It is worth noting, at this point, that a circuit resistance
can be a current consuming item of equipment, such as
a lamp or heater, or a conductor in a cable. Figure 11.5 V V V
shows a circuit supplied by a 36 V battery. The circuit
contains one conductor supplying a heater element and I R I R I R
one conductor returning back to the power supply. Each
V =I R I =V R =V
conductor has an overall resistance of 0.4 Ω. The heater R I
element has a known resistance of 12 Ω.
p Figure 11.6

In a series circuit, the current is the same through each

component. To determine the total current drawn by
the circuit, we apply Ohm’s law:
V
I=
R
so
36
I= = 2.81 A
12.8
p Figure 11.5 A circuit supplied by a battery and containing three Therefore, because of the resistances in this circuit, the
resistances: two conductor resistances of 0.4 Ω each and one current drawn is 2.81 A.
heater element having 12 Ω resistance

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Answer

Using the series circuit in Figure 11.7, determine Total resistance = 3 + 14 + 3 = 20 Ω
the total circuit current (I) and the voltage drop
across each 3 Ω resistor. Assuming that the two 3 Ω 230
resistances are the resistances of the conductors, what Current (I ) = = 11.5 A
20
is the voltage across the 14 Ω resistor?
Voltage lost = 11.5 × 3 = 34.5 V per conductor

Total voltage lost = 34.5 + 34.5 = 69 V

Voltage across the 14 Ω resistor is 230 − 69

= 161 V

This could also be shown using

p Figure 11.7 11.5 A × 14 Ω = 161 V

We could also work out the voltage lost due to the

circuit conductors, using the fact that each has a
Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, the resistances, or loads, are in
resistance of 0.4 Ω. Again, this is done by applying
line so they have an equal voltage across them. In
Ohm’s law, but this time we know the current flowing
normal household 230 V circuits supplying lights and
through each resistance or, in this case, cable. The
appliances, the loads are arranged in parallel to ensure
voltage drop across each resistance is found using
that each receives the maximum voltage rather than
V = I×R having it shared between them. Figure 11.8 shows three
resistors in parallel.
So, the voltage drop through resistor R1 is
This is similar to radiators in a central heating system,
V = 2.81 × 0.4 = 1.12 V which are also connected in parallel. All the radiators
The voltage drop through the second resistor or cable is are supplied by the flow pipe and the water exits the
the same, as the current is the same and the resistance radiators into the return pipe.
is the same, so In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across each
total voltage drop = 1.12 V + 1.12 V = 2.24 V resistance or load and the current splits through each
resistance depending on its value.
If 2.24 V is lost due to the resistance of the circuit The total resistance is found by calculating the
conductors, the voltage across the heater is the reciprocal value using
remaining voltage from the 36 V supply, so
1 1 1 1
voltage across heater = 36 − 2.24 = 33.76 V = + + …
Rtotal R1 R2 R3

In general, when you increase the number of

INDUSTRY TIP
resistances in parallel, the total resistance decreases as
Remember: the longer the cable, the greater the voltage this introduces more paths for the current to take.
drop as resistance increases with length.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

So the current flowing from the power supply is

R1
100 = 20 A
5
The current through each resistor can be found by
R2 applying Ohm’s law using the value of each resistance
and remembering that the voltage is the same across
each branch of a parallel circuit. The current through
resistance R1 is found using
R3
IR1 = V
l
R1

so
V

p Figure 11.8 A parallel circuit 100 = 6.667 A

15
For example, if the values of the components in In the circuit in Figure 11.8, both R2 and R3 have the
Figure 11.8 are: same resistance as R1, so the current through them is
● R = 15 Ω
1 the same. As a check, when the three current values are
● R = 15 Ω
2 added together, they equal the supply current of 20 A.
● R = 15 Ω
3
● and the supply voltage = 100 V
So

we can determine the total resistance using 6.667 + 6.667 + 6.667 = 20 A

1 1 1 1 1
= + + = IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Rtotal 15 15 15 0.2
For the circuit shown in Figure 11.8, let
So the total resistance = 5 Ω ● R1 = 5 Ω

● R2 = 10 Ω

● R3 = 15 Ω
KEY POINT
● and the supply voltage = 80 V
If you have a calculator with a button marked x−1
you can calculate this by pressing the buttons in Determine the total resistance of the circuit, the
this order current through the power supply and the current
through each resistor.
[15][x−1] [+] [15] [x−1] [+] [15] [x−1] [=] [x−1] [=]
Answer
Note that after the first =, the value is 0.2; this is
known as the reciprocal to one value, which must 1 1 1 1
be divided into 1, so the [x−1] key needs to be = (0.2) + (0.1) + (0.0667)
Rtotal 5 10 15
pressed again to get the correct answer 5 Ω.

1
= = 2.73 Ω
Once the total resistance is found, the current in the 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.0667
main circuit can be found by using Ohm’s law
80
Current through power supply = = 29.3 A
V 2.73
I=
R
80
Current through 5 Ω resister = = 16 A
5
➜

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

Answer
80
Current through 10 Ω resistor = =8A
10 P=V ×I

80 so
Current through 15 Ω resistor = = 5.3 A
15 P
I=
And, as a check, V
16 + 8 + 5.3 = 29.3 A and
4500
= 19.57 A
230
Power
Power (P), measured in watts, is the relationship
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
between the circuit or load current and the voltage
Calculate the current drawn by an 80 W motor using
applied. This is expressed as: a 12 V power supply.
P=V ×I Answer

For example, a heater element connected to a 230 V 80

= 6.67 A
power supply that draws a current of 13 A has a power 12
rating of:
230 × 13 = 2990 W
Measurement of electrical
More commonly, the current drawn by a load is quantities
calculated from the load’s power rating, so that the
The following instruments are used to measure
correct size cable is selected.
electrical quantities and are connected as shown in
Example Figure 11.9
If a 4500 W load is connected to a 230 V supply, what
is the current drawn by the load?

Quantity to be measured Instrument used Connection Notes

Voltage Voltmeter In parallel with the item The instrument measures the voltage difference
being measured from one side of the load to the other. This is
called potential difference.
Current Ammeter In series with the load Ammeters can measure small currents, but for
much larger currents, a current transformer is
needed such as those used in clamp-meters.
Resistance Ohmmeter In parallel with what is This will only work if the circuit or item being
being measured measured is disconnected from any power source.
Power Wattmeter Use in both parallel and This measures the voltage and current and
series calculates the resulting power.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

R
V

Load

W p Figure 11.10 A person who has just received an electric shock

An electric shock is defined as an accident or injury as a

result of contact with electricity. It occurs when current
V flows through the body. This can cause muscles, such
p Figure 11.9 How instruments are connected to measure circuit as the heart, to react.
quantities Current as low as 15 mA (0.015 A) can cause involuntary
reactions such as flinching of leg and arm muscles,
HEALTH AND SAFETY and this can cause a person to fall. A current of about
Never expose yourself to live parts when measuring 40 mA (0.04 A) can cause the heart to react. If a person
electrical quantities, as the risk of electrocution is comes into contact with a current exceeding 40 mA,
great. Instruments and test leads need to comply
with HSE guidance GS38. Instruments need to
it can interrupt the body’s normal electrical impulses
be correctly set or they could explode. Unless you which make the heart beat at regular intervals.
have received suitable training, only measure circuit If a person touches a supply of alternating current
values if the circuit is completely and securely
(AC) with a frequency of 50 hertz (Hz), which changes
isolated, as described later in this chapter.
direction 50 times a second in the UK, the muscles
would react in time with this.
1 cycle = 1/50 of a second
4 PROTECTION 50 cycle/second = 50Hz

AGAINST ELECTRIC +
SHOCK
Electric shock is undoubtedly the greatest risk when
working around electrical appliances. This does not only
apply to those working on them but also, if the work is
not carried out correctly, to other people who use the
equipment afterwards.
Before we consider how to protect against electric
shock, we need to consider how you can receive an
electric shock.
−
p Figure 11.11 The AC sine wave

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

So, in one cycle, the current turns on (+ flow) and passing through their body would be quite low and the
off (− flow) twice; this repeats 50 times a second so, person may survive the shock.
effectively, the current turns on and off 100 times a
If the person touching a live part of a circuit is standing
second.
on the ground or is in contact with earthed parts of the
If someone comes into contact with alternating current circuit, their body would form a low resistance path and
higher than 40 mA on a 50 Hz supply, it will cause the a current that is high enough to kill will flow through
heart to attempt to beat 100 times a second. As a them.
result, in a relatively short time, the heart would not be
A person can receive an electric shock in two ways:
able to cope and would stop.
● by directly touching parts that are intended to be

If a person comes into contact with a direct current live

(DC) supply, the current is on all the time and this ● by contacting parts that have become live due to a

would cause the muscles to seize. fault.

BS 7671 gives several methods of protecting people
HEALTH AND SAFETY
against electric shock. These include:
It is said that people stick to DC. This is because
● basic protection by insulation, barriers and
the arm muscles controlling a person’s grip can seize
at a particular level of current (15–25 mA) and this enclosures to stop contact with parts intended to be
locks their grip. So, even though the person’s brain live
is telling the hand to let go, it will not! ● automatic disconnection of the supply (ADS) in the

case of a fault.
For current to flow, there needs to be a passage into
the body and a passage out. The current needs to pass Basic protection
through the skin and overcome its resistance. Basic protection is provided by the following two
methods:
Remember: a voltage is required to overcome a
● insulation of live parts by insulating material such as
resistance.
PVC around cables, which stops people coming into
For the average person in average conditions, 50 V AC contact with the live conductors within
or 120 V DC is required to overcome the body’s skin ● barriers and enclosures housing electrical
resistance. Is there such a thing as an average person? connections and live parts of equipment, which are
Some people have tough skin with high resistance, so designed so that:
higher voltages are needed to overcome this. Some ● all surfaces except the top have no hole allowing
people have very soft skin, so lower voltages can cause penetration by the finger (IP2X)
electric shock. An average person is somewhere in the ● the horizontal top surface of a barrier or
middle. enclosure must have no hole greater than 1 mm
If humidity and temperature increase beyond average in diameter (IP4X)
conditions, the body starts to sweat and skin resistance ● barriers and enclosures can only be opened and

falls, creating a higher risk of shock. live parts accessed by using a tool or key to stop
unintended contact.
KEY TERM
KEY TERM
Average conditions: somewhere with a comfortable
indoor temperature of about 20°C and a low IP2X and IP4X: part of the international coding
humidity. system for the level of Ingress Protection for
enclosures. This is the level of protection against
the ingress of foreign bodies, such as fingers (first
If a person touches a live part of a circuit but is number) and the level of protection against the
standing on a wooden or rubber, insulated floor, and is ingress of water and moisture (second number).
not in contact with any earthed parts, then the current

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Basic protection really is basic in the sense that it stops

contact with all the parts that are meant to be live and
Earthing and bonding
Both of these safety measures use green and yellow
must always be present whenever a system is live.
cables, but they protect in different ways. Nowadays,
there is less need for bonding than there used to be.
Automatic disconnection of
supply (ADS) Earthing
Should any fault occur in a circuit, the device protecting Earthing provides a low resistance path for a fault
the circuit needs to disconnect very quickly to remove current to flow to earth. The high current trips the
the danger. circuit breaker or blows the fuse which rapidly switches
off the current in the faulty circuit.
As the parts of an appliance that are likely to become
live if a fault occurs are normally made of metal and Faults can happen in both equipment and cables
are part of the electrical system, these parts must so even if an item of equipment does not have any
always be connected to the circuit protective conductor exposed conductive parts, a cpc must still be installed
(cpc) which is the green/yellow coloured conductor in a to protect the cable and be there in case the non-
circuit. metallic equipment is changed for metallic equipment
at a later date.
This ensures that all exposed conductive parts have
a low resistance path to earth, which, in turn, will
induce a high fault current. This fault current will be
INDUSTRY TIP
high enough to trip the device protecting the circuit, Some cables, such as flat profile twin and cpc cable, have
for example a circuit breaker or residual current circuit no insulation on the cpc. It is up to the person connecting
breaker with overcurrent protection (RCBO). it to place green/yellow sleeving on the cpc when they
terminate the cable.
INDUSTRY TIP
Remember Ohm’s law. If the voltage is fixed, e.g. 230 V, Bonding
and the resistance decreases, the lower the resistance, the
higher the current. Like earthing, bonding uses green and yellow cable,
but whereas an earth wire is normally a core within a
three-core cable, called the cpc, bonding is likely to be a
KEY TERM single-core green and yellow cable running on its own.
Exposed conductive part: a metallic or conductive
material that forms part of the electrical circuit
and therefore is likely to become live if an
electrical fault occurs. Examples include a metal
consumer unit, a metal central heating pump or a
metal-cased boiler.

As a current of 0.04 A can kill someone, a fault current

of 400 A can too, so it is crucial that the protection
device disconnects the circuit very quickly to prevent
someone who touches an appliance receiving an
electric shock or being electrocuted if the current
becomes dangerously high. The higher the fault current,
the quicker the device will break the circuit. This is why
earthing is important for saving lives.
p Figure 11.12 A clamp used for bonding extraneous conductive
parts such as pipework

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

There are three classifications of bonding conductor. pipes, sinks or pipework in bathrooms. If you ever
● Main protective bonding conductor This remove a bonding clamp and reuse or replace
connects the main earthing terminal (MET) for the copper pipes, always put the bonding back unless
installation to any incoming metallic gas and water it can be verified by an electrician that it is not
services, amongst other extraneous conductive required.
parts. This conductor, in most cases, will be a ● Temporary continuity bonding This is used
10 mm2 green and yellow insulated single-core cable when cutting metal pipes in operational buildings.
terminated on the pipe using a bonding clamp. It is It consists of a simple short length of earth wire
important to note that if the utility such as water or with two crocodile clamps on either end. If, due to
gas enters through a plastic pipe or has an insulated faults or diverted neutral currents, a pipe is cut
section of pipe, known as an IJ, there is generally and parted without a temporary continuity bond,
no requirement to bond the pipework. If in doubt, the person parting the pipes could then become
consult an electrician. part of the circuit and suffer an electric shock. The
temporary bond offers a path of least resistance for
INDUSTRY TIP the current rather than through the person.
Sometimes problems occur in the electricity supply,
Main protective bonding, if needed, must be connected
within 600 mm at the point of entry of the pipe or within for example high resistance joints in the neutral side of
600 mm of any meter or stop cock on the consumer’s side the supply cable. This could cause the neutral current
and before any tee in the pipework. to try to find an alternative route back to the local
electrical substation transformer. This alternative route
could be through a metal pipe and bonding cable. If
Circuit protective you disconnect a bond or cut a pipe, you could become
conductors
Main protective
part of that circuit and receive an electric shock. This
bonding conductors situation is known as neutral current diversion.

Gas
Other installation
extraneous pipe
conductive part

Water
installation
pipe

Earthing
conductor

Means of earthing

p Figure 11.13 Protective conductor arrangement for earthing and

bonding
● Supplementary equipotential bonding This is
now very rarely installed in new buildings where
residual current devices (RCDs) are used to protect
electrical circuits. Supplementary bonding, often
p Figure 11.14 Temporary continuity bonding set
called cross bonding, normally uses 4 mm2 single-
core cable and is often found linking hot and cold

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

between any one line conductor and neutral or earth

KEY TERMS
the voltage is 230 V.
Main earthing terminal (MET): every electrical system
in a building will have a main earthing terminal Domestic and small commercial buildings are likely to
(MET) which is either in the main consumer unit have single-phase supplies with two live conductors
housing the fuses/circuit breakers or a separate which are a line and neutral and where the voltage
metal block close to the electricity meter. between the line conductor and neutral or earth is
Extraneous conductive parts: conductive metal 230 V.
parts that are not part of the electrical system
but provide a direct path to earth, for example There are three common earthing arrangements found
steel framed buildings with steel structural parts in the UK. The arrangement does not depend on
embedded into the ground or metal gas pipes whether the supply is single- or three-phase.
coming out of the ground.
Diverted neutral current: a high-risk situation in The three commonly used systems use letters to
which a problem in the electricity supply causes signify the earth and neutral status from the local
neutral current to try and find alternative routes substation transformer to the installation and within
back to the local electrical substation transformer. the installation. The letters used are:
● T – this stands for terre meaning earth in French

● N – stands for neutral

HEALTH AND SAFETY ● C – stands for combined
Always use a temporary continuity bond when ● S – stands for separated.
cutting metal pipes in an operational building as the
risk of diverted neutral currents becomes greater as The three common systems are:
infrastructure ages. ● TN-S, where the earth and neutral are separated
both in the supply system and within the
consumer’s installation

5 ELECTRICAL SUPPLY ● TN-C-S, where the earth and neutral are combined

in the supply and then are separated in the

SYSTEMS consumer’s installation
● TT, where the installation is earthed using an earth

Electrical supplies are categorised according to: electrode in the ground. This links to the substation
● number and type of live conductors electrode using the general mass of earth.
● earthing arrangement.

The number and type of live conductors depends on TN-S

whether the supply is three-phase or single-phase. This is a very common system, which connects the
Most commercial and industrial systems are three- earth conductor back to the metallic sheath of the
phase, which means that the supply has three line distributor’s service cable as it enters the property. This
conductors and one neutral conductor. The voltage, sheathing provides a separate neutral and earth route
when measured, between line conductors is 400 V, and back to the substation supply transformer.

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

Electrical company isolator LABEL − Safety

electrical
connection
DO NOT REMOVE
Metal gas
pipe

100 A 16 mm2
Main earthing terminal
10 mm2
10 mm2 Gas meter
LABEL − Safety electrical
connection DO NOT REMOVE
Metal water pipe

Water Gas
service service
pipe pipe

p Figure 11.15 TN-S system

TN-C-S
Electrical company isolator Service protective LABEL − Safety
conductors electrical
connection
DO NOT REMOVE
Metal gas
pipe

Main
switch
100 A
16 mm2
Main earthing terminal
10 mm2
10 mm2 Gas meter
LABEL − Safety electrical
connection DO NOT REMOVE
Metal water pipe
Water Gas
service service
pipe pipe

p Figure 11.16 TN-C-S system

This system is also known as a protective multiple installation. The ‘C’ means that the supplier uses a
earthing system, or PME. It relies on the neutral being combined earth and neutral. The ‘S’ means that the
earthed close to the source of supply and at points earth and neutral are separate within the customer’s
throughout the distribution system. There is also property.
a neutral-to-earth connection at the intake of the

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

TT
Electricity supply LABEL − Safety
(usually overhead) Electrical company isolator electrical
Metal water pipe connection
DO NOT REMOVE
Metal gas
pipe

100 A
16 mm2
Main earthing terminal
10 mm2
10 mm2 Gas meter
LABEL − Safety electrical
connection DO NOT REMOVE
Earth rod
Water Gas
service service
pipe pipe

p Figure 11.17 TT system

The first ‘T’ stands for terre, meaning that all exposed circuit if the current exceeds the rating of the fuse.
metalwork is connected directly to earth via a large Once the fuse has ‘blown’ (i.e. the element of the
copper rod stuck directly into the ground outside. The fuse has melted or ruptured), the fuse needs to be
second T means that the substation is also connected replaced.
to earth in the same way. This system is commonly
used in rural areas and the electrode/rod for the BS 3036 semi-enclosed rewireable
installation can be very hard to find as foliage may fuses
hide it. If you do find it, do not touch or disconnect the In older equipment, the fuse may be just a length of
connections for any reason. appropriate fuse wire fixed between two terminals.
These devices are now becoming uncommon as

6 PROTECTIVE electrical installations are rewired or updated. One of

the main problems associated with re-wirable fuses
DEVICES is the overall lack of protection, including insufficient
breaking capacity ratings. Another major problem is
Within a consumer’s electrical installation, there are unreliability, which is often caused by using the wrong
several different types of protective device that can be gauge of wire when changing the fuse. The overall
used to protect circuits and persons against faults. reliability of such fuses cannot be guaranteed because
a wide range of factors can cause them to fail. Typical
Fuses factors include wire being labelled with an incorrect
current rating and the number of times and the
Fuses have been a tried and tested method of circuit
length of time that a fuse wire has been subjected to
protection for many years. A fuse is a very basic
overload.
protection device that is destroyed and breaks the

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

BS 1362 plug fuses

These are a type of cartridge fuse that fit inside plugs
and fused connection units. The fuse is intended to
protect the flexible cable that supplies the power to
the appliance. They come in various ratings from 1 A to
13 A but the two main ratings are 3 A for any appliance
up to 700 W and 13 A for any appliance over 700 W.

Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are thermomagnetic devices capable
of making, carrying and interrupting currents under
normal and abnormal conditions. They fall into two
categories: miniature circuit breakers (MCBs), which are
common in most installations for the protection of final
circuits, and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCBs),
p Figure 11.18 A range of BS 3036 fuses. The dots on the front which are normally used for larger distribution circuits.
of the carrier signify the rating: red 32 A, yellow 20 A, blue 15 A
and white 5 A Circuit breaker nominal ratings (In) relate to the current
rating of the device for continuous service under
BS 88 fuses specified installation conditions.
These modern fuses are generally incorporated within There are three circuit breaker types: Type B, Type C
sealed ceramic cylindrical bodies (or cartridges). and Type D. The current flow at which they trip
The whole cartridge needs to be replaced if the fuse depends upon the level of overcurrent and is usually
ruptures. It is not common to find these fuses in determined by a pre-setting of the magnetic device
domestic properties protecting circuits but they are within the circuit breaker. Type B offers the best
likely to be used in the service head just before the protection and is normally found in domestic settings,
electricity meter. These fuses are the property of the Type C allows for high starting currents common with
energy supplier and should not be touched. transformers, and Type D is only used for very specific
situations and so should never be installed on standard
circuits.

p Figure 11.19 A range of BS 88 fuses; some may not have the p Figure 11.20 A circuit breaker with a lock to secure it in the off
fixing lugs position

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Residual current devices To achieve instantaneous fault protection, much higher

currents are needed. For example, a 32 A rated B type
(RCDs) circuit breaker must have a fault current of at least
An RCD on its own is technically not a circuit protective 160 A in order to trip instantly. Anything less than this
device as it does not offer overload or short circuit will take many seconds, or possibly minutes, to trip it.
protection. It works by monitoring the line and neutral
For this reason, it is important for earthing to have
conductors of a circuit. If the current in the two
as low a resistance as possible to cause a high fault
conductors is different, it means that some must be
current.
leaking to earth. If this leakage is more than the residual
current rating of the device, typically 30 mA, the device HEALTH AND SAFETY
will trip the circuit. RCDs are very sensitive and provide Always remember Ohm’s law (V = IR) and that the
very good levels of protection against electric shock. voltage of most electrical systems is fixed at 230 V.
This means that the lower the resistance, the higher
KEY TERM the fault current and the quicker a circuit will be
disconnected to remove the danger. Therefore it is
Short circuit: a fault between line and neutral. important to have an earthing system with as low a
resistance as possible.

ACTIVITY
Why are the most common RCD ratings set at INDUSTRY TIP
30 mA? Think about shock current.
Answer Earthing is not the same as bonding. Earthing is needed all
Because 40 mA can cause death, having a trip the time, but bonding may not be needed. If you are unsure
setting less than this saves lives. whether or not something needs bonding, ask a qualified
electrician. If you bond something that is suitably insulated
from earth, you may make it a potential risk when it was
RCBOs actually perfectly safe before.
An RCBO is a residual current device (RCD) combined
with a circuit breaker. This means that it offers the Even if the circuit is protected by an RCD or an RCBO,
characteristics of an RCD along with the overload and it is still important to have paths of low resistance
short circuit protection of a circuit breaker. to earth even though these devices trip at low fault
currents.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
RCDs and RCBOs have test buttons on the front
of them. It is vitally important these are tested by
pushing the button at least every six months. This
7 WORKING ON
ensures that the mechanism is kept free and stops it
sticking so that it will be reliable when needed.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
When working on electrical systems, it is vitally
important to follow safe work practices. Remember
Fault currents causing that you cannot see or smell electricity, so you need
disconnection to make sure it is not present before you work on
electrical systems or equipment.
Just because a fuse or circuit breaker has a nominal
rating of, for example, 32 A, it does not mean that it
will trip or erupt if 33 A were to flow through it. In fact, Safe isolation procedure
most fuses or circuit breakers will not trip or erupt until Isolation can be very complex due to the differing
at least 1.45 times their rating is reached, and, even industrial, commercial and domestic working
then, it may take minutes or hours to break the circuit. environments, some of which require experience and

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

knowledge of the system processes. This section deals

with a basic practical procedure for isolation and for
the securing of isolation. It also looks at the reasons for
safe isolation and the potential risks involved during the
isolation process.

How to undertake a basic practical

procedure for isolation
First, prepare all of the equipment required for this task.
You will need:
● a voltage indicator which has been manufactured

and maintained in accordance with Health and

Safety Executive (HSE) Guidance Note GS38
● a proving unit compatible with the voltage indicator

● a lock and/or multi-lock system (there are many

types of lock available)

● warning notices which identify that work is being

carried out.
p Figure 11.22 Proving unit
KEY TERM
Guidance Note GS38: a guidance publication from
the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) relating
to the safety of test equipment, leads and probes
used on electrical circuits.

p Figure 11.21 Voltage indicator p Figure 11.23 Lock out devices for circuit breakers

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Isolating at the correct point is vital. If you are working When the work is completed, you must ensure that all
on a boiler control system or a hot water cylinder electrical barriers and enclosures are in place and that it
immersion heater and these circuits are clearly marked is safe to switch on the isolated circuit.
and identified, isolate at the consumer unit using the ● Remove the locking device and danger/warning

identified circuit breaker according to the procedure signs.

below. ● Reinstate the supply.

● Carry out system checks to ensure that the

If there is a clearly identified fused connection
equipment is working correctly.
unit where the fuse can be withdrawn, then do so
at this point, but, if you are making, inspecting or Always bear in mind, before isolating anything, the
disconnecting anything in that connection unit, it will implications that this loss of electrical supply may
still be partially live, so the circuit should be isolated bring.
using the circuit protective device.
Considerations include:
1 Identify – identify the equipment or circuit to be
● What else will the client lose if a circuit or part of a
worked on and point(s) of isolation.
circuit is isolated?
2 Isolate – switch off, isolate and lock off (secure)
● Will you need to provide a temporary supply for
the equipment or circuit in an appropriate manner.
essential equipment?
Retain the key and display caution signs with details
● Will you need to timetable the isolation for a
of the work being carried out. If using a fused
time when the loss of services will have minimum
connection unit, keep the fuse and carrier in your
impact?
pocket.
3 Check – check the condition of the voltage indicator
leads and probes. Confirm that the voltage indicator Electrical faults
is functioning correctly by using a proving unit. One of the most common reasons for working on
4 Test – using the voltage indicator, test all the existing electrical systems is that a fault occurs. Fault
equipment you are going to be working on by testing: diagnosis must always be undertaken by competent,
● L–N skilled persons as faults can create a great deal of
● L–E danger.
● N–E
As well as a major risk of electric shock, other
(L = line, N = neutral, E = earth) consequences exist if faults are not diagnosed and
5 Prove – using a voltage indicator and proving unit, rectified. These include:
prove that the voltage indicator is functioning ● Fire: arcing and sparking from faulty components
correctly. or, more frequently, from loose connections can
6 Confirm – confirm that the isolation is secure, and cause a fire, leading to a risk to life and damage to
the correct equipment has been isolated. This can property.
be achieved by operating functional switching for ● Component failure: acting on early warning signs
the isolated circuit(s). It is good practice to be sure. of faults can lead to less expensive repairs, whereas
7 The relevant work can now be carried out. if faults are allowed to develop further, they could
lead to expensive replacements and downtime.

KEY TERM
Downtime: the time during which a particular
process or action is stopped due to faults or
delays, for example the time that a building is
without heat due to a faulty component in a
boiler and the time needed to obtain the part and
replace it.
p Figure 11.24 Switched fused connection unit with indicator

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

An electrical fault may be beyond the competency of

a person trained to work on mechanical systems. As a
result, should faults occur it is very important for the
correct person to act on the fault by undertaking the
necessary diagnosis and rectification themselves, or
report it and authorise those who can. This includes:
● homeowners of private houses, who can appoint an

electrician to undertake the work

● tenants of rented accommodation, who can inform

their landlord (should you be contracted by the

landlord, you can inform them directly) p Figure 11.25 Ringing tool (Method 1); stripping knife (Method 2)
● the supervisor of a construction site (or, if you are a

subcontractor, the site agent or site manager). Safety considerations

There is a risk of cutting your hands when using knives.

8 INSTALLING WIRING Wearing gloves and eye protection is recommended.

SYSTEMS Method
Before the flex can be terminated, the outer sheath
There are many types of wiring systems used. A wiring must be removed. Two methods of removing the outer
system could be a cable on its own or a means of sheath are outlined here.
containing or managing the cable. You may encounter Method 1
the following terms. The outer sheath can be removed with the use of a
● Wiring system – this is the term used to
ringing tool. These come in various shapes and forms,
describe the type of cable used and the method the most basic of which is shown in Figure 11.26. This
of supporting it. For example, single-core cable in tool slides over the end of the cable to the required
conduit is a wiring system but, equally, so is a twin stripping position and is then rotated around the cable,
and cpc cable clipped to a wall. cutting it slightly.
● Support system – this is the method of supporting

a cable and could include systems such as a cable

tray, basket or simply clips or cleats.
● Cable management system or cable containment

system – this is a method of supporting and

protecting cables, usually by enclosing the cables in
conduit, trunking or ducting, for example.
In this chapter, we will only be covering the installation
of cables that are commonly used in wiring systems in
domestic environments for the supply and control of
electro-mechanical systems.

Terminating flexible cables p Figure 11.26 Flexible cable sheath being removed by a ringing
Tools required tool

● Ringing tool (Method 1) The ringing tool is removed, the cable is bent to finish
● Stripping knife (Method 2) the cut and the sheath is then slid off.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

lengthways using an electrical knife or flexible cable

stripping tool, being careful not to cut into the
coloured wires or yourself. Peel the outer sleeve away
and cut it off using cable cutters or wire cutters.
2 Separate the wires and cut them to the correct
length using wire cutters. Measure the length they
need to be against the plug, matching them up to
the correct terminal points.
3 Cut off about 5 mm of the insulation using wire
strippers or wire cutters. Be careful not to cut into
the individual strands of wire. Once you have done
this, twist the ends of the wires, so that you have
p Figure 11.27 Outer sheath being removed a hard cable to work with, rather than individual
strands.
Method 2
4 Now connect each wire to the correct terminal. To
There may be times when a ringing tool is not available,
start, slacken the screw on top of the terminal and
so it is important to know how to remove the outer
push the bare wire into the hole created. The correct
sheath without this tool. Thermoplastic has a tendency
tool for this type of terminal is an electrician’s
to split when it is damaged and pressure is applied, and
screwdriver. All electrician’s tools have insulation
this property can be used to help strip the sheath.
to protect the user from an electric shock. Then
Bend the cable into a tight bend at the point where retighten the screw down on to the bare cable and
the sheath is to be removed. Using a sharp knife, gently terminal body. Make sure the terminals are tight
score the top of the bend. The thermoplastic will split and there are no bare wires or loose strands of wire
open like a little mouth (Figure 11.28). showing or overhanging the terminal, as a loose
wire could cause a short circuit. The terminals are
normally stamped with the following letters:
● L = line (brown)

● N = neutral (blue)

● E = earth (yellow and green).

You may also notice the earth symbol, shown in

Figure 11.30. If not, the top terminal is usually earth,
the terminal attached to the fuse is line and the last
terminal is neutral. As a tip, connect the neutral first.
5 Once the wires are connected, tighten the cord
clamp over the cable. Make sure the cord clamp is
p Figure 11.28 Bending the cable to cause the scored sheath to gripping only the outer sleeve of the cable, and not
split the coloured wires.
6 Before screwing on the top of the plug, check
that you have used the correct size of fuse for the
Plugs appliance. There are three standard fuse ratings: 3 A,
A plug is a simple device that allows you to safely 5 A and 13 A.
connect or disconnect an appliance to and from an 7 Before screwing the plug top back on, check that the
AC socket. Poorly wired plugs are a common cause of wires are fitted correctly in the channels provided
electrical faults. Here is a step-by-step guide to wiring a and that they will not become crushed. Most
plug correctly and safely. importantly, recheck the wiring you have completed
1 You will need to strip off about 4–5 cm of the and make sure there are no conductors or copper
outer cable sleeve. Slit the outer sleeve of the cable showing.

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 Chapter 11 Working with electricity

All the tools you use for cutting and removing Safety considerations
sheathing from the cable must be specifically made for ● Cuts to hands from using a knife.
the purpose. These are known as insulating cutters (or ● Injury caused by cutters or pliers slipping.
cable cutters) and insulating strippers. You should not
use a Stanley knife to carry out this procedure. As with Wearing gloves and eye protection is recommended.
the electrician’s screwdriver, these tools are designed to
prevent the user getting an electric shock if the system Method
accidentally goes live during the work. Before the conductors can be connected, the outer
sheath of the cable must be removed.
First, identify how much of the sheath should be
removed from the cable. The purpose of the sheath
is to provide some mechanical protection for the
insulation on the conductors. Too much sheath,
however, takes up space within the accessory and
will put excess strain on the conductors. The sheath
p Figure 11.29 Wiring a three-pin plug should, therefore, be stripped back almost to where the
cable enters the accessory, leaving only 10–15 mm, a
thumb’s width, of sheath within the accessory.
Care must be taken to avoid damage occurring to either
the conductors or the insulation around the conductors
when stripping the sheath.
Having decided on the length of sheath required, and
with the cable in place, score the sheath at the point
from which it is to be removed. This can be performed
p Figure 11.30 The earth symbol
with an electrician’s knife. Care should be taken not to
cut into the cable.
Thermoplastic (PVC) cables
Thermoplastic cables are commonly referred to as PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) cables and they come in various
shapes, sizes and forms, including:
● single-core cable

● twin and cpc flat profile cable

● three-core and cpc flat profile cable.

In domestic installations, the most common cables

are the twin and cpc, and the three-core and cpc flat
profile cables. p Figure 11.31 Scoring the outer sheath

Terminating PVC/PVC flat Snip down the end of the cable with the side cutters,
then use a sharp electrician’s knife to slice down the
profile cables cable. To do this, run the blade along the protective
Tools required conductor. Note that this can damage the protective
Dependent on method used: conductor or, even worse, the insulation of one of the
● electrician’s knife live conductors if it is not done carefully.
● side cutters

● pliers.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

For the bare cpc, make sure that the green and yellow
sleeving is applied correctly to the bare copper cpc.
The sleeving must cover all of the bare cpc, apart from
a small amount at the end, which should be just long
enough to go into the terminal.
The most common type of termination, used to
connect the cable conductors to the equipment, is a
screw type terminal.
The advantages of screw terminals are:
● they are cheap to produce

● they are reliable

p Figure 11.32 Running an electrician’s knife along the cpc ● they are easily terminated, with basic tools such as

screwdrivers
● the terminals are reusable.
Termination
Now the inner wires can be stripped, using a cable The disadvantages are that:
stripper tool, to the appropriate length for the terminal. ● over-tightening may result in damage to the

Make sure that the copper conductors do not extend terminal or the conductor
outside of the terminal but, equally important, make ● under-tightening may result in overheating and

sure that the insulation is not clamped inside the arcing

terminal. ● terminals can become loose, due to movement of

the conductor in use or due to mechanical vibration

● terminations need to be accessible for inspection.

Simple screw terminals can be made using cable cutters

and screwdrivers.

Cable cutters
A variety of different tools can be used to cut cables,
the most common being side cutters. Side cutters are
one of the most important tools that electricians have
in their tool kit. They are used for cutting cables to
length, cutting sleeving and cutting nylon tie-wraps, for
example. They work on a compression-force basis and
p Figure 11.33 Cable stripper tool are shaped so that the cutting point is along one side.

Screwdrivers
An electrician will use a selection of different sized
screwdrivers. They will all be of approved standards.
The most common screwdrivers used are:
● terminal (3–3.5 mm flat head)

● large flat (4–5 mm flat head)

● Pozidriv (PZ2 cross head).

p Figure 11.34 Applying sleeving to bare cpc ready for final

termination

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 Test your knowledge

Test your knowledge 7 What is the total circuit current (I) for this
circuit?
1 What is the voltage for a circuit that has a
resistance of 12 Ω and a current of 4 A? 1.5 Ω 3Ω 1.5 Ω

a 3V
b 12 V
c 36 V l

d 48 V
2 What is the orbiting part of an atom called?
a Proton
b Electron 12 V
c Neutron a 2A
d Nucleus b 6A
3 What colour is the insulation around the
c 12 A
conductor designated as the neutral?
d 72 A
a Brown
8 What value of voltage will overcome skin
b Green
resistance, causing an electric shock, for an
c Blue average person in average conditions?
d Yellow a 12 V AC
4 What effect does a change in temperature have b 25 V AC
on the resistance of a conductor?
c 40 V AC
a Resistance increases when temperature
d 50 V AC
increases
9 What is the purpose of basic protection in an
b Resistance decreases when temperature
electrical circuit?
increases
a It prevents faults from happening
c Resistance is not affected by temperature
change b It prevents contact with live parts
d Resistance only changes at absolute zero c It decreases disconnection times
temperature d It increases disconnection times
5 Which of the following is not a standard 10 Which earthing arrangement relies on the
conductor cross-sectional area? general mass of earth as the earth return path?
a 1.0 mm2 a TT
b 2.5 mm2 b TN-C
c 4.5 mm2 c TN-S
d 6.0 mm2 d TN-C-S
6 What is the total permitted percentage voltage 11 What is the BS number for a plug fuse?
drop for a power circuit in an electrical a BS 88
installation? b BS 3036
a 25% c BS 1362
b 3% d BS 4343
c 4%
d 5%

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

12 What does HSE guidance GS38 specifically 18 Describe the term voltage drop.
cover? 19 Calculate the voltage at the terminals of a
a Insulated screwdrivers 1200 W item of electrical equipment. The
b Test instruments and leads circuit is supplied at 230 V. The resistance of
the circuit line conductor is 0.24 Ω and the
c Electrician’s knives
circuit neutral is 0.22 Ω.
d The safe isolation process
20 Calculate the total circuit current (I) for this
13 What must always be done to ensure that a circuit.
circuit breaker remains securely isolated?
a Place a sign over the circuit breaker 10 Ω

b Secure the circuit breaker with PVC tape

c Use a locking device to keep the circuit
breaker in the off position 10 Ω

d Use a locking device to keep the circuit

breaker in the on position
10 Ω
14 What is a short circuit fault?
a A fault between line and earth in a circuit l

b An overload caused by too much equipment 100 V

c A broken conductor leaving a circuit open
21 Explain the difference between earthing and
d A fault between line and neutral in a circuit bonding.
15 What tool is the most appropriate to remove the 22 Describe why the safe isolation procedure
insulation from a conductor? requires the voltage tester to be used on a
a Side cutters known supply such as a proving unit.
b Wire stripper 23 Explain how to ensure that a switched fused
c Electrician’s knife connection unit remains securely dead.
d Rotary stripping tool 24 List three types of cable support.
16 Describe the relationship between atoms and 25 Describe, in detail, the safe isolation process.
current flow. Answers can be found online at
17 Explain why earthing needs to have a low www.hoddereducation.co.uk/construction
resistance.

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 Test your knowledge

Practice synoptic assessments

Practice assessment 1 required to bring the hot water and central heating
up to current standards.
You have been called to a customer who is looking 1 Recommend a hot water system and central
to upgrade their central heating and hot water heating system that would suit the customer’s
system. The property is a 1950s build which has needs.
a gravity hot water and single pipe central heating
2 Justify your choice by comparing with other
system installed. The house is semi-detached. The
systems.
customer has only just moved into the house and
they would like to upgrade the systems before they 3 Outline the potential disruptions that will occur
decorate. Downstairs the property has a lounge, while installation takes place.
kitchen, hallway and toilet. Upstairs the property 4 Outline any health and safety factors that need
has three bedrooms and a bathroom. The basic to be considered.
layout of the property is shown in the diagram at 5 List the control components that are required
the bottom of the page. for both the hot water and central heating
The customer has asked for your advice on what systems.
systems should be installed and what controls are 6 The customer would also like to know the floor
area of their kitchen–diner.

1 Ground floor 2 First floor

5645 2650 2645

1465

1915
Bathroom

Lounge Bedroom 2
3715

3715
2100

2850
Landing
1635

WC
4380

4380

Kitchen/dining Bedroom 1 Bedroom 3

3150
2580

Entrance hall

3690 1820 3120 2375

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Practice assessment 2 The second diagram shows the empty bathroom,

the hot and cold supply and the position of the soil
Your company has asked you to visit a customer stack.
who is looking to change their bathroom suite. The
room is not particularly large and only just fits the 22 mm hot and
cold supply to
existing appliances. At present, a dated bathroom bathroom
is installed and the customer would like to upgrade
to a modern installation that includes a shower. 1.5 m

The first diagram shows the existing layout and

dimensions.

2.2 m Soil stack

You will need to:

1.5 m
● take out the existing bath, basin and WC

● install a new bath, basin, shower and WC.

1 Offer the customer a couple of options for

appliances.
2.2 m Soil stack 2 State any potential disruptions that may occur
during the installation.
3 List any health and safety factors that need to
be considered.
4 Copy the second figure and draw out the new
hot and cold pipework route.
5 Draw out the discharge pipework route. (The
joist run is parallel with the 2.2 m wall.)

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 Glossary
Acceleration a measure of the rate at Air infiltration a process where air the boiler shuts down on the boiler
which an amount of matter increases can get into a system and cause air thermostat. A few minutes later the
its velocity. It is measured in a change locks and corrosion. boiler will fire up again to top up the
of velocity over a period of time and, Amp (and milliamp) unit of electrical temperature as the system loses heat
as such, is directly proportional to current, the measurement of ampere. and, after a few seconds, shuts down
force. It will increase and decrease again.
Annealing a process that involves
linearly with an increase or decrease Boiler interlock this is not a physical
heating the copper to a cherry-red
in force if the mass remains constant. item, but the way in which a modern
colour and then quenching it in water.
It is measured in metres per second system is wired up to prevent the
This softens the copper tube so that
squared (m/s2). boiler from firing unless there is a
the copper can be worked without
Acceleration due to gravity the rate fracturing, rippling or deforming. demand for heat.
of change of velocity of an object due BSP British Standard Pipe.
Anodising coating one metal with
to the gravitational pull of the Earth.
another by electrolysis to form a BSPT British Standard Pipe Thread; the
If gravity is the only force acting on an
protective barrier against corrosion. type of thread used on screwed low
object, then the object will accelerate
Asbestos a fibrous silicate material carbon steel pipes and fittings.
at a rate of 9.81 m/s2 downwards
towards the ground. highly resistant to heat. Calorific value the amount of energy
Atom a fundamental piece of matter stored in the gas in its uncombusted
Accent the way in which people
made up of three kinds of particles state. It is the amount of energy
pronounce their words.
called subatomic particles – protons, released when the gas is combusted.
Accident an unexpected or unplanned It is measured in megajoules (MJ) per
neutrons and electrons.
event that could result in personal cubic metre or MJ/m3.
injury, damage and, occasionally, Average conditions somewhere with
a comfortable indoor temperature of Capacity the ability of a cable to
death. When an accident occurs, there
about 20ºC and a low humidity. carry current. This is directly linked to
are always reasons for it and if there’s
the cable csa.
a reason, then there is usually blame. Benchmarking this is now a
compulsory requirement to ensure Centre to centre measuring from the
Actual capacity (of a cistern) the
that systems and appliances are centre line of one pipe to the centre
maximum volume it could hold when
installed in accordance with the line of another, so that all the tube
filled to its overflowing level.
regulations and the manufacturer’s centres are uniform. This ensures
Acute injury occurs when manual that the pipework will look perfectly
instructions. It also safeguards any
handling or lifting causes immediate parallel because all of the tubes will be
guarantee against bad workmanship.
pain and injury. at equal distance from one another.
Bernoulli’s principle when a pipe
Adhesion the way in which water Chamfer to take off a sharp edge at
reduces in size, the pressure of the
molecules ‘stick’ to other molecules an angle. If we chamfer a pipe end, we
water will drop but the velocity of
they come into contact with. are taking the sharp, square edge off
the water increases. When the pipe
Advisory, Conciliation and increases back to its original size, then the pipe.
Arbitration Service (ACAS) an the velocity will decrease and the Chronic injury type of injury that can
organisation that provides free and pressure will increase almost to its take weeks, months or even years to
impartial information and advice original pressure. develop.
to employers and employees on all
Blowing this describes the outside Code of practice similar to a British
aspects of workplace relations and
surface of a brick being damaged when Standard, this is a set of rules that
employment law.
drilling a hole from the inside. explains how people should behave in
Advisory recommended but not their chosen profession.
Boiler cycling the process of the
enforced.
constant firing up and shutting down as Cohesion the way in which the water
Aesthetically pleasing beautiful in the system water cools slightly wastes molecules ‘stick’ to one another to
appearance, good-looking, in keeping a lot of fuel energy. Applied to when a form a mass rather than staying
with the rest of the surroundings. heating system has reached temperature, individual. This is because water

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molecules are attracted to other water necessary competence, and identifies construction of a building or during
molecules. their qualifications. For example, a future maintenance. They must also
Colour coding the colour coding of trainee plumber would carry a small provide information for the health and
electric cable insulation is plastic ID craft or operative card that safety file.
Brown – line conductor (L) identifies them as a person enrolled Duty of care in British law, the
Blue – neutral conductor (N) on an NVQ programme but not yet moral and legal obligation imposed
Green/yellow – earth (E) or circuit qualified. on an organisation or individual,
protective conductor (cpc) Delegation sharing or transfer of which necessitates that a standard of
Combination (‘combi’) boiler a boiler authority and responsibility, from an reasonable care is adhered to. If the
that provides central heating and employer or supervisor to an employee. standard of care is not met, then the
instantaneous hot water. Derived units combinations of acts are considered to be negligent
the seven base units by a system and damages may be claimed for in a
Competent having the necessary
of multiplication and division court of law.
ability, knowledge or skill (trained,
tested and received a certificate). calculations. There are 21 derived Electrolyte a fluid that allows the
units of measurement, some of which passage of electrical current, such as
Comply act in accordance with; meet
have special names and symbols. water. The more impurities (such as
the standards of.
Deviate change; do differently from salts and minerals) there are in the
Compression the process of water fluid, the more effective it is as an
the original plan.
hitting a bend at forces that cause a electrolyte.
shock wave of air upwards. Dew point the temperature at which
the moisture within a gas is released Equipotential bonding a system
Conciliation an alternative dispute where all metal fixtures in a domestic
to form water droplets. When a gas
resolution process whereby the parties property, such as hot and cold water
reaches its dew point, the temperature
to a dispute agree to use the services pipes, central heating pipes, gas
has been cooled to the point where
of a conciliator, who then meets with pipes, radiators, stainless-steel sinks,
the gas can no longer hold the water
the parties separately in an attempt pressed-steel enamelled washbasins
and it is released in the form of ‘dew’,
to resolve their differences. Collective and steel and cast iron baths, are
or water droplets.
conciliation is when a group of connected together through earth
employees is involved, and individual Dialect a combination of the way
bonding so that they are at the same
conciliation is when there is only one people pronounce words, the vocabulary
potential voltage everywhere.
employee involved in the dispute. they use and the grammatical structures
they use. Erroneous wrong; incorrect.
Condensate the water vapour that
Diverted neutral current a high-risk Exposed conductive part a metallic
is present in the CO2 emissions
situation in which a problem in the or conductive material that forms part
resulting from burning gas. As the
electricity supply causes neutral current of the electrical circuit and therefore
flue gases cool down, the water vapour
to try and find alternative routes is likely to become live if an electrical
condenses back into water droplets
back to the local electrical substation fault occurs. Examples include a metal
that are collected in the boiler and
transformer. consumer unit, a metal central-heating
discharged via the condense pipework.
pump or a metal-cased boiler.
Corrosion any process involving Downtime the time during which a
particular process or action is stopped Extraneous conductive parts
the deterioration or degradation of
due to faults or delays, for example the conductive metal parts that are not
metal components, where the metal’s
time that a building is without heat due part of the electrical system but
molecular structure breaks down
to a faulty component in a boiler and provide a direct path to earth, for
irreparably.
the time needed to obtain the part and example steel framed buildings with
Crimping the process of pressing steel structural parts embedded into
replace it.
the fittings into a copper pipe using a the ground or metal gas pipes coming
‘press fit’ or crimping tool. Dressing the term used by plumbers
out of the ground.
to describe the preparation of the
CSCS card this stands for Fire stop a barrier is placed where the
appliances ready for installation.
Construction Skills Certification pipe passes through a floor, ceiling or
Scheme card. Its purpose is to Duty holder a person who controls,
wall to prevent the spread of fire and
confirm that people who work in reduces or eliminates health and
smoke.
the built environment have the safety risks that may arise during the

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 Glossary

Flashback where the flame burns one water system to another without or a separate metal block close to the
in the torch body, accompanied by a the two water systems being allowed electricity meter.
high-pitched whistling sound. It will to come into contact with each other. Maintenance preserving the working
occur when flame speed exceeds gas The transfer of heat between the two condition of appliances and services.
flow rate so that the flame can pass systems takes place via conduction
Mandatory required by law;
back through the mixing chamber (see Chapter 3, Scientific principles).
compulsory.
into the hoses. Most likely causes are Immersion heater an electrical
incorrect gas pressures giving too low Mechanical suction suction that is
element that sits in a body of water,
a gas velocity, hose leaks or loose created by an electrical/mechanical
just like in a kettle. When switched
connections. pump installed onto a tanker truck.
on, the electrical current causes the
Floc a collection of loosely bound electrical element to heat up, which Method statement the record of
particles or materials. These are in turn heats up the water. Most how management wants the job to be
bound together by the coagulation immersion heater elements are rated done. Its main purpose is to guide site
process for easy removal from the at 3 kW but cylinders can have 1, 2, 3 work and it must always be available
water. or 4 elements. All immersion heaters on-site as a live document with an
must comply with BS EN 60335– aim to prevent accidents or dangerous
Foot a ladder stand with one foot on
2–73 and have a resettable double situations from occurring.
the bottom rung, the other firmly on
the ground. thermostat (RDT) as standard. This Molecule the smallest particle of a
enables problems with overheating to specific element or compound that
Forced draught the use of a purpose-
be recognised quickly. retains the chemical properties of that
designed fan to create a positive
In situ in situ, in plumbing terms, element or compound.
updraught by forcing the products of
combustion up the flue. simply means pipework or appliances Multi-disciplinary approach using
that are already in place. They are skills from other professions or trades
Fully pumped system a heating
already ‘in situation’, hence the term to overcome problems outside the
system that uses pumped circulation
‘in situ’. normal scope of your skill set, trade
to both heating and hot water
IP2X and IP4X part of the or profession to reach satisfactory
circuits.
international coding system for solutions, conclusions or outcomes.
Gravity circulation circulation that
the level of Ingress Protection Multi-storey tall building that
occurs because heat rises through the
for enclosures. This is the level of requires boosting or pumping of the
water. No pump is required.
protection against the ingress of water supply pressure given its height.
Grey water waste water from foreign bodies, such as fingers (first Naphtha a waxy oil deposit that is
baths, showers, washing machines, number) and the level of protection present in natural gas in its unrefined
dishwashers and sinks. against the ingress of water and state. It is removed and later reused in
Guidance Note GS38 a guidance moisture (second number). other products such as cosmetics.
publication from the Health and Legislation a law or group of laws Noggin a term often used on-site to
Safety Executive (HSE) relating to the that have come into force; health and describe a piece of wood that supports
safety of test equipment, leads and safety legislation for the plumbing or braces timber joists or timber-
probes used on electrical circuits. industry includes the Health & Safety studded walls. They are particularly
Hazard a danger; something that can at Work Act and the Electricity at common in timber floors as a way of
cause harm. Work Regulations. keeping the joists rigid and at specific
Health and Safety Executive Level when pipework is perfectly centres, but they can also be used as
(HSE) the government body horizontal. supports for appliances such as wash
in the UK responsible for the Liaise establish a co-operative hand basins and radiators that are
encouragement, regulation and working relationship. being fixed to plasterboard.
enforcement of workplace health, Nominal capacity (of a cistern) the
Main earthing terminal (MET) every
safety and welfare regulations and total volume it could hold when filled
electrical system in a building will
government legislation. to the top of the cistern.
have a main earthing terminal (MET)
Heat exchanger a device or vessel which is either in the main consumer Overheads costs that include such
that allows heat to be transferred from unit housing the fuses/circuit breakers things as site offices and staff salaries.

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Overload where more is drawn into a Quantitative approach ranking a risk tarpaulins act like the sails on a ship
circuit than the circuit is designed for. with a number. and could easily blow the scaffold over.
This is usually caused by misuse such Rectification putting something right, Short circuit a fault between line and
as plugging in too many appliances. correcting. neutral.
Parasitic circulation circulation that Regulatory body an organisation Single feed, self-venting indirect
occurs within the same pipe; often set up by the government to monitor, cylinder often referred to as the
called one pipe circulation. It generally control and guide various sectors ‘Primatic’ cylinder, which is a trade
occurs in open vent pipes that rise within industry. name of IMI Ltd. Another version of
vertically from the open vented hot this type of cylinder was also available
Resistivity the measure of the
water storage cylinder. The hotter and may be found in some existing
resistance of a 1 m3 block of a material
middle water rises up the vent pipe, installations. It was known as the
at 20°C; it is measured in ohm-metres
and the cooler water, towards the wall ‘Aeromatic’. It is slightly different
(Ω m).
of the pipe, falls back to the cylinder. from the Primatic because it has an
Rippling an unwanted, wavy pattern
It can be a major source of heat loss air release valve on the side of the
made on the inside face of a machine
from hot water storage cylinders. cylinder near the heat exchanger to
bend when the bending arm roller is
Passive when a metal becomes bleed air from the heat exchanger.
not tight enough.
passive, it means that an oxide film Soakaway a pit, usually 1 m × 1 m
Risk calculation formula this
has formed that prevents further × 1 m, dug into the ground and filled
is a method of using a formula
attack on the metal. with gravel, into which the rainwater
of multiplying likelihood by
Plumb when pipework is perfectly pipe discharges. It allows rainwater to
consequences to provide a number
vertical. soak naturally away to the water table.
that quantifies the level of risk for a
Portable appliance test (PAT A soakaway should be situated at least
particular job.
test) the process of checking 5 m away from the property.
Rosin a natural solid, resin-type
electrical appliances and equipment to Spigot another name for the plain
material obtained from pine
ensure they are safe to use. end of a pipe. If the fitting we buy has
trees, which, when heated, forms
Potable drinkable, from the French a plain pipe end, we call this a spigot
acidic particles that can irritate
word ‘potable’, pronounced ‘poe-table’. end.
the breathing. This could lead to
Primary and secondary water the occupational asthma. Stratification in a hot water
primary water is the water that is in storage cylinder, water forms in
Schmutzdecke ‘schmutzdecke’ comes
the boiler, central heating system and layers of temperature from the top
from the German word meaning ‘dirt
the heat exchanger of an indirect-type of the cylinder where the water is
cover’.
hot water storage cylinder/vessel. It is at its hottest, to the base where
Sealed heating systems heating
called the primary water because it is it is at its coolest. Stratification is
systems that are sealed from the
heated by the primary source of heat necessary if the cylinder is to perform
atmosphere and operate under
and hot water in the dwelling, namely to its maximum efficiency and
pressure. They do not contain a feed
the boiler. The pipes that connect the manufacturers will purposely design
and expansion cistern. Instead, they
boiler to the heat exchanger are called storage vessels and cylinders with
have an expansion vessel to take up
the primary flow and the primary stratification in mind. Designers will
water expansion and a filling loop to
return. The secondary water is the generally design:
fill the system from the cold water
stored water in the cylinder itself that ● a vessel that is cylindrical in shape
main.
is delivered to the hot water outlets ● a vessel that is designed to be
Semi-gravity system a central installed upright rather than
and taps. The primary water heats the
heating system that has pumped horizontal
secondary water indirectly via the heat
heating circulation but gravity hot ● a vessel with the cold feed entering
exchanger.
water circulation. the cylinder horizontally.
Prohibit prevent or forbid by law.
Sheeting out sheeting out a tower Sweating the term sweating a joint
Qualitative method divides risks into
scaffold means covering the outside refers to the process of fluxing,
categories such as low, medium and
of the scaffold with tarpaulins. This heating and soldering the joint to
high.
can be extremely dangerous as the create a watertight connection.

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 Glossary

Temper the temper of a metal refers Turbidity the cloudiness or haziness Wheel and axle a mechanical device
to how hard or soft it is. of water caused by particles that are used to wind up weight; includes a
Tender to submit a price or quotation usually invisible to the naked eye. grooved wheel, turned by a cord/chain,
for a job or contract. Turbidity is a key test of water quality. and a rigid axle.
Terminal the terminal of a flue system Velocity the measurement of the Work programme a very detailed
is the last section of the flue before the rate at which an object changes its document used on projects to record
flue gases evacuate to the atmosphere. position. In order to measure it, we and assess activity against expected
Different boilers and fuels require need to know both the speed of the time to complete the project. For
different terminals. object and the direction in which it is example, it might highlight that
travelling. It is measured in metres per poor quality of work and low safety
Throat the inside face.
second (m/s). standards could apply to someone
Throating a slight indentation that completing work ahead of schedule. It
Water hammer caused by a rapid
the bending machine makes when the could also demonstrate that very slow
opening and closing of the float-
bend is formed. progress on a job would impact on
operated valve. As the water nears
Toolbox talk a toolbox talk is an the water level in the cistern, the ball labour costs. The competence of the
informal meeting to deal with matters valve can begin to bounce quickly up plumber is very important and their
of health and safety in the workplace and down and from side to side. This performance must be assessed carefully.
and safe working practices. They are causes the noise to travel down the Zinc chloride a corrosive substance
normally short meetings conducted pipework, resulting in reverberation or that can cause skin irritation, burns
on-site before the commencement a whining noise. It can also be caused and eye damage if it gets in the eye.
of the day’s work activities. Toolbox by a faulty washer or diaphragm. Zoning a process where living spaces
talks are an effective way of
Wavering out the process of water and sleeping spaces are individually
refreshing operatives’ knowledge and
in traps in appliances moving with a controlled via independent time
communicating the company’s health
wave-like motion because of pressure clocks, room thermostats and
and safety culture.
fluctuations due to exposure to winds. motorised zone valves.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1

Index
Note: page numbers in bold indicate automatic air valves 393 bidets 475–6
location of key term definitions. automatic bypass valves 393 backflow risk 348
automatic disconnection of supply connections to 269
A (ADS) 552 biomass 419, 528, 529
ABS 132 average conditions 551 delivery requirements 537
soil/vent pipes 100–1, 501 B restrictions on use of 538–9
AC (alternating current) 550–1 back siphonage 244 storage requirements 535–6
ACAS 180 air gap prevention devices 243–9 black water 208
acceleration 151 DC pipe interrupter 249–50 bladder (bag) type
due to gravity 151 HC diverter with automatic return accumulators 226–7
accent 178 255 expansion vessels 329–30
accidents 16 risks of 240–1 blockages
preventing 16–26 backflow prevention 240–55 in guttering 456
recording and reporting 40 air gaps as method of 243–9 sanitary systems 517–18
responding to 33–40 Document G Guidance 291 blowing 119
tools involved in 76–7 mechanical devices for 250–5 boiler cycling 365, 366
accumulators 226–7, 314, 315–16 non-mechanical 249–50 boiler interlock 369, 401, 406
acetylene 47, 48 point-of-use protection 242 boilers
oxyacetylene equipment 48–50 whole site protection 241–2 ‘combi’ 317–18, 363, 382
actual capacity (cisterns) 234 zoned protection 242 condensing boiler pipework
acute injury 30 backflow risks, appliances 241, 348 497–8
adhesion 141 balanced forces in equilibrium flue systems for 385–7
advisory (guidance) 15 159–60 gas burning 380–4
aeration of water 211, 373 balancing low loss headers 396, 397–8
aesthetically pleasing 109 central heating 393 management systems 405
air admittance valves (AAVs) 465–6 secondary circulation 352 oil-fired 384–5
air gaps, backflow prevention 243–9 base units 128 replacement standards 402
air infiltration 399 bathrooms solid fuel appliances 378–80
air release valves, radiators 390, layout 484–5 boiling point of water 139
423 pipework installation 269–70 and pressure 327, 328, 337, 374
air source heat pumps 419 refurbishment 508–9 bonding 552–4
airlocks 271–2, 355 baths 476–7 equipotential 46
aluminium guttering systems 440 backflow risks 348 boost mixing valves, shower 262–3
amp (and milliamp) 38 dressing 504, 505 booster/boosting pumps
annealing 75, 76, 85–6 installing and testing 506 break cisterns 237–8
anodising 138, 139 removal of cast iron 514 multi-storey buildings 220–3
anti-freeze solution (glycol) 139, 141 tap hole and waste 477–8 private water supplies 225–6
anti-gravity valves 394 traps 487 replacing 280
appointed person 34 whirlpool/air spa 478 shower 264, 344–5
aquifers 203 benchmarking 121 boreholes 203, 224, 225
Archimedes’ screw 157, 536 bending bottle traps 487
architects 166 copper tube 81–6 bottled gases 47–52
asbestos 24–6, 515 low carbon steel pipe 93–5 Boyle’s law 143, 331–2
regulation 9 polybutylene pipe 98–9 brass
atoms 543–4 Bernoulli effect/principle 154, 317 compression fittings 97

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 Index

de-zincification of 136 Celsius scale 144 installation requirements 230–2

pipe clips 110 central heating systems 361–435 large-scale 233–5
British Standards 176 alternative designs 376–8 materials for 233
central heating systems 362, appliances and boilers 378–85 multi-storey buildings 220–3
388, 426 decommissioning 431–2 multiple installations 235–7
cold water systems 212, 213 district heating 423–4 overflow/warning pipe 233
fuel systems 526, 531 electrical controls 400–5 stagnation prevention 232
hot water systems 292, 322, filling and venting 422–3 water regulations 229–30
349 flue systems 385–7 clerk of works (CoW) 167
pipe threads 76 fuel selection 423 clients 165–6, 181–2
rainwater systems 437, 441, ‘green’ technologies 417–22 coal 527, 532–3
444, 446 heat emitters 387–92 codes of practice 15, 176, 484, 500
sanitation systems 484–5, 499 information sources 361–2 cohesion 141
BSP/T (British Standard Pipe/ installing and testing 424–7 coke 527
Thread) 76 layouts and types 363–76 cold water systems 201–84
buffer tanks 398 maintenance 427–31 backflow protection 240–56
building control officer 167–8 mechanical components 392– commissioning 272–3
Building Regulations 12–13 400 decommissioning 280–1
central heating systems 361–2 system design and control 405–7 frost protection 238–9
cold water systems 213 underfloor 408–13, 414–17 information sources 212–14
Compliance certificates 121, 354 zoning 413–14 installation 256–73
hot water systems 285–6, 353 centralised hot water systems 294 maintenance 274–80
rainwater systems 442, 446 ‘combi’ boilers 317–18 multi-storey dwellings 220–3
sanitation systems 498 instantaneous multi-point 317 private water supplies 223–9
building services industry open vented systems 295–308 regulations 240
information sources 172–6 solar thermal 319–20 sources of water 202–3
legislation specific to 13 thermal stores 318–19 storage cisterns 229–38
role of construction team 164–72 unvented systems 308–16 supply to dwellings 206–8,
site responsibilities 181–4 centre to centre 107 214–17
burns, treating minor 35 ceramic 132, 468 testing 271–2
C disc taps 261–2, 278 water distribution 211–12
C-plan plus (two-pipe) semi-gravity cesspits 496 water treatment process 208–11
system 368 chamfer 101 colour coding
C-plan (two-pipe) system 366–7 Charles’s law, gases 143 electric cable insulation 544
cables, electric 544–5, 561–4 chases in walls 107 of pipework 256
calorific value (CV) 525 chemicals 21–6 combination (‘combi’) boilers
cancellation rights, contracts 174 CHP (combined heat and power) 529 317–18, 363, 382
capacity (of a cable) 545 chronic injury 30 combustion 52
capillary action, ‘S’ traps 492 circuit breakers (CBs) 557 and the need for flues 385–7
capillary attraction 140 lock out devices 45, 559 communication 177–9
capillary fittings 87–8 circuits, electrical 546–60 with the client 181
cast iron circulating pumps 372–3, 412 effects of poor 180–1
boilers 381–2 replacing 427–8 competent persons 6
guttering 439–40, 454, 455–6 cisterns 230 Compliance certificates 121, 354,
health and safety 515 break 237–8 513
waste pipes 501 float operated valves 231–2, comply 3
CDM Regulations (2015) 10–11, 166 258–60 composite valves 333

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compression 463 decommissioning 122, 515–16 regulations 6, 12, 13

and loss of tap/trap seal 491 central heating systems 431–2 systems of supply 554–6
compression fittings/joints cold water systems 280–1 wiring 561–4
brass 97 hot water systems 354–5 electrolyte 136
copper tube 88–9 rainwater systems 456 electrolytic corrosion 399
low carbon steel 96 sanitary systems 514–15 hot water storage cylinders 307
polybutylene pipe 99 delegation 186 electrolytic water conditioner 265
polyethylene 97 derived units 127, 128 electron flow 543–4
conciliation 180 deviate 505 energy 144, 149–50
condensate 497 dew point 383 engineers, specialist 166–7
condensing boilers 381, 383 dialect 178 environmental technologies 417–22
low loss headers 396, 398 discharge pipework equilibrium 159–60
termination of condensate 497–8 Document G Guidance 288 equipment see also tools
conduction 147–8 sanitary systems 460–6 regulations 3–4
conductivity 134 unvented hot water systems equipotential bonding 46
conductors 544–5 333–7 erroneous 213
construction site staff 164–72 district heating 387, 423–4, 529 Essex flange 324
controls diverted neutral currents 553, 554 evaporation 491
central heating 400–5 documents, on-site 172–4 excavations, safe working 63–4
hot water systems 326–33 downtime 560 expansion
space heating zones 413–14 drainage systems and contraction 148, 342–3,
convection 148–9 above-ground 498–9 424, 511
cordless tools 44 below-ground 492–6 joints 399
corrosion (of metals) 130, 136–7 heath hazards 516 vessels 329–32, 394, 422
protection 138–9, 307, 399– dressing (an appliance) 390, 504, explosion risks 537–8
400 505 exposed conductive parts 552
COSHH Regulations (2002) 4–5 drinking water filters 266 extraneous conductive parts 553,
CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) duty of care 229 554
38–9 duty holders 7, 11 eye injuries/protection 28, 36
craft operatives 170–1 dynamic water pressure 153, 315 F
cranes 33 E fan-assisted room sealed boilers
crimping 79 ear defenders 30 386–7
cross-connection 255–6 earthing 552 fan convectors 391
cross-flow 463–4 arrangements 554–6 filling
CSCS card 181 electric shock 41 central heating systems 426–7
current 542 see also electricity dealing with 38 of closed circuits, guidance 291
customers 181–2 protection against 550–4 initial system fill 350
communicating with 181–2, electric storage heaters 423 loop, sealed system 396, 422,
280–1 electrical conductivity 134 423, 427
handover to 121, 174, 354, 514 electricity filtration of water 209–11, 266
cuts, treating minor 35 circuits 546–9 fire safety 52–3
D conductors and insulators 544–5 fire stop 119
DB pipe interrupter 252–3 health and safety 40–6 fireclay 132, 468
DC (direct current) 551 isolation of 45–6, 280, 558–60 first aid
DC pipe interrupter 249–50 measuring 549–50 provision 33–4
de-zincification of brass 136 principles of 542–4 regulations 9
dead leg 322 protective devices 556–8 fixes, installation 114–15, 186–7

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 Index

flashback 49 centre of 158 mechanical lifting aids 32–3

float operated valves 231–2, 258– drainage systems 498–9 personal protective equipment
60 water distribution by 211 (PPE) 26–30
repairing/replacing 279–80 gravity circulation 363 rainwater systems 446–7, 448,
float switches 227–8 convection 148–9 454, 455, 456
floc 210 semi-gravity heating 364–8 risk assessments 17–18, 189–
floorboards, lifting 104–5 grey water 206–7, 518 95
flow rate 151, 154–5 harvesting 207–8, 421–2, sanitary systems 475, 514–15,
central heating systems 398 518–20 516, 517
checking hot water 351 ground source heat pumps 418–19 scaffolds and platforms 58–63
guttering 444 underfloor heating 408, 411 Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
flue systems 385–7 guardrails 61–2 10
fluid categories 204–6 Guidance Note GS38 559 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act
flushing guttering systems 437–40 (1974) 2–3
central heating systems 429 size and type 440–5 hearing protection 30
hot water systems 350–1 thermal expansion 445 heat emitters 387–92
urinals 480–2 H heat exchangers 299
WCs 469–72 hand tools 69–77 cast iron, in boilers 381–2
fluxes 23, 87–8 handover to customer 121, 174, hot water storage cylinders
force 151–2, 155–7, 158, 159–60 354, 514 298–9, 301–2
forced draught flues 386, 387 hardness solar thermal panels 320
frost protection 238–9, 404 of materials 134 thermal stores 318–19
fuel oil 141, 526 water 140, 265 heat pumps 418–19, 528
storage of 533–4 hazards 1 heat transfer methods 147–9
fuels for domestic use 524–30 COSHH regulations (2002) 4–5 height, working at 446–7
installation regulations 531–2 drainage systems 516 access equipment 54–63
reasons for choosing 530–1 electrical 40–6 regulations (2005) 7
storage requirements 532–9 identifying 16–26, 190 hot water systems 285–360
full-way gate valves 257 protective equipment 26–30, centralised 295–320
fully pumped system 363 191 choice of 293–4
fume exposure 36–7 head (static water pressure) 152–3 components and controls 326–
functional controls 328–9 health and safety 37
fuses 556–7 accidents 16–26, 33–40 decommissioning 354–5
G cold water systems 233, 274 factors affecting 292–3
galvanic corrosion 136 confined spaces 64–5 fault finding 355–6
Gantt charts 172–3 electricity 40–6, 544, 550, 551, installation 341–9
gas central heating boilers 380–4 554, 558 layouts and types of 247, 294
gas fuels excavations and trenches 63–4 localised 320–2
LPG 525–6, 534–5 hand and power tools 76–7, 79 regulations 285–90
natural gas 142, 423, 524–5 hazardous substances 16–26 safety features 337–40
gases 142–3 heat-producing tools 47–53 secondary circulation 322–6,
bottled 47–50 injuries, dealing with 35–9 352
refrigerants 141 inspectors 171 testing and commissioning
safety regulations 13, 291 ladders 54–8 349–54
specific gravity 130 Legionella risk 353 hydraulic bending machine 78, 93
glycol 141 legislation and regulations 1–16 hydraulic flush control valve 482
gravity manual handling 30–2 hydrogen boilers 384

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I L central heating systems 427–31

IET Wiring Regulations 13, 291 ladders 54–8, 447 cold water systems 274–80
immersion heaters 297–8, 341–2, 355 foot a ladder 57 guttering 453–6
incidents, reporting 5–6 large-scale cisterns 233–5 sanitation systems 516–18
induced siphonage 490 lead 131 work programme 185
industry standards 291–2 leadlocks 102 ‘making good’ 123
infrared thermometers 145, 351 regulation 8–9 mandatory (guidance) 15
inhibitors working with 22–3, 270, 515 safety sign 20
corrosion 399–400 leakages manifolds 411–12, 414
limescale 265 acetylene cylinder 50 microbore 376, 377, 425
injuries 30 cold water systems 272 manual handling 30–1
dealing with 35–9 gutters, repairing 453–4 regulations 8
reporting of 5–6 hot water systems 352 manufacturers’ instructions 176
inspectors 15–16, 171–2 Legionella risk, hot water systems cold water systems 213–14, 274
insulation 353 hot water systems 292
electric cables 544–5 legislation 1, 176 materials
pipework 238–9, 325, 342 accident reporting 5–6, 40 delivery 186
storage cylinders 305 building services-specific 13 guttering 437–40, 452
integral solder rings 87 construction-specific 10–13 pipe insulation 239
interconnected cisterns 235–7 first aid provision 33–4 pipework 425
intumescent collars 119 health and safety 1–10 properties of 129–43
IP2X and IP4X 551 smoke control 530 sanitary appliances 467–8
iron 130 see also cast iron levers 155–6 sanitary pipework 500–1,
threaded fittings 95 lifting aids, mechanical 32–3 514–15
isolation (of services) 432 see lifting techniques 31–2 storage of 108–9
also decommissioning limescale inhibitors 265 matter, states of 146
cold water supply 272, 274 liquids, properties of 139–42 mCHP (micro-combined heat and
electricity 45–6, 280, 558–60 local authority 167–8 power) 419–20
valves 257–8 notifying of works carried out measurement units 127–9
J 353, 512–13 mechanical advantage 155, 156,
job specifications 172, 185–6 localised hot water systems 320–2 158
jointing methods low carbon fuels 528–30 mechanical principles 155–60
copper tubes 86–91 low carbon steel pipes 92–6, 111, mechanical suction 496
guttering 437–40, 452 120, 425 metals 130–1
low carbon steel pipe 95–6 low loss headers 396–8 corrosion 135–7, 138–9
plastic pipes 97–8, 100–1 LPG (liquid petroleum gas) 50–1, properties 132–4
sanitary appliances 209 142, 525–6 method statement 18, 195, 196
joists storage 51–2, 534–5 microbore system 376–7
and lifting floorboards 104–5 lubricants 141–2 moments of a force (torque) 158
notching and drilling 105–7 M momentum 492
polybutylene cabling 115 macerators 482 motion: action and reaction 158–9
suspended timber floors 267–8, main earthing terminal (MET) 553, motorised valves 404
416 554 multi-disciplinary approach 167
K main protective bonding conductor multi-section ladders 55–6
Kelvin scale 145 553 multi-storey buildings 220
kerosene 141, 526, 533–4 maintenance 122 cold water systems in 220–3
kinetic lifting 31 large-scale cisterns 233–7

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 Index

multiple installations P pressure testing 426

boilers 397 parasitic circulation 295–6 primary water 298
cisterns 235–7 passive (of a metal) 135 private water supply (PWS)
self-sealing traps 489 PAT test 6 components used 225–9
waste appliances 466, 490 peat 528 regulations (2016) 213
MuPVC soil/vent pipes 100–1, 501 performance testing 510–11 system layouts 223–5
N personal protective equipment (PPE) professional authority, limits to 175
naphtha 525 26–30 programmers, heating control 403
natural draught flues 386, 387 regulations (1992) 4 progress of work, monitoring 189
natural gas 142, 524–5 pipe gain 85 prohibition 9
noggins 105, 113 pipe interrupters 249–50, 252–3 propane 47, 51, 52, 525–6
noise issues pipework proving units 559
cold water systems 271 bending and jointing 80–102 pulleys 156–7
hot water systems 355–6 cold water systems 266–70 pumps see also booster/boosting
nominal capacity (of a cistern) 234 colour coding 256 pumps
non-condensing boilers 381, 382 installation techniques 114–23 circulating 372–3, 412
notification procedure 353, 512–13 sanitary 460–7 heat 418–19, 528
O plastics 131–2 private water supply 225–6
Ohm’s law 543, 546–7, 548, 558 degradation of 138 shower 264, 344–5
oil 423, 526, 532 sanitation pipes 100–2 push-fit fittings/joints
storage of 533–4 plugs, wiring 562–3 benefits and drawbacks 501
oil-fired boilers 295, 317, 384–5 policies and procedures 173, 174–5 for copper tube 89–90
one-pipe system, central heating polybutylene (PB-1) pipe 98–9, 132 plastic 97–8
365–6 clippings/supports 111–12 polybutylene pipe 99
open vented central heating systems expansion 342–3 polypropylene waste pipe 102
364–74 installing 115, 425–6 soil/vent pipes 101
open vented hot water storage life expectancy 266–7 PVC cables 563–4
systems 295–6 testing 120, 271 PVCu 100
cylindered 303–7 polyethylene (PE) pipes 97–8, 132 clipping distances 111
direct 295–8 polypropylene (PP) 102, 132 gutter installation 448–52
faults with 355–6 cisterns 233 gutter leakage 453–4
indirect 298–303 push-fit waste pipes 102, 111, guttering systems 437–9
initial system fill 350 501 jointing methods 100–1
pipe sizes 307–8 portable appliance test (PAT test) 6 replacing cast iron gutters with
secondary circulation installations potable 204 455–6
323–4 power 149–50, 549 soil pipe fittings 101–2
vent pipes 337 power flushing 429 thermal expansion 445
vs unvented 316 power tools 77–9 Q
outriggers 60 PPE regulations 4 qualitative method 193
over sink water heaters 321, 322 press-fit fittings, copper tube 90–1 quantitative approach 192
overheads 168 pressure ‘quick recovery’ cylinders 304–5
overload (of a circuit) 545 gases 142, 143 R
protection against 558 water 152–3, 315 radiation 149
oxidation of metals 135 pressure filters 210–11 radiators 388–92
oxidative degradation of plastics 138 pressure gauge 396 faults, rectifying 430–1
oxyacetylene equipment 48–50 pressure reducing valves 315, 329 positioning 426
oxygen, bottled liquid 47 pressure relief valves 332, 395–6 replacing 428

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valves 392–4, 428–9 power tools 79 for WC flushing 471, 472

versus underfloor heating 408 safety signs 19–20 siphonic type WC pan 469–70
rainfall intensity 440–1 regulations 8 skirting heating 392
rainwater cycle 201–2 sand filters 209–10 sludge
rainwater harvesting 207–8, 420–1, sanitation systems 460–523 corrosion inhibitor 399–400
518–20 appliances 467–98 power flushing 429, 431
rainwater systems 436–59 grey water recycling 518–20 problems of 399
decommissioning 456 installation of 498–516 and water treatment 209, 210
installation 446–53 pipework 460–7 snagging 115
layouts 436–45 servicing/maintenance 516–18 soakaway 495
maintenance 453–6 scaffolds 58–61, 446 soil pipe/stack 460
testing 457 schmutzdecke 210 connection to the drain 503
recovery position 39 scientific principles 127–50 jointing methods and fittings
rectification 115 electricity 542–4 100–2
recycling of water 207–8, 421–2, energy, heat and power 144–50 pipework systems 461–6
518–20 force and pressure 151–5 unblocking 517–18
refrigerants 141 mechanical principles 155–60 waste pipe connections to 502
regulatory bodies 531–2 properties of materials 129–44 solar photovoltaic system 418
relative density/specific gravity SI measurement units 127–9 solar thermal systems 319–20,
129–30, 139 screwdrivers 69–70, 564 417–18, 528
renewable energy sealed heating systems 374–6 soldering
hot water cylinders 301–2 components of 376 capillary fittings 87–8
low-carbon fuels 528–30 expansion in 424 equipment 75
technologies 417–22 filling 396, 427 fire precautions 52, 118
residual current device (RCD) 558 secondary circulation 322–6, 352 risk calculation 192–3
resistance, electric 542–3 secondary water 298, 299 solid fuel 423, 526–8, 532
in series and parallel 546–9 sedimentation 209 appliances 378–80
resistivity 544 semi-gravity heating systems 364–8 solids
respirators 28–9 and anti-gravity valves 394 applications of 130–2
reversed return system 377–8 septic tanks 196, 496 corrosion 135–7, 138–9
rippling 75, 76 service valves 115, 236–7 degradation (plastics) 138
risk assessments 17–18, 189–95 sheeting out 59 properties of 132–4
risk calculation formula 192 short circuit 558 solvent weld 501
roof area 441–2 shower mixer valves 262–4 joints 100
room sealed (balanced) flues 386–7 installation of 343–7 waste pipe fittings 102
rosin 23 maintenance of 355 solvents, working with 23–4
rust formation 135–6 showers soundness testing
S bases/trays 478–9 central heating pipework 425
S-plan heating system 370–1, 406 cubicles/enclosures 479 hot water systems 350
S-plan plus heating system 374–5 pumps 264 rainwater systems 457
safety issues see also health and single check (non-return) valve 329 sanitation systems 510
safety single feed, self-venting indirect specific gravity 129
fuel storage 537–8 cylinder 302–3 of gases 130, 525, 526
hand tools 70, 71, 76–7 sink waste disposal units 484 of water 129, 139
hot water temperature 327–8, sinks 479–80 specific heat capacity 139, 144,
337 siphonage 489–90 149–50
open vent pipe 374 siphonic action 153–4 spigot 101

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 Index

spring bending, copper tube 81, thermal conductivity 134, 148, 239 tubular traps 486–7
85–6 thermal degradation, plastics 138 tundish, discharge pipework 332–3
stagnation prevention, cisterns 232 thermal radiation 149 turbidity 209
static water pressure (head) 152–3, thermal stores 295, 318–19 U
315 thermistors 145 unconscious people 37–8
steam 140, 142, 146–7 thermocouples 145 under-sink heaters 311
sterilisation, water treatment 211 thermometers 145–6 underfloor heating systems 408–13
stop valves 215–17, 257, 258, 272 thermoplastic cables 563–4 unit conversion tables 128
stratification 343, 344 thermoplastics 131 unvented hot water storage systems
strength of a material 132–3 thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs) 308–11
stub stack system 465 337, 339–40 accumulators 314, 315–16
supervisors 168–9, 175, 182–4 group installations 338–9 commissioning 349–50
supplementary bonding 553 showers 263–4 cylinders 311–14
surveyors 166, 171 single installations 338 discharge pipework 333–7
sweating a joint 23 underfloor heating 412 functional controls 328–33
symbols, plumbing 122–3 uses of 342 pipework arrangement 311
T thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) secondary circulation installation
taps 260–2 392 323
backflow prevention 248–9, thermostats shower mixing valves 346–7
254–5 checking 355, 356 vs open vented 316
holes for 474, 477 frost and pipe 404 unwholesome water 206–8
installing 504 high-limit 341, 370 urinals 480–2
maintenance tasks 275–9 immersion heaters 298, 341–2 UV (ultraviolet) degradation 138
stop taps 216–17, 257 room 403 V
temper (of a metal) 81 safety controls, hot water 327–8 variation orders 187–8
temperature 144–5 thermo-mechanical 393–4 velocity 151, 154
checking hot water 351 throat 84 vent pipes
of gases 143 throating 75, 76, 84 hot water systems 295, 307–8
measuring 145–6 time allocation, work tasks 186–7 open 337, 372, 374
sensors 229 time clocks 324–5, 403 sanitary systems 460–6
temperature relief valves 337 toe boards 61–2 venturi mixing shower valve 262–3
Document G Guidance 288, 290 toolbox talk 189 voltage (V) 542, 543
temporary continuity bonding 46, tools 69–80 colour coding for site 41–2
432, 553 regulations 3 drop in 545, 547
tender 187 storing 108–9 indicators 45–6, 559, 560
terminal (of a flue system) 386 wiring jobs 561, 563, 564 volume of a gas 143
termination torque 158 W
condensing boiler pipework towel warmers 391, 391–2 W-plan heating system 370, 372,
497–8 trace heating 326 376, 404
discharge pipework 335–7 trades, construction site 169–71 warm air systems 423
electric cables 561–2, 563–4 transducers 228 washbasins 472–5
testing procedures 119–20 traps 485–9 backflow risks 348
central heating systems 425–6 cleaning out 516–17 installation of 506–7
hot water systems 349, 350 reasons for loss of seal 489–92 mixing valves 338–9
PAT testing 43 testing seal depth 510–11 traps 485, 487, 489
rainwater systems 453, 457 trenches, working in 63–4 waste pipes 462
sanitation systems 510–11 tubular scaffolds 60–1 waste arrangements

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baths 477–8 water softeners 265–6 wheel and axle 156

shower trays 479 water sources 202–3 wholesome water 204
wash basins 474–5 Water Supply (Water Fittings) wiring
waste disposal units 483, 484 Regulations (1999) 13, 240 IET regulations 13, 291
waste pipes 462–7, 495, 501 backflow risk 242–3 plugs 562–3
connecting to soil stack 502 cold water systems 212–13, 217, systems, installing 561–4
unblocking 518 229–30 work permits 18
waste water lifters 483 frost protection 238–9 work programmes 184–9
Water Act (2003) 206 hot water supply 286–91 working drawings 122–3, 172
water conditioners 265 water treatment 208–11 working platforms 62–3
water distribution 211–12 scale reduction 264–6 working policies/procedures 174–5
pipework to dwelling 214–17 wavering out 491 workplace conflicts 179–80
water filters, drinking water 266 WCs 469–72 Y
water hammer 259 blocked 518 Y-plan heating system 369–70, 372,
water hardness/softness 140 cistern assembly 505 375, 376
water inspectors 171–2 installation of 507–9 Z
water meters, fitting 216 macerators 482 zinc 131, 136
water pressure 152–3, 315 weather compensation controls zinc chloride 23
checking 351 404–5 zone valves
low due to airlocks 271–2 wells, water from 203 C-plan plus) 368
and poor mains supply 314–15 wet central heating 363–76 S-Plan 370–1, 406
transducers 228 see also radiators S-plan plus 374–5
water properties 139–41 boilers for 383–4 zoning 370, 401, 413–14
fluid categories 204–6 minimum controls 401

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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plumbing Book 1, Second Edition
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