CHAPTER 4

Systematic Pathology of Fish

Definition:
Pathology

Objectives:
 To know the aspects of the anatomy and physiology of fish
 To understand the pathological changes which can occur in fish
 To understand underlying clinical disease manifestation
A major consideration is the aquatic environment and the constraints it imposes on fi sh. It is against
the physical and biological degradative influences of this medium that the milieu interior of the fish must
be maintained and with which necessary exchanges of materials must take place. An overriding factor is
the high specific heat of water, which imposes, on most fish, ectothermy (poikilothermy; i.e. the body
temperature conforms to the environmental temperature).
No simple physiological constant values can be given (e.g. for heart rate, rate of digestion or rate of
growth); all of these are subject to temperature and this must always be borne in mind when studying
teleosts. The same animal is often unrecognizable at different temperatures, for example whether
adrenaline increases or decreases heart rate in rainbow trout depends on the temperature (Randall
1970).
Pathology associated with different organ systems is known as systematic pathology. It is largely
based upon clinico-pathological observations rather than on detailed experimental studies.

I. The integumentary system

Integumentary system consists of the skin and its layers. Fish skin can be considered as an intact
tissue or organ. Fish skin is a thick layer to withstand various pathogens. Skin is the primary barrier
against the environment.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of normal fish skin layers (From Bullock and Roberts 1974)
 1. Cuticle
The external layer, the cuticle or glycocalyx, was first described in detail by Whitear (1970) as
a mainly mucopolysaccharide layer. It is normally formed largely from epithelial surface cells rather than
by secretion from goblet mucous cells and is a complex of cell protoplasm, sloughed cells and any goblet
cells mucus that has been secreted onto the surface (Figure 2). The physical consistency of the cuticle
varies considerably between species, being specially developed in rock pool and benthic species.

Figure 2Tails skin of whiting, showing cuticle, epidermis and dermis.

The cuticular layer contains specific immunoglobulins and lysozyme (although the amount of the
latter varies very much between species), and free fatty acids. These are believed to have anti-pathogen
activity, as part of the mucosal defense system of the skin, working in conjunction with cellular proliferation
kinetics to continuously remove microorganisms from the surface.
Normally, however, small numbers of bacteria will still occur on such surfaces and there are
obvious limits with regard to the efficiency of such systems when pathogen loading of the environment is
high.

2. Epidermis
As in all vertebrate species, the fundamental unit of the epidermis of the fish is the fibrous
malpighian cell. In adults the epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium covering the body surface and
investing the tail and fins. Unlike mammalian counterpart, it is living and capable of mitotic division at all
levels, even at the outermost, squamous layer. The surface of the outermost layer is arranged in a whirling
pattern of micro ridges (Figure 3).
Figure 3

The thickness of the epidermis varies with species, age, site, and, often, stage of the
reproductive cycle. It is usually thicker in those species with negligible scale over and also over the fins,
where it is particularly well endowed with nerve end organs and mucous cells.

Figure 4Section through skin of whiting showing thick epidermis, with characteristic large cyst-like
structure in the lower part with denser, mucoid, epidermis tissue above.
Epidermis has different types of cells
a) Malphigian cells
The fundamental unit of the epidermis of teleost fish is the fibrous malphigian cell. In adults epidermis
is stratified squamous epithelium. Unlike its mammalian counterparts it is living and capable of division
at all levels, even at the outermost squamous layer.
The malpighian cells are always present in teleost epidermis. They are rounded cells very similar
in structure at all levels except the outermost, where they are flattened horizontally, with a cytoplasm
composed largely of an accumulation of elongated vesicles, degenerating mitochondria and some dense
bundles of fibers, instead of the more typical widely distributed bundles of fibers and mitochondria around
a generally ovoid nucleus.
b) Mucus cells (Goblet cells)
Mucus - secreting cells are found in the epidermis of all teleosts but numbers vary greatly with site
and species. These goblet cells usually originate in the middle layers of the epidermis, although in a very
thin epidermis, a mucous cell may be seen to have its base on the basement membrane.
Usually present in the middle layer of the epidermis. They increase in size and elaborate secretions
as they approach the surface.
c) Club cells
Are large usually round cells, found in the lower and middle layer of the epidermis of some
telosts. Shreckstoffzellen found in the epidermis of cyprinids secrets a potent alarm substance is an
example of club cell.
d) Granular cells
Functionality not yet established. Granule cells are found in a wide variety of teleost epidermis but
as yet no function has been ascribed to them.
e) Lymphocytes
f) Macrophages
Phagocytic cells.

3. Dermis
The dermis is composed of two layers. The upper layer, the stratum spongiosum, is a loose
network of collagen and recticulin fibers, contiguous with the epidermal basement membrane. It contains
the pigment cells (chromatophores), must cells and cells of the scale beds and also the scales. The lower
layer, the stratum compactum, is the collagenous dense matrix which provides the structural strength
of the skin.
The capacity for color change to match the environment or due to sexual activity or disease is
very highly developed in many teleosts and is induced by controlled modulation of the interplay of
absorptive and reflective properties of the chromatophores. Melanophores, the dark, pigment -
containing cells, are asteroid cells containing large numbers of membrane - bound electron dense
granules of melanin pigment which can be moved within the cytoplasm of the cell to give the desired
effect. Lipophores are chromatophores containing organic solvent - soluble pigments and are subdivided
into erythrophores, containing red pigments, and xanthophores, containing yellow pigments
The pigments are mainly carotenoids, which cannot be synthesized de novo by the fish and must
of necessity come from food. Leucophores and iridophores are responsible for white and silver colors
and contain purines, usually guanine, which exist as plates of reflecting material up to 10μ m thick and
are arranged within the cell in parallel arrays, rather like a venetian blind.

Figure 5Electron micrograph of the stratum spongiosum of the dermis of the plaice. (bm)= basement
membrane; (f)= collagen fibers in layers; (m)=melanin granules.

4. Hypodermis
The hypodermis is a looser, adipose tissue, which is more vascular than the overlying stratum
compactum of the dermis and is a frequent site of development of infectious processes.
5. Subcutaneous muscle
It is the body proper where the internal structure of the body starts.
II. Pathology

1. Cuticular changes
Thickening or alteration of the consistency of cuticle along with a change in its color is commonly
observed in case of protozoan infections.
2. Epidermal changes
Epidermis is avascular which limits the range of potential responses. Changes in epidermis reflect
the pathological processes in deeper tissues.
III. Spongiosis/Intercellular cedema

Earliest sign of an inflammatory response in the teleost epidermis is Spongiosis or intercellular

oedema, the separation of individual malphigian cells by tissue fluids.
Serous fluid accumulation into intercellular space or body cavity is known as oedema. This is
mainly due to toxin associated with the environment or produced by bacteria (Aeromonas spp,
Pseudomonas spp) or some parasite.

IV. Hyperplasia

It is an abnormal increase in the number of cells with consequent enlargement. Hyperplasia is a

much more generalized phenomenon in fish epidermis than that of higher animals. Epidermal hyperplasia
has been found to be much more frequent at low temperature in all the species so far studied.
1) Dermal and hypodermal changes
Stratum compactum is poorly endowed with blood supply, because of that the major pathological
changes take place in the stratum spongiosum and the hypodermis that the.
The inflammatory response exhibited by these layers of skin is triphasic, comprising a vascular,
an exudative and a cellular component, with the relative time span of these phenomena being directly
correlated with environmental temperature. Chronic inflammation in fish skin manifests all of the features
found in higher animals including sensitization, caseation and cell mediated immunity and the
development of giant cells.
a. Vascular
It refers to the blood circulatory system or blood capillary. The blood flow is disturbed.
b. Exudative
Blood capillaries consist of minute holes known as fenestrae – when the capillaries are dilated.
There is release of fluid through the fenestrae and hypertrophy ( a non-tumorous enlargement of organ
mainly due to increase in cell size ) normally occurs in this region. All the blood components exudate.
c. Cellular component
The cellular component changes when the cell component is affected.
In some case the dermis or hypodermis layer will be directly damaged by specific type of physical
damage. Mechanical injury or parasite piercing and any damage in the skin leads to the formation of
ulcer.
V. Wound Ulcer

An ulcer may be caused as a result of traumatic injury, microbial or parasitic lesions. After the
formation of ulcer, affected area becomes susceptible to infection by opportunistic pathogens such
as Myxobacteria and Saprolegnia spp. Ulcer development causes damage to the semi permeable
membrane separating the environment and milieu interior leading to the failure of osmotic regulation.
Wound healing
In fishes wound healing is temperature dependent. At higher temperature the wound healing is
faster and it is completely retarded at lower temperature. Wound healing in fish is faster than that of
terrestrial animals due to the direct contact with water and the animal body.
Malphigian cells help in wound healing. The malphigian cells migrate from the surrounding
tissues and form a single layer of epidermis over wound to enclose it, following which slower and
temperature dependent reconstruction of the epithelial cover can be achieved by normal mitotic
proliferation. Wound healing may lead to formation of scars at the wounded area. Contamination of
ulcerated surface by bacteria prevents the migration of peripheral epithelial cells thereby inhibiting the
process of wound healing.