ROBOTICS

History of Robotics

Robotics is an interdisciplinary field that merges engineering, computer science, mathematics, and
other sciences to design, construct, operate, and use robots. These robots can be anything from
industrial arms used in manufacturing to autonomous vehicles, drones, AI companions, or even
humanoid robots.

The background of robotics can be traced back to ancient times with various automata and
mechanical devices designed by inventors and engineers. However, the modern concept of robotics
began to take shape in the 20th century, particularly after the advent of computers and the digital
age.

Key milestones in the history of robotics include:

1. Early Development: Concepts of automatons and mechanical devices date back to ancient
civilizations like Greece, China, and Egypt. These were often designed as simple machines to
mimic human or animal actions.

2. Industrial Revolution: The industrial era saw the development of machines that performed
repetitive tasks, such as textile weaving machines. This period laid the groundwork for
industrial automation.

3. Emergence of Computers: The integration of computers and automation in the mid-20th

century led to the birth of modern robotics. Researchers like George Devol and Joseph
Engelberger developed the first industrial robot, the Unimate, which was used in assembly
lines.

4. Advancements in AI: As artificial intelligence (AI) evolved, robotics became more

sophisticated. Robots could now sense, process information, and act in more complex
environments. Research in computer vision, machine learning, and neural networks
enhanced robot capabilities.

Diversification of Applications: Robotics expanded beyond industrial settings into various

domains, including healthcare (surgical robots), exploration (space and deep-sea
exploration), logistics (warehouse automation), entertainment (robotic pets), and more.

Ethical and Social Considerations: With the advancement of robotics and AI, ethical
concerns regarding job displacement, privacy, autonomy, and the impact on society have
gained prominence. This has led to discussions and efforts to establish guidelines and
regulations.

Currently, robotics continues to evolve rapidly, driven by advancements in AI, sensors, materials, and
computational power. The focus is on creating robots that are more intelligent, versatile, and
capable of interacting seamlessly with humans in various environments while addressing ethical and
safety concerns.

Basic components of robot

Robots consist of several fundamental components that enable them to sense, process information,
and act upon their environment. Here are the basic components of a typical robot:
 1. Sensors: These are devices that enable robots to perceive and collect data from the
environment. Sensors can include cameras for vision, ultrasonic sensors for distance
measurement, touch sensors, gyroscopes for orientation, accelerometers for detecting
motion, and more. These sensors provide essential feedback for the robot to make
decisions.

2. Actuators: Actuators are mechanisms responsible for the robot's movement or action based
on the information received from sensors. They convert energy into motion. Examples
include electric motors, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators, and servos. Each type of
actuator serves specific purposes, enabling the robot to perform tasks.

3. Controller/Processor: The controller or processor serves as the brain of the robot. It

processes the information gathered from sensors, makes decisions based on programming
or AI algorithms, and sends commands to the actuators to perform specific actions.
Depending on the complexity of the robot, this can range from simple microcontrollers to
advanced computing systems.

4. Mechanical Structure: This refers to the physical body and frame of the robot. It
encompasses the design and construction of the robot, including joints, limbs, wheels, or
any other form required for mobility or manipulation. The mechanical structure dictates the
robot's capabilities and range of movements.

5. Power Source: Robots require energy to operate. This can be in the form of batteries,
electricity, hydraulic power, or other sources depending on the specific needs of the robot.
The power source provides the necessary energy for the actuators and the overall operation
of the robot.

6. End Effectors/Grippers: These are tools or attachments at the end of a robot's arm or body
that allow it to interact with its environment. Grippers, for example, enable the robot to
grasp, hold, or manipulate objects. End effectors can vary widely based on the robot's
intended tasks, ranging from simple claws to complex tools.

These components work together in a coordinated manner, with sensors collecting information, the
controller processing it, and the actuators executing actions, allowing the robot to perform its
designated tasks efficiently and accurately.

Laws of Robotics

The "Laws of Robotics" were conceptualized by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov. In his stories,
Asimov formulated these laws as a way to govern the behavior of robots, providing ethical
guidelines for their interactions with humans. These laws are:

1. First Law: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm. This law prioritizes human safety above all else and requires a robot to
prevent harm to humans, even if it means overriding other commands.

2. Second Law: A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law. This law emphasizes the importance of human
commands and authority, as long as those commands do not contradict the First Law.

3. Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law. This law highlights self-preservation for robots,
 allowing them to act in ways to ensure their continued functionality and existence, provided
it doesn't endanger humans.

Classification of robot

Robots can be classified based on various criteria, including their application, design, control
mechanisms, and more. Here's a brief overview of the classifications of robots:

1. Based on Application:

 Industrial Robots: Industrial robots are programmable machines designed to

automate tasks in manufacturing and industrial settings. They're equipped with
mechanical arms, sensors, and control systems, allowing them to perform a wide
range of repetitive, precise, and often complex tasks.

 Industrial robots have revolutionized manufacturing by enhancing efficiency,

consistency, and safety in various industries. They can handle tasks such as
assembly, welding, painting, pick-and-place operations, packaging, and quality
inspection. These robots are programmable, adaptable, and can be integrated into
existing production lines, improving productivity and reducing human error.

Components of industrial robot

Industrial robots consist of several key components that work together to facilitate their
functionality:

1. Controller: The brain of the robot, where the programming and control systems are
housed. It interprets instructions, manages movements, and coordinates the robot's
functions.

2. Manipulator: The arm-like structure responsible for movement and performing tasks. It
consists of joints, links, and end-effectors. The number of joints determines the degrees
of freedom the robot possesses.

3. End-Effector: The tool or device attached to the end of the robot's manipulator that
interacts with the workpiece. Grippers, welding torches, suction cups, or specialized
tools are examples of end-effectors.

4. Sensors: Various sensors are integrated into robots to provide feedback about the
environment, positioning, force, or object detection. These sensors can include
cameras, proximity sensors, force/torque sensors, and more.

5. Drive Mechanisms: Actuators and drive systems enable motion within the robot.
Electric motors, pneumatic systems, hydraulics, or other actuators power the joints and
movement of the manipulator.

6. Power Supply: Robots require a power source to operate their components. Depending
on the type of actuators used, this can be electrical power, compressed air for
pneumatic systems, or hydraulic power for hydraulic actuators.
 7. Teaching Pendant or Interface: This is a user interface that allows operators or
programmers to interact with the robot, input commands, modify programs, or teach
the robot new tasks.

These components work together seamlessly to enable the robot to perform its
designated tasks accurately and efficiently within an industrial setting. Each component
plays a critical role in the overall functionality and capability of the robot.

Types of Grippers

Industrial robots use various types of grippers to manipulate and handle objects. Grippers
are essential end-effectors that attach to the robot's arm and are responsible for grasping,
holding, and releasing objects during various tasks. Here are some common types of grippers
used in industrial robots:

 Parallel Grippers: These grippers have two opposing jaws that move parallel to
each other, enabling them to grasp objects from two sides. They are versatile and
can handle a wide range of object shapes and sizes.

 Three-Fingered Grippers: Similar to human fingers, these grippers have three

fingers or digits that can adjust to different object shapes. They're useful for
handling irregularly shaped items and providing more flexible grasping options.

 Vacuum Grippers: These grippers use suction to hold objects securely. They're
suitable for handling objects with smooth, flat surfaces like sheets of glass, metal,
or plastic.

 Angular Grippers: Angular grippers have jaws that move at an angle to each other.
They're advantageous for gripping objects in confined spaces or when a specific
angle is required for the grasp.

 Magnetic Grippers: These grippers use magnets to hold ferromagnetic objects

securely. They are used when other gripping methods might not be feasible due to
the nature of the objects or the environment.

 Soft Grippers: These grippers use compliant materials like rubber or silicone to
grasp delicate or irregularly shaped objects gently. They're suitable for handling
fragile items without causing damage.

 Hybrid Grippers: Some grippers combine multiple mechanisms, such as having both
vacuum and mechanical gripper features, providing flexibility in handling various
types of objects

Applications:

 Automotive Industry: Robotic arms are extensively used in car manufacturing for
welding, painting, assembly of components, and handling heavy materials. They
ensure precision and speed in repetitive tasks.

 Electronics Manufacturing: In electronics, robots handle delicate tasks like circuit

board assembly, soldering, and precision placement of components. They ensure
high accuracy in small-scale operations.
  Food and Beverage Industry: Industrial robots are employed for packaging,
palletizing, sorting, and even food handling (with specialized sanitary robots). They
streamline processes and maintain hygiene standards.

 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare: Robots assist in pharmaceutical production by

handling vials, packaging medicines, and performing tasks in sterile environments. In
healthcare, they aid in surgeries and rehabilitation.

 Aerospace Industry: Robots are utilized in aircraft manufacturing for drilling,

riveting, painting, and inspection, contributing to the precision and quality of
components.

 Logistics and Warehousing: With advancements in robotic technologies, robots are

employed in warehouses for tasks like sorting, picking, and packing orders,
optimizing supply chain operations.

 General Manufacturing: Across various industries, robots are utilized for general
manufacturing tasks like material handling, machine tending, quality control, and
more.

These applications showcase the versatility and significance of industrial robots in

automating processes, improving productivity, ensuring precision, and even
performing tasks that might be hazardous or repetitive for humans. The adaptability
of industrial robots continues to expand their role in transforming modern
manufacturing and industrial operations.

 Medical Robots: Used in healthcare for surgical procedures, rehabilitation,

diagnostics, and medication dispensing.

 Service Robots: Assist in various service sectors like cleaning, security,

entertainment, and customer service.

 Exploration Robots: Deployed in environments where humans cannot easily reach,

like space, deep sea, or disaster zones.

2. Based on Configuration:

 Stationary Robots: Fixed in one place, performing tasks within a confined area.

 Mobile Robots: Able to move within their environment, such as wheeled, legged, or
flying robots.

 Manipulator Robots: Comprising arms or limbs for manipulation and interaction

with objects.

3. Based on Control:

 Autonomous Robots: Capable of operating independently based on pre-

programmed instructions or AI algorithms.

 Teleoperated Robots: Controlled remotely by humans, often used in hazardous

environments or intricate tasks.
 4. Based on Design:

 Articulated Robots: Feature rotary joints resembling human arms, providing

flexibility in movement.

 Cartesian Robots: Operate on three linear axes, typically in a rectangular coordinate

system.

 Parallel Robots: Utilize multiple parallel, independent robotic arms, ensuring

stability and precision.

 SCARA Robots: (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) Primarily used for
assembly tasks with horizontal reach.

 Delta Robots: Employed in high-speed pick-and-place operations, known for their

speed and precision.

5. Based on Intelligence:

 AI-Enabled Robots: Incorporate artificial intelligence for learning, decision-making,

and adapting to changing environments.

 Pre-Programmed Robots: Operate based on a predefined set of instructions without

learning or adaptation capabilities.

6. Based on Environment:

 Robots for Hazardous Environments: Designed to operate in places dangerous for

humans, like radioactive areas, deep sea, or space.

These classifications offer a framework to understand and categorize the diverse range of robots
based on their functionalities, structures, applications, and operational capabilities. Often, robots
can belong to multiple categories depending on their design and purpose.

Architecture of robot

The architecture of a robot encompasses its structural design, control systems, sensory mechanisms,
and overall functionality. Here's a brief overview of the typical architecture of a robot:

1. Physical Structure:

 Mechanical Components: This includes the physical body of the robot, such as arms,
joints, wheels, sensors, actuators, and any other structural elements necessary for
movement, manipulation, and interaction with the environment.

 End Effectors: Tools or attachments at the end of robotic arms or body used for
specific tasks, like grippers for grasping objects, sensors for scanning environments,
or specialized instruments for particular operations.

2. Sensors:

 Vision Sensors: Cameras and imaging systems for visual perception, object
recognition, and navigation.

 Tactile Sensors: Devices to sense touch, pressure, or texture, providing feedback for
object manipulation and interaction.
  Range Sensors: Ultrasonic, infrared, or laser sensors to measure distance and detect
obstacles in the robot's surroundings.

 Other Sensors: Gyroscopes, accelerometers, temperature sensors, etc., for

orientation, motion detection, and environmental monitoring.

3. Actuators:

 Motors: Electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic devices that convert energy into motion,
enabling the robot's movement and manipulation.

 Effectors: Grippers, tools, or specialized mechanisms that carry out specific tasks or
actions, controlled by the actuators.

4. Types of actuators:

Actuators are components in robots that convert energy into mechanical movement or
action. Here are some common types:
 Electric Actuators: These include motors like DC motors, stepper motors, and servo
motors. They're widely used for their precision, controllability, and varying torque
outputs.
 Pneumatic Actuators: Using compressed air, pneumatic actuators create motion.
Examples include pneumatic cylinders or pneumatic artificial muscles. They're
valued for their high force-to-weight ratio but may lack precision compared to
electric actuators.
 Hydraulic Actuators: These use fluid pressure to generate motion. Hydraulic
cylinders or hydraulic motors are common examples. They offer high force
capabilities but are often larger and used in heavy-duty applications.
 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Actuators: These actuators change shape when
subjected to temperature changes, making them useful for small-scale, precise
movements.
 Piezoelectric Actuators: These use piezoelectric materials that deform when a
voltage is applied, enabling precise and rapid movements. They're often used in
nanotechnology or small-scale applications.
 Electroactive Polymers (EAPs): EAPs change shape when an electric field is applied.
They're used in some specialized applications due to their ability to mimic natural
muscle movement.
o Different types of actuators offer unique advantages and are chosen based on the
specific requirements of the robot, such as precision, speed, force, and the
environment in which the robot operates

5. Control Systems:

 Controller/Processor: The brain of the robot responsible for processing sensory

inputs, making decisions, and sending commands to the actuators. It can range from
microcontrollers to sophisticated computing systems capable of running complex
algorithms and AI.
  Software and Algorithms: Programs and algorithms that govern the robot's
behavior, including navigation, motion planning, object recognition, and decision-
making processes.

6. Power Supply:

 Energy Source: Batteries, electricity, hydraulic power, or other sources providing

energy to operate the robot's components.

7. Communication Interface:

 Interfaces: Connectivity options for communication with external devices, human

operators, or other robots, allowing data exchange, remote control, or collaborative
tasks.

The architecture of a robot is intricately designed to integrate these components, enabling the robot
to sense its environment, process information, make decisions, and perform tasks effectively based
on its programming or AI capabilities. The specific architecture varies widely based on the robot's
intended application, complexity, and functionality

Workspace of robot

The workspace of a robot refers to the physical and geometric area within which the robot can
effectively perform its tasks. It's defined by the range of motion and reach of the robot's end-
effectors (tools, arms, or manipulators) in its operational environment. Understanding a robot's
workspace is crucial for planning tasks, designing operations, and ensuring the robot can reach all
necessary points.

1. Reachability:

 Spherical Workspace: Describes the volume of space a robot arm can cover, often
visualized as a sphere with the robot's base as the center and the maximum arm
extension as the radius.

 Cylindrical Workspace: In cases where the robot's movement is constrained, such as

in a linear path, the workspace might resemble a cylinder.

2. Degrees of Freedom (DOF):

 The number of independent directions or axes in which a robot's end-effector can

move determines its degrees of freedom. More DOF typically provide greater
flexibility and a larger workspace.

 For example, a robot arm with multiple joints can have six DOF, allowing movement
in three axes (x, y, z) and rotations around each axis.

3. Limitations and Constraints:

 Physical limitations such as joint angles, link lengths, or mechanical constraints can
restrict the robot's reach and affect its workspace.

 Obstacles or environmental constraints might also limit the robot's movement

within its workspace, requiring careful planning to avoid collisions or obstacles.

4. Visualization and Planning:

  Visualization tools like CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software or simulation
environments help engineers and operators visualize the robot's workspace,
enabling efficient task planning and motion simulation.

 Workspace analysis helps determine optimal placement, orientation, and

trajectories for the robot to achieve desired tasks without exceeding its limitations.

5. Adaptability and Mobility:

 Mobile robots or those with multiple configurations (such as modular robots) might
have adaptable workspaces, allowing them to navigate diverse environments and
perform various tasks.

Understanding and defining the workspace of a robot is critical for optimizing its performance,
ensuring safety, and enabling efficient task execution within its operational boundaries. Factors such
as reachability, constraints, degrees of freedom, and adaptability play key roles in determining a
robot's effective workspace.

Accuracy and Resolution

In the context of robotics, accuracy and resolution are crucial parameters that define the precision
and capabilities of a robot's movements or sensing abilities.

1. Accuracy:

 Movement Accuracy: Refers to how closely a robot can reach a specific target or
perform a task in comparison to the intended position. It measures the deviation
between the commanded position and the actual achieved position. Higher accuracy
means the robot can consistently perform tasks precisely.

 Sensing Accuracy: Relates to the precision with which sensors or measurement

devices can detect and report data. For example, in vision systems, accuracy might
refer to how precisely the robot identifies and locates objects in its environment.

2. Resolution:

 Movement Resolution: Describes the smallest incremental movement a robot can

make. It's akin to the robot's "sensitivity" in responding to control commands.
Robots with high movement resolution can make finer, more precise movements.

 Sensing Resolution: Represents the smallest detectable change in the sensed

parameter. For example, in sensors, resolution refers to the smallest change in
distance, force, temperature, etc., that the sensor can reliably detect.

Improving accuracy and resolution often involves advancements in hardware, control systems, and
sensors:

 High-precision Components: Integration of high-precision motors, gear systems, and

mechanical components can enhance movement accuracy.

 Advanced Control Algorithms: Using sophisticated control algorithms and feedback

mechanisms allows for better position control and correction.

 Higher-Resolution Sensors: Upgrading sensors or employing more sensitive and accurate

sensor technologies can improve sensing accuracy and resolution.
  Calibration and Tuning: Regular calibration and fine-tuning of robotic systems ensure that
they maintain their accuracy and resolution over time.

Achieving high levels of accuracy and resolution is essential in various robotic applications, especially
in fields such as manufacturing, surgery, and tasks requiring intricate movements or precise sensing
abilities. These parameters determine the reliability, efficiency, and effectiveness of the robot in
performing its intended tasks.

Repeatability of robot

Repeatability in robotics refers to the robot's ability to consistently return to a programmed or

taught position with a high degree of precision. It measures how reliably the robot can reproduce a
specific motion or task, achieving the same position or orientation repeatedly when performing the
same action under similar conditions.

For instance, if a robot is programmed to pick up an object from a specific location and place it in
another spot, repeatability determines how accurately the robot can perform this action every time
it's instructed to do so.

Let's consider an example:

Imagine a manufacturing scenario where a robot arm is tasked with placing components onto a
circuit board. The robot arm needs to precisely position each component onto designated spots.
Repeatability comes into play here:

 The robot's repeatability determines whether it can consistently position the components at
the exact coordinates on the circuit board every time it executes the task.

 If the robot has high repeatability, it will consistently and accurately place the components
on the board within the required tolerances.

 However, if the repeatability is low, the robot might struggle to place the components in the
exact same position each time, leading to errors or misalignments.

Factors affecting repeatability include the quality of the robot's components, precision in its control
systems, environmental conditions, wear and tear, and calibration accuracy. Improving repeatability
often involves optimizing these factors through better hardware, advanced control algorithms,
regular maintenance, and calibration routines.

Repeatability is crucial in industries where precision and consistency are paramount, such as
manufacturing, assembly lines, quality control processes, and tasks requiring high accuracy and
reliability. High repeatability ensures consistent performance and minimizes errors in repetitive tasks
performed by robots.