Electromagnetic Fields

& Waves
ECE 4121

Md Abu Ismail Siddique

Lecturer
ETE, RUET
Reference Book
 Elements of Electromagnetics – Matthew Sadiku
 Field & Waves Electromagnetics – D. K. Cheng
Electrostatic

 Electrostatics is the study of electromagnetic phenomena that occur when

there are no moving charges.
 The devices used in solid state electronics are based on electrostatics.
 Example:
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Bipolar and field effect transistors, which are based on control of electron
motion by electrostatic fields.
 Almost all computer peripheral devices, with the exception of magnetic
memory, are based on electrostatic fields. Touch pads, capacitance
keyboards, cathode-ray tubes, liquid crystal displays, and electrostatic
printers are typical examples.
Electrostatic

 Study begins with two fundamental laws –

❑ Coulomb’s law
❑ Gauss’s law

 Coulomb’s law is applicable in finding the electric field due to any charge
configuration.
 Gauss’s law is used when charge distribution is symmetrical.
Coulomb’s Law

 Coulomb’s law states that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
1. Along the line joining them
2. Directly proportional to the product Q1 Q2 of the charges
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them.

where k = proportionality constant

Q1 and Q2 = charges are in coulombs (C)
R = distance in meters (m)
F = force F in newtons (N)
Coulomb’s Law

 If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors r1 and
r2, then the force F12 on Q2 due to Q1,
Electric Field Intensity (Point Charge)
 The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the force that a unit
positive charge experiences when placed in an electric field.

 The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge located at r’ is-

 For Q > 0, the electric field intensity E is obviously in the direction of the force F.

E
+ve -ve
F
Electric Field Intensity (Continuous
Charge Distribution)
Line charge density: ρl = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (C/m) dQ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒


𝑑𝑄 dl
▪ ρl =
𝑑𝑙

 Surface charge density:

 Volume charge density:

Electric field due to Line Charge

 Consider a line charge with uniform charge density ρL extending from A to B along
the z-axis

 Total charge Q is

 The field point (x, y, z) and the source point (0,0,z’)

As ρ = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 0,0, 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎𝑦

As, R = ρ2 + (z−z′)2
Electric field due to Line Charge

 So, electric field

𝑧−𝑧′
 Now, tanα = ⇒ z − z ′ = ρ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝜌

 So, 𝑅 = (𝜌2 +𝜌2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 α)1/2 = ρ secα

 Also, ρ = R cosα and z-z’ = R sinα
 Again,

−𝜌𝑙 𝛼2 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝛼[𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑎𝜌+𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑎𝑧]

 Now, 𝐸 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝛼
4𝜋𝜀 𝛼1 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 3
 +
Electric field due to Line Charge +
+
+
α2
+
 Case 1: Infinite line charge, α1 = 𝜋/2 and α2 = - 𝜋/2
+ ρ
α1
+
+
+
𝜌𝐿 +
 So, E = 𝑎ρ +
2𝜋𝜀𝜌

 Case 2: If point of interest is at perpendicular bisector of line charge α1 and α2 = - α1

𝜌𝐿
 So, E = 𝑠𝑖𝑛α1 𝑎ρ
2𝜋𝜀𝜌
Electric field due to Surface Charge

 Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane with uniform charge density ρS

 The contribution to the E field at point P(0, 0, h) by the charge dQ on the

elemental surface 1

 Now, vector sum, h az = ρ aρ + R aR

 So, 𝑅 = h𝑎𝑧 + 𝜌(−𝑎𝑝 ) ⇒ 𝑅 = ℎ2 + 𝑝2
Electric field due to Surface Charge
𝑑𝑄 𝑅
 Now, 𝑑𝐸 = . ⇒
4𝜋𝜀 𝑅3
 Owing to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element 1, there is a
corresponding element 2 whose contribution along ar cancels that of element 1. So
the contribution along aρ is cancelled.
Electric field due to Volume Charge

 Consider a sphere of radius a and the volume-charge density ρv (in C/m3)

 dQ associated with the elemental volume dv chosen at (ρ’, ϴ’, 𝜑’) is

 Total charge in a sphere of radius a is –

 The electric field dE outside the sphere at P(0, 0, z)

Electric field due to Volume Charge

 Here,
 Owing to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the contributions to Ex or
Ey add up to zero. We are left with only Ez –
Rcosα
R
Rsinα

 Applying the cosine rule -

Electric field due to Volume Charge
 Differentiating cosϴ’ with respect to ϴ’ and keeping z and r’ fixed-

 ϴ’ varies from 0 to 𝜋, when ϴ’ = 0, R = z-r’

when ϴ’ = 𝜋 , R = z+r’

[2 and z are constant]

Electric Flux

 Electric flux is the number of electric lines of force (or electric field lines) that
intersect a given area.
 𝑑𝜓 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 ⇒ 𝜓 = ‫𝐸 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆

 Case 1: 𝑑𝜓 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆

 Case 2: 𝑑𝜓 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 = 0
 Case 3: 𝑑𝜓 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϴ
Electric Flux Density

 Electric flux density is a measure of the strength of an electric field generated by a

free electric charge, corresponding to the number of electric lines of force passing
through a given area.
 Electric flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux.

(free space)

Where, for any medium 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸

Here, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 (for infinite sheet)

(volume charge)
Practice Problem 1

 A point charge 100pC is located at (4,1,-3) while the x-axis carries 2nC/m. If
the plane z=3 also carries charge 5nC/m, find E at ( 1,1,1).
 Answer: E = E1+E2+E3
Practice Problem 2

 Line x=3, z=-1 carries charge 20nC/m while plane x=-2 carries charge 4nC/m2.
Find the force on a point charge -5mC located at origin.
 Answer: E=E1+E2, F=qE
Practice Problem 3

 Plane x+2y = 5 cariies charge 6 nC/m2. Determine E at (-1,0,1).

 Answer:
Electric field due to Circular Ring Charge

 In this case, By symmetry, the contributions along a

add up to zero.
Electric field due to Circular Disk Charge
 In this case, By symmetry, the contributions along a
add up to zero.
𝜌𝑠 (−𝑎. 𝑎𝑝 + ℎ𝑎𝑧 )
𝐸= න 𝑎𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑎
4 𝜋𝜀 [𝑎2 + ℎ2 ]3/2
2𝜋,𝑎
𝜌𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑧
= ඵ 2 2 3/2
𝑎𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑎
4 𝜋𝜀 [𝑎 + ℎ ]
𝜑=0,𝑎=0
𝜌𝑠 ℎ 2𝜋 𝑎 2 2 −2 1
3
= න 𝑎 +ℎ 𝑑(𝑎 2 )𝑎𝑧
4 𝜋𝜀 0 2
a
𝜌𝑠 ℎ 2 2
1
−2
= − 𝑎 +ℎ 𝑎
2𝜀 0 𝑧

𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑅
 𝐸= ‫ 𝑠 ׬‬3
4 𝜋𝜀 𝑅
Practice Problem 4

 A ring placed along y2 + z2 = 4, x=0 carries a uniform charge of 5uC/m.

(a) Find E at P(3,0,0)
(b) If two identical point charges Q are located at (0,-3,0) and (0,3,0) in addition
to the ring, find the value of Q such that E = 0 at point P.
 Answer:
Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux 𝜓 through any closed
surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
 Thus, 𝜓 =
𝜀
𝑄 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
 𝜓 = ‫𝐸 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 ‫= 𝑆𝑑 ׬‬ ⨯ 4𝜋𝑅2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝜀

Maxwell’s Equation

 By applying divergence theorem,

Application of Gauss law

 Gaussian Surface: 1. Electric field intensity of each point is same

2. Direction of differential surface is perpendicular
3. Must be closed surface
 Electric field due to point charge: Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin. To
determine D at a point P, consider a spherical surface.
 Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D = Dr ar, applying Gauss’s law
gives

 So,
Application of Gauss law

 Electric field due to line charge: Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge ρL C/m
lies along the z-axis. To determine D at a point P, we choose a cylindrical surface
 Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D = Dp ap, applying
Gauss’s law gives

 So,
Note that ‫𝐷 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆 evaluated
on the top and bottom surfaces of the
𝜌𝐿 cylinder is zero
 So, E = 𝑎ρ
2𝜋𝜀𝜌
Application of Gauss law
 Electric field due to sheet charge: Consider an infinite sheet of uniform charge ρs
C/m2 lies along the z=0. To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box
 Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D = Dz az, applying
Gauss’s law gives

 If the top and bottom area of the box each has area A,
 So,
Note that ‫𝐷 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆 evaluated
 So, on the side of the box is zero
Application of Gauss law
 Electric field due to sphere charge: Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform
charge ρ0 C/m3. To determine D everywhere, we construct Gaussian surfaces for cases
r ≤ a and r ≥ a separately.
 For r ≤ a:
Application of Gauss law
 For r ≥ a:

 So,
Electric Potential

 Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an

electric field E
The negative sign indicates that
 We know,
the work is being done by the
field.

 Total work (potential energy) done in moving Q from A to B –

 VAB is known as the potential difference between points A and B
Electric Potential
Electric Potential

 Potential difference due to a point charge: ➢ Charge from infinity to r distance:

rA ⇾ ∞
rB ⇾ r

The potential at any point is the potential

difference between that point and a
reference point at which the potential is zero.
Electric Potential
 If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but at a point whose position
vector is r’,

 For n point charges Q1, Q2, . . . , Qn located at points with position vectors r1,
r2, . . . , rn, the potential at r is

 For continuous charge distributions, we replace with charge element ρLdl,

ρsdS, or ρvdv
Electric Potential (conservative nature of an
electrostatic field)

 We know,

 Applying Stokes’s theorem,

Maxwell’s 2nd Equation

Practice Problem 1

 3 point charges -4μC, 5μC and 3μC are located at (2,-1,3), (0,4,-2) and (0,0,0).
Find the potential at (-1,5,2).
 Answer: 10.21 kV
Practice Problem 2

 A point charge of 5nC is located at ( -3,4,0) while line y=1, z=1 causes 2nC/m.
If V=100v at O(1,2,1), find V at P(-2,5,3).
 Answer: 49.83 V
For a reference potential, there
must be integral constant C
Practice Problem 3

 In free space V = x2y(z+3) v. Find

(i) E at (3, 4,-6)
(ii) The charge within the cube 0<x, y, z<1
 Answer:
Practice Problem 4

 A positive point charge Q is at the center of a spherical conducting shell of an

inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro. Determine E and V as a function of radial
distance R.
The Dipole

 An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
 The potential at point P(r, ϴ, 𝜑) -

+𝑄 −𝑄
 Where, 𝑉1 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑉2 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
1 2

Here, xy is 0 potential surface so, every points behave similar at

infinity as well as all are zero potential.
The Dipole

 Now consider that P is located at infinity.

 Here, BM = ABcosϴ = dcos ϴ
PB = BM+MP & PM=AP as AM is perpendicular.
PB =r2, PA = r1 so, BM = r2 - r1 = dcosϴ
If d is smaller, r1 = r2, so r1r2 = r2

 So,
P

B
Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

 To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, we must first determine

the amount of work necessary to assemble them.
No work is required
V21 is the
to transfer Q1 from infinity to
potential at the
P1 because the space is initially
location of Q2
charge free and there is no
due to Q1.
electric field

 f the charges were positioned in reverse order,

Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

 If, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous charge distribution,

 We know,
Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

 But for any vector A and scalar V, the identity

 Since E = - ∇V and D = εoE, the electrostatic energy is

Electric Field in Material Space

 Current And Conductors

 The current (in amperes) through a given area is the electric charge passing
through the area per unit time.

 Concept of current density (J): If current DI flows through a planar surface

DS, the current density is

 If the current density is perpendicular to the surface –

 If the current density is not normal to the surface –
 The total current flowing through a surface S is -
Electric Field in Material Space
∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑉

 The element of charge ∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑉 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆∆𝐿

 In time ∆t, the charge is moved a distance ∆x, so ∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆∆𝑥
∆𝑄 ∆𝑥
 ∆𝐼 = = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝐼 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆𝑣𝑥
∆𝑡

 Here, 𝑣𝑥 is the drifting velocity. ∆𝐿

∆𝐼
 = 𝐽𝑥 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑆
∆𝑆

 In general, J = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣 (Convention Current)

Continuity of Current

𝑑𝑄𝑖
 The current through a closed surface is - 𝐼 = ‫𝐽 𝑠ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = − (rate of
𝑑𝑡
decrease charge)
𝑑 𝜕𝑝𝑣
 𝐼 = ‫𝐽 𝑠ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = ‫∇ 𝑙𝑜𝑣׬‬. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = − ‫𝑝 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑣 = − ‫𝑙𝑜𝑣׬‬ 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑝𝑣
 ∇. 𝐽 ∆𝑣 = − ∆𝑣
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑝𝑣
 ∇. 𝐽 = − Continuity Equation
𝜕𝑡
Conductors

 When an electric field E is applied, the force on an electron with charge -e is,

 If an electron with mass m is moving in an electric field E with an average drift

velocity u, according to Newton’s law, the average change in momentum of the free
electron must match the applied force.

where τ is the average time interval between collisions.

Conductors

 If there are n electrons per unit volume, the electronic charge density is
given by

 Thus the conduction current density is

where 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏/𝑚 is the conductivity of the conductor

Conductors

 We know, and = −𝐸𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝐿𝑏𝑎

 So, V = EL
 The electric field applied is uniform,
 Since the conductor has a uniform cross section,
 Thus,
We can write,

1
Where 𝑝𝑐 = 𝜎
Dielectric

 We know, 𝑄𝑇 = − ‫𝜀 𝑆ׯ‬0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆

 Again, 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄 where, 𝑄𝑏 = − ‫𝑃 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 is the total charge which crosses

the elemental surface in an upward direction. Here, P is the dipole moment
and Q is the free charge enclosed by the surface.

 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑇 − 𝑄𝑏 = ‫𝜀( 𝑆ׯ‬0 𝐸 + 𝑃) . 𝑑𝑆
 So we can write, D = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃
 For some dielectrics, P is proportional to the applied electric field E, and we
have

where Xe, known as the electric susceptibility of the material

Dielectric

 Now, The dielectric constant (or relative

permittivity) is the ratio of the permittivity of
the dielectric to that of free space.

The dielectric strength is the maximum

electric field that a dielectric can tolerate or
withstand without electrical breakdown.
Boundary Condition

 So far, we have considered the existence of the electric field in a homogeneous

medium.
 If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that
the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary
conditions.
 These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if
the field on the other side is known.
 We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating-
❑ Dielectric 𝜀𝑟1 and dielectric 𝜀𝑟2
❑ Conductor and dielectric
❑ Conductor and free space
Method of Images

 The method of images is commonly used to determine V, E, D, and pS due to

charges in the presence of conductors

The image theory states that a given

charge configuration above an infinite
grounded perfect conducting plane may
be replaced by the charge configuration
itself, its image, and an equipotential
surface in place of the conducting plane.
Method of Images

 In applying the image method, two conditions must always be satisfied:

 The image charge(s) must be located in the conducting region.
 The image charge(s) must be located such that on the conducting surface(s) the potential is
zero or constant.
Method of Images

 A Point Charge above a Grounded Conducting Plane:

 The distance vectors r1 and r2 are given by

A Point Charge above a Grounded Conducting
Plane: (Contd’)

 It should be noted that when z=0, E has only the z-component, confirming
that E is normal to the conducting surface.

 Question: Find out the surface charge density and total induced charge.
Method of Images

 A Line Charge above a Grounded Conducting Plane:

 Notice that when z = 0, E has only the z-component, confirming that E is

normal to the conducting surface.
A Line Charge above a Grounded Conducting
Plane: (Contd’)

 The potential at V is obtained –

 Question: Find out the surface charge density and induced charge per length.
THANK YOU