Setting & Reading of Relay & Meters

Introduction:-
For successful operation of power system, the protection scheme provides an
important role . The Protection system mainly depends on his two powerful
hands.
1. Left hand:- Sensing element/equipments
2. Right hand:- Obeying element/equipments

In system current transformer and potential transformer only two equipments

sense the system conditions. They feed the parameters to scheme.

Then protection scheme analyze the parameter and given command to ever time
obeying element circuit breaker.

Basic purpose of protection via remote wiring in power system is ...

1. To identify the critical situation.

2. To avoid / minimise the damage from critical situation.

So we have to design a system which can continuously monitor the

healthiness of system by compare the system with standard parameters.

If the parameters are abnormal / not safe for system then it means that
something is occurring wrong in system .Then next step of the protection Scheme
is to trace the section in which this type of critical situation has been created,
then next step to isolate the related part from the system to avoid any further
damage / collapse of system. So this whole phenomenon is completed through
the protection scheme. Now we discuss ... what are the abnormal condition and
what is meant by fault .

What is meant of fault :-

A fault in the power system is defined as a condition due to which current

is diverted from its intended path.
Abnormal condition type:-

1. Voltage & Current unbalance

2. Over voltage & Under voltage
3. Reversal of power
4. Under / Over frequency
5. Temperature rise

Most common fault:-

1. Single phase to ground

2. Two phase to ground
3. Phase to phase
4. Three phase short circuit

Who will identify the critical position:-

For successful operation of protection scheme, the system depends on his
two powerful hands.
1. Left hand:- Sensing element/equipments
2. Right hand:- Obeying element/equipments

In system current transformer and potential transformer only two equipments

sense the system conditions. They feed the parameters to scheme.

Then protection scheme analyze the parameter and given command to ever time
obeying element circuit breaker.

Objective of Power System Protection ---

The objective of power system protection is to isolate a faulty section of electrical
power system from rest of the live system so that the rest portion can function
satisfactorily without any severer damage due to fault current .

Actually circuit breaker isolates the faulty system from rest of the healthy
system and this circuit breakers automatically open during fault condition due to
its trip signal comes from protection relay.

But Remember :
The main philosophy about protection is that no protection of power system can
prevent the flow of fault current through the system, it only can prevent the
continuation of flowing of fault current by quickly disconnect the short circuit
path from the system.

Let’s have a discussion on basic concept of protection system in power system

and coordination of protection relays :--

In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been shown. It is
quite simple. The secondary of current transformer is connected to the current
coil of relay. And secondary of voltage transformer is connected to the voltage
coil of the relay. Whenever any fault occurs in the feeder circuit, proportionate
secondary current of the CT will flow through the current coil of the relay due to
which mmf of that coil is increased. This increased mmf is sufficient to
mechanically close the normally open contact of the relay. This relay contact
actually closes and completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip coil is
energized. The mmf of the trip coil initiates the mechanical movement of the
tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and ultimately the circuit breaker is
tripped to isolate the fault.

Functional Requirements of Protection Relay

Reliability :-
The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability. They remain
inoperative for a long time before a fault occurs; but if a fault occurs, the relays
must respond instantly and correctly.

Selectivity :-
The relay must be operated in only those conditions for which relays are
commissioned in the electrical power system. There may be some typical
condition during fault for which some relays should not be operated or operated
after some definite time delay hence protection relay must be sufficiently capable
to select appropriate condition for which it would be operated.

Sensitivity :-
The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it can be operated
reliably when level of fault condition just crosses the predefined limit.

Speed
The protective relays must operate at the required speed. There must be a
correct coordination provided in various power system protection relays in such a
way that for fault at one portion of the system should not disturb other healthy
portion.

Fault current may flow through a part of healthy portion since they are
electrically connected but relays associated with that healthy portion should not
be operated faster than the relays of faulty portion otherwise undesired
interruption of healthy system may occur. Again if relay associated with faulty
portion is not operated in proper time due to any defect in it or other reason,
then only the next relay associated with the healthy portion of the system must
be operated to isolate the fault. Hence it should neither be too slow which may
result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in
undesired operation.

Combination of CT/PT & Protection Scheme

How
 Play the role

Actually relay desire only two parameter from system.

1. What current flowing in system?
2. What is the voltage in system?

Then...

Relay plays his role......

Protection scheme self analyze the system by taking above two parameter by
comparing with present parameter (Formulas as set in software of relay).

Screening of voltage & current in protection scheme:-

Relay check further (From V & I)
1. Magnitude
2. Frequency
3. Duration
4. Rate of change
5. Direction
6. Wave shape
7. Phase angle

Basic purpose of wiring & Protection in Power system:-

Basic purpose of protection through remote wiring in power system is:
1. Identify the critical situations
2. To avoid/minimise the damage from critical situation

So we have to design a system which continuously monitors the healthiness of

system to compare the system parameter with standard parameters.

If the parameters are abnormal/not safe for system then it means that something
is occurring wrong in system.

Then next step of the protection scheme is that to trace the section in which this
type of critical situation has been created then next to isolate that part from the
system to avoid any damage/collapse of system.

The whole phenomena are completed through the protection scheme.

Functioning & Setting of Relays:-
 During study of electrical protective relays, some special terms
are frequently used. For proper understanding, the functions of
different protective relays, the definition of such terms must be
understood properly. Such terms are,

1. Pick up current.

2. Current setting.

3. Plug setting multiplier (PSM).

4. Time setting multiplier (TSM).

Pick Up Current of Relay :--

In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move. All the
contacts remain in their respective normal position by some force
applied on them continuously. This force is called controlling force of
the relay. This controlling force may be gravitational force, may be
spring force, may be magnetic force.

The force applied on the relay’s moving parts for

changing the normal position of the contacts, is called deflecting force.
This deflecting force is always in opposition of controlling force and
presents always in the relay. Although the deflecting force always
presents in the relay directly connected to live line, but as the
magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in normal
condition, the relay does not operate. If the actuating current in the
relay coil increases gradually, the deflecting force in electro mechanical
relay, is also increased. Once, the deflecting force crosses the
controlling force, the moving parts of the relay initiate to move to
change the position of the contacts in the relay. The current for which
the relay initiates it operation is called pick up current of relay.

Current Setting of Relay :----

The minimum pick up value of the deflecting force of an electrical relay
is constant. Again the deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its
number of turns and current flowing through the coil.

Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil,

the required current to reach at minimum pick value of the deflecting
force, in the coil also changes. That means if active turns of the relay
coil is reduced, then proportionately more current is required to
produce desired relay actuating force. Similarly if active turns of the
relay coil is increased, then proportionately reduced current is required
to produce same desired deflecting force.
Practically same model relays may be used in different systems. As per
these systems requirement the pick up current of relay is adjusted. This
is known as current setting of relay. This is achieved by providing
required number of tapping in the coil. These taps are brought out to a
plug bridge. The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by
inserting plug in different points in the bridge.
The current setting of relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay
pick up current to rated secondary current of CT.
That means,

For example>>>>
suppose, you want that, an over current relay should operate when
the system current just crosses 125% of rated current. If the relay is
rated with 1 A, the normal pick up current of the relay is 1 A and it
should be equal to secondary rated current of current transformer
connected to the relay.
Then, the relay will be operated when the current of CT secondary
becomes more than or equal 1.25 A.
As per definition,
The current setting is sometimes referred as current plug setting.
The current setting of over current relay is generally ranged from 50 %
to 200 %, in steps of 25 %. For earth fault relay it is from 10% to 70% in
steps of 10%.

Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay

Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault current in the

relay to its pick up current

Suppose we have connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current

setting is 150%.

Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 × 150 % = 1.5 A

Now, suppose fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in
the CT secondary i.e. in the relay coil is, 1000 × 1/200 = 5A

Therefore PSM of the relay is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33

Time Setting Multiplier of Relay

The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :

1.How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for closing
relay contacts and
2.How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.

So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted.

The adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly

known as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting
multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps 0.05 sec.

But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we can not set the actual time of
operation of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of operation also
depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving parts of relay
depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence, it is clear that,
speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the level of fault current.
In other words, time of operation of relay depends upon plug setting multiplier.
The relation between time of operation and plug setting multiplier is plotted on a
graph paper and this is known as time / PSM graph. From this graph one can
determine, the total time taken by the moving parts of an electromechanical
relay, to complete its total travelling distance for different PSM. In time setting
multiplier, this total travelling distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in
steps of 0.05.

So when time setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1
times of the total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we
get total operating time of the relay for a particular PSM from time / PSM graph
and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get, actual
time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM.

For getting clear idea, let us have a practical example. Say a relay has time setting
0.1 and you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM 10.

From time / PSM graph of the relay, we can see the total operating time of the
relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total 3 seconds
to travel 100 % travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier is 0.1 here,
actually the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1 × 100% or 10% of the
total travel distance, to close the relay contacts.
Hence, actual operating time of the relay is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.

Categorization of different types of relays.

Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on
actuating parameter and operation mechanism.

(A)Based on operation mechanism

protection relay can be categorized as electromagnetic relay, static relay and
mechanical relay. Actually relay is nothing but a combination of one or more open
or closed contacts. These all or some specific contacts the relay change their state
when actuating parameters are applied to the relay. That means open contacts
become closed and closed contacts become open. In electromagnetic relay these
closing and opening of relay contacts are done by electromagnetic action of a
solenoid.

In mechanical relay these closing and opening of relay contacts are done by
mechanical displacement of different gear level system.

In static relay it is mainly done by semiconductor switches like thyristor. In digital

relay on and off state can be referred as 1 and 0 state.

(B). Based on Characteristic the protection relay

1. Definite time relays

2. Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)

3. Instantaneous relays.

4. IDMT with inst.

5. Stepped characteristic.

6. Programmed switches.

7. Voltage restraint over current relay.

(C) Based on of logic the protection relay

1. Differential.

2. Unbalance.

3. Neutral displacement.

4. Directional.

5. Restricted earth fault.

6. Over fluxing.

7. Distance schemes.

8. Bus bar protection.

9. Reverse power relays.

10. Loss of excitation.

11. Negative phase sequence relays etc.

(D) Based on actuating parameter

1. Current relays.

2. Voltage relays.

3. Frequency relays.

4. Power relays etc.

(E) Based on application

1. Primary relay.

2. Backup relay.

Some examples of Mechanical Relay are-

1. Thermal

a. Oil Temperature Trip)

b. Winding Temperature Trip)
c. Bearing temp trip etc.

2. Float type

a. Buchholz
 b. OSR
c. PRV
d. Water level Controls etc.

3. Pressure switches.

4. Mechanical interlocks.

5. Pole discrepancy relay.

Relays for Transmission & Distribution Lines Protection

SL Lines to be protected Relays to be used

400 KV Main-I: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme
1
Transmission Line Main-II: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme
Main-I : Non switched distance scheme (Fed from Bus PTs)
220 KV
2 Main-II: Switched distance scheme (Fed from line CVTs)
Transmission Line
With a changeover facility from bus PT to line CVT and vice-versa.
Main Protection : Switched distance scheme (fed from bus PT).
132 KV
3 Backup Protection: 3 Nos. directional IDMT O/L Relays and
Transmission Line
1 No. Directional IDMT E/L relay.
4 33 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 3 O/L and 1 E/L relays.
5 11 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 2 O/L and 1 E/L relays.

Relays for Transformer Protection

Voltage Ratio
and
SL Relays on HV Side Relays on LV Side Common Relays
Capacity of
Transformer

11/132 KV 3 nos Non-Directional Differential Relay or

1 Generator O/L Relay -- Overall differential
Transformer 1 no Non-Directional Relay
 E/L Relay Overflux Relay
and/or standby E/F + Buchholz Relay
REF Relay OLTC Buchholz Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential Relay or
Overall differential
13.8/220 KV 3 nos Non-Directional
Relay
15.75/220 KV O/L Relay
Overflux Relay
18/400 KV 1 no Non-Directional
2 -- Buchholz Relay
21/400 KV E/L Relay
OLTC Buchholz Relay
Generator and/or standby E/F +
PRV Relay
Transformer REF Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay

Differential Relay
3 nos Non-Directional
Overflux Relay
O/L Relay
220 /6.6KV 3 nos Non- Buchholz Relay
1 no Non-Directional
3 Station Directional O/L OLTC Buchholz Relay
E/L Relay
Transformer Relay PRV Relay
and/or standby E/F +
OT Trip Relay
REF Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential Relay
Overflux Relay
3 nos Non- Buchholz Relay
Gen-volt/6.6KV 3 nos Non-Directional
4 Directional O/L OLTC Buchholz Relay
UAT O/L Relay
Relay PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Buchholz Relay
OLTC Buchholz Relay
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay 2 nos O/L Relays
5 PRV Relay
upto 8 MVA 1 no E/L Relay 1 no E/L Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential Relay
Buchholz Relay
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay
3 nos O/L Relay OLTC Buchholz Relay
6 above 8 MVA & 1 no Directional E/L
1 no E/L Relay PRV Relay
below 31.5 MVA Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay

Differential Relay
3 nos O/L Relay Overflux Relay
132/33KV, 31.5 3 nos O/L Relay
7 1 no Directional E/L Buchholz Relay
MVA & above 1 no E/L Relay
Relay OLTC Buchholz Relay
PRV Relay
 OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential Relay
220/33 KV, Overflux Relay
31.5MVA & 3 nos O/L Relay 3 nos O/L Relay Buchholz Relay
8 50MVA 1 no Directional E/L 1 no Directional OLTC Buchholz Relay
220/132KV, 100 Relay E/L Relay PRV Relay
MVA OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay

Differential Relay
3 nos Directional O/L
Overflux Relay
Relay 3 nos Directional
Buchholz Relay
(with dir.highset) O/L Relay
OLTC Buchholz Relay
400/220KV 1 no Directional E/L (with dir.highset)
9 PRV Relay
315MVA relay. 1 no Directional
OT Trip Relay
Restricted E/F relay E/L relay.
WT Trip Relay
3 nos Directional O/L Restricted E/F relay
Over Load (Alarm)
Relay for action
Relay

Over Current Relay Working Principle & Types

Working Principle of Over Current Relay :---
When normal current flows through the coil of Relay, the magnetic effect
generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as
in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force.
 But when the current through the coil increased, the magnetic effect
increases, and after certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the
magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result, the moving
element starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.

Types of Over Current Relay :----

Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over Current
relays, such as,

1. Instantaneous over current relay.

2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.

1. Instantaneous over current relay.

Here we see a basic Circuit :-

Generally a magnetic core is wound by current coil. A piece of iron is so

fitted by hinge support and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is not
sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts remain open. When current in the
coil crosses a present value, the attractive force becomes sufficient to pull the
iron piece towards the magnetic core and consequently the no contacts are
closed.
**The preset value of current in the relay coil is referred as pick up
setting current. This relay is referred as instantaneous over current relay, as
ideally, the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets higher than pick
up setting current. There is no intentional time delay applied. But there is always
an inherent time delay which can not be avoided practically. In practice the
operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few milliseconds

2. Definite time over current relay.

This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick
up value of the current. A definite time over current relay can be adjusted to
issue a trip output at definite amount of time after it picks up. Thus, it has a time
setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.

3. Inverse time over current relay.

Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device.
This means the speed of rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if input
current is increased. In other words, time of operation inversely varies with input
current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction disc relay in
very suitable for over current protection. This is because, in this relay, if fault is
more severe, it would be cleared more faster. Although time inverse
characteristic is inherent to electromechanical induction disc relay, but the same
characteristic can be achieved in microprocessor based relay also by proper
programming.
Here, in the graph it is clear that, when, actuating quantity is OA, the operating
time of the relay is OA', when actuating quantity is OB, the relay operating time
is OB' and when actuating quantity is OC, the relay operating quantity is OC'.

In the graph above, it is also observed that, when actuating quantity is less than
OA, the relay operating time becomes infinity, that means for actuating quantity
less than OA, the relay does not at all actuate. This minimum value of actuating
quantity for which a relay initiates its operation is known as pick up value of
actuating quantity. Here it is denoted as OA.

It is also seen from the graph that, when actuating quantity approaches to infinity
along x axis the operating time does not approach to zero. The curve approaches
to an approximately constant operating time. This is approximately minimum
time required to operate the relay.

The inverse time relay, where the actuating quantity is current, is known as
inverse current relay.

In this type of relay, the inverse time is achieved by attaching some mechanical
accessories in the relay.
>>> Inverse time over current relay or simply inverse OC relay is again
subdivided as inverse definite minimum time (IDMT), very inverse time,
extremely inverse time over current relay or OC relay.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay or IDMT O/C

Relay
Ideal inverse time characteristics can not be achieved, in an over current relay. As
the current in the system increases, the secondary current of the current
transformer is increased proportionally. The secondary current is fed to the relay
current coil. But when the CT becomes saturated, there would not be further
proportional increase of CT secondary current with increased system current.

From this phenomenon it is clear that---

from trick value to certain range of faulty level, an inverse time relay shows exact
inverse characteristic. But after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and
relay current does not increase further with increasing faulty level of the system.
As the relay current is not increased further, there would not be any further
reduction in time of operation in the relay. This time is referred as minimum time
of operation.

Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a

definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very high. That is why
the relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over current relay or
simply IDMT relay.
 Backup Relay
The equipment installed in power system network is very costly. The main
equipment of the power system network is power transformer which costs a lot.
Reliability of electrical protection on such equipment should be high enough. Not
only the transformer, the extra high voltage lines of the system demand extra
reliability of protection. The backup relaying schemes provide this extra reliability
to the system. Backup relays are extra relaying schemes attached to the
equipment or part of the network with their own relaying system. The main
function of backup relay, to operate in any failure of tripping of circuit breaker
due to main relays.

The relay attached to the system may fail due to :---

* Mechanical defect of moving parts of the main relay,

* Failure of DC supply to the relay,

* Failure of tripping pulse to the breaker from relay,

* Failure of current or voltage to the relay from CT or PT circuits etc.

* some situations , when we have to disconnect main relays from the

system for preventive maintenance or trouble shootings. In those cases
due to presence of back up relays, we do not have to interrupt the
equipment or circuit. During this time back up protection scheme takes
care of the protection of the system.
So ---

In this typical situation there should be another alternate for protection . Hence,
back up relaying essentially have everything separate from main relaying scheme.
This is because backup relay must not fail to operate in the event of failure of
main relays.

But :-

As the back relaying is second line of protection , So it must be slow in action than
main relay so that it can only be operated when the main relaying scheme of the
system/equipment fails.
 Trip Circuit Supervision Relay Concept
It is well known there are different contacts connected in series along a trip
circuit of an electrical circuit breaker.
At some situation when the circuit breaker should not trip even a faulty
current passes through its power contacts. Such situations are low gas pressure in
SF6 circuit breaker, low air pressure in pneumatic operated circuit breaker etc.
In this situation the trip coil of the CB must not be energized to trip the CB. So
there must be NO contacts associated with gas pressure and air pressure relays,
connected in series with breaker trip coil.

Post Close Supervision Circuit

The above scheme is for supervision while circuit breaker is closed. This scheme is
called post close supervision.

Pre & Post Close Supervision : -----

There is another supervision scheme which is called pre and post close
supervision. This trip circuit supervision scheme is also quite simple. The only
difference is that here in this scheme, one NC contact of same auxiliary switch is
connected across the auxiliary NO contact of the trip circuit. The auxiliary NO
contact is closed when CB is closed and auxiliary NC contact is closed when CB is
open and vice versa. Hence, as shown in the figure below when the circuit
breaker is closed the trip circuit supervision network is completed via auxiliary NO
contact but when the circuit breaker is open the same supervision network is
completed via NC contact. The resistor is used series with the lamp for preventing
unwanted tripping of circuit breaker due to internal short circuit caused by failure
of the lamp.

TRIP CIRCUIT SUPERVISION RELAY { Both ON & OFF Condition )

When trip circuit is healthy and circuit breaker is closed, relay A is energized
which closes the NO contact A1 and hence relay C is energized. Energized relay C
keeps NC contact in open position. Now if the circuit breaker is open, relay B is
energized which closes No contact B1 hence relay C is energized. As C is
energized, it keeps the NC contact C1 in open position. While CB is closed, if
there is any discontinuity in the trip circuit relay A is de-energized which opens
contact A1 and consequently relay C is de-energized and which make the NC
contact C1 in close position and hence alarm circuit is actuated. Trip circuit
supervision is experienced by relay B with the circuit breaker is open in a similar
manner as relay A with the circuit breaker is closed.

Relays C have option of time-delayed ( 350 ms – 800 ms ) through RC Circuit

by to prevent spurious alarms during tripping or closing operations.

The resistors are mounted separately from the relays and their values are chosen
such that if any one component is inadvertently short-circuited, a tripping
operation will not take place.

Note >>> The alarm circuit supply should be separated from main trip supply so
that the alarm can be actuated even the trip supply failed.
 Differential Relay
The relays used in power system protection are of different types. Among them
differential relay is very commonly used relay for protecting transformers and
generators from localised faults.

Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of
protection but they are least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the
protected zone. Most of the relays operate when any quantity exceeds beyond a
predetermined value for example over current relay operates when current
through it exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of differential relay is
somewhat different. It operates depending upon the difference between two or
more similar electrical quantities.

Definition of Differential Relay :--

The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two
or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. In
differential relay scheme circuit, there are two currents come from two parts of
an electrical power circuit.

These two currents meet at a junction point where a relay coil is connected.
According to Kirchhoff Current Law, the resultant current flowing through the
relay coil is nothing but summation of two currents, coming from two different
parts of the electrical power circuit. If the polarity and amplitude of both currents
are so adjusted that the phasor sum of these two currents, is zero at normal
operating condition. Thereby there will be no current flowing through the relay
coil at normal operating conditions.

But due to any abnormality in the power circuit, if this balance is broken,
that means the phasor sum of these two currents no longer remains zero and
there will be non-zero current flowing through the relay coil thereby relay being
operated.

In current differential scheme, there are two sets of current transformer each
connected to either side of the equipment protected by differential relay. The
ratio of the current transformers are so chosen, the secondary currents of both
current transformers matches each other in magnitude.
 The polarity of current transformers are such that the secondary currents of
these CTs opposes each other. From the circuit is clear that only if any nonzero
difference is created between this to secondary currents, then only this
differential current will flow through the operating coil of the relay.

If this difference is more than the peak up value of the relay, it will operate to
open the circuit breakers to isolate the protected equipment from the system.
The relaying element used in differential relay is attracted armature type
instantaneously relay since differential scheme is only adapted for clearing the
fault inside the protected equipment in other words differential relay should clear
only internal fault of the equipment hence the protected equipment should be
isolated as soon as any fault occurred inside the equipment itself. They need not
be any time delay for coordination with other relays in the system.

Types of Differential Relay

There are mainly two types of differential relay depending upon the principle of
operation.

1. Current Balance Differential Relay

2. Voltage Balance Differential Relay

In current differential relay two current transformers are fitted on the either side
of the equipment to be protected. The secondary circuits of CTs are connected in
series in such a way that the carry secondary CT current in same direction. The
operating coil of the relaying element is connected across the CT’s secondary
circuit. Under normal operating conditions, the protected equipment (either
power transformer or alternator) carries normal current. In this situation, say the
secondary current of CT1 is I1 and secondary current of CT2 is I2. It is also clear
from the circuit that the current passing through the relay coil is nothing but I1-I2.
As we said earlier, the current transformer’s ratio and polarity are so chosen, I1 =
I2, hence there will be no current flowing through the relay coil. Now if any fault
occurs external to the zone covered by the CTs, faulty current passes through
primary of the both current transformers and thereby secondary currents of both
current transformers remain same as in the case of normal operating conditions.
Therefore at that situation the relay will not be operated. But if any ground fault
occurred inside the protected equipment as shown, two secondary currents will
be no longer equal. At that case the differential relay is being operated to isolate
the faulty equipment (transformer or alternator) from the system.

Principally this type of relay systems suffers from some disadvantages

1. There may be a probability of mismatching in cable impedance from CT

secondary to the remote relay panel.

2. These pilot cables’ capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay

when large through fault occurs external to the equipment.

3. Accurate matching of characteristics of current transformer cannot be

achieved hence there may be spill current flowing through the relay in normal
operating conditions.

Percentage Differential Relay

This is designed to response to the differential current in the term of its fractional
relation to the current flowing through the protected section.

In this type of relay, there are restraining coils in addition to the operating coil
of the relay. The restraining coils produce torque opposite to the operating
torque. Under normal and through fault conditions, restraining torque is greater
than operating torque. Thereby relay remains inactive.

It is clear from the above explanation, greater the current flowing through the
restraining coils, higher the value of the current required for operating coil to be
operated. The relay is called percentage relay because the operating current
required to trip can be expressed as a percentage of through current.

This simple thumb rule is that the current transformers on any star winding
should be connected in delta and the current transformers on any delta winding
should be connected in star. This is so done to eliminate zero sequence current in
the relay circuit.

If the CTs are connected in star, the CT ratio will be In/1 or 5 A

CTs to be connected in delta, the CT ratio will be In/0.5775 or 5×0.5775 A

Voltage Balance Differential Relay

In this arrangement the current transformer are connected either side of the
equipment in such a manner that EMF induced in the secondary of both current
transformers will oppose each other. That means the secondary of the current
transformers from both sides of the equipment are connected in series with
opposite polarity. The differential relay coil is inserted somewhere in the loop
created by series connection of secondary of current transformers. In normal
operating conditions and also in through fault conditions, the EMFs induced in
both of the CT secondary are equal and opposite of each other and hence there
would be no current flowing through the relay coil. But as soon as any internal
fault occurs in the equipment under protection, these EMFs are no longer
balanced hence current starts flowing through the relay coil thereby trips circuit
breaker.

There are some disadvantages in the voltage balance differential relay such as:-

A multi tap transformer construction is required to accurate balance between

current transformer pairs.

The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short length otherwise
capacitance of pilot wires disturbs the performance. On long cables the charging
current will be sufficient to operate the relay even if a perfect balance of current
transformer achieved.
 Distance Relay or Impedance Relay Working Principle
There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in
the line. More specifically, the relay operates depending upon the impedance
between the point of fault and the point where relay is installed. These relays are
known as distance relay or impedance relay.

Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay

The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. There is
one voltage element from potential transformer and a current element fed from
current transformer of the system. The deflecting torque is produced by
secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by voltage of potential
transformer.

In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting

torque. Hence relay will not operate. But in faulty condition, the current
becomes quite large whereas voltage becomes less. Consequently, deflecting
torque becomes more than restoring torque and dynamic parts of the relay starts
moving which ultimately close the No contact of relay.

Hence clearly operation or working principle of distance relay, depends upon the
ratio of system voltage and current. As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing
but impedance a distance relay is also known as impedance relay.

There are mainly two types of distance relay-

1. Definite distance relay.

2. Time distance relay.

The operation of such relay depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to
current ratio. This ratio is nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate
when this voltage to current ratio becomes less than its predetermined value.

Hence, it can be said that the relay will only operate when the impedance of the
line becomes less than predetermined impedance (voltage / current). As the
impedance of a transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can easily
be concluded that a distance relay can only operate if fault is occurred within a
predetermined distance or length of line.
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Transformer
An external fault in the star side will result in current flowing in the line current
transformer of the affected phase and at the same time a balancing current flows
in the neutral current transformer, hence the resultant current in the relay is
therefore zero.

So this REF relay will not be actuated for external earth fault. But during
internal fault the neutral current transformer only carries the unbalance fault
current and operation of Restricted Earth Fault Relay takes place.

This scheme of restricted earth fault protection is very sensitive for internal earth
fault of electrical power transformer. The protection scheme is comparatively
cheaper than differential protection scheme.

Restricted earth fault protection is provided in electrical power transformer for

sensing internal earth fault of the transformer. In this scheme the CT secondary
of each phase of electrical power transformer are connected together as shown
in the figure. Then common terminals are connected to the secondary of a
Neutral Current Transformer or NCT.
The CT or Current Transformer connected to the neutral of power transformer is
called Neutral Current Transformer or Neutral CT or simply NCT. Whenever there
is an unbalancing in between three phases of the power transformer, a resultant
unbalance current flow through the close path connected to the common
terminals of the CT secondaries.

An unbalance current will also flow through the neutral of power

transformer and hence there will be a secondary current in Neutral CT because of
this unbalance neutral current. In Restricted Earth Fault scheme the common
terminals of phase CTs are connected to the secondary of Neutral CT in such a
manner that secondary unbalance current of phase CTs and the secondary
current of Neutral CT will oppose each other. If these both currents are equal in
amplitude there will not be any resultant current circulate through the said close
path. The Restricted Earth Fault Relay is connected in this close path. Hence the
relay will not response even there is an unbalancing in phase current of the
power transformer
 Busbar Differential Protection Scheme
In early days only conventional over current relays were used for busbar
protection. But it is desired that fault in any feeder or transformer connected to
the busbar should not disturb busbar system.
In viewing of this time setting of busbar protection relays are made lengthy.
So when faults occurs on busbar itself, it takes much time to isolate the bus from
source which may came much damage in the bus system.
In recent days, the second zone distance protection relays on incoming
feeder, with operating time of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds have been applied for busbar
protection.
But this scheme has also a main disadvantage >>
 This scheme of protection can not discriminate the faulty section of the
busbar. Now days, electrical power system deals with huge amount of
power. Hence any interruption in total bus system causes big loss to the
company.

So it becomes essential to isolate only faulty section of busbar during bus fault.

 Another drawback of second zone distance protection scheme is that,

sometime the clearing time is not short enough to ensure the system
stability. To overcome the above mentioned difficulties, differential busbar
protection scheme with an operating time less than 0.1 sec., is commonly
applied .

Differential Busbar Protection

Current Differential Protection

The scheme of busbar protection, involves, Kirchoff’s current law, which

states that, total current entering an electrical node is exactly equal to total
current leaving the node. Hence, total current entering into a bus section is
equal to total current leaving the bus section.
Understand from this Circuit ---

The principle of differential busbar protection is very simple. Here,

secondaries of CTs are connected parallel. That means, S1 terminals of all
CTs connected together and forms a bus wire. Similarly S2 terminals of all
CTs connected together to form another bus wire. A tripping relay is
connected across these two bus wires.

Here, in the figure above we assume that at normal condition feed, A, B,

C, D, E and F carries current IA, IB, IC, ID, IE and IF. Now, according to
Kirchoff’s current law,

All the CTs used for differential busbar protection are of same current
ratio. Hence, the summation of all secondary currents must also be equal
to zero

So, it is :- clear that under normal condition there is no current flows

through the busbar protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred
as Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred at any of the feeders, outside the
protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through primary of
the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders
connected to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through
the corresponding CT of respective feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if
we apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.
That means, at external faulty condition, there is no current flows through
relay 87.

Now consider a situation when fault is occurred on the bus itself.

At this condition, also the faulty current is contributed by all feeders

connected to the bus. Hence, at this condition, sum of all contributed fault
current is equal to total faulty current. Now, at faulty path there is no CT.
(in external fault, both fault current and contributed current to the fault by
different feeder get CT in their path of flowing)

The sum of all secondary currents is no longer zero.

It is equal to secondary equivalent of faulty current. Now, if we apply KCL at

the nodes, we will get a non zero value of iR. So at this condition current
starts flowing through 87 relay and it makes trip the circuit breaker
corresponding to all the feeders connected to this section of the busbar. As
all the incoming and outgoing feeders, connected to this section of bus are
tripped, the bus becomes dead. This differential busbar protection scheme
is also referred as current differential protection of busbar.
 Numerical Relay:-

The quest for performance, security and reliability as tools for preventing
blackouts, has led to the wide spread use of numerical protection relays.
Numerical relays have gone a long way to meeting the challenges for security,
reliability, performance and compactness. However, numerical relays by necessity
embody a level of complexity and sensitivity, not encountered with previous
protection devices. Numerical relay having basic feature of distance protection &
other features are being installed in power system. It has complete scope of
protection of Power system.

Features:
Powerful 32 Bit Microprocessor system.
Fully numerical design
Biased differential protection
Restricted earth fault protection
Over fluxing protection
Integral CT Ratio & Vector group compensation
Remote transformer tap control
Measurement of phase, differential & bias current
Record of fault current & magnitude for the last fault
Relay flag details for the previous fault

1. Numerical Distance Relay:

The numerical distance protection is a fast & selective protection device for
overhead lines and cables with single & multi ended in feed in radial, ring or any
type of meshed system with insulation ratings. The system star point can be
earthed, resonant-earthed or isolated.

The device incorporates the functions which are normally required for the
protection of an overhead line feeder & is therefore capable of universal
application. It may also be applied as time graded back up protection to all types
of comparison protection scheme used on line, transformers, generators, motors
& bus-bars of all voltage Levels.
Commonly used DPS in RVPN are as follows:

400 KV & 220 KV Feeders:

1. EPAC 3000
2. REL 100
3. MICOM 442
4. Siprotec 7SA 522
5. 7SA 6
6. SEL 321
7. D 60

132 KV Feeder:
1. PD 521
2. D 30

2. Numerical Differential Protection:-

Transformer differential relay provides a package of functions primarily for the

protection of transformers & generator transformers but may also be applied to
protect reactors & generators. These relays can be integrated into an overall
protection & control system by utilizing its integral serial communication facility.

Commonly differential scheme used in RVPN are as follows:

1. KBCH 130
2.MICOM 632
Reading and Resetting of various Numerical Relays in RVPN

( A) 400/220 K Distance Protection Scheme

1. EPAC Distance Scheme ( M/s Alstom )

(a) How to read fault :----

Once operated , relay indicate Zone , kilometre , Current , Voltage , Resistance ,
Phase , date n time ete .

Press ‘ V ’ key again and again

To read data in memory :---
 Press ‘Set’ key and bring curser on EVEN menu by pressing left < and
right > keys
 Then press lower V key enter in EVEN menu
 Then it willindicate EV1 , EV2 , EV3 etc, here latest fault record is in EV1
 To see latest fault details bring the curser on EV1 by using < > keys , then
press V down key again and again , all parameters will be available on
display one by one
 Press ( ) up key again and again for normal display .

( b ) Trip contact - are self reset

(c) Resetting of fault LED :-
Press set key and bring curser on LED by pressing left < and right > Key
then press V key . The trip LED will stop glowing .

Note :- In this relay all contact are self reset hence breaker closing is possible
without resetting the relay/LED’s. Reset external trip Relay.

2. MICOM P 442 Distance Scheme (M/S Alstom)

(a). How to read fault record:-

Once operated relay indicate Zone, Kilometre, Current, Voltages, Resistance,

Phase, Date, Time etc. Press ‘Book Marked Key’ again and again to read all above
data.

To read data in memory Press lower ‘ V ’ Key then move by pressing ‘ > ’ right
key. View record appears on the display then press lower ‘ V ’ Key again & again.
Fault No. Zero is latest fault. All parameters will be available one by one by
pressing ‘V’ down key.
(b) Trip contact:-Self reset.

(c) Resetting of fault LED:-

Press ‘Book Marked Key’ again & again. Clear Fault will appear on display, then
press ‘C ‘ Key. The trip LED’s will stop glowing.

To reset alarm LED enter on View Records as above. Reset ‘NO’ will appear. Press
enter key. No start blinking , make ‘YES ’ by pressing up & down key & then enter
key. Then press ‘C ‘ Key again & again for normal display.

Note :- In this relay all contact are self reset hence breaker closing is possible
without resetting the relay/LED’s. Reset external trip Relay.

3. 7SA 522 Distance Scheme (M/S Siemens)

(a). How to read fault record:-

Operate key pad as follows:

Sequence of operation Display

1 Press ‘MENU ‘Key Announciation
2 Press > (R) Key Event Log
3. Press V (D) Key Trip Log
4. Press >(R) Key Last Fault
5. Press >(R) Key Date & Time
6. Press V (D) Key again & again Complete
Parametres
7. Press ‘ESC’ (R) Key again & again Original Display

(b) Trip contact:-Self reset.

(c) Resetting of fault LED:- Press ‘LED ‘ Key. The trip LED’s will stop glowing.

Note :- In this relay all contact are self reset hence breaker closing is possible
without resetting the relay/LED’s. Reset external trip Relay.
(B) 132 KV Distance Scheme:

1. PD 521 Distance Scheme (M/S Alstom)

(a). How to read fault record:-

Operate key pad as follows:

Important addresses are given below:-

0396 Time
0397 Date
0421 Op-Time
0422 Fault Location KM
0427 Fault location percentage
3601 A Phase
3602 B Phase
3603 C Phase
3604 Ground Fault
0423 Fault Impedance

(b) Trip contact:-Self reset.

(c) Resetting of fault LED:- Reset ‘R’ Push Button. The trip LED’s will stop glowing.

Note :- In this relay all contact are self reset hence breaker closing is possible
without resetting the relay/LED’s. Reset external trip Relay.

(C) Differential Relay

(i) KBCH Differential Relay (M/S Alstom)

(a). How to read fault record:-

Operate key pad as follows:

Sequence of operation Display

1 Press ‘F ‘Key System Data
2 Press ‘- ‘ Key Fault Record
3. Press ‘F ‘Short again & again Complete
 Parameter
regarding Fault
4. Press ‘F’ long & ‘O’ Keys Original Display

(b) Trip contact:-Self reset.

(c) Resetting of fault LED:- Reset ‘O’ Key. The trip LED’s will stop glowing.

Note :-

(i) All contact are self reset hence breaker closing is possible without resetting
the relay/LED’s. Reset external trip Relay.

(ii) When ‘Clear fault record’ ‘=’0 available on display, do not press ‘O’ Key
otherwise all fault record will disappear from the memory.

2. MICOM Differential Relay (M/S Alstom)

(a). How to read fault record:-

Operate key pad as follows:

Sequence of operation Display

1 Press ‘V ‘ (down) Key Parameters
2 Press > (R) Key Operation
3 Press > (R) Key Event
4. Press V (D) Key Event Counter
5. Press >(R) Key Measured Fault
data
6. Press >(R) Key Events recording
7. Press V (D) Key OL R C
8. Press >(R) Key FTRC
9 Press V (D) Key Fault recording
10 Press V (D) Key Event number
11 Press >(R) Key again & again Total detail
regarding fault

(b) Trip contact:-Self reset.

(c) Resetting of fault LED:-

Press ‘Book Marked Key’ again & again. Clear Fault will appear on display, then
press ‘C ‘ Key. The trip LED’s will stop glowing.

Electronic meter
Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and
some can also transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy
used, electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply
such as instantaneous and maximum rate of usage demands, voltages, power factor
and reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for
example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours.

Principle of operation of Electronic Meter.

Presently static meters have been introduced for metering in HV & EHV system.
The Electro-Mechanical Induction type meters are being replaces with static
meters for energy accounting. Static metres have installed by RVPN in place of
induction meters in its EHV system for inter /intra state metering as well as in LV
Side of power transformer. So the the performance of static energymeter as
compared to induction metre is concern, there is neither any problem in
performance of static meter nor any doubt about the technical superiority of
static meter over the electromechanical meter .

Digital Signal processor is used in static meter for electronic processing of voltage
& current signal collected from CT’s & PT’s.
The electronic metre consist of following parts:
1. Analog section
2. Analog to digital converter
3. Digital Signal processor
4. Microcontroller
5. Non Volatile memory
6. LCD
7. Power Supply
8. Real time Clock
 9. Optical communication port
10. Metre software

DISPLAY PARAMETERS & DISPLAY SEQUENCE

a) Consumer Meters
The meter shall display the following required parameters in two different modes as follows:
A) Auto-Display Parameters for CT operated Static Meters:-
1. LED/LCD test
2. Date
3. Real Time
4. Cumulative Reset Count
5. Phase to Neutral Voltages (R,Y,B) :
6. Line Currents(R,Y,B). :
7. Bill point Active Energy (Kwh) : History 1
8. Bill Point Average Power Factor : History 1
9. Bill Point Power-on-hours : History 1
10. Bill Point Tamper Count : History 1
11. Bill Point TOD Active Energy (Kwh - REG 1,2,3) : History 1
12. Bill Point TOD Maximum Demand (KVA - REG 1,2,3) : History 1
13. Instantaneous Average Power Factor
14. Cumulative Current Active Energy (Kwh)
15. Instantaneous Load (KW)
16. Indication of any present occurrence of tamper (i.e. existing tamper)

B) Push Button-Display (with back scroll facility) Parameters for CT operated Static Meters:-
1. LED/LCD test
2. Date
3. Real Time
4. Rising Demand (KVA) with elapsed time
5. Phase to Neutral Voltages (R,Y,B)
6. Line Currents (R,Y,B) :
7. Supply Frequency
8. Instantaneous Power Factor
9. Instantaneous Load, Active, Reactive, Apparent
10. Cumulative Reset Count
11. Bill Point Active Energy (Kwh) : History 1
12. Bill Point Apparent Energy (Kvah): History 1
13. Bill Point Average Power Factor : History 1
14. Bill Point Power-on-hours : History 1
15. Bill Point Tamper Count : History 1
16. Bill Point TOD Active Energy (Kwh - REG 1,2,3) : History 1
17. Bill Point TOD Apparent Energy (Kvah REG 1,2,3) : History 1
18. Bill Point TOD Maximum Demand (KVA - REG 1,2,3) : History 1
19. Cumulative Power-on-hours
20. Cumulative Maximum Demand (KVA 0-24 HRS)
21. Cumulative Current Active Energy (Kwh)
22. Cumulative Current Reactive Lag Energy (Kvarh-Lag)
23. Cumulative Current Reactive Lead Energy (Kvarh-Lead)
24. Cumulative Current Apparent Energy (Kvah)
25. Cumulative Current TOD Active Energy (Kwh - REG 1,2,3)
26. Cumulative Current TOD Apparent Energy (Kvah REG 1,2,3)
27. Current TOD Maximum Demand (KVA - REG 1,2,3)
28. Indication of any existing Tamper
29. Cumulative tamper occurrence counts
30. Tamper information as mentioned in the relevant clauses of the specification should be recorded
and displayed in the push button display
31 Connection Check.

C) One high resolution display for Kwh & Kvarh suitable for easy dial testing of the meter.

Data Transfer through HHU/CMRI/AMR/LAPTOP:

Apart from the display parameters (Auto display & Push Button) as specified above and the standard
parameters as specified in the relevant clause of the guideline document, the meter should record in
addition the following parameters and all these parameters as well as the displayed parameters
should be retrievable/Calculable at the BCS end through CMRI/HHU:
1. Bill Point TOD Reactive Energies (Kvarh) Lag & Lead
2. Current TOD Reactive Energies (Kvarh) Lag & Lead
3. Current Maximum Demand (KVA) ( 0 –24 HRS)
4. Instantaneous power factors of individual phases
5. Bill Point Power factors of individual phases
6. Detail Tamper information
7. Detail historical data of all the parameters for at least 6 calendar months
8. Information regarding following failures:
a) Time & Calendar
b) RTC battery
c) Segment failure.
d) Self diagnostic details
e) Battery bad flag
 TIME OF DAY (TOD) TARIFF / DEMAND
. The meter should be capable of registering time of day energy consumption on
stand-alone basis.
The meter shall be suitable to measure and record kW / kVA demand andactive
and apparent energies consumed during various time blocks of the day.

It should be actuated by an inbuilt real time clock which has the capability of being
set to indicate time zones in a 24 hour cycle with adjustable duration of time zone.
The registers shall indicate all parameters mentioned in this specification above for
every time zone.

It shall be possible to set minimum of 8 time zones in a 24 hour cycle and two
seasons in a year.

It shall be possible to change the time for TOD recordings through CMRI in
the meter itself with proper security.

Time of day register shall be provided for active energy/ apparent energy and
demand data (kW, kVA). Meter should indicate activeness through the current
time of day register on display.

It shall be possible to retrieve this data through communication port.

TOD time zone shall be programmable as per the requirement of purchaser.

 L&T Make- 3 Phase Energy meter

This meter is designed for metering of HT/LT consumers feeders. The meter has
advanced data and tamper recording capabilities and is provided with
communication ports.

Software is available for data collection, load survey analysis and energy
management applications. The meter can be interfaced to a variety of
communication devices.

Features:

Class 0.2s,0.5s,1.0 as per relevant IS and IEC Standards

1A and 5A current rating
3Phase 4 Wire/3Phase 3 Wire system
Anti-tamper features
Self diagnostic capability
Multiple tariff feature
Upto 3 Maximum Demand registers
Load Survey features
Upto 12 reset backups
Optical port/RS 232/RS485 (optional)

Dimention :

327 H x 187 B x 104 D mm