DICTIONARY OF

J. SIMPSON &S.ROUD
'Brilliant' The Times
A Dictionary of

English
Folklore

JACQUELINE SIMPSON & STEVE

ROUD

OXJFORD
VNIVERSITY PRESS

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Introduction

The title of this book invites two challenges: What is 'folklore'? And what is

'English' folklore?
As regards the first, 'folklore' is notoriously with rigour,
difficult to define
and the term now covers a broader field than it did when
invented in 1846,
finking many aspects of cultural traditions past and present. It includes what-
ever is voluntarily and informally communicated, created or done jointly by
members of a group (of any size, age, or social and educational level); it can
circulate through any media (oral, written, or visual); it generally has roots in
the past, but is not necessarily very ancient; it has present relevance; it usually
recurs in many places, in similar but not identical forms; it has both stable and
variable features, and evolves through dynamic adaptation to new circum-
stances. The essential criterion is the presence of a group whose joint sense of
what is right and appropriate shapes the story, performance, or custom not —
the rules and teachings of any official body (State or civic authority. Church,
school, scientific or scholarly orthodoxy). It must be stressed that in most other
respects this 'group' is likely to share in mainstream culture and to be diverse
in socio-economic status, interests, etc.; the notion that folklore is found only
or chiefly where an uneducated, homogeneous peasantry preserves ancient
ways has no relevance to England today, and probably never had.
We have included a broad range of oral genres, performance genres, calen-
dar customs, fife-cycle customs, supernatural, and 'superstitious' befiefs. Lack
of space forced us regretfully to omit entries on traditional foods, sports,
games, fairs, and most obsolete customs; we have also been selective in child-
ren's lore, fairies, plants, and superstitions, since excellent books on these
topics are available already. Material culture (such as traditional farming,
crafts, vernacular buildings, etc.) has been left aside, this being an immense
but separate topic. But modem everyday lore is well represented; the *Tooth
Fairy counts as well as *Puck, the *Vanishing Hitchhiker as well as Lady *Godi-
va. On some topics (e.g. *conception, *menstruation, *sex) data are scarce, as
earlier scholars ignored these 'unpleasant' matters; we hope these entries wiU

inspire others to fiiUer research. There are entries for past writers who have
contributed significantly to the study of English folklore, but not for those still
living (except in so far as it is impossible to separate lona Opie's work ft-om that
of her late husband Peter).
There appears to be no precedent for taking 'England' as the basis for a book
covering all folklore genres, although there have been books on, for instance.
English calendar customs or dances. Folklorists have either studied a specific
county, or have drawn material from all over the British Isles. Indeed, there
has always been great stress on Scottish, Welsh, and Irish traditions as richer,
more ancient, and more worth preserving than those of England. This became
a self-ftilfilfing theory; the more scholars thronged to study them, the larger
grew their archives, and the duller England seemed in comparison.
Moreover, the Engfish have never used folklore to assert their patriotic iden-
tity, or even (until recent years) to attract tourists, though certain counties
and regions have. Whereas Scotland, Wales, and Ireland have celebrated their
Introduction

traditions with pride, here folklore is seen as something quaint, appropriate to

rural backwaters, but irrelevant to nationhood. Whereas virtually every other
European country has university departments for folklore studies, with mas-
sive archives, Enghsh academia has almost unanimously turned a blind eye.
The paradoxical result is that the country which invented the word 'folklore'
and whose scholars, a hundred years ago, were leaders in the field, is now a
neglected area. We have long wished to redress the balance; the fact that
our work appears now, at a time when there is some public debate on how
'Enghshness' should be defined, is purely coincidental.
Our second reason for excluding Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man, and the
Channel Isles, is that these areas have languages of their own; being unable to
read their primary material, we could not have treated them adequately. We
areftilly aware that the traditions of the whole
British Isles (plus Ireland) do
have vast areas of overlap, in which separate treatment is unnecessary. How-
ever, there are also great historical and cultural differences; any book attempt-
ing to combine them would either be vastly longer than the present one, or, in
our view, unacceptably shallow. We
hope other 'Dictionaries' will be written,
by those more quahfied than ourselves, to cover those areas.

Similarly, we reluctantly decided not to cover the ethnic groups now

many
forming part of English society. We could have described large-scale pubhc
events such as the Notting Hill Carnival or Chinese New Year dragon dances,
but how could we, as outsiders, get access to the more intimate world of family
custom and personal beliefs? How, for example, could we know where
religious ritual ends and customary practice begins in a Muslim or Hindu wed-
ding? Or distinguish between different types of Chinese medicine? Moreover,
various famihes, generations, or individuals within each ethnic group guard,
modify, or reject their traditions in different degrees in reaction to their Eng-
hsh environment; the situation is currently too fluid and complex for brief
summary. Likewise, it is too early to say whether the policy in multicultural
schools of encouraging all children to share one another's festivals will spread
into the community, and modify estabUshed traditions.
Our intention is to provide a work of reference, not to build theories, of
which there have been too many, based on too httle evidence. The entries
therefore emphasize established dates and facts; speculative interpretations
are kept to a minimum. In particular, we view with scepticism theories that
items of folklore are direct survivals of pre-Christian religion or magic, since
the time-lag between their ascertainable dates and the suggested pagan origins
is generally over a thousand years, and alternative explanations are often
available.

Similarly, although entries on folk medicine and superstitions sometimes

refer to cognate ideas in classical writers, notably Phny, we must state
emphatically that we do not imply that the Enghsh items are orally transmit-
ted from equally ancient times; classical medicine and 'science' was known to
medieval and early modem compilers of bestiaries, lapidaries, and herbals,
through whom it passed to ordinary people. The importance of Greek and
Roman authors to Enghsh folklore is that their prestige among the educated
supported various popular behefs. The authority of the Bible and Church was
even more powerful; it endorsed the reahty of ghosts, witchcraft, and demons,
while the pervasive influence of its ethics and imagery can be traced in very
many legends, practices, and behefs.
In conclusion, we offer appreciation and thanks to our friends and
 Introduction

colleagues whose writings, lectures, and conversation have taught us so much:

Gillian Bennett, Julia Bishop, Marion Bowman, Georgina Boyes, Theresa Buck-
land, E. C. Cawte, Jennifer Chandler, Keith Chandler, Hilda ElHs Davidson,
George Frampton, Reg Hall, Gabrielle Hatfield, Michael Heaney, Roy Judge,
Venetia Newall, lona Opie, Roy Palmer, Tom Pettitt, Neil Phihp, Doc Rowe,
Leslie Shepard, Brian Shuel, Paul Smith, Roy Vickery, John Widdowson,

Juliette Wood.
Particular thanks to Caroline Gates (Librarian of the Folklore Society),
Malcolm Taylor (Librarian of the Vaughan Wilhams Memorial Library), and the
staff of Worthing Public Library and Croydon Libraries (RTS and Local Studies
and Archives).
Thanks also to Gordon Ridgewell for suggesting corrections and additions to
various bibliographical and geographical references in the hardback edition
(2000), now incorporated into the paperback (2001).
J.S.
S.R.
Abbreviations

BM
Abbots Ann (Hampshire), see *maidens' tated his copy of Plot's book with the com-
GARLANDS. ment that he had often seen the dance before
the Civil War. An even earlier reference, in
Abbots Bromley Horn Dance. A unique 1532, confirms the existence of a hobby horse
calendar custom which takes place in Abbots but does not mention the horns (see Heaney).
Bromley, Staffordshire, on the Monday follow- Rightly, 1986: 41-3; Hole, 1975: 95-6; Stone, 1906: 16-
ing the first Sunday after 4 September, the day 18; Michael Heaney, FMJ 5:3 (1987), 359-60; Theresa
of the village *wakes. The team is made up of Buckland, L&L 3:2 (1980), 1-8 (also 3:7 (1982), 87, and 4:1
six dancers, each carrying a pair of antler (1985). 86-7).

horns, a Fool, a man-woman called Maid

Marian, a *hobby horse, a Bow-man, a triangle Abbotsbury garland day (13 May). Abbots-
player, and a musician, each wearing a bury in Dorset has been famous for its *gar-
pseudo-medieval costume designed in the late land day customs for many years, and they
19th centiuy. The horns which the dancers still continue, despite major alterations with-

carry are reindeer antlers, mounted on a in living memory and before. Changes in the
wooden head, with a short wooden handle for village, such as the decUne of the local fishing
carrying. Three are painted white with brown industry, and the closure of local schools, have
tips, and three are brown with golden tips. effected major changes in the way the custom
The horns have naturally caused much specu- is carried out, but locals have been sufficiently

lation, and a radiocarbon dating test carried determined to meet those changes and to
out on one of them in 1976 gave a mean date ensure its survival. A number of other villages
of AD 1065 ± 80 years. Reindeer have been in the area formerly had similar garland cus-
extinct in Britain since before the Norman toms, but Abbotsbury is the only one that has
Conquest, but these particular horns could survived. The way the custom was described in
have been imported at any point in the cus- the 1980s was as follows: The children who
tom's history. The performers spend all day attend the local school get the day off for the
perambulating the parish, sometimes pro- event and they construct two garlands— one of
gressing in single file, sometimes following wild flowers and another of garden flowers.
the leader in a serpentine hey-type movement, The flowers are fixed onto wire frames which
but every now and then they form up in lines are carried on poles. The children go from
of three (the hobby horse and bowman join in house to house round the village, displaying
to make it four and sometimes Jester and Maid the garlands and receiving money, which they
Marian) facing each other. They go forward keep. Later in the day, the older children who
and back towards each other a few times and have been at school in Weymouth get home
then cross over. It is thought to be unlucky if and construct a third, more elaborate garland,
they do not visit your house or neighbour- which they also take round the houses. Two of
hood. After the dance, the horns are deposited the garlands are eventually laid on the local
back in the church, where they v^U remain War Memorial (suggested by benefactor Lord
until next September. The earliest mention of llchester after the First World War). This is
the custom so far found is in Robert Plot's Nat- quite different to how things were one hun-
ural History of Staffordshire (1686), where he dred years earlier. The custom was first de-
mentions the 'Hobby-horse dance' being per- scribed by Hutchins' History of Dorset (1867).
formed at Christmas, New Year, and Twelfth and later by C. H. Mayo (1893). At that time the
Night, and Sir Simon Degge (1612-1704) anno- garlands were made and exhibited only by the
adctors

children of fishing famiUes. The garlands were hang it in a warm place for the fat to drip out

blessed in a church service and some were as oil.

rowed out to sea and thrown into the water. A

shed adder skin could draw out thorns,
The rest of the day was spent in jollification on even needles when applied to the
splinters, or
the beach. Around the time of the First World other side of the hand or finger. This cure is
War, the first non-fishermen garlands mentioned by Aubrey (1686, 1880: 38), as well
appeared, and the number of garlands
has as by 19th- and 20th<entury folklorists. He
since fluctuated a great deal. The local school also mentions that 'Sussexians' wear the skins
closed in 1981, and as children no longer get a 'for hatt-bands, which they say doe preserve

hoUday on Garland Day there has been a ten- them from the gripeing of the gutts'. Other
dency to move the custom further to the even- sources hst this as a remedy for a headache. In

ing, or to the nearest Saturday. Cornwall, adder skin sewn to flannel was worn
C.H. Mayo, 'Garland Days', Somerset & Dorset N&Q. 3 by pregnant women as a belt (Opie and Tatem,

(1893); Peter Robson, 'Dorset Garland Days on the Chesil

1989: 362-3).
Coast", in Buckland & Wood, 1993: 155-66; Rightly, 1986: If a man or animal has been bitten by an
43; Stone, 1906: 70-1.
adder, the best remedy is fat taken from that
very adder, but another is to wrap the victim
adders. There are a number of beliefs about in a fresh sheepskin. Aubrey's cure (Natural
the adder which have been collected across MS in Royal Society) involves
History ofWiltshire
the country, with little variation. It was said to the 'fiindament of a pigeon applied to the bite-
be deaf, on the authority of Psalm 58 ('They place'.The pigeon will quickly die. Keep putt-
are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear, ing fresh pigeons to the wound till they stop
which v^ll not hearken to the voice of the dying.
charmer'). It can only die at sunset, and if you
kiU one its mate will come looking for you. adderstone, see *snakestone.
Adult female adders swallow their young
when in danger, then vomit them up once the Addy, Sidney Oldall (1848-1933). A solicitor
danger is past. An adder coming to the door in Sheffield from 1877 until his retirement in
of a house is a death *omen, and to dream 1905, his real passion was for the dialect, folk-
of adders means your enemies are trying lore, and history of the Yorkshire/Derbyshire
to do you some secret mischief In the area in which he lived and worked. He was an
Fens, it was said they were attracted by the enthusiastic member of local societies and
smell of a *menstruating woman (Porter, 1969: regular contributor to local journals and
51). newspapers, as well as national publications
Adders were thought to UJce milk. A story in such as *Notes & Queries and *Folk-Lore. Addy
The British Chronicle of 15 October 1770 con- joined the *Folklore Society in 1894, having
cerns a farmer and his wife who, having already published enough to make him an
noticed that their best cow gave little milk, acknowledged expert in his area, but soon
stayed up one night to catch the thief Just became disenchanted v/ith the Society's poUcy
about sunrise they saw 'a most enormous which at the time foregrounded reiterative
overgrown adder, or hag worm, crawl out of publishing of previously printed works
the bush, and winding up one of the cow's (exemplified by their County Folk-Lore series)
legs, apply its mouth to one of the paps'. The and the construction of high theory, at the
man managed to kill it with his cudgel, and expense of first-hand fieldwork. Addy was one
the stuffed four-foot long skin could be seen of several regional folklorists who felt similar
displayed at the farmhouse (quoted in Mors- frustration, and after urging, unsuccessftiUy, a
ley, 1979: 72). new poUcy of active collection (e.g. in Folk-Lore
On the principle that like cures like, adder's 13 (1902), 297-9) he resigned from the Society
oilwas prized as a remedy for *deaftiess and in 1905, although he continued to gather and
earache; one snake-catcher used to sell it regu- pubUsh material eleswhere. In retrospect,
larly to a chemist in Uckfield (Sussex) at a Addy was ahead of his time in the quality of
guinea an ounce in the late 19th century. The his fieldwork,combining carefiil observation
way to catch an adder was to shake a silk neck- v^th and an ethnographic
interviews
cloth in front of the snake, which would strike approach, which can be seen in his article on
at it and be unable to withdraw its fangs; one the *Castleton Garland custom published in
could then break its back, slash its skin, and 1901. Much of his folklore work remains little
 alien big cats

known, buried in local publications, and Alford, Violet (1881-1972). An authority of

would certainly repay collecting together and international repute on all forms of folk dan-
republishing. cing, and the related music and festival cus-
Major folklore publications: Glossary of toms. She stressed the similarities to be found
Words Used in the Neighbourhood of Shejjield over much of Europe, which she beheved were
(1888); Household Tales and Traditional Remains due to a common origin in prehistoric ritual.
(1895); 'Garland day at Castleton', Folk-lore 12 Most of her research was done in France and
(1901) 394-428; 'Guising and Mumming in Spain, especially in the Pyrenees; she was a
Derbyshire', Derbyshire Archaeology and Natural tireless traveller and a close observer, whose

History Society Journal 29 (1907), 31-42. vivid first-hand impressions of customs and

John Ashton, Folklore Historian 15 (1998), 5-13; John Ash- performances are of enduring interest even
ton, Folklore 108 (1997). 19-23; Walter T. Hall, 'The Late where her theoretic framework is outdated.
Sidney Oldall Addy', Transactions of the Hunter Archaeo- She was an active member of the EFDSS,
logical Society 4 (1937), 221-5.
organized several major dance festivals, and
adjudicated at others; she held strong views
afterbirth, see *placenta.
on authenticity, and deplored commercial or
changes to tradition. She spotted the
touristic
alabaster. Powdered alabaster was formerly fragmentary traces of the *Marshfield mum-
believed to have medicinal value when made ming tradition, stimulated its revival in 1932,
up into an ointment, and was reputedly par- and then, characteristically, tried to control
ticularly good for bad legs. It was common the performances.
for people to chip pieces off church statues for Her main books are Pyrenean Festivals (1937);
the purpose, with the implication that this The Singing of the Travels (1956); Sword Dance and
holy connection would make the stone even Drama (1962); The Hohby Horse and Other Animal
more effective, and many ecclesiastical Masks (1978).
buildings show mutilated statues at ground See D. N. Kennedy, Folklore 82 (1971), 344-50, for a
levelboth inside and outside the building for selected bibUography; Lucille Armstrong, Folklore 84
this reason. Correspondents in NEKl report (1973), 104-10, and Edward Nicol, FMJ (1972), 257-8, for
obituaries.
that the efficacy of powdered alabaster was
recorded in a number of leech-books, as early
as AD 900. alien big cats. Since the 1960s, there have
N&Q. lls:6 (1912), 129, 175, 234-5. been press reports from many areas of large
cat-like animals, gUmpsed, and
briefly
Alderley Edge (Cheshire). rocky outcropA assumed by witnesses to be
pumas, lions,
near Macclesfield, honeycombed with old lynxes, or cheetahs; paw-prints and droppings
mining tunnels. A farmer was once stopped are sometimes found, and the sightings are
there by a wizard, who insisted on buying his often Unked to allegedly unusual deaths and
white mare, and led him through huge iron injuries among sheep and deer. There were
gates inside the rock, where he saw many 304 press items drawn from 31 counties in
horses and warriors asleep. These, the wizard 1997 alone. Interpretation of the evidence is
explained, would ride out and decide the fate controversial, since alternative explanations
of a great battle to save England, 'when are always possible. If exotic animals really are
George the son of George shall reign'. Then he at large, they must be illegal pets, dumped
paid the farmer from the treasures in the cave, when they grow troublesome, and possibly
and led him out; the iron gates shut, and no now breeding in the wild; however, it is
one has seen them since. unlikely there could be so many as the reports
The tale has been noted by many local suggest. No foreign feline has yet been cap-
writers from 1805 onwards; it is said to have tured or killed, apart from one tame puma in
circulated orally since the 1750s. The eariier Scotland in 1980 and a small swamp cat acci-
versions do not name the wizard and the dentally run over on Hayling Island (Hamp-
shire) in 1988. Some writers therefore prefer
sleepers; later ones identify them as *Merlin, a
*
Arthur, and his knights. A
spring in the rocks paranormal explanation; the media adopt an
was called theHoly Well in the 18th century, ambiguous attitude, alternating between
and its water was thought to cure women of dread and humour, and favouring emotive
barrenness; it is now called the Wizard's Well, terms such as 'beast', 'aUen', and 'mystery'.
and used as a *wishing well. Many reports are confined to local papers;
Allendale tar barrels

others cause nationwide interest and large- ing their candles out, and someone suggested
scale hunts by police or the army— the Surrey that a tar barrel would be a more effective
Puma in 1962-6, the Black Beast of Exmoor in illumination.
1983, the Beast of Bodmin Moor in 1994-5. Venetia Newall, FoMore 85 (1974), 93-103; Sykes, 1977:
The Bodmin case collapsed when investigated 156-9; Rightly, 1986: 44; Shuel, 1985: 190-1.

by the Ministry of Agriculture (see press

reports of 20 July 1995), but further incidents All Fools' Day, see *april fool's day.
continue; in March 1998 a 'Beast of Essex' was
suspected of killing four geese near Epping. All Saints'Day (1 November). Germany and
Whatever facts may underlie some reports, England began celebrating a feast of all mar-
media-generated interest encourages rumour, tyrs and on 1 November in the 8th cen-
saints

misinterpretation, and exaggeration. Hoaxing tury, insteadof on 13 May, as was done in

occurs; a skull 'found' on Bodmin Moor in late Rome; eventually the rest of Western Chris-
July 1995 came from a leopard-skin rug, and tendom also adopted the November date.
some photos simply show domestic cats shot Although in itself a joyous festival, it was also
from angles which distort their size. the eve of * All Souls' Day, so in medieval times
See also *cats. it became customary to pray for the dead on

A dossier of press items is held by Paul this date. At dusk, torchlit processions and
Sieveking, editor of Fortean Times. For a selec- church were held, and bells were rung
vigils
tion of material and a folkloric interpretation, till midnight. At the Reformation the custom

see Michael Goss, 'Alien Big Cat Sightings in was forbidden, but many people were defying
Britain: A Possible Rumour Legend?', Folklore the ban and ringing church bells as late as the
103 (1992), 184-202. Janet and Cohn Bord, in 1580s. Later still, in the 18th and early 19th
AlienAnimab (1980), explain these and other centuries, some villagers in Lancashire and
mystery beasts as paranormal phenomena; Di Derbyshire would light small fires in the fields
Francis argues in Cat Country (1983) that at midnight on All Saints' Day, to see in All
ancient wildcats survive, unrecognized. Souls, and kneel round them to pray for their
dead.
Allendale tar The people of
barrels. This date between "^Halloween and All
falls

Allendale, Northumberland, welcome the around Shropshire and

Souls, so in those areas
*New Year in a spectacular way with their Staffordshire where *souling was prevalent.
procession of blazing *tar barrels. During the All Saints did not have a separate identity but
evening, men in home-made costume (the was swamped by these other two festivals. In
guisers) visit the town's pubs and shortly other areas, however, a range of customs took
before midnight assemble for the procession place on this day, though none of them seems
which is the focal point of the custom. The to be widespread, or at least widely reported.
barrels are actually one end of a wooden bar- At Goadby (Leicestershire) in the 18th century,
rel, about twelve inches deep, filled with wood a children's *bonfire custom is recorded. In
and shavings soaked in paraffin. Once the bar- Derbyshire it was customary to strew flowers
rels are alight, the procession follows the town on the *graves of departed loved ones. In
band round the streets and back to the Hampshire and the Isle of Wight special cakes
market-place, where an unlit bonfire awaits were made and eaten. A 19th-century *love
them. After circling the fire, and at the stroke divination is reported from Worcestershire as
of midnight, some of the barrels are thrown special to All Saints' Day: 'A young woman
on to the fire, while others are extinguished took a ball of new worsted and holding it in
and saved for next year, as it is hard to get her fingers, threw the ball through the open
decent wooden barrels these days. The crowd window at midnight, saying "Who holds?" It
cheers, and Auld Lang Syne is sung. Most of the was assumed that her future husband would
Guisers spend the rest of the night first footing pick up the worsted, mention his name, and
(see *New Year). According to extensive disappear' (N&QJor Worcestershire (1856), 190).
research carried out by Venetia Newall, the See also *halloween, *all souls' day, and
tar-barrel custom is not nearly as old as most *SOULING.
people assume itto be, dating only from about
Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 121-37.
1858. It seems to have started with the band's
New Year perambulation of the village. One All Souls' Day (2 November). Also called
year, the wind was so strong that it kept blow- Souknas Day, Saumas, etc. This feast was
 Angels of Mons

devised by Abbot Odilo of Cluny (d. 1049), to dren carry rush and flower constructions (the
pray for 'all the dead who have existed from 'bearings') in the shape of harps and so on. A
the beginning of the v/orld to the end of time'. hjonn is sung at the market-place, and a ser-
He set it in February, but it was soon trans- mon preached in the church. Gingerbread is
ferred to the day after *A11 Saints; its sombre distributed afterwards. A description pub-
associations affected All Saints' Day and lished in 1892 shows there has been little
ultimately its eve as well, giving rise to many change in the form of the custom since that
* time.
aspects of probable that in
Halloween. It is

medieval England, as in many Cathohc coun- Hogg, 1971: 96-7; N&Q.8s:2 (1892), 141-2.
tries, the dead were beUeved to leave Purga-

tory for two or three days, to revisit their Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-75). A Dan-
homes and seek the prayers of their relatives. ish shoemaker's son who as a child had heard
In The Gentleman's Magazine for November traditional storytelling 'in the spinning-room
1784, a correspondent said children at Findem or during the hop harvest'. He began writing
(Derbyshire) Ut small *bonfires on the com- fairytales in 1835, and continued all his life;
mon on 2 November, calling them 'tindles'; the English translations appeared in 1846.
first
adults recalled that the purpose had originally Some, for instance 'The Travelling Com-
been 'to light souls out of Purgatory'. There
panions' and 'Big Claus and Little Claus', fol-
are similar reports from Lancashire, but these low traditional plots quite closely; others are
seem to be isolated examples. variationson old motifs, such as 'The Little
Before the Reformation, was customary to
it
Mermaid', elaborating the beUef that water-
distribute food and alms to the poor on All may love humans, and may desire to
spirits
Souls' Day as a fee for praying for the dead. obtain salvation. Many, including the well-
Later, *Aubrey describes piles of small cakes knovm 'Ugly DuckUng', are entirely his own
set out on this day in Shropshire houses, for and
creations; almost all are ftiU of pathos
visitors to take one; he also gives 'an old emotionaUsm. Andersen's influence on the
Rhythm or sajdng': later Uterary fairytale in England was pro-

A Soule-cake, a SouIe<ake, found; it pervades the fairytales of Oscar

Have mercy on all Christen soules for a Soulecake. Wilde, and can be felt as early as 1857 in sev-
eral passages of Dickens's Little Dorrit. About a
(Aubrey, 1686/1880: 23)
dozen are now among the stock of fairytales
Cakes were long made in many regions, and which most English children know, and are no
called 'soul-cake' in some
The type var-
places. felt as foreign.
longer
ieswidely from place to place, and even two
reports from Whitby (Yorkshire) disagree— 'a
Angels of Mons. During 1915, there were
small round loaf, says one, but 'a square far-
strong rumours that British and French troops
thing cake with currents on top' says the had been miraculously protected from the
other.
Germans during their retreat from Mons late
See also *antrobus soul-cakers, *mumming
in August 1914. The earhest allusions are in
PLAYS, *SOULING.
letters written by Brigadier-General John
Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 137-45. Charteris on 5 September 1914 and 11 Febru-
ary 1915, though only published in 1931:
amber. Occasionally said to be rubbed on sore
September 1914] Then there is the story
of the
eyes and sprained limbs (Henderson, 1866: [5
the 2nd
'Angels of Mons' going strong through
113), or worn for chest ailments {Folk-Lore 53
Corps, of how the Angel of
the Lord on the
(1942), 98). One soldier from the First World
traditional white horse, and clad all in white with
War reckoned he owed his life to his amber
flaming sword, faced the advancing Germans
at
bead (Lovett, 1925: 13). Mons and forbade their further progress. Men's
nerves and imaginations play weird pranks in these
Ambleside rushbearing. Not quite so well strenuous times. All the same the angel at Mons
known as neighbouring *Grasmere, Amble- interests me. I cannot find out how the legend arose.

side, Cumbria, keeps its own version of the I have been at some trouble to trace
[1 ] February 1915]
rushbearing custom. On the Saturday nearest the rumour to its source. The best I can make of it
St Anne's Day (26 July), villagers process to the is that some religiously minded man
wrote home
St Mary's church with men carrying pointed that the Germans halted at Mons, as if an Angel
of

rush pillars, about eight feet tall, while chil- the Lord had appeared in front of them. In due
animal disguise

course the letter appeared in a Parish Magazine, Derby Ram, *Padstow Hobby Horse, *staghunt,
which in time was sent back to some other men at *straw bears.
the front. From them the story went back home with
Cawte. 1978.
the 'as if omitted, and at home it went the rounds in
its expurgated form. \M GHQ.(1931), 25-6, 75].
animal infestation. The horror of parasitic
During the spring and summer of 1915 the infestation extended in folklore to include
is

story in the rehgious press,

flourished the fear that certain types of animal (usually
whether SpirituaUst, Catholic, or Anglican, in *frogs, *toads, newts, or snakes) could live and
parish magazines, and in sermons, before grow inside people; allegedly true reports are
eventually reaching the national press. The fairly common from the 18th century to the
accounts are given with heartfelt conviction, present day. In most cases, the person is said
but none a first-hand eyewitness report. The
is to have drunk pond or river water containing
details vary considerably. In some versions the eggs or newly hatched young, which then
there are only two or three angels, in others a grow in the stomach, causing great discom-
whole troop; in some, they are visible to the fort.Typical of the many reahstic 'medical'
British soldiers, in others only to the Germans;
reports is the follovdng, reprinted in N&Qfrom
in some they merely deter the Germans from The North Lindsey Star of 20 February 1892:
attacking, in others they actually kill large
nimibers of them; in some, there is an indi-
A woman named Jane Rowe, residing at Marazion, in
Cornwall, has for several years suffered from violent
vidual leader of the visionary host, described
pains in the stomach, from which she has been
as a horseman in armour and identified by the
unable to obtain any relief, although she has been
English as St George and by the French as the continually under medical treatment. On Friday
Archangel Michael or as Joan of Arc; in some, evening, after taking some medicine, she had a
*a strange cloud' comes between the Germans severe attack of vomiting, in the course of which she
and the British. threw up a from four to five inches in
living lizard,
Arthur Machen, a leader-writer on The Even- length. Dr. Mudge, who has been the woman's
J.

medical attendant, has preserved the lizard, which

ing News, later maintained that these rumours
had all grown out of a story he published in he believes must have been in her stomach for many

that paper on 29 September 1914, entitled years. Since the reptile was ejected, Mrs Rowe has
been almost entirely free from pain. (N&QSsrl (1892),
'The Bowmen'. This tells how an EngUsh sol-
207)
dier called on St George for help, and became
aware of an army of medieval archers slaugh- In some stories, the creature is brought out
tering the Germans with their arrows; he real- ahve by a simple expedient, on the advice of a
izes they are the bowmen of Agincourt. As 'v^se woman': the sufferer must starve for a
Brigadier-General Charteris's first letter few days (or, alternatively, eat very salty food),
shows, the legend was current three weeks and then bend over a bowl of milk or other
before Machen's story, so his claim to be its tempting morsel. The hungry animal will
originator cannot be accepted, though he may come out to get some, and can then be caught
have genuinely believed he was. Moreover, and killed.
there are no angels in his story, and no ghostly Such stories and beUefs could serve as
bowmen in the oral nunours. The latter are explanations for chronic dyspepsia and
best explained as a *contemporary legend unnatural hunger. In the latter case, the crea-
which satisfied religious and patriotic needs, ture in the stomach could be visualised as
and became a powerful and enduring part of much bigger and more aggressive. 'He must
the mythology of the Great War. have a wolf in his stomach' was a common
Kevin McLure, Visions of Angels and Tales of Bowmen (Har- phrase, though it is not always clear what
rogate, 1996); John Harlow, The Sunday Times (26 Jan. 'wolf means in such contexts; there is a York-
1997), 9. shire term 'water-wolf which seems to refer
to some form of super-nev^.
animal disguise. A number of *calendar cus- The motif of animal infestation remains
toms include, or consist of, people dressing up popular in *contemporary legends. When the
to impersonate animals. See
*hobby horses for 'beehive' hairdo was fashionable, there were
a general and for specific
discussion, stories about who neither washed nor
girls
examples: *Abbots Bromley Horn Dance, combed their hair for weeks, so spiders or
*Antrobus Soul-Cakers, *Hooden Horse, bugs bred in it and gnawed into their skulls;
*Minehead Hobby Horse, *01d Horse, *01dTup/ more recently, stories about people returning
 April Fool's Day
from exotic holidays with a boil, which bursts by aman bent double under a canvas cover— a
to reveal hundreds of tiny spiders, or a mass of construction defined as a 'mast-horse' (see
ant eggs. From antiquity to the mid-19th cen- *hobby horse). The Driver's to
attempts
tury, there are accounts (often supported by control his cavortings and misbehaviour are
medical writers) of lice generating spon- the highlight of the play for many of the audi-
taneously on or in the human body. The ence. A local team is known to have performed
notion that earwigs creep into people's ears if up to the First World War, and then lapsed for
they lie down on
the grass, and will there a while, being revived in the late 1920s at the
gnaw through your brain, ranges from the instigation of Major A. W. Boyd, and it has
18th century to modem children's lore. been regularly performed ever since.
The possibility of animals in the stomach was repeatedly Shuel, 1985: 179-80; Hehn, 1981: 69-71; A. V^. Boyd, A
debated in N8Q, under the heading 'newspaper folklore' Country Parish (1951). 69-74.
(ls:6 (1852), 221, 338. 446; ls:9 (1854),29-30, 84, 276-7,
523-4); also under the heading 'animals hving inside
people' (9s:7 (1901). 222-3, 332-3. 390-2; 9s:8 (1901). 89-
90. 346; 9s:9 (1903). 467-8). See also GiUian Bennett.
April Fool's Day. The first mention of this
'Vermin in Boils: What if it were True?'. Southern Folklore custom is a curt note in Aubrey: 'Fooles holy
54 (1997). 185-95; 'Bosom Serpents and Alimentary day.We observe it on ye first of April. And so it
Amphibians: A Language for Sickness', in Illness and Heal- is kept in Germany everywhere.' (Aubrey,
ing Alternatives in Western Europe, ed. Marijke Guswijt- 1686, 1880: 10). It must have reached England
Hofstra and others (1997). 224-42.
from Germany or France in the mid-1 7th cen-
animals. For the folklore of real-life animals, tury, and quickly became very popular under
see under each individual species. Two forms the name All Fools' Day; 18th-century writers

can occur: beUefs about the *luck or ill luck call it 'universal'.At this period it was an adult
the animal brings or foretells, and ideas about amusement; people tried to trick one another
its biology and behaviour which, though mis-
into going on ridiculous errands, seeking non-
existent objects such as pigeon's milk or a
taken, are not superstitious but merely popu-
lar fallacies. The latter often have a long his- biography of Eve's mother, and so on.
Individual hoaxing of this kind grew rare
tory in books as well as oral tradition. Also,
among adults in the 19th century, but in
pious legends about animals and birds explain
their markings or behaviour by association recent decades impersonal media hoaxes have

with Jesus (see *donkey, *robin). The haddock become popular; every year, press and televi-
and the dory both have a black spot behind sion produce a crop of plausible, poker-faced

each gill, said to be the marks of St Peter's absurdities ingeniously disguised as news

thumb and forefinger as he held the fish to items. On 1 April 1970 BBC radio broadcast a
tribute to a non-existent scholar and philan-
extract a coin from its mouth (Matthew 17:
7)— a tale recorded in the 17th century, but thropist, in which various celebrities took
part. The Times, abandoning its rule that
probably medieval.
There are many supernatural creatures in hoaxes should be ignored, did report this one;
animal form, some being shape-changing readers were amused, not angry. The idea was

*boggarts and *fairies, others human *ghosts, increasingly imitated, for example by the
others demonic; each account has to be separ- Guardian's 1977 account of the delightftil but

ately assessed. imaginary island of Sans Serif

Children's tricks can be directed either
Antrobus Soul-Cakers. One of the very few against adults or against one another. Some
* are novel, as when some Bradford sixth-
surviving mumming play teams which have a
claim to be traditional, the Soul-Cakers per- formers in 1970 advertised their school as
form their souling play every year at * Hal- being for sale, but most are traditional in
loween and the following two weeks, around form; they give false warnings and disconcert-
the vicinity of the village of Antrobus (Chesh- ing news, and mock those who believe them,
ire). As is usual with this type of play, the basic play simple practical jokes, send people on
action is that King George and the Black Prince
fiitile errands (Opie and Opie. 1959: 243-7). As
with other children's customs, there is a time
fight, and the latter is killed and brought back
to life by a Doctor, and the last characters to limit; anyone attempting a trick after midday
enter are the Wild Horse (Dick) and his Driver. is taunted:
The Wild Horse is made up of a real horse's April Fool is gone and past.
skull, painted black, mounted on a pole, held You're the biggest fool at last.
Arbor Day 8

Arbor Day. Until 1995. a large black poplar troyed; the funereal *Maidens' Garlands were
tree standing in the centre of the village of meant to be permanent. All were made, not
Aston-on-Clun in Shropshire was perman- bought; all show the interplay of traditional

ently decorated with flags suspended from its patterns and individual variation which is the
branches. In that year the old tree died, and essence of folklore.
since a young one grown from its seeds is not In preindustrial England, most men's crafts

yet large or strong enough to carry the were utilitarian, their beauty depending on
flags, they are currently lashed
to railings the match between form and function, rather
around it. than ornament; only a few working groups
The flags are renewed on 29 May (*Oak made much use of colour, mainly carters and
Apple Day), locally called Arbor Day. As far as boatmen. Decorative woodcarving is found on
is known, the custom began in 1786. to cele- furniture and a few personal items such as
brate the wedding of the local squire John pipes, whips, tool-handles, walking sticks, and
Marston. The poplar was called the Bride's shepherds' crooks. Certain intricately chip-
Tree; sprigs from it were given to village girls carved objects were fashioned by men not for
on their wedding day. to ensure a large family. their own use but as love-tokens; notable
Some authorities assume that the tree- examples are the Yorkshire knitting sheaths,
decoration was a previous custom adapted for whose shape and ornamentation varies from
the occasion, but there is no evidence to back one dale to the next, and Yorkshire stay-busks
The Marston family eventually died out,
this. (Brears, 1989: 46-62, 75-80; Lambert and
so Hopesay Parish Council took over the Marx, 1989: 20-1).
ceremony, and gave it great publicity from Women's needlework emphasized orna-
1954 to 1959; unfortunately, the press dubbed ment; lace-making, smocking, embroidery,
it a 'pagan fertihty rite', rousing disapproval tapestry, and beadwork were always popular,
which nearly led to its abolition. However, it among those who could afford the materials.
continued, and is organized by the Parish
still One widespread product was the sampler, a
Council supported by the proceeds of an small linen square displaying different
annual fete. stitches in silk or wool, made by children to
Michael M. Rix. Folklore 71 (1960). 184-5; Tom Cham- prove their skill; its centrepiece was lettering,
News 23 (1996), 14.
bers, FLS usually expressing piety, surrounded by pic-
torial decoration. Elaborate satin or velvet
art. The study of EngUsh regional folk-art pincushions were made as christening pres-
styles has been deplorably neglected. Yet vis- ents, shining pinheads forming patterns and a
ual display has always been essential to many message (e.g. 'Welcome, little stranger').
traditional customs; even if the objects cre- Women also made sturdy rag-rugs from strips
ated were only to be seen for one day, they had of cloth threaded through hessian in attractive
to have an impact. They were skilfully made, designs, especially in the northern counties
showing individual variations within trad- (Brears, 1989: 140-51). This region also had a
itionally determined designs. vigorous quilting tradition, using embroidery,
Folk-art of this kind includes the purely patchwork, and applique; many nineteenth-
domestic (e.g. *Easter eggs, *Christmas decor- century examples survive.
ations); communal artistic creation (well- Ornamental objects created by local crafts-
dressing); objects made and displayed by an men as a means of public communication
occupational group, or by children, in expect- included carved or painted inn signs and trade
ation of reward (*Jack-in-the-Green, signs, ships' figureheads, weathervanes. and
*May
garlands, *grottoes, the *poppy show); carts tombstones. They were handmade, and
temporarily decorated for seasonal celebra- offered scope for Uvely invention within a J
tions (*rushbearing, *harvest home); shared tradition. In recent decades, 'village
*eflfigies
to be burnt. More substantial objects, have become popular in East Angha.
designed signs'
to be repeatedly used at annual events, When discussing material objects in an
include many costumes and masks worn by industrialized society, it is hard to know
participants in folk drama, dancing, and where to draw the line between 'folk culture'
pageantry, such as *hobby horses and proces- and 'popular culture'. Items such as fair-
sional giants and *dragons. Many are comic, ground souvenirs, greetings cards, mourning
or mock-horrific. A few objects,
notably *com jewellery, or rehgious pictures have been
dollies, were displayed for a year and then des- factory-made since early Victorian times, and
 Arthur

hence fairly standardized; yet they are used as Arthur. Arthurian hterature is beyond the
adjuncts to festivities and Ufe-cycle events scope of the present work, as is the problem of
which are essentially folkloric. Their designs Arthur's historical setting. One theme, how-
may also be rooted in folk tradition. On this ever, the beUef that Arthur is not dead and will
level, folk/popular art has been, and still is, return, remained rooted in the popular mind
abundant. throughout the centuries. The earliest refer-
Towards the middle of the 19th century, ences come from *Celtic areas— a Welsh poem
various social groupings began using con- which remarks cryptically, 'A mystery until
spicuous objects, created by industrial tech- Doomsday is the grave of Arthur'; a mention

niques, to symbohze their identity. There of a fight which broke out at Bodmin (Corn-
were large, bright pictorial banners used in wall) in 1113 because some Frenchmen
street parades by many organizations, laughed at a local man who assured them
religious and secular, especially Temperance Arthur was ahve; allusions to an obstinate
Clubs and Trade Union branches. Painted on belief among Bretons that he would return.
rubberized silk and adorned with fringes and By the time Malory wrote, in the 1460s, the
*
tassels, they conveyed the aims of the organ- tomb at Glastonbury containing a coffin
ization through reaUstic or symboUc figures, alleged to be Arthur's was famous, but he does
mottoes, heraldic devices, and portraits of not mention it. Instead, he first says that a
leaders. ship ftill of fair ladies bore Arthur away to 'the
Gaudy decoration characterized the world vale of Avilion' to be healed, but then that
of popular amusements: music halls, pubs, they returned that night with a corpse, and
fairs, and circuses. Here too the 19th century asked a hermit to bury it; finally, he says there
saw an increase of industrial products, but were many tales, both written and oral, and he
individual craftsmen and
amateurs were cannot decide between them:
still active. What is now thought of as a
No more of the very certainty of his death I never
'Gypsy caravan', a one-roomed dwelling
read, but thus was he led away in a ship wherein
mounted on a horse-drawn cart, originated
were three queens [These] ladies brought him to
among fairground showmen of the early 19th
his burials . . . but yet the hermit knew not in certain
*
century, and was adopted by Gypsies around was
that it verily the body of King Arthur Yet
1850. Its multicoloured paintwork, covering some men say in many parts of England that Arthur
every inch of the exterior and much of the isnot dead, but had by the will of Our Lord Jesu into
internal fittings, constitutes a distinctive art- another place, and men say that he shall come again,
form with and horses as its
scrolls, flowers, and he shall win the Holy Cross. I will not say it shall
be so, but rather I will say, here in this world he
typical motifs;though such waggons were
made by speciaUst firms, they were changed his life. But many men say that there is
wrritten upon his tomb this verse: Hie jacet Arthurus,
exclusively used by two marginal social
Rex quondam Rexque futurus ['Here Ues Arthur, former
groups, showmen and G5^sies, and pro-
King and future King']. (Morte d'Arthur, book 21,
claimed their identity.
chapter 7).
Another working group using mobile
homes was the canal bargees and their fam- *
Part of this derives fi-omGeoffrey of Mon-
ilies,and they too compensated for cramped mouth, who says Arthur was taken by boat to
quarters by colourful decoration. Canal boat *Avalon, an island paradise where nine queens
art, first described in 1873, combines geo- would heal him. Folk tradition, however,
metric designs with flowers and romantic claims he is sleeping in some secret cavern
landscapes, applied not only to the boat but to v^ath his knights round him until his country
all its ftimishings, and even utensils such as needs him— a tale told of great kings and her-
basins and pails. The artists were generally the oes throughout Europe. It is localized at sev-
boatbuilders, but sometimes the bargees eral places in Britain, the main Enghsh ones
themselves. being *Cadbury Castle (Somerset), Richmond
Castle (Yorkshire), and Sewingshields Castle
Peter Brears, 1989; Lambert and Marx, 1989; Averil
Colby, Samplers Yesterday and Today (1964); Anne Sebba, (Northumberland). It tells how a farmer, or a
Samplers: Rve Centuries of a Gentle Craft (1979); John Gor- potter, happens upon a secret entrance in the
man, Banner Bright (1973); M. FitzRandolph, Traditional hillside, leading to an underground chamber
Quilting (1953); Rosemary Allen, North Country Quilts and
where Arthur and his knights he sleeping,
Coverlets (1987); C. H. Ward-Jackson and D. E. Harvey, The
surrounded by weapons and treasures, includ-
English Gypsy Caravan (1972); Tony Lewery, 'Rose, Castle
and Canal', Folklore 106 (1995), 43-56. ing a sword and a horn. At this point, the man
arum lilies

blunders: either he draws the sword but fails maintaining parish boundaries had become
to blow the horn, or he runs away without apparent, and as this became grafted on to the
doing either. He can never find the entrance old reUgious custom, the better-known Beat-

again. ing the Bounds developed. In many areas.

Arthur's name attached to a number of
is Beating the whole Bounds of a parish can take
other sites, sometimes in such a way as to a considerable time, and it was deemed suf-

imply that he was imagined as a *giant. There undertake it sporadically rather than
ficient to

is a huge crag called Arthur's Seat near Sew- annually. For those interested in the blessing
ingshields, a megaUth called Arthur's Quoit at rather than the beating, smaller-scale customs
Trethevy (Cornwall), and another called evolved.
Arthur's Stone at Hereford, with dents said Few other customs took place on Ascension
to be the marks of his knees. There are also Day, although some beUefs connected the Day
places hnked to events in the medieval with water. In many areas it was the day for
*
romances, either in the old texts them- visiting local holy wells, either for cures
selves, or by later speculation. For instance, (especially sore eyes) or for luck (Trans, of the
it is said that Excahbur was thrown into Devonshire Assoc. 40 (1908). 190-2). children's A
either Looe Pool or Dozmaiy Pool (both in custom reported at different times of the year,
Cornwall). under different names, involved mixing water
Other beUefs, more rarely recorded, are that from a particular well or spring with sugar or
Arthur leads the *Wild Hunt, and that he lives sweets to make a special drink. In some areas
on as a *raven. this was carried out on Ascension Day and
See also *alderley edge, *round table. called 'Sugar and Water Day' (see also *Easter,

Westwood, 1985: 5-8, 18-21, 29, 241-5. 313-15, 370-1. elecampane, and *Spanish Sunday). Rain
which fell on Ascension Day was similarly
believed to be special as coming 'straight from
lilies. These are among the *white
heaven', and was collected and stored for
*flowers considered unlucky to bring indoors
medicinal use, and again sore eyes are men-
or into a hospital. They are much used at
tioned regularly. In addition, the popular cus-
funerals, and for church decoration at
tom of *well-dressing occurs at Ascension in
Easter.
some villages. Several beliefs about the pre-
vention of *fires had an Ascension Day slant —
Ascension Day. This marks the ascension of a piece of hawthorn gathered on the day and
Christ into heaven, and being the fortieth day brought to you (i.e. not picked yourself) and
after Easter Sunday it always falls on a Thurs- hung in the rafters is reported from Staf-

day (hence its other name. Holy Thursday), fordshire (Folk-Lore 7 (1896), 381), whereas in
though the actual date changes yearly. A cus- Nottinghamshire it was an egg laid on the day
tom of processing around the parish in order which should be placed somewhere in the roof
to invoke divine protection and to bless the (Jewitt, Ancient Customs and Sports of Not-
crops and Uvestock at this time was adopted tinghamshire (1852)). In Shropshire, it was
by the Church in England in the 8th century, believed that rooks take a rest from their nest-
although it had been practised on the Contin- building on Ascension Day (Bume, 1883: 218),
ent for centuries before that time. The three and in Lincolnshire it was said that to hang
days before Ascension, when the processions sheets out to dry or air on this day was a sure
took place, became variously known as Roga- way to bring a death to the family (compare
tion, Processioning, Ganging (going), or Cross *Good Friday, and *washing) (The Times, 8 May
(from the crucifix carried) days, and the pro- 1934). A belief was reported from the West
cessions themselves could be quite spectacu-
Country in the 18th century (more usually
lar, carrying crosses, banners, and garlands, linked to Easter), that the figure of a lamb
and prayers and hymns being given at key could be seen in the rising sun (Gentleman's
points around the parish. There is some evi- Magazine (1787), 718, quoted in Brand, 1849: i.
dence that the Rogation customs in some 197).
areas had begun to get out of hand and were For other Ascension Day customs, see
suppressed, but others continued until they hunting the earl of rone, *\vell-dressing,
were aboUshed by the Puritans in the 17th whitby *penny hedge.
century. In the meantime, however, the
Wright and Lones. 1938: i. 129-48; Brand, 1849: i. 197-
relatively secular need for identifying and 212; Mutton, 1996: 277-9.
 Ash Wednesday

Ashbourne Royal Shrovetide Football. homes, and takes place in some West Country
One of the few surviving street *football games pubs, such as at Curry Rivel (Somerset).
takes place at *Shrovetide in Ashbourne, Der-
Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 213-14, 227; G. R. W^illey,
byshire. The first known mention of the Ash- FoMore 94:1 (1983), 40-3.
bourne game is in 1683, by Charles Cotton in
his Burlesque on the Great Frost, 'two towns, that ash (tree). A traditional cure, recorded in
long that war had waged being at football now several counties, for young children Mdth her-
engaged' but it is be much older than
likely to nias; an ash sapUng, preferably one grown
that. The game played between two teams,
is from seed and never touched by a knife, was
of indeterminate size, called the Upp'ards and split down the middle and held open with
the Down'ards, i.e. those who live above or wedges, the child was passed through the gap,
below the Henmore Stream which flows and the damaged tree tightly bound up— as its
through the tov^m. Two mills, over two miles cleft healed, so the hernia would disappear.

apart, are the respective goals, and the ball can Descriptions of the procedure from the 19th
be kicked, thrown, or carried, but must not be century include further ritualistic details: it
transported by car. Much of the time the ball is must be done at dawn, with the child naked
in the middle of a mass scrum, or 'hug', and and held face up; or it must be done by *nine
travels very slowly. The balls are handmade in people, from west to east, on nine successive
the village, of stitched leather, and much dec- mornings; or it must be done at *midnight,
orated, but they sometimes get torn to pieces nine times, in complete silence. The tree must
during the game. Sometimes two, very not be cut down during the child's lifetime .

occasionally three, games can be played in a The tree's other major use was for curing
day, and the game is staged both on Shrove lameness, pains, and swellings in cattle, sup-
Tuesday and *Ash Wednesday. In the mid-1 9th posedly caused by a *shrew running over
century, there were determined and increasing them. A shrew would be thrust into a deep
attempts to suppress the game altogether and hole bored into an ash tree, and the hole
regular clashes between players and police plugged up; once the shrew was dead, any
occurred. A workable compromise was reached animal whipped v^dth twigs from that tree
in 1862/3 when it was agreed to move the game would be cured. A famous shrew-ash in
out of the Market Square and town streets Richmond Park was frequently visited, in the
where it had formerly raged, on to an open site mid-1 9th century, by women bringing
called Shaw Croft on the edge of towni where sickly children for healing, especially from
the crowds would do less damage. In sub- whooping cough.
sequent years, as long as the game stayed out of Other beUefs are that snakes cannot bear to
the tov^oi, it was left alone by the authorities. be near an ash, or even its leaves or a stick cut
Lindsey Porter, Ashbourne Royal Shrovetide Football: The from its wood; and that anyone carrying ash-
Official History (1992); Rightly, 1986: 205-6. keys cannot be bewitched. A well-knovm
rhyme predicts how rainy the spring will be
ashen faggot. Reported only from the West from the relative dates of budding by oak and
Country, this was similar to the *Yule Log cus- ash; another warns that ashes atttact
tom in that the faggot was brought in v^dth lightning:
some ceremony and laid on the fire on
Avoid the ash.
Christmas Eve, but it was made of smaller ash
It draws the flash.
sticks bound into a faggot w^th strips of hazel,
bramble. These strips were watched See also *ashen faggot, *ash Wednesday,
Vkdthy, or
carefully as there were beliefs and customs *SHREW, *THUNDER. For mountain ash, see
attached to them. In one report from Torquay *ROWAN.
in 1836 farmworkers could demand more Vickeiy, 1995: 14-19; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 5-8, 355-6.
cider from the farmer each time a strip burnt
through, while in famiUes it was customary Ash Wednesday. Some children's seasonal
for each of the children present to choose a games used traditionally to begin on this date,

strip and the one whose strip burnt through notably *marbles. In Sussex, Hampshire, and
first would marry first. The earliest references Middlesex up to the 1950s, children brought
to the custom are from the turn of the 19th an ash-tv^g with a black bud on it to school;
century, much later than those for the Yule any who were caught without one would be
Log; the custom still continues in some pinched or stamped on by the others, up until
 12
astrology

noon. Some maintained that it must then be he was interested in the beUefs, customs, and
thrown away at once (Vickery. 1995: 17). This stories of the people. Amongst his con-
must be related to the CathoUc ritual of black- temporaries he was regarded as gullible, and
ening one's brow with ashes, but whether as many since have made the same judgement,
parody or as misunderstanding of the word but it is not necessary to care whether he
'ash' is impossible to say; it also echoes a believed in wonders, only to be grateftal that he

*Royal Oak Day custom. recorded them. He lived in extremely interest-

ing times, and his lifespan covered not only
astrology. One of the clearest examples of the Civil Wars (1642-8), rule of Cromwell, and
an item of culture originating among intel- the Restoration of the monarchy (1660) but
lectuals, but passing to the peasantry. also the Great Plague (1665-6), Great Fire of

Throughout much of its long history, it London (1666), and much more. He appears to
derived its authority from complex math- have steered clear of the raging political and
ematics and philosophical speculations; its reUgious controversies of his time, but as an
prestige was high in courts and universities in antiquarian he was particularly aggrieved not
medieval and Renaissance Europe, and as late only by the Puritan destruction of churches
as the Enghsh Civil War it was still important and their contents but also by the changes
in poUtical propaganda. Its symbols and con- which were sweeping Enghsh society, includ-
cepts were also diffused through cheap print- ing wars and literacy: 'Printing and Gun-
ed almanacs, and were used in simplified powder have frighted away Robin-good-fellow
forms by formers, magicians, healers, and and the Fayries' {Remaines, 67-8). The two
fortune-tellers (Davies, 1999a: 229-46). works of particular interest to folklorists are
During the 18th and 19th centuries astrol- Miscellanies (1696) and Remaines ofGentilisme and

ogy became marginalized, and by the early Judaisme, which existed as a manuscript in the
20th century had virtually disappeared from British Museum (Landsdowne MSS 231) until
public view. However, it was given fresh life by published by The Folklore Society in 1880,
a press stunt in 1930, when the Sunday Express edited and annotated by James Britten. Both
invited an astrologer to draw up a nativity and Remaines were again published
Miscellanies
chart for the newborn Princess Margaret, and along with a further manuscript entitled
to compile a simple horoscope applying to Observations, as Three Prose Works, edited by
anyone whose birthday fell that week. Other John Buchanan-Brown (1972).
newspapers copied the idea, encouraging DNB; Dorson, 1968.
semi-serious curiosity about astrology; like
other aspects of the occult, it is currently Avalon. *Geoffrey of Monmouth notes briefly
enjoying a revival. in his History that King *Arthur 'was carried to
See also dr john *dee. the Island of Avalon for the heahng of his
wounds'; in a later work. The Life of Merlin, he
Aubrey, John (1626-1697). Best known now elaborates upon this, saying Avalon is ruled by
for his Brief Lives, pubhshed long after his nine the eldest and wisest being
sisters,
death, Aubrey was an inveterate collector of
Morgan. It is an earthly paradise, also called
gossip, trifles, natural history and 'antiqui- The Island of Apples or the Fortunate Isle,
ties', and, as such, one of our earliest folklor- where crops grow untended, 'apple trees
ists. He was, however, much more of a col-
spring up from the short grass of its woods',
lector than a writer. Only one book (Miscel- and men live for a hundred years or more. Geof-
lanies) was pubhshed in his own lifetime, but
frey obviously associated its name with Welsh
he left copious manuscripts which others have
a/dlenau = 'apple trees', and with classical
put into shape since his death. Aubrey was descriptions of the Fortunate Islands. Others,
imique amongst the early antiquaries in that however, identified it with *Glastonbury.
Baa Baa Black Sheep. One of the most before putting its proper clothes on, to avert
widelyknown of our * nursery rhymes whose bad luck. In Cumberland, the baby's head was
somewhat obhque words and simple tune washed with rum for luck, and in Suffolk with
have been used as a * lullaby and early-learning gin; everywhere it was (and is) usual to drink
song for centuries. The first known pubUca- its health, whichcalled 'wetting the baby's
is

tion was in Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book of head'. In earher times, *salt, *iron, or *rowan
which shows that the text has hardly
C.1744, twigs might be put in the cradle as protection
The line 'Three bags full' has
altered since. against witches and fairies.
become an EngUsh idiom in its own right, as a In some areas, it was thought wrong to take
parody of servile agreement to unreasonable a baby out of the house before the day of its
demands. baptism. Writers from the late 18th century
Opie and Opie, 1997: 101.
onwards say that in northern counties when a
baby is first taken to visit some relative or

babies. Certain circumstances at birth were neighbour, the latter should present it with 'a
cake of bread, an egg, and a small quantity of
thought to foretell the baby's future character
salt'; if this is not done the baby will grow up
or *luck, e.g. a rhyme about *days of the week,
best known in the version: poor, but if it is, he/she will be rich and lucky
(Hone, 1827: ii, cols. 21-2). Matches, represent-
Monday's child is fair efface, ing light, were sometimes given as weU. The
Tuesday's child is full of grace, corresponding modem custom, now very
Wednesday's child is full of woe,
widespread, also appUes to people visiting the
Thursday's child has far to go, house where the new baby Uves, and to those
Friday's child is loving and giving, for the first time in the street; the
meeting it
Saturday's child works hard for a living.
essential gift is now a *silver coin.
But the child that is bom on the Sabbath day
Until the baby was a year old, two further
Is blithe and bonny, good and gay.
rules were common: do not cut the finger- or
A breech birth indicated a trouble-maker toenails with *scissors, but bite them off
('awkward bom, awkward all their Uves'); instead, or he/she will grow up a thief; do not
*teeth already visible, a cruel nature; hands allow him/her to look into a *mirror, or he/she
open, generosity; a *caul, immunity from will become conceited.
drowning. Those bom at *midnight on a *Fri- See also *baptism, *cauls, *childbirth,
*
day, or at the chime hours, would be able to pregnancy.
see *ghosts; those bom on a Sunday, or on Radford. Radford, and Hole, 1961: 95-7, 118-19; Opie
*
Christmas Day, would never be drowned or andTatem, 1989: 10-13, 274-5.
hanged. Some midwives said the first food to
pass the baby's lips should be a spoonfiil of backwards. The notion that walking back-
butter and sugar, to give 'a sweet nature'. wards is unlucky was occasionally noted in the

One widespread rule was that the baby's mid-1 9th centmy from the Lancashire/
first move should be upwards, so that it 'rises' Yorkshire area: '[Lancashire] children are fre
in life; if was done by carrying it
possible, this quently cautioned by their parents not to walk
to a higher storey or an attic, but if there was backwards when going on an errand; it is a
none, then the midwife should chmb on to a sure sign they will be unfortunate in theu-
stool with the baby in her arms. She should objects' (N&Q. ls:3 (1851), 55). Similarly, get-
also wrap it in some old shirt or petticoat ting out of *bed backwards brought
bad luck.
Bacup Britannia Coconut Dancers

But recipes for *love divinations, such as mak- Lane, London. The custom still continues, and
ing the *dumb cake, commonly require the every year on 6 January the cast of whichever
participants to walk backwards when going
to show is on at the time gathers, still in costume
bed. perhaps to heighten the feehng of 'other- and make-up, in the Grand Saloon where the
ness' in the proceedings, or perhaps only to cake is served by attendants in 18th century
make things more difficult. dress, and Robert Baddeley is duly
In black *magic, to say or do something remembered.
backwards symboUzes evil intent. Clear Shuel, 1985: 127-8; Brian Shuel, FLS News 13 (1991), 1-2.
instances are a 17th-century *curse with the
name of the victim written backwards; and a Bainbridge hornbiower. The Bainbridge
Lincolnshire tradition that v»dtches must horn is blown every evening in this North
renew allegiance to the Devil annually by Yorkshire town, at 9 p.m., between 28 Sep-
walking backwards round a church on *St tember and Shrove Tuesday. Unlike the horn-
Mark's Eve (Rudkin, 1936: 73). Nowadays, a blowing custom at nearby *Ripon, the origin of
common but none too serious idea is that one this custom is obscure. Some have tried to hnk
can raise the Devil by saying the Lord's Prayer it with Roman times, but it is more Ukely to
backwards. date from when Bainbridge was the adminis-
See also leftward movement. trative centre of the Forest of Wensleydale,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 422. and the sound of the horn was designed to
guide benighted travellers to safety. This
Bacup Britannia Coconut Dancers. The would date it to medieval times, but the first
Coconut Dancers (or Nutters) parade the known mention is in 1823.
*
Lancashire mill-town of Bacup, every Easter
Rightly, 1986: 141; Smith, 1989: 142-5.
Saturday, performing their dances to the
sound of the local silver band. There are eight baiting, see *blood sports.
male dancers, plus a whipper-in who helps to
control the traffic. Their processional dance Balfour, Marie Clothiide. A collector of folk-
alternates between jogging along the road and lore in Northumberland and Lincolnshire, the
a stationary part in which they clap together most interesting items being eleven folktales
the wooden 'coconuts' (bobbin tops from the from the latter, pubhshed in Folk-Lore 2 (1891),
mill) which each dancer has strapped to his 145-70, 257-83. 401-18. Most have no paral-
hands, knees, and waist. At certain points in lels elsewhere, and are tragic and macabre;
the town, the group stops and performs one or their supernatural beings (*bogles, *Tiddy
more of their five garland dances. Standing in Men, *Yallery Brown) are grim, and have to be
square 'quadrille' formation, each dancer propitiated with offerings. Mrs Balfour
holds a decorated semi-circular hoop above his claimed to tell the tales 'exactly as told' to her,
head. The dancers wear strange colourful cos- but her reliability has been queried (Philip
tumes and blackened faces. The present team 1992: 156).
can trace their lineage back to the early 1920s,
Philip, 1992: 150-7, 409-15; Jacobs, 1890/1968: 163-7,
when their predecessors, based at the Britan-
178-80, 185-7, 193-7, 211-14, 224-8; Briggs, 1970-1: A. i.

nia were taught the dance by the

Mill, 310-12, 502-5, 577-9; ii. 41-2, 238-40.
Tunstead Mill Nutters, also from the Bacup
area. The first documented reference to the ballads. Folklorists view ballads as a sub-
Tunstead Mill Nutters is in 1907, but as this division of folk song, whereas literary
consists of reports of the team celebrating scholars are more likely to treat them as a sub-
their jubilee, a starting date of 1857 is pretty genre of poetry. The word 'ballad' is highly
definite. There are indications that there were ambiguous, but, except in the specialist sense
other teams around at the time. of broadside ballad, folklorists usually use
Theresa Buckland, FM] 5:2 (1985), 132-49; Shuel, 1985: 'ballad' to refer to the 'traditional ballads'
45-6. included in collections starting with Thomas
Percy's Reliques ofEarly English Poetry ( 1 765) and
Baddeiey caice. When Robert Baddeley, for- later identified and collected together by P. J.
mer chef turned actor, died in 1794, he left Child in his monumental English and Scottish
£100 for the annual provision of v^ne and a Popular Ballads (5 volumes, 1882-98). Percy
Twelfth Night cake to be shared by the cur- provided the first substantial source of ballad
rent company at the Theatre Royal, material for both scholar and poet, which
Drury
15 Bampton Morris Dancers
became enormously influential in literary cir- munalists and the individuaMsts who argued
cles. Similarly, it is difficult to overstate the over origins and early development (see
influence which Child's collection had over Wilgus for a summary).
the field of ballad studies. His collection of 305 The narrative nature of the ballad ensures
pieces rapidly became regarded as a closed that scholars ofi:en find it difficult to adhere to
canon and until recentiy few dared to question national boundaries, and, as Child amply illus-
unfortunate that Child died before he
it. It is trates, the British tradition can be usefully
could write the major essays which he compared with those of other European coun-
planned to accompany the texts, as his criteria tries, especially from Scandinavia, while Scot-
for inclusion now appear inconsistent, and land is generally agreed to have a stronger bal-
instead of trying to construct a definition lad tiadition than England. Much of the best
against which particular items can be meas- ballad criticism and analysis has emanated
ured, many later scholars have attempted to from North America, but so much of ballad
arrive at a definition which includes all the scholarship came from hterary and Unguistic
pieces in Child's work. They have thus largely quarters that the musical side of balladry was
failed, and have had to be content with relatively neglected. The indefatigable cham-
description rather than definition. Neverthe- pion of ballad tunes was Bertrand H. Bronson,
less, the rule-of-thumb definition that a ballad who, from the 1950s onwards, attempted to
is a 'narrative folk-song' is a usefiil redress the balance with a series of articles
starting-
point. According to Richmond, the ballad and books, culminating in the four-volume set
entitied The Traditional Tunes of the ChM Ballads
is usually anonymous, itconcentrates on a single
episode, it begins in media res, it is dramatic in its (1959-72) which stands beside Child's collec-
narrative structure, and it is tion as the bedrock of scholarship. Bronson
impersonal (objective)
in its telling. Moreover,
always stanzaic, either
it is was fond of asking, 'When is a ballad not a
seven- or eight-stress rhymed couplets or quatrains ballad?—-When it has no tune'.
rhyming a, b, c, b, and generally alternates light and W. Edson Richmond, Ballad An Annotated Bibli-
Scholarship:
heavy stresses in each line. In addition, a repetition ography (1989); D. K. Wilgus, Anglo-American Folksong Schol-
of words, phrases, and stanzas is common, not arship Since 7898 (1959); MacEdward Leach and Tristram P.
only in individual ballads but also in the genre as a Coffin, The Critics and the BaUad (1961); David Buchan, The
whole . . .
(Richmond, 1989: p. xx).
Ballad and the Folk (1972).

The corpus includes ballads on a range of

topics, which can be roughly classified by sub- Bampton Morris Dancers. Bampton,
ject: Robin Hood ballads. Border ballads (Hunt- Oxfordshire, has one of the best-known mor-
ing the Cheviot, Battle of Otterbum), Tragic ris traditions in the country, and is one of the
ballads (Sir Patrick Spens, Cruel Brother, Lord few which can claim an unbroken
villages
Randal), Enchantment and Fairy ballads (Tarn from during the First World
tradition (apart
Lin, Thomas Rhymer), and one or two Chris- War) of dancing over the past 150 years. The
tian carols/ballads (Cherry Tree Carol, St earliest written reference is in Revd J. A.
Stephen and Herod). For many of them the and Town of Bampton
Giles's History of the Parish
only evidence for their traditional status is in (1847, p. Ixv) in a passage which is relatively
the manuscript collections of the past, while dismissive of the dancers, but at least proves
others such as Barbara Allen, The G5q)sy their existence at that time, and implies an
Laddie, Lord Bateman, and Lord Thomas and already established tradition. Village tradition
Fair Ellender remained extremely popular and claims a much longer history of two, three, or
were noted time and again by 19th- and 20th- even six hundred years, but although two
century folk-song collectors on both sides of hundred years is possible given the family tra-
the Atlantic. ditions involved, the other two figures are
Ballad scholarship has embraced many ana- unsubstantiated. As with most teams in the
lytical perspectives, following the intellectual area, the traditionaltime for Bampton mor-
fashions of the day, including various lin- rismen to dance was previously *Whitsun but
guistic, psychological, and literary it is now Spring *Bank Holiday. They dance

approaches, and engendered a number of its what scholars term 'Cotswold' morris, with
own bitter controversies, starting with *Rit- most dances being for six men, carrying white
son's acerbic attack on Percy's editorial stand- handkerchiefs. They dress in white, bells
ards, and continuing with the 'ballad war' in strapped to their shins, and wearing black
the early 20th century between the com- hats trimmed with flowers. They also have a
 16
banging-out

•fool' character, and a cake-bearer who carries baptism. Also called christening, this is for

a large cake in a tin, impaled on a sword which most denominations an essential act; many
itself is decorated with flowers and ribbons. theologians taught that infants dying
Onlookers get a piece of cake when they make *unbaptized could never enter Heaven— a doc-
a donation. The musician is nowadays a fiddle trine reflected in the unwillingness to give
or melodeon-player, but until the mid-1 9th them proper burial. In popular behef it was

centvuy was a pipe and taborer. alsoassumed that unbaptized babies were in
Cecil *Sharp included the Bampton dances danger from demons, witches, and fairies. At
in the third volume of his Morris Book, and the same time, christening was (and is) a
from that time on the village morris has ceremony asserting the baby's membership of
attracted visitors from a wide area. This out- a family and social group; the choice of god-
side attention helped to keep the tradition parents, for instance, often has more to do
going when
other teams faded away, but the with social bonding than rehgious upbringing.
contribution of particular famiUes, and indi- Name-giving, accompanied by presents and
viduals such as WiUiam 'Jingy' Wells, Arnold celebration, ratifies the child's status; the
Woodley, and Francis Shergold, in keeping the need for such a ritual is so strongly felt that
dance alive must also be acknowledged. some now vdsh to devise an official but non-
Cecil Sharp, The Morris Book, iii (2nd edn., 1924); Keith reUgious ceremony as its civic equivalent.
Chandler, Morris Dancing at Bampton until 1914 (1983); An interestingcustom in working-class
Keith Chandler, Musical Traditions 10 (1992). 18-24; areas of Newcastle and Durham was for par-
Chandler, 1993.
ents taking a baby to baptism to have with
them a paper bag containing a cheese sand-
banging-out. The custom designed to mark wich and a sUce of cake, and a *silver coin, and
the ending of a worker's apprenticeship. See sometimes a *candle and *salt; this had to be
occupational lore and *printing trade.
given to the first person of the sex opposite to
the baby's whom the christening party saw on
Bank Holidays. The institution of Bank HoU- their way to church, or at the church gate after

days had a profound effect on the leisure pat- the ceremony. This was still being done in the
terns of the working classes, and affected the 1970s (PIS News 11 (1990), 4-6; 12 (1991), 10-
traditional *calendar in that many customs 13).
were pulled from their traditional days to take In folk tradition, various *taboos and behefs
place on the nearest Bank Holiday. They were surrounded baptism. The chosen name must
introduced to sort out a long-standing prob- not be used in advance, nor should the baby go
lem in the financial world by allowing bills of out of the house until taken to the church for
exchange which fell due on national hohdays the ceremony, for it was in danger itself and a
to be payable on the following day; thus allow- possible source of bad luck to others; if the
ing banks to close on those holidays. In add- mother's *churching had not yet taken place,
ition, they were part of the drive to regularize she could not attend the christening. The baby
hoUdays for working people. The Bank Hoh- should cry when sprinkled with the baptismal
days Act of 1871, strenuously promoted by Sir water, to show the Devil has been driven out;
John Lubbock (later Lord Avebiuy), stipulated some said a silent baby would not five long. If
(for England) *Easter Monday, *Whit Monday, several were to be baptized at once, boys must
the Monday of August, and *Boxing Day
first precede girls; in northern counties, it was said
(26 December), in addition to *Christmas Day that if this rule was broken the boy would
and *Good Friday which were already hohdays never grow a beard, but the girl would (Hend-
vmder common law. This pattern remained erson, 1866: 9). It was widely held that fretftil
unchanged until the 1970s when the move- or sickly babies, esj)ecially those suffering
able Whitsun was replaced by a fixed from fits, would improve in health once
Spring
Bank Holiday; New Year's Day was added in baptized.
1974; and *May Day (or the first Monday in See also *names, *unbaptized babies.
May) was added in 1978. In the late 1980s, a Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 27-30, 172; Opie and
government plan to replace May Day by a later Tatem, 1989: 72-4.
hohday (e.g. Trafalgar Day, 21 October) came
to nothing after much pubhc debate. bargest, barguest. This is the name for a
a. R. Pimlott, The Englishman's particularly alarming shape-changing *bogey
J. Holiday (1947); The Times
(various dates throughout 1871); Encyclopaedia Britannica. animal in the folklore of Yorkshire, Lanca-
17
barring-out

shire, and other northern areas, which might broadsides and *chapbooks which he put to
be encountered at stiles and in dark lanes, or good use in his historical notes. Cecil *Sharp
near churchyards. Sometimes it was only took Baring-Gould in hand for a revised edi-
heard, not seen; it howled and shrieked, and tion of Songs of the West in 1905, the edition
to hear it was an *omen of someone's which is now accepted as the best, and the two
approaching death— possibly one's own. If vis- men also collaborated on English Folk Songs for
ible, it might be 'a frightful goblin with teeth Schools (1906). His other song venture was the
and claws', a headless man, a cat, a rabbit, or six-volume English Minstrelsie (1895-7), a
most often a *Black Dog, whose coming would meandering collection of popular, and
art,
set all the real dogs in the district chasing after folk-song, with his valuable and authoritative
it and howling. notes on the songs and often on the perform-
Thomas Wright, and quota- ers of bygone days. Baring-Gould left a mass of
English Dialect Dictionary, s.v.,

tions given there; Henderson, 1866: 239. material when he died and his vast manu-
scripts are only now being identified and
Baring-Gould, Sabine
(1834-1924). Or- made available.
dained in 1864, he served in several parishes, DNB; Bickford H. C. Dickinson, Sabine Baring-Gould: Squar-
but in 1881 he appointed himself rector of the son, Writer and FoMorist (1970); Harold Kirk-Smith, Now the

estate of Lew Trenchard (Devon) which he had Day is Over: The Life and Times of Sabine Baring-Gould (1997);
WilUam E. Purcell, Onward Christian Soldier: A Life of Sabine
inherited in 1872, and he remained there as
Baring-Gould (1957).
squire and parson till his death. In a long and
busy he was involved in numerous fields
life,

and wrote over 200 books, including 40 Barley-Break. A popular chasing game, men-
novels, travel books (West Country, Iceland,
tioned often in literary sources of the 16th to

France,
18th centuries, played either by children or
etc.), archaeology, hagiography,
mythology, history, biography, folklore, and young people of both sexes. The game
reconstructed by the Opies involved three
folk-song, in addition to hymns (including
'Onward Christian Soldiers', mixed-sex pairs of players. One pair stood in
c.1864), sermons,
and numerous articles, and the middle of the playing area (called 'hell'),
day was a
in his
and one pair stood at each end. The two end
tremendously popular author. Perhaps it is
inevitable that in scholarly terms his output is pairs had to change partners, without being
more notable for its quantity than its quality, caught by the middle pair, and the latter had
but in this as in everything his achievements to hold hands throughout. An alternative

were erratic, ranging from the excellent to the name was 'Last Couple in Hell'.
not very good. The earliest mention of the game is found in
Baring-Gould's interests roamed over many Henry's Machyn's Diary of 19 April 1557: 'The
sam owre master parsun and entryd in-to
aspects of folklore, but it is in his folk-song
collections that Baring-Gould made a lasting helle, and ther ded at the barle breyke with

contribution. He was one of the alle the wyffe of the sam parryche'. Other
first of the
Victorian folk-song enthusiasts in the field, early references include Sir Philip Sidney

commencing his collecting in 1888, and pub- [Arcadia, written in 1580s), Shakespeare and
Fletcher {Two Noble Kinsmen, iv. and
lishing Songs of the West (1891) and A Garland of 1634),
iii,

Robert Herrick (Hesperides, 1648). Other

Country Song (1895). His books inspired others,
such as Aime *Gilchrist, to take an interest, descriptions imply different ways of playing
and suggest that it derives its name from ori-
but his cavaUer attitude to both texts and
tunes gave him a bad name with other col- ginally being played in the farmyard around
lectors. Nevertheless, he was one of the few of the stacks.
his generation who showed an interest in the Opie and Opie, 1969:128-30; Gomme, 1884: i. 21-3;
Hazlitt, 1905: 28-9.
singers as well as the songs,and he left several
descriptions of the old men and women from
whom he collected and whom he manifestly barring-out. A widespread custom, up to
loved for their own sake. He commented, in the 19th century, was the 'barring-out' of the
his Reminiscences: 'To this day I consider the schoolteacher by his pupils. On a day sanc-
recovery of our Westcountry melodies has tioned by custom (but varying from place to
been the principal achievement of my life' place), the pupils contrived to bar the
door
(quoted in Dickinson, 1970: 123). He also had with the teacher outside, often with his con-
an extensive knowledge, and collection, of nivance, and refused to let him in until he
 18
barrows

agreed to their terms, which were usually

for a responsibiUty for this work and for the re-
the 19th erection of the pole. On Spring Bank Hohday
half-holiday, or something similar. By
century the custom was relatively controlled, (previously Whit Tuesday), after an afternoon
but in previous generations had been much of games and music, the maypole is carried in

rougher. On at least one occasion, in Scotland procession back through the village and put
in 1595, a magistrate who was helping the back where it belongs. Traditionally, a young
teacher gain access to the school was shot man would climb up the pole to release the
dead by one of the pupils. Not surprisingly, ropes and spin the weather vane with a flour-
local authorities waged a continual war ish, but modem-day safety and insurance fears

such activities and gradually suc- have made this less acceptable.
against
ceeded in taming and, eventually, eliminating Dalesman 47 Jan. 1986), 849-50; 58 (Apr. 1996), 51-2;
the custom. Shuel, 1985: 34; Kightly, 1986: 162; Sykes, 1977: 58-9.

Rex Cathcart, History Today (Dec. 1988), 49-5; Cham-

bers. 1878: L 238-9; Brand, 1849: i. 441-54; Hone, 1832: bats. These feature surprisingly little in the
653-4; N&Q.187 (1944), 37, 83-4, 218-19. standard folklore collections of the 19th and
20th centuries. There is nowadays a general
barrows. Prehistoric burial mounds com- tendency to associate bats with witches, the
monly attract legends. The fact that they are Devil, and vampires, although this stems more
graves was often correctly remembered (or from modem horror films than from trad-
guessed?), but the dating would be itional lore. Nevertheless, Ella M. Leather
inaccurate—they might be Unked to Vikings, reported that 'witches change themselves into
medieval heroes, or men killed in the Civil the form of animals, usually bats or black cats'
War. Long barrows naturally suggested the (Leather, 1912: 52). A bat flying against a win-
idea of a giant's grave, as at Castlecarrock dow or,worse, into a room, is counted as very
(Cumbria). The idea that *fairies live inside unlucky or even a death *omen. The most
them is much rarer in England than abroad, common notion about bats, however, is their
but see *Willy Howe; at Pixies' Mound at alleged tendency to get entangled in women's
Stogursey (Somerset) it is said a passing hair, with the extra problem that the hair has
ploughman once mended a broken tool for the to be cut off^to extricate the animal.
pixies and was rewarded with a dehcious cake. Wootton, 1986: 75-7; Opie andTatem, 1989: 14; N&Q.160
Treasure legends are numerous, encour- (1931), 46, 86, 124, 159.

aged no doubt by occasional finds of pre-

historic gold, and of money buried in later Bawming the Thorn. 'Bawming' means dec-
centuries for safety; local names such as orating, and the thom in question is in the
Money Hills (Hampshire), Goldenlow (Bedford- centre of the Cheshire village of Appleton. The
shire), and Dragonhoard (Oxfordshire) refer to tree is duly adorned in late June or early July
this, even where the tale itself has been forgot- with ribbons, garlands, flags, and so on, now-
ten. But it was also thought that to dig into a adays mainly by local children, who also pro-
moimd brought supernatural retribution, cess and sing, but previously by the villagers en
either immediately in the form of violent masse. Successive revivals and changes have
thunderstorms or fearsome apparitions, or in seen the custom tamed. The present tree dates
long-term bad luck and illness; tales about this from 1967 when it was planted to replace a
seem to be particularly common in Devon. predecessor which had been blown down.
Grinsell. 1976. Unsubstantiated tradition maintains that the
first tree on the site was a cutting from the

Barwick-in-Elmet maypole. The site in famous *Holy Thom at * Glastonbury.

Yorkshire of what was previously claimed to Kightly, 1986: 47; Hole, 1975: 81.
be the tallest *maypole in the country (86 feet),
but Ansty in Wiltshire erected a new one (96 bay There were many uses, both prac-
(tree).
feet) in 1982. Every three years the maypole is ticaland symboUc, for the aromatic evergreen
lowered and removed from its central village leaves of bay (also called laurel); it was much
site and carried to a nearby field for favoured for festive decoration, but at ftinerals
reftirbishment. The stripes are repainted, and it expressed the hope of resurrection, since it

the garlands made of cloth rosettes, ribbons, can revive after dying back to its roots. The
and flowers are repaired or replaced.
artificial herbalist John Parkinson wrote in his Paradisus
The villagers elect three Polemen who take Terrestris (1629), 426:
19 beds

The bay-leaves are necessary both for civil uses and preach or lead a prayer— 'cursed be he that
for physic, yes, both for the sick and the sound, both removeth his neighbour's landmark' (Deuter-
for the living and for the dead. It serveth to adome
onomy 27: 17) being a favourite text— and a
the House of God as well as man, to crowne or
number of local Vicar's or Gospel Oaks are
encircle, as with a garland, the heads of the living,
memories of these places. Once the practical
and to sticke and decke forth the bodies of the dead;
so that from the cradle to the grave, we still have use aspects of the perambulations faded, and the
of it. ceremonial became increasingly meaningless,
most of them died out, although there are still
In Pliny's Natural History (ad 77), it is said
sporadic revivals, especially at the time of cen-
that laurel guards the doorways of great
tenary celebrations or other important local
men's houses, and is never struck by hght- dates. A handftil of places still perform the
ning. Both ideas passed into EngUsh lore; a custom on a regular basis, including St Mary
bay in the garden v/as thought to protect the the Virgin and St Michael in the Northgate
house from lightning and keep away v^dtches, (both in Oxford) and the Liberty of the Tower
the Devil, or (nowadays) bad luck (Opie and of London.
Tatem, 1989: 14; Vickery, 1995: 28). Occasion- Shuel, 1985: 103-6; Kightly, 1986: 49; Angus Winchester.
ally bay trees wither for no apparent reason, Discovering Parish Boundaries (1990).
an *omen of death for rulers (Shakespeare,
Richard II, ii. iv). beds. Numerous beliefs cluster round this
most important piece of household ftimiture,
bears, see *blood sports, *straw bears. but only those concerned with getting out of
bed have been recorded before the mid-1 9th
century, and by the documentary record, the
Beast of Bodmin, see *alien big cats.
others are all quite recent. The orientation of
the bed is vital. A belief reported so far only
Beating the Bounds. In former times, when from the 20th century cautions against sleep-
the parish was an essential unit of both ing with the foot of the bed towards the door,
reUgious and local government organization, which is explained by the fact that coffins are
it was imperative that the exact parish bound- carried out feet first. Placing a bed across,
aries be generally known, agreed, and, most rather than in line wdth floorboards or ceiling
important of all, remembered from gener- beams was held to prevent sleep and, worse,
ation to generation.The custom of perambu- to prolong the death of a d5dng person (N&Q
lating the parish boundaries, or Beating the 4s:8 (1871), 322). This is reported regularly
Bounds as it is usually called now, thus had a from the mid-1 9th century and into the 1970s,
very necessary practical purpose, and the although fitted carpets and plastered ceilings
curious practices associated with the event now disguise the orientation of the woodwork
were also usually of practical utility. Perambu- in the bedroom.
lations usually took place at *Rogationtide and Making the bed is also ruled by beUef The
involved both religious and secular officials, as most-quoted superstition here is that it is
*
the boundary custom had been grafted on to a unlucky to turn a mattress on a Friday, or a
much older one of religious processions on Sunday (or both): 'Your mistress says that her
*Ascension Day. Many other local residents bed last night was hard and fiill of lumps; I'm
took part— each of whom would be able to afraid you did not turn it yesterday.' 'Oh no.
'bear witness' in any ftiture boundary Ma'am! Yesterday was Friday: it would turn
dispute— and a number of boys were also the luck' (N&Q. 7s:4 (1887), 246). The predicted
taken along, to ensure that the knowledge was result varies from having fearful dreams, or
passed to ftiture generations. These young- losing your sweetheart, to illness and probable
sters were useful in that they could be made to death. Again, this is only recorded from 1851
clamber through hedges, wade streams, climb onwards, and would seem likely to have faded
over walls, and so on, to ensure that the whole out as sprung mattresses became the norm.
boundary was properly followed, and various The latest version quoted by Opie and Tatem.
aistoms grew up whereby the boys were from a Hampshire woman in 1983, maintains
bumped on boundary stones or whipped at
to that 'if you change the sheets on Friday the
key points, make sure they remember'.
'to devil has control of your dreams for a week'.
They were, of course, remunerated in some Several other strictures apply, for example if
way. At other key points the clergy would you sit on the bed of a sick person, you will be
 20

the next occupant, and three people must not The ceremony of informing bees of their owner's

take part in making a bed. death in full force in Ashbourne, Derbyshire, Hin-
is

ton, Wilts, and even in the highly intellectual city of

As akeady mentioned, getting out of bed
Oxford. The ceremony is the same in all these places.
correctly was important in earUer times:
Three taps are made on the hive with the house-key,
'Howe happily rose I on my ryghte syde to day, while the informant repeats, 'Bees, bees, bees, your
or blessed me well this happye or lucky
. . .
master is dead, and you must work for ', naming

day' (Palsgrave, Acolastus, 1540: 90, quoted by the future owner. A piece of black crape is then fas-
Opie and Tatem: 16), and there are numerous tened to the hive. Many bee owners think it politic to
17th-century literary references to the belief inform the bees of the death of a relation; but in this
(see Lean).A further beUef was that it is lucky case they never give the name, but the degree of rela-

to get out of bed backwards, provided it was tionship, as 'your master's brother, sister, aunt &c. is
known mention dead*. On weddings the bees expect to be informed
not deUberate. The first is in
of the auspicious event, and to have their hive decor-
Congreve's Love for Love (1695) and again there
ated with a wedding favour. (N&Q. ls:4 (1851), 308)
are a number of Uterary references. Two more
bed-related superstitions are included under
Such observations could be paralleled from
feathers and *washing.
virtually every part of England; many refer-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 15-17; Lean, 1903: esp. ii. 20-3. ences will be found in Folklore and N&Q, besides
regional books of folklore. Some localities add
bees. In medieval, EUzabethan, and Stuart
minor details; in Shropshire and Somerset, for
times, bees were regarded as mysterious,
instance, hives had to be lifted or turned as the
intelUgent, and holy; their wax was used in
coffin left the house, while in some Yorkshire
church *candles, honey was a bibUcal image
villages beeswere formally invited to funerals.
for God's grace and the joys of heaven, poets
Other common beliefs were that quarreUng
praised the hive as a model for the perfect
and swearing would drive bees away, and that
society,grouped around its 'king' (it was only
they must be spoken to in soft tones. They
in the 1740s that Enghsh naturaUsts admitted
could not tolerate the presence of an unchaste
the large bee was female). Something of this
woman, or one who was *menstruating, but
awe remains in a nursery riddle from the 16th
would sting her. In the north of England, it
century, with the answer 'a bee':
was said they could be heard humming hymns
Little bird of Paradise, on Christmas Eve (Henderson, 1879: 311). Bees
She works her work both neat and nice; must never be bought with ordinary money,
She pleases God, she pleases man,
only with a gold coin; they can, however, be
She does the work that no man can.
safely acquired by gift, loan, or barter. A single
(Opie and Opie, 1951: 82-3) bee or bumblebee entering a house means
Folk tradition about bees stresses how easily good luck, probably in the form of money.
they might take offence, in which case they When bees swarmed, it was usual for the
would cease to give honey, desert their hives, women and children of the household to fol-
or die. They had to be treated as members of low them, making a clatter with pots and
the household; in particular, they must be told pans, which was supposed to induce them to
about deaths, births, and marriages in the settle,and also let everyone know what was
family, their hives must be appropriately happening; it was accepted that in these cir-
adorned, and they must be given their share of cumstances one could go on to someone else's
the festive or funereal food. They would then land without being charged with trespassing.
hum, to show they consented to remain. Itwas a bad *omen if the swarm settled on a
The *funeral custom is frequently described dead branch, meaning death for someone in
throughout the 19th century: the owner's family, or for the person seeing
the swarm there.
My mother, who passed most of her youth in the
village of Bakewell in Northamptonshire, tells me Hilda M. Ransome, The Saaed Bee (1937; reprint, 1986),
that the beUef in the necessity of 211-32; Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 38-40; Opie
telling the bees
and Tatem, 1989:17-21.
everything was very strong there. At the death of a
sister of hers, some of the cake and wine which was
served to the mourners at the fimeral was
placed
inside each hive, in addition to the beetles. Apart from *ladybirds, beetles do not
crape put upon
each. At her own wedding in 1849 a small
piece of
have much of their own lore in Enghsh trad-
wedding cake was put into each hive. (Folk-lore 3 ition.The only beUef regularly reported (from
(1892), 138) the 1870s to the present day) is that to kill one
21 bells

brings rain. The beetle also turns up in medi- (6 a.m.,9 a.m., midday, 3 p.m., 6 p.m., 9 p.m.).
cine, as for example in a report from Lindsey rang before Mass and at certain points during
(Lincolnshire): a small girl was sent by her Mass, rang the 'passing bell' when anyone in
mother to ask that if anyone found a beetle- the parish was at death's door, and tolled for
by accident it had to be— could they keep it as funerals and the anniversaries of deaths. They
her. sister had the whooping cough and they also sounded in celebrations and thanksgiv-
wanted to tie it round her neck, so that as it ings, to honour eminent visitors, at *weddings,
decayed the cough would go too (N&Q 3s: 9 and to mark holy days. The choice of which
(1866), 319). It is more common in England to bell or bells to ring, for how long, and in what
find spiders used in this context. Udal also rhythm, was a code indicating what had
reports a Dorset saying that if you kill a black occurred. Bells were widely believed to fright-
beetle, twenty will come to its funeral, but en away the demons of the air that cause
again this is said of many insects (Udal, 192 2: storms and *thunder.
246-7). A letter in N&Q,(2s:2 (1856), 83) hints at Much of this continued after the Reforma-
another beetle belief that is otherwise tion. Soon, the unique EngUsh skill of change
unrecorded. Some countrymen in the New ringing evolved, as set out by Fabian Stedman
Forest were seen stoning a stag-beetle to in his Tintinnalogia (1668) and Campanalogia
death, and when asked why said that it was (1677). The tolUng of a single bell was used as a
the Devil's imp and was sent to do evil to the signal to request prayers for a dying person
com. Unfortunately, no other information is (the 'passing bell'), and also just before a
given. funeral. Parishes developed local codes for the

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 21.

latter— three strokes for a child, six for a
woman, nine for a man was common; but

see *display customs. Didsbury (Cheshire) did eight for a child,

begging customs,
twelve for a woman, sixteen for a man;
Marsham (Suffolk) did three for a girl, four for
Bellerby Feast. The remnant of the old-style a boy, five for a spinster, seven for a wife or
village *feast, the celebrations at Bellerby in
widow, eight for a bachelor, nine for a hus-
North Yorkshire now focus on one day of fun
band or widower; some places then gave as
and games. The principal participants dress as
many strokes as the age of the deceased. Peals
clowns and, accompanied by an accordion
were rung for local celebrations, especially
player, drummer, and helpers, they go from
weddings, and for public festivals and national
door to door round the village collecting
events.
money, cakes, sweets, raffle prizes, and so on. on a secular
Bell-ringing took role as the
They also stop pedestrians, passing cars,
Morning Bell, rung in many places at 5 a.m. in
coaches, and whoever else they can find to
summer and 6 a.m. in winter to summon
exact contribution. The edibles are distributed
labourers to work, and the curfew at 8 or 9
to children and other villagers who gather for
p.m. to mark the day's end. There are numer-
the purpose around midday, and the money
ous records of benefactors leaving a piece of
goes to organizing a fete on the day and, later land to a church, for its rent to pay someone
in the year, a children's disco and Christmas
for ringing peals and curfews; at Kid-
party. The custom has changed over the years, derminster (Wiltshire), Twyford (Hampshire),
and was several times in danger of extinction,
and elsewhere, legend says the donor's Ufe
but local effort revived interest each time. Its
was saved when the sound of a bell guided
date has moved from the Wednesday after
him or her home when lost. Bells also sig-
Whitsun to Whit Monday (in 1933) and later to
nalled the opening of markets, the moment
the Spring Bank HoUday. The heavy drinking
when gleaners could enter a harvested field,
previously associated with the custom has and the making of fritters and *pancakes on
been toned down, and the event made more *
Shrove Tuesday.
family oriented.
Many places have a legend telling how a
Smith, 1989: 78-81; Sykes, 1977: 91-4. church bell fell into deep water, and could
never be recovered. In some cases it fell in
bells. The primary purpose of church and it was carried off by
accidentally; in others,
monastery bells was, and is, to remind hearers looters, or demonic forces. Rescue attempts
of a duty of prayer; in medieval times they failed because some *taboo was infiinged, and
marked the 'canonical hours' for monks the bell sank back. The tale usually concludes
Beltane

can sometimes be heard that death was at hand. She begged her family
by saying that it still

ringing imderwater. Legends about churches

to protect her body by sewing it up in a stag's
or wdcked villages submerged or swallowed up hide and laying it in a stone coffin fastened

as a judgement also often include this final with three chains, which must stand in the
detail; so do some traditions about real medi- church for three nights, after which it could
eval villages lost through coastal erosion, for be buried. But the plan failed; each night one
example at Dunwich (Suffolk). chain was broken by demons, till finally the
Devil dragged her out of the church and set
Tom Ingram. Bells in England (1954); Camp, 1988.
her on 'a black horse with iron hooks pro-
. . .

Beltane. This word, variously spelled and jecting over the whole of his back'; she van-
ished, but 'her pitiable cries were heard for
meaning 'bright fire' or 'lucky fire', is the Irish
. . .

and Scottish GaeUc name for May Day, and is nearly the space of four miles'.
particularly associated with the custom of
Some elements here point towards folklore
Ughting bonfires on the eve of the feast, to themes; the jackdaw may be an early example
protect cattle from witchcraft. May Eve bon-
of a familiar, while the sinner tortured by rid-
fires were also common in the 18th century in ing a demonic horse has links with the Wild
Devon, Cornwall, Cumbria, and the Isle of Hunt.
Man— areas where Celtic tradition could have
survived. The word 'Beltane' itself, however, is Betley Window. A painted glass vydndow,
never found in England (Hutton, 1996: 218-25). formerly in Betley Hall, Staffordshire, but now
at Leigh Manor, near Minsterley, Shropshire,
Beowulf. This Old EngUsh epic of 3,182 lines, and dated between 1509 and 1536. The win-
probably composed in the 8th century, is set dow has twelve roughly diamond-shaped
in Scandinavia 200 years earlier and alludes to panels which portray, in colour, six dancers, a
much semi-legendary history. The hero, an musician, a hobby horse, a friar, a fool or jest-
unhistorical figure of superhuman strength, er, a female character, and a maypole v^th the
overcomes three monsters. The first two are words 'a mery May' across it. The window's
man-eating ogres (Grendel and his mother), content was brought to the attention of
first

who emerge from a bottomless pool to ravage scholars by George Tollett, who contributed a
the Danish king's halls; the third, a dragon, description to Johnson and Steevens's influen-
attacks Beowulf s own Swedish kingdom, and tial edition of Shakespeare published in 1778,

the hero, by then an old man, kills it at the as a note to Henry Npart 2. It was long thought
cost of his own fife. These themes have obvi- to be one of the most important pieces of
ous affinities with folktales. The burial cus- visual evidence regarding the early history of
toms described have been confirmed by morris dance, the hobbyhorse, and the May
archaeology. games, but the nature of this evidence is,
The poem was clearly intended for recita- however, problematic. Some of the figures on
tion before an aristocratic Christian audience the window are so similar to those on a work
with a special interest in Scandinavian trad- by the 15th-century Flemish engraver Israel
itions; the style is that of oral formulaic poet- van Meckenhem as to call into serious ques-
ry, though the author presumably composed tion their relevance to England, and Dean-
in writing. The
story has left no trace in Eng- Smith deplores the false conclusions based on
lish folklore,except that 'Grendel's Pit' and the assumption that the figures are English.
'Grendel's Mere' occur as minor placenames 59-67;
E. J. Nicol, JEFDSS 7:2 (1953), frontispiece.
in afew pre-Conquest charters (one each in Margaret Dean-Smith, FoMore 79 (1968), 161-75.
Devon, Middlesex, Staffordshire, Wiltshire,
and Worcestershire). Bible divination. Reported by folklorists all
Michael Swanton's Beowulf (1978; rev. edn. over the country in only sUghtly differing
1997) conveniently prints text and translation forms, the Bible and Key was a popular
on facing pages. method of divination. In the version collected
by Ella M. Leather in 1909 (1912: 65-6), it is
Berkeley, the witch of. The medieval chron- used for three purposes— to discover a lover's
iclerWiUiam of Malmesbury, vmting in the name, to name a thief, or to remove a spell. To
1120s, tells how, in 1065, a woman living at find a lover, place the key in the Bible on the
Berkeley (Gloucestershire) who was skilled in page containing Ruth 1: 15, with its text
witchcraft was warned by her pet jackdaw 'Whither thou goest 1 will go'. Close the book
23

and bind it with string. Two people hold up were Siamese twins. They were bom in 1100,
the Bible with their forefingers under the key. and, at the age of 34, when one died the other
As the names of probable lovers are recited, refused to be separated from her sister and she
the key will turn at the right name. The only died six hours later. They left 20 acres of land
difference when trying to discover a thief is to the parish to pay for an annual dole to the
that Psalm 1: 18 is chosen. For removing a poor of bread, cheese, and beer. The story is
spell,place the key on two crossed sticks
— one apparently borne out by the Biddenden Cakes
of yew, the other of mountain ash, place them which are distributed each year at the dole.
on the text Ephesians 6: 13-15 'Put on the These cakes, which are more like hard bis-
whole armour'. Read these verses nine times cuits, and reputedly quite inedible, are
and at each repetition a small tear is made in a stamped with an illustration of two women
piece of white paper. Fold up the paper, sew it standing close together, with their names and
into the clothing of the person who is 'Biddenden', and some letters which can be
bewitched, without their knowledge. taken to mean 34 years old and 1100. It is quite
Leather's informants showed an ambivalent Ukely, of course, that the story was invented to
attitude to this procedure. They certainly explain the cakes rather than the other way
beheved its efficacy but were worried that the round. Edward Hasted (History and Antiquities of
forces used may not come from the right quar- the County of Kent, 1790) writes that the
ter and that the Church authorities would stamped cakes were only introduced in the
hardly approve of them using the Holy Book in mid-1 8th century.The dole continues to this
such a manner. The antiquity of the custom is day every Easter Monday— bread and cheese
shown by references in Opie and Tatem, (and tea replacing the beer) to the needy, and
which date back to 1303. Compare also *sieve the cakes to all and sundry.
and shears. Shuel, 1985: 126; Hole, 1975: 142-4; Stone, 1906: 28-9.
Less compUcated, but on the
still relying
Bible's innate powers, was a *New Year morn-
bird droppings. Having bird droppings land
ing custom whereby people who wanted to on you is, strangely enough, considered lucky.
know about the coming year opened the Bible The notion is still current, having been
at random, placed their finger on a verse,
reported regularly in our 1998 *Superstitions
without looking of course, and read out the
Survey, but the first knov^m reference is httle
selected chapter. Those assembled then inter-
more than a hundred years old:
preted the prognostication. This could be done
at other times, for example when starting on a 'It's a pity this isn't Easter Day', said he; 'for we say in
Cleveland that if a bird drops on you on Easter Day
journey. A was to take the Bible to
variation
you'll be lucky all the year after'. He added that on
bed on New Year's Eve, and open it in the dark
Whitsunday, if you don't put on at least one brand-
when you first wake (after midnight), mark new article of dress the birds will be sure to come
the place, and read it in the morning (Gurdon, and on you
'drop' . . .
(N&Q.5s:10 (1878), 287)
1893:136-8).
See also *excrement.
Alternatively, place the Bible 'under your
pillow with a sixpence clapt into the book of Opie and Tatem. 1989: 142.
Ruth (verses 16 and 17, chap.l) and you will
dream of your future husband' (Lean 1903: ii. birds. It is widely said to be an *omen, or even
371), or the last chapter of the Book of Prov- a cause, of death if a wild bird enters, or is
erbs can be used to divine certain things: each brought into, a house, or beats against a win-
verse indicates the disposition or fortune of dow (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 25-6); this does
the persons bom on the number correspond- not apply to farmyard fowls or caged birds.
ing to the days of the month. Some people even avoid having ornaments,
See also *book (divination with). pictures, or wallpaper with birds on (Gill,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 23-5; Henderson, 1866: 195-8; 1993: 67). Certain species, e.g. *robins and
Hone, 1832: 127-8; N&(l8s:4 (1893), 326; Lean 1903: ii. martins, are regarded as lucky, but even they
343, 371. should not come indoors.
There were also various mistaken ideas
Biddenden Dole. A charitable dole which about the physiology and habits of certain
takes place every *Easter at Biddenden, Kent. birds, for example that *swans sing before
The legend is that the charity was founded by they die, that swallows hibemate under water,
the sisters, Ehza and Mary Chulkhurst, who that *cuckoos and hawks are the same bird in
 24
birth

its summer and winter pliunage, etc., many of human flesh' had lurked there, preying on

which originally came from learned

writers sheep and children. A light-hearted poem of
whose ideas were popularized and entered the late 18th century mentions her, in a way
oral tradition. which implies that the story was well known;
See also under the names of particular other writers give the more likely names
and gabriel ratchets. 'Anna' or 'Anny'. Correspondents in the Leices-
species,
ter Chronicle in 1874 describe how adults used
Swainson (1885) is the basic reference work. Edward A.
Armstrong, The FoMore of Birds (1958), ranges over many
her as a *bogey to alarm their children :

material.
periods and cultures, with Uttle EngUsh
Little children, who went to run on the Dane Hills,

were assured that she lay in wait there, to snatch

birth, see *childbirth.
them away to her 'bower'; and that many like them-
selves she had 'scratched to death with her claws,
birthday cake candles. The now ubiquitous sucked their blood, and hung up their skins to dry'.
custom of presenting a cake with burning
Anna was said to be in the habit of crouching
Black
candles to someone on their birthday—with
among the branches of an old pollard oak which
their age symbolized by the number of
grew in the cleft of the rock over her cave or 'bower',
candles— appears to be relatively new to Eng- ever ready to spring like a wild beast on any stray
land. Several British correspondents in N&Q^ in children passing below. The cave she was tradition-
1902 describe the custom as common in Ger- ally said to have dug out of the solid rock
with her
many, and one mentions it as practised in the finger nails.
USA, but they make it clear that the custom
In the 1890s working-class girls in Leicester
was unknown to them in this country.
stillspoke of her, calling her 'Cat Aima' and
N&Q.9s:8 (1901). 344-5, 486-7; 9s:9 (1901), 96.
saying she lived in an underground tunnel
running from the cellars of Leicester Castle to
blacic. Many traditional meanings of black are the Dane Hills. Other children thought she
gloomy: night, death, evil, or the *Devil. Yet
was 'a witch who lived in a free'.
chimney-sweeps are lucky, as is *coal, a black
Billson, 1895: 4-9, 76-7; Palmer, 1985: 218-19.
*cat, and (according to some sources) a single
black lamb in a flock (Latham, 1878: 8, 10;
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 29). The same is some- blackberries. There is a widespread *taboo
times true of Negroes; one account of the Sec- against picking blackberries after a specified
ond World War mentions 'an African air-raid date,sometimes given as Michaelmas (29 Sep-
warden nicknamed Uncle Sam' who found tember), sometimes as 10 October— which,
people beUeved that because of his colour he allowing for the eleven-day calendar shift of
was a lucky omen; 'He once calmed a panic in 1752. is the same thing. It is said that from
a shelter of 120 people, in the dark, by shining then on the berries taste bad because the
a torch on his face' (Norman Longmate, How *Devil has damaged them. Polite versions say
We LivedThen (1971), 132). he has struck them, kicked them, waved a
In some seasonal customs, the performers club over them, or trampled them; less poUte
blacken their faces with soot, ashes, or burnt ones, that he has spat or pissed on them,
cork (e.g. the *Bacup Coconut Dancers, various which is likely to be the original idea, since
mummers); this is of course a convenient dis- blackberries become watery and sour once
guise, but since other easily available sub- frost has got at them. The link with Michael-
stances (flour, chalk) were rarely used, it is mas is because this feast celebrates the battle
likely that black was deliberately chosen. The in Heaven when Michael the Archangel drove
underlying reason may be the idea that dirt is Satan out and hurled him down to earth
lucky (see *excrement), or it may be because (Revelations 12); perhaps the joke implies that
social norms are inverted at festive seasons. he landed in a bramble bush, but this is not
made expUcit.
Blacic Annis. Until recently, there was a cave Brambles send out long shoots which root
called Black Annis's Bower in the Dane Hills themselves at the tip, forming an arch. To
on the outskirts of Leicester, a local beauty crawl under this was a cure for various
spot and the scene, from 1668 till 1842, of an illnesses— most frequently whooping cough,
Easter Monday fair with sports and drag- as Aubrey noted {Remaines, p. 187), but
hunting. It was said that long ago a skin-clad, occasionally hernia, boils, or rheumatism.
bluefaced ogress with 'vast talons, foul with Horses or cattle injured by a *shrew were also
25 bleeding

dragged under a bramble arch (Opie and one black sheep that is the cause of sorrow in a
Tatem. 1989: 29, 37; Vickeiy, 1995: 45-9). family; but in
its reahty it is regarded by the

Sussex shepherd as an omen of good luck to

biack dogs. The many phantom dogs of local his flock' (Folk-Lore Record 1 (1878), 8). A num-
legend are almost invariably large black ber of other nineteenth and twentieth centiuy
shaggy ones with glowing eyes; those which references, from Somerset, Kent, and Derby-
appear only in this form are simply called 'the shire, for example, agree with this assessment
Black Dog', whereas those that change shape of the black sheep, but others say the opposite.
often have some regional name such as *barg- 'It was unlucky for the first lamb
dropped in
est, *padfoot, or *Shuck. A few are said to be lambing season to be black— black twins were
ghosts, but the majority are either super- more unlucky' (Wiltshire, 1975: 56) and
natural creatures in their own right or mani- Charles Igglesden (c.l932: 105) writes the same
festations of the *Devil. They are soUtary, for Shropshire, adding that the only way to
unUke the pack of hounds forming the *Wild avoid the bad luck is to cut their throats before
Hunt (though these too are black); they usu- they can 'baa'.

ally patrol specified lanes, but some are Opie and Tatem, 1989: 29.
associated with churchyards, streams, pools,
gallows sites, and barrows. In some districts
blade-bone. General *divination using the
(e.g. Lincolnshire) it is said that they are harm-
shoulder-bone (blade-bone) of a sheep has a
less, or even friendly, if they are not disturbed,
* very long history in Scotland and Wales, with
though in others it is an omen of death to
meet one. Occasionally they guard *treasure, regular references back to 1188 (see Opie and
Tatem, 1989: 30), but is apparently rarely
as at Dobb Park Lodge (Lancashire). Another
recorded in England, apart from in Chaucer's
haunted a farm near Lyme Regis (Dorset), to
the annoyance of the farmer, who chased it Canterbury Tales ('Parson's Tale' (c.l395), 1.
602).
Chaucer's parson here railing against false
is
with a poker and accidentally struck the attic
swearing and conjuring 'as doon thise false
wall, dislodging a hidden box of coins (Udal,
enchauntours or nigromanciens in bacyns ftil
1922: 167).
of water, or in a bright swerd, in a cercle, or in
The idea that the Devil may appear as a a fir, or in a shulder-bone of a sheep'. Strangely
Black Dog is found in several accounts of witch
trials and in other printed sources. A violent
enough, the blade-bone (of either sheep or
storm one Sunday in August 1577 damaged rabbit) turns up in Enghsh sources in the 19th

the villages of Blythburgh and Bungay in Suf- century, in a specific divinatory context, as
one of the many ways in which one can see
folk, and a contemporary tract claimed that a
one's fiiture lover or even draw him/her to
black dog of 'horrible shape' accompanied by
'fearftil flashes of fire' was seen
you: 'Take the blade-bone of a rabbit and stick
rushing nine pins in and then put it under your pil-
it,
through both churches, killing or injuring
low, and you will be sure to see the object of
several people; it was 'the divil in such Uke
your affiections' (N&(1 ls:6 (1852), 312, from
ness' (Briggs, 1970-1: B. i. 6-8). Another
Hull, Yorkshire). Opie and Tatem also identify
pamphlet of 1638 described the Black Dog of
another reference to the blade-bone in the
Newgate Gaol which would ride in the cart
beside criminals going to the gallows; this was Canterbury Tales ('Pardoner's Prologue', 11. 350-
60) which maintains that water in which such
explained as the ghost of a medieval vizard,
a bone has been steeped v^dll have strong
killed and eaten by starving fellow prisoners.
Black dog legends are common in East veterinary apphcations.

Angha, the northern counties, and the south- Opie and Tatem, 1989: 30-1; Lean, 1903: ii. 342, 356, 372.

west, and occur sporadically elsewhere; there

is an extensive
listing, including modem eye- bleeding. There are many traditional ways of
witness accounts, in Janet and Colin Bord, staunching blood; some are practical and
Alien Animals, 1981: 77-111. A selection is in physical, such as the covering of a wound with
Briggs, 1970-1: B. i. 4-19. For discussion, see cobwebs (see *spiders), while others rely more
Ethel Rudkin, Folk-Lore 49 (1938), 111-31; Theo on the effect of verbal *charms. The otherwise
Brown, FoMore 69 (1958), 175-92; Westwood, sceptical Reginald Scot (1584: book 13, chap-
1985: 145-9. ter 10) states that a bone from a carp's head
was good for staunching blood, although he
black sheep. 'We speak figuratively of the does not state how this was done. He also
blessing the throats 26

names the herb heliotrope as effective (book game were Hoodman Blind,and the Hood-
13, chapter 6) and gives some charms (book winke Play, as a reversed hood is an effective
12, chapter 18), one of which is very similar to blindfold, and it is clear from earlier descrip-
that reported by Charlotte Bume 400 years tions and illustrations that the game could be
later (1883: 183). Verbal *charms are recorded much rougher than tends to be nowadays,
it

in most of the regional folklore collections, with the blindfolded player being buffeted by
and were clearly widespread, and there are the knotted hoods of the others. The game is
identifiable groups, such as those which con- first mentioned by name in the 16th century,

cern Christ being baptized in the River Jordan, although Strutt reprints manuscript illustra-
and stopping the flow of the water, or those tions dating from the 14th century which are
which relate how Christ on the cross was clearly the same game. Samuel Pepys records
wounded with a soldier's lance. in his Diary for 26 December 1664: 'and so
Many of the recorded examples are for home to bed, where my people and wife inno-
nosebleeds or for unspecified wounds, but the cently at cards, very merry. And 1 to bed, leav-
grim reality of medicine relying on words is ing them to their sport and blindman's buff,
brought home in a report from the 1880s. A and the game is also mentioned regularly in

farm labourer who cut his wrist on his scythe literary sources over the centuries. The Opies
was attended by local 'charmers' who claimed give references to and
foreign analogues,
to be able to stop the blood, and the delay in Gomme supplies rhymes which were used in
getting him to hospital cost him his Ufe (Daily some versions of the game.
Telegraph (7 July 1887); quoted in N&a 7s:4 Gomme, 1894: i. 37-40; Opie and Opie, 1969: 117-20;
(1887), 67). Numerous plant remedies, current Strutt, 1801 (1876): 499-501.
in East Anglia in the 20th century, are given by
Hatfield. blood sports. Many of the traditional sports
See also: *nosebleed, *knives. and pastiiriesof England were what would
Black, 1883: 76, 79-80, 96-7, 111; Opie and Tatem, 1989: now be classed as 'blood sports' and have long
31-2; Hatfield, 1994: 32-3; Owen Davies, Folklore 107 since been outlawed and suppressed. Badger-
(1996), 20-2; Forbes, 1971: 293-316. *bull-
baiting, bear-baiting, bull-baiting,
running, *cock-fighting, and
dog-fighting,
blessing the throats. A service at some throwing at *cocks are the best known, but
Roman Catholic churches and the occasional there were many more obscure ones such as
high AngUcan church which takes place every goose-riding, where a goose with a greased
year on St Blaise's Day (3 February) is known neck was hung up by its feet and horse riders
as 'Blessing the throats'. The priest takes two tried to pull its head off" as they galloped past,
candles, blesses them, ties them together with and sparrow-mumbling, where men tried
red ribbon to form a cross, and lights them. He either to remove the feathers or to bite the
then places the candles across the throats of head off a Uve sparrow, using only their lips
anyone who wants the special blessing, recit- and teeth. As opposed to fox/hare/stag-
ing words which mention Blaise removing a hunting, angling, and grouse shooting, the
fishbone from a child's throat. This process is historical pattern for each of the popular
certainly old, as *Scot (1584: book 12, chapter sports is broadly similar. From the earUest
14) reports it as 'a charm in the Popish records to about the middle of the 18th cen-
church'. The best-known modem venue is the were an accepted part of English
tury, they
church of St Etheldreda, Ely Place,
Holbom, life, both rural and urban. Admittedly, the
London, where the ceremony has been per- Puritans had tried to ban some of them, and
formed since its introduction in 1876 (The there were individual voices speaking out
Times (4 Feb. 1928), 9).
against cruelty, but on the whole Church,
State, local authority, and the social elite
Blind Man's Buff. One of the oldest and most either supported or at least accepted them,
consistently popular of traditional games, and the general people revelled in them.
played in the past by adults (especially at The baiting of animals with dogs was very
*Christmas family gatherings) as well as chil- popular, with bull-baiting being the most
dren. In basic form, one player is blindfolded, common and taking place at any time, but
turned around a few times to disorient him/ *
particularly popular at wakes, fairs, elections,
her, and either has to catch other players or to and other gatherings. It involved tying a bull
catch and identify them. EarUer names for the to a permanent ring, or stake driven securely
 blood sports

into the ground, with about fifteen feet of 18th century as the isolated voices gradually
rope secured to the base of its horns. Dogs coalesced into a unified, vociferous, and pas-
were then let loose, one or several at a time, sionate movement for reform. The reformers
and encouraged to attack or 'bait' the bull. attacked the traditional sports on two moral
Any dog could be used, but in most places fronts: first was the genuine outrage against

people bred and trained animals for the cruelty to animals, often set in a Christian
'sport'—bulldogs, mastiffs, and so on. As its context, and second was the concern with the
horns had been blunted, the bull's main effect thatsuch pastimes would have on the
defence was to toss the dogs into the air, and moral character of the working classes.
the dog-owners were adept at catching them William Hogarth's popular engravings of Four
on sloping poles to break their fall. This was good examples of the
Stages of Cruelty (1751) are
clearly popular with the audience— many pic- changing moral cUmate. They show, in succes-
tures of the custom choose this part to illus- sion, boys torturing small animals, adults mis-
trate. The sport was given legitimacy by the treating horses and donkeys while, in the
belief that beef from baited bulls was much background, a bull-running is in progress. This
more tender than from normally slaughtered callousness leads to murder and an end on the
animals, and in some places local regulations dissection table. Similarly, a schoolteacher
insisted that bulls be baited before being writing in 1833 characterized the workers of
killed (N&Q,9s:9 (1902), 255). Staffordshire, with their penchant for blood
Bear-baiting was just as popular but less sports, as 'ignorant, vulgar, and wicked to
common. In its heyday, it had attracted royal excess' (Malcolmson, 1973: 119).
support, and had reputedly been introduced The opposition to blood sports comprised
to England, from Italy, in the 12th century, only part of the drive against the leisure pur-
and to have been first seen in this country at suits of the working classes in the 18th and

Ashby-de-la-Zouche in Leicestershire. William 19th centuries. Street *football and mass

Fitz Stephen mentions it in London, c.1183: November the Fifth celebrations, for
'. or huge bears, do combat to the death
. .
example, were also under attack from the new
against hounds let loose upon them' (Fitz moralists, on the basis that they were violent,
Stephen, c.1180: 58). An illustration of c.1340, drunken, degrading, brutish, and potentially
from the Bodleian Library, is given by dangerous to respectable people and their
Armitage. property. There was naturally resistance from
In urban areas, blood sports were indeed big participants,and these sports became a major
business. Institutions like the Bear Garden at moral battleground between the traditional-
Bankside, Southwark, were famous for their ists and the reformers from the mid-1 8th to

spectacles, and its successor at Hockley-in-the- the early 19th centuries, with successes and
Hole, Clerkenwell, became a popular byword setbacks on both sides. The reformers won in
for animal sports. At Hockley they offered a the end, of course, and major breakthroughs
twice-weekly programme, throughout the were the formation of the Society for the Pre
year. Bear-baiting, bull-baiting, dog-fighting, vention of Cruelty to Animals in June 1824 (it
were regular fare, but on other occasions one added the 'Royal' part in 1840), the Cruelty to
could witness whipping a bUndfolded bear, Animals Act of 1835, and the Prevention of
and the baiting of other animals including a Cruelty to Animals Act of 1849. It is clear, also,
leopard, an African Tyger, and a mad ass. On that there were overt class aspects to the
more than one occasion, horse-baiting is men- reform movements. Sports which had wide-
tioned, and Strutt includes a 14th-century spread upper- or middle-class support, such as
illustration of the 'sport' (p. 333). The advert- fox-hunting, were either ignored or expressly
isements often proclaim a forthcoming event excluded from the campaigns, and in a case
as TO THE death! which was clearly far more such as cock-fighting it was only when the
real
attractive than just an ordinary baiting. Both gentry had largely forsaken the sport that
John Evelyn (16 June 1670) and Samuel Pepys action was taken against it. Those which can
(14 August 1666) recorded visits to Bankside, take place in private, such as cock-fighting,
although Evelyn did not like it: 'I most heartily dog-fighting, and badger-baiting,
still persist.

& See also bull-running, *cock-fighting,

'

weary, of the rude dirty passetime . . Eve-

.

lyn's distaste seems to be at the start of a new throwing at *cocks.

sensibility,but the consensus over blood- Malcolmson, 1973; Button, 1994; Boulton, 1901: i. 1-34:
sports began to crumble seriously in the mid- Edward G. Fairholme and Wellesley Pain, A Century of
bliM

Work for Animak: The History of the RSPCA (1924); Strutt, were eventually donated to the *English Folk
1801 (1876 edn.); John Armitage. Man at Play (1977). Dance and Song Society and are now housed
in the *Vaughan Williams Memorial Library.
s. In current folklore, blue is either a gen-
Michael Pickering, Village Song and Culture (1982); Michael
der marker for the clothing of baby boys, or a (1976), 114-57.
Pickering, FM] 3:2
colour associated with loyalty and true love,
and hence lucky for brides, who must wear: boar's head. Bringing in the boar's head, on
a huge plate, was a potent symbol of old
Something old, something new.
Something borrowed, something blue. Christmas on a grand scale, popular with Vic-
torian illustrators to evoke a *Merrie England
In the days when bridal dresses were not
tradition. It survives at Queen's College,
necessarily white, blue was a good colour to
Oxford, but certainly existed elsewhere; for
choose:
example at the Inns of Court, St John's Gate,
Marry in blue. Clerkenwell, and St John's College, Cam-
Your love will be true.
bridge. At Oxford, the special 'Boar's Head
This meaning is derived from the rhyme 'blue/ Carol', first printed in 1521, and existing in

true', which has been noticed from the Middle numerous versions, is sung as the head is car-
ried in on a silver platter decorated with
Ages onwards; Chaucer refers to blue drapery
as a 'signe of trouthe that is in wommen sene' rosemary, bay, and other plants (see Oxford
Book of Carols, (1928), No. 19). One legend
('The Squire's Tale', 1.
645).
which explains the custom is that a student
blue beads. In his investigations into super- was once walking through the forest of Sho-
stition in London at the time of the First World tover, reading Aristotle as he walked, when he
War, Edward Lovett discovered that all over was attacked by a wild boar. With great pres-
the capital working-class people wore strings ence of mind, he rammed the book into the
of blue beads around their necks (inside their open mouth of the advancing animal and thus
clothes) as a prophylactic against bronchitis.
choked it to death. There are many other ref-
He was told that these beads were put round erences to boars at Christmas (e.g. Dyer, 1876:
the necks of young children, and never taken 470).
off for the rest of their lives, and that the cus- Dyer, 1876: 473-4; Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 279.

tom extended all over the country. A note in

The Hospital of 25 December 1909 (quoted by Bodmin Riding. This annual Riding custom
Opie and Tatem) and a letter in NEKl (160 was held at Bodmin (Cornwall) on the Sunday
(1931), 206) confirm Lovett's findings. There and Monday after 7 July (St Thomas a Becket's
are previous examples of *blue being worn as a Day).Accounts over its long history vary, but it
cure or preventative, in the form of threads or involved a horseback procession around the
ribbon, although most known examples refer town, carrying two large *garlands, and prob-
to Scotland. ably originated as a Guild Riding custom. The
Lovett, 1925: 81-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 33; Black,
earliestdocumentary evidence of the custom
1883: 112-14. is Bodmin parish church rebuilding
in the
accounts of 1469-72, and it ceased in the early
Blunt, Janet (1859-1950). The daughter of a 19th century, but was revived in 1974.
General Charles Harris Blunt, Janet spent the Munn, Bodmin
Pat Riding and Other Similar Celtic Customs
first 30 years of her Ufe in India, and returned (1975); Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 31-2.

to England in 1892, settling at Halle Place,

Adderbury, Oxfordshire, where she Uved for bogey, bogy, bogie. In modem folklore
the rest of her life. In many ways the typical studies, the term 'bogey' or 'bogeyman' is
educated, middle<lass leisured lady of her appUed to any figure deliberately used to
time. Blunt became interested in the folk frighten others, almost always children, to
*song and *dance movement and about 1910 control their behaviour.
started collecting songs from local villagers, Formerly, the related words bogey, *bogle,
and arranged for Cecil * Sharp to note the *boggart, *bugbear, and their variants were
Adderbury morris dances in 1919; she was also common in rural speech all over England.
an active country dance teacher in the local They were all scarey creatures, whose exact
school and elsewhere. She made Uttle attempt nature was not defined; most collectors (and
to publish her collection, but her manuscripts some informants) classified them as fairies.
29 bones

but there are instances where ghosts and 'Nearly every old house had its boggart which
localized minor demons are referred to by the played ill-natured tricks on the inhabitants.
same terms. Examples will be found in most Singly or in packs they haunted streets and
regional collections. Descriptions of their roads, and the arch-boggarts held revels at
appearance and behaviour differ from one tale every three-road-end' (Harland and Wilkinson,
to the next, though shape-changing is a stand- 1867: 49). The word is still used for a mis-
ard feature (see *brag, *guytrash). It is not chievous ghost.
always possible to deduce from the accounts In some tales, the boggart is attatched to a
whether they were seriously feared, or particular house or family, like a *broMmie, but
whether some informants treated the topic as as a nuisance rather than a helper. The most
a joke. Certainly some were famous enough frequent anecdote on this theme is a humor-
locally names and
to be given individual ous one, found in several collections from
become the subject of humorous anecdotes northern counties, and also in Lincolnshire
(Henderson, 1866: 233-9; Harland and Wilkin- and Shropshire. It tells how a farmer was so
son, 1867: 49-55). pestered by the tricks of a boggart that he and
Sometimes a bogey or boggart replaces the his family decided to move house, much
*Devil as the dupe of a deceptive agreeement against their will; as they set out, a neighbour
or competition involving mowing crops; in asked if they really were leaving. 'Yes, we're
such the bogey is represented
tales, naturally, moving,' said the farmer. 'Yes indeed,' came
as extremely stupid. Versions from Northamp- the boggart's voice from among the piled-up
tonshire and East AngUa are given in Briggs ftimiture, 'we're all moving.' So the farmer

(1970-1: B. i. 26, 28-9, 140; 1976: 31-2). turned the cart round and went home, saying
if they were to be tormented anyway, they'd

bogeyman. Any real or imaginary figure do better to stay in their own old house.
used by adults as a threat to coerce children
into good behaviour is a bogeyman— often the bogle, boggle. A variant on the terms 'bog-
final function of a belief that adults no longer gart'and 'bogy', used for particularly frighten-
share. This form of discipUne was common ing and evil specimens. Mrs Balfour said it was
until recently, and the figures invoked could 'a not uncommon theory' in part of Lincoln-
be male or female, monstrous or natural, and shire that bogles are really the dead, still able
could range from the Devil to the local doctor to appear and to act, until the time their
or policeman. The threat usually was that the corpses are fully decayed (Balfour, 1891: 402).
creature would cany the child away,
per- and Jessica Lofthouse describes those of north Lan-
haps eat it, either to punish naughtiness in cashire and Cumbria as 'spine-chilling' crea-
general or because the child has gone too close tures, which could appear as 'a light, a ball of
to a dangerous spot, stayed out after dark, fire,a ghostly shape, a phantom hound or bull
gone into an orchard to steal fiiiit, etc. Dickens or calf, or red hen or black cock'. They guarded
shows a nursemaid ordering a little girl to go buried *treasure, punished the v^cked, and
to sleep:
'My goodness gracious me. Miss Floy, 'could uncover the graves of the dead' (North-
you naughty, sinftil child, if you don't shut Country Folklore, (1976), 35).

your eyes this minute, I'll call in them hob-

gobUns that lives in the cock-loft to come and bones. A behef reported in England and Scot-
eat you up {Domhey and Son, chapter 5).
alive' land from the mid-1 9th century onwards was
See also *black annis, *gooseberry wife, that it is unwise to bum bones, usually with
*JENNY GREENTEETH, *HYTERSPRITES, *POLDIES, the reason that your own bones will ache if

*TANKERABOGUS. you do so, and a much earlier notion links

burnt bones with toothache (Gospelles of Dys-
boggart. In the dialects of northern counties, taues (1507), part 2, p. xiii, quoted in Opie and

'boggart' was a general term for any super- Tatem, 1989: 15). Aubrey (1686: 165) reported
natural being which frightened people, that women wear a tooth taken from a skull to
whether indoors or out, without specifying prevent toothache, and that 'cunning alewives
whether it is ghost, malicious fairy, or minor putt the ashes of bones in their Ale to
. . .

demon. An outdoor boggart might haunt any make it Dr. Goddard bought
intoxicating.
pit or well or lonely lane; an indoor boggart's bones of the Sextons to make his drops
behaviour was like a poltergeist's— he would •with. Some make a playster for the Gowte
knock, throw stones, break dishes, and so on. Vkdth the earth or musilage newly scraped
Bonfire Night 30

'

from the shin-bone. Many other recorded cures in no other European language does the word
mention the use of skulls. for bonfire have any connection with bones.
See also *blade-bone, *wishbone, *skull, Further conftision arises from a range of dia-
*IUCKY BONE, *CRAMP BONE. lect terms, balefire, banefire, banfire, and so

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 35. on, which are quite logical localized pro-
nunciations, and the notion that these pre-
serve a memory of an ancient pagan god (Baal)
Bonfire Night, see *november the fifth.
has nothing to support it beyond wishfiil
thinking. Similarly, the fashionable idea that
bonfires. Throughout recorded history, it has midsummer bonfires in England are survivals
taken very little persuasion to get English of an extensive Celtic tradition has very Uttle
people to make
a bonfire. Not only do fires to support it, despite the custom's popularity
appear regularly as an integral part of certain in Ireland and the Isle of Man. Indeed, the
calendar customs such as *November the
paucity of bonfires in Gaelic Scotland and
Fifth, *Queen Elizabeth I's accession (17 most of Wales argues against a pan-Celtic fire
November), *New Year, and *midsummer, but festival.
a bonfire was also the way the people cele-
Nevertheless, there are other indications
brated national victories and royal occasions, that fires were considered beneficial in them-
either spontaneously or by order of the
The so-called 'need fire' is described by
selves.
appropriate authorities. Denham, quoting his father, who died in 1843
November the Fifth and Queen EUzabeth 79:
aged
celebrations had definable historical origins,
and similar things went on at each: A disease among cattle, called the murrain, then
prevailed to a very great extent through that district
mighty bonfires and the burning of a most costly of Yorkshire. The cattle were made to pass through
pope, carried by four persons in divers habits, and the smoke this miraculous fire, and their
raised by
the effigies of two devils whispering in his ears, his cure was looked upon as certain, and to neglect
belly filled with Uve cats who squalled most hid- doing so was looked upon as wicked. This fire was
eously as soon as they felt the fire; the common say- produced by violent and continued friction of two
ing all the while it was the language the pope and the dry pieces of wood imtil such time as it was thereby
devil in a dialogue betwixt them. (1677: Letter from obtained. 'To work as though one was working for a
Charles Hatton describing 17 November celebra- need fire' is a common proverb in the North of Eng-
tions, quoted by Cressy, 1989: 177) land. (Deriham Trans, 1895: ii. 50).

Even before that time, however, bonfires Similar uses of the need fire have been
were in use as anti-papal devices and celebra- reported more commonly from Scotland and
tions. About 1536-40, a report written to Ireland.
advise Henry VIII on how to get across to the Cressy, 1989; Hutton, 1996; G. B. Adams, Folklore 88:1

people the new propaganda against Rome (1977), 34-8.

suggested that they should go in procession

and make 'bonfyers' to celebrate their escape booic (divination with). A well-attested way
from its clutches, in a similar way as they of finding out one's short-term fiiture, espe-
celebrated the victory of the battle of Agin- cially for a particular venture, is to open a
court (quoted in Journal of the Warburg and Cour- book at random and read the first words
tauld Institutes 20 (1957), 176-9). which come to your eye. Some references
Midsummer fires, however, are older and of stipulate the *Bible for this purpose, which is
more obscure origin. The important descrip- not surprising, but Virgil seems to have been
tion by the 16th-century chronicler John Stow popular, and many seem to imply that any
is detailed under *midsummer. An earlier book will do. In some circles, the use of the
description, by the 14th-century monk John Bible in such a 'superstitious' way would any-
Mirk, proves to be quoting from continental way have been frowned upon. The one time
sources, but his derivation of 'bonfire' from that the Bible seems to be de rigueur is on *New
'bone-fire' accepted by the OED, while
is Year's Day, when the coming year can be
others, including John Stow, have presumed assessed:
the first syllable to be from French bon for
usually set about with some little solemnity, on
It is
'good', or from 'boon', revealing the idea of the morning of New Year's Day before breakfast, as
fire as
doing good in itself or as a
symbol for the ceremony must be performed fasting. The Bible
good neighbourhood. Adams points out that is laid on the table unopened; and the parties who
31 bottomless pools

wish to consultit are then to open it in succession. church for the decoring of it, according to their old
They must open it at random
. . . The chapter is . . . custom.
then read aloud and commented upon by the com-
Those forbidden entirely on Sundays were
pany assembled (Forby, 1830: 400-1)
. . .

bear- and bull-baiting, interludes, and bowling

A correspondent in N&Q,(2s:12 (1861), 303) (for the meaner sort of people). Bowling had
reports the custom from Oxfordshire in the previously come under fire from those in
1850s and says it was called 'dipping' (i.e. to authority because the popular craze for the
the Bible) and must be done before
'dip' into game had threatened to echpse archery as a
twelve noon on New Year's Day. regular pastime, and there were fears of its
Augustine refers to the haphazard open-
St effect on the military prowess of the populace.
ing of 'the pages of some poet' {Confessions (c. The Book of Sports angered the stricter Pur-
AD 397), IV. v), while the earliest English itansand Sabbatarians at the time, and was
source is *Scot (1584: book 11, chapter 10)— reissued by Charles 1 in 1633, in response to a
'Lotscomprised in verses, concerning the luck similar hard-Une approach to Sundays taken
ensuing, either of Virgil, Homer, or Anie by a group of Somerset magistrates. By this
other, wherein fortune is gathered by the sud- time the Puritan faction was in a much
den turning unto them'. The custom is stronger position, and the declaration proved
reported well into the 20th centiuy and is still a major focus of bitter debate. Nevertheless, at
current. local level, it helped to strengthen the hands
See also *bible divination. of the authorities by codifying what was and
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 40-1; Opie and Tatem, 1989: was not allowed, and numerous prosecutions
35-6. of miscreants followed. There was certainly
still much flouting of the law:
of Sports (1618. 1633). The King's Dec-
And when the people by the book were allowed to
laration of Lawful Sports, commonly called The
play and dance out of pubUc service-time, they could
Book of Sports, was first issued by James I in
so hardly break off their sports, that many a time the
1618, as a response to zealous Lancashire just- reader was fain to stay till the piper and players
ices who had banned
all popular sports and would give over; and sometimes the morrice dancers
games on Sundays. This was but one skirmish would come into the chm-ch in all the linen and
in a long and bitter battle over the correct scarfs, and antic dresses, with morrice bells jingling

manner of keeping Sunday (the 'Lord's Day') at their legs. As soon as common-prayer was read

which was not fully resolved until the Puritans they did haste out presently to their play again.
achieved complete control in the 1640s. James (Quoted in Govett 1890: 120-1)
was caught between the growing power of the Govett, 1890 (includes a transcript of the text);
Puritans on one side and still potent fears of JulianDavies. The Caroline Captivity of the Church
Roman Catholicism on the other. It was ser- (1992); James Tait, 'The Declaration of Sports
iously beUeved that Sunday sports were a for Lancashire (1617)', English Historical Review
Catholic plot: 'It was no small policy in the 32 (1917), 561-8; Thomas G. Barnes, 'County
leaders of the Popish party to keep the people Politics and a Puritan Cause Celebre: Somerset
from church by dancing and other recreation Church Ales 1633', Trans. Royal Historical Soc,
even in the time of divine service' (John Bar- 5s:5 (1959), 103-22; Underdown, 1985.
wick, quoted by Tait, p. 562).
The Book of Sports attempted a compromise bottomless pools. In the Old English epic
by identifying which sports should be allowed Beowulf the hero dives into a pool so deep that
on Sundays, while prohibiting others, and 'no man living knows where the bottom of it
most crucially stipulating that the lawful may be'. There are many Uke it in local folk-
entertainments must only take place after lore, some of them being said to lead sfraight

evening service, and that anyone who had not down into Hell, others to have channels link-
attended that service (i.e. Catholics) was ing them to the sea; some really are unusually
excluded from this liberty. Those pastimes deep, but others are not— Dozmaiy Pool
allowed were listed as: (Cornwall) is quite shallow, and owes its

uncaimy reputation to its isolation.

Story-
dancing, either of men or women, archery for men,
tellers provide Uvely details; they may, for
leaping, vaulting or any such other harmless recre-
ation (such as)
. . .
May Games, Whitson Ales and
. . . example, say that a fully loaded haywain once
Morris-dances and the setting up of Maypoles and . . .
overturned into the pool and vanished with-
that women shall have leave to cany rushes to the out trace, or that bell-ropes from a nearby
Bourne, Henry 32

church were tied end to end and still did not his grave was half-filled by the greenery
touch the bottom. thrown on his coffin (Charles Rose, Recollections
Such pools may contain a *treasure, a of Old Dorking (1877), 92-8). This presumably
dragon, a sunken *church, or a whole sunken explains why it is unlucky to bring box
village, as at Bomere (Shropshire); at
*Semer- indoors.
water (Yorkshire) and Talkin Tarn (Cumbria), a
bottomless lake appeared overnight, to swal- boy bishops. In medieval times, most English
low up a wicked town. This association with cathedrals and abbeys, collegiate churches,
damnation is also illustrated by three small and schools, used to reverse the structures of
round pits near DarUngton (Durham), called hierarchy at midwinter by selecting a young
Hell Ketties; Holinshed reported (Chronicles, choirboy to act as 'bishop' or 'abbot'. Wearing
1577) that 'fooUsh people' believed they were appropriate robes, he would preside at ser-
not only bottomless but boiling, so that the vices,preach a sermon, and lead a procession
souls of sinners 'haue oft beene harde to crye through the streets blessing the people—
and yell about them'. A sceptical investigator during which money would be collected for
in the 1690s found they were only 30 yards the upkeep of the institution he represented.
deep, and cold (Westwood, 1985: 332-3). Bot- His term of office began on *St Nicholas's Day
tomless pools are also an appropriate place to (6 December) and ended on *Holy Innocents
which evil ghosts could be banished (Brown, Day (28 December); in London and some
1979: 24-34). other towns, he was actually referred to as 'St
Bume, 1883: 64-73; Palmer, 1973: 70-1; Simpson, 1973: Nicholas'. The last known example in England
38-9; Westwood. 1985: 332-3. was at Gloucester Cathedral in 1558.
Neil Mackenzie, History Today 37 (1987), 10-16; Hutton,
Bourne, Henry (1694-1733). Curate of All- 1996: 100-4; Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 194-7; Hazlitt,
Hallows, Newcastie-upon-Tyne. In 1725 he 1905: 68-71.

compiled and published the book Antiquitates

Vulgares, or The Antiquities of the Common People, brag. A shape-changing *bogey in Northum-
in which his purpose was to warn people berland and Durham. Its favourite form was
against popish and heathen rituals which, that of a donkey or a horse, to tempt people
masquerading as traditional customs, led to into mounting it, and then throw them into a
'uncleaimess and debauchery', and 'rioting, pond or a gorsebush and run off 'nickering
gaming, and drunkenness'. In so doing, he and laughing' (Wright, English Dialect Diction-
provided much information for the ftiture ary, citing a source fi:om 1843). One localized
folklorist,although his work might have at Picktree could also appear as a calf wearing
remained unknown but for another Newcastle a neckerchief, a headless man, and, on one
clergyman, John *Brand, who used it as a basis occasion, as four men carrying a white sheet;
for his Ohservations on the Popular Antiquities of one at Humbleknowe was never seen, but
Great Britain in 1777 and numerous sub- made hideous noises in the night (Henderson,
sequent editions. 1866: 233; Brockie, 1886: 52-5).
Dorson, 1968: 10-15.
Brand, John (1744-1806). Curate in several
Boxing Day, see *st Stephen's day. parishes in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, before
becoming rector of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary
box tree. This evergreen plant was formerly Hubbard, City of London (1784), where he
used at *fimerals as a cheap substitute for the lived for the rest of his life. Brand was one of
customary *rosemary or thyme (Vickery, 1995: thenew breed of 18th<entury antiquarians
43). The mourners would each carry a sprig in who were becoming fascinated by British tra-
the procession, and drop it into the grave; ditions rather than the primarily classical
sprigs were also sometimes tucked into the interests of their predecessors, and he was
winding sheet. The eccentric Major Labelliere, elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
who died at Dorking (Surrey) in 1800, in 1777, serving as the Society's Resident
arranged for two carts to pass through the Secretaryfrom his arrival in London until his
town on the morning of his funeral, one laden death. Aswere many of his contemporaries.
with sprigs of box and the other with *yew, so Brand was an indefatigable collector, of books
that everybody could take one; the crowds (his hbrary at his death numbered over 10,000
were so great that the ten-foot shaft serving as volumes), manuscripts, and, in particular.
33 Briggs, Katharine Mary
notes, and the book by which he is now of the oven should be broken rather than cut, or
remembered started Ufe as his annotation of else the rest will be too heavy.
an earlier work. A previous Newcastle curate, See also *bread and cheese throwing.
*
Henry Bourne, had pubUshed a pamphlet of
miscellaneous lore and traditions under the bread and cheese throwing. An annual
title of Antiquitates Vulgares, or the Antiquities of *Whit Sunday *scrambling custom which still
the Common People, in 1725. Brand reprinted takes place at St Briavels (Gloucestershire), in
this, in 1777, with his own comments and which bread and cheese is disfributed by being
notes, as Observations on Popular Antiquities, and thrown from the top of a high stone wall to
from then on began gathering material for a the waiting crowd below. The ceremony once
second, expanded edition. For both Bourne took place in the church, but changing ideas
and Brand, the material was the remnant of of appropriate behaviour prompted a move
the superstitions foisted on the people by pre- outside, with the throwing being done from
Reformation Catholicism, and thus, although the top of the tower, and another move out
fascinating as evidence, to be held at arm's into the lane where it now resides. The first

length. By the time he died, in September known record of the custom dates from 1779,
1806, he was still amassing material and his but it is presumed to be much older and

manuscript was sold to publishers hoping to somehow (although it is not clear how) con-
turn it into a book. nected to the preservation of the right of local
The huge task of editing Brand's material people to take firewood from a nearby wood.
into publishable form fell to Sir Henry *Ellis, An alternative explanation is that King John
who had little time to devote to the project, stayed at St Briavels castle in or about 1204
and could do no more than add the new and he gave to the village a thousand acres of
material in the form of footnotes, but, despite land stipulating that bread and cheese should
its faults, this edition hit the taste of the time, be distributed every Whit Sunday to uphold
and became one of the standard works to the right.
which antiquarians and folklorists turned for Although St Briavels is the only surviving
source material. Numerous other editions example, it was not unique. A report in the
have appeared over the intervening years, London Magazine (Dec. 1737, 705) details a very
including Ellis's three-volume set. Observations similar custom in Paddington (London), which
on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (a new lasted until 1838. Edwards also reports other
edition with further additions) in 1849, and an bread and cheese doles, but without the
alphabetically arranged Dictionary of Faiths and scrambling element.
Folklore editedby W. Carew HazUtt in 1905, Kightly, 1986: 59; Crawford, 1938: 160-1; N&Q. 3s:2
and recently reprinted. It has been said that (1862), 68-9; 4s:8 (1871), 507; Edwards, 1842: 17-22.
Brand gave scant credit to Bourne for his pion-
eering work, but with so many editorial Briggs, Katharine Mary (1898-1980). Bom
emendations and additions in later editions it into a family of considerable artistic talent,
is now difficult for the modem reader to ascer- she was herself a writer of children's fiction;
tain what is by Bourne, Brand, Ellis, or sub- she came relatively late to folklore. Her out-
sequent hands, making the dating of much of standing contribution was in two fields: *fairy
the material extremely problematic. lore, and *folk narratives. Although in both
DNB; Dorson, 1968: 13-30. work extended throughout Britain,
cases her
the amount of purely Enghsh material she
found was a revelation to those who thought
bread. There are two opposing traditions EngUsh folklore scarce and unimportant. Ini-
tially, her interest was in the folkloric
regarding a loaf with holes in it, or a 'hollow back-
loaf, although neither was noted before the ground to the supernatural in EUzabethan and
20th century. A report from West Cornwall held Jacobean literature; her first academic books.
that it meant a death in the family (N&Q,10s:12 The Anatomy of Puck (1959) and Pale Hecate's
(1909), 88), while others maintain that if the Team (1962), examined how far the treatment
bread rises too much, so that the loaf has big of fairies and witches by Shakespeare and his
holes in it, it is a sign that the woman who baked contemporaries reflected popular beUefs; in
it is going to have a baby {Folk-lore 37 1 926), 297).
(
Fairies in Tradition and Literature (1967) she
The 'death' verdict wins by weight of numbers. extended this discussion to later periods. She
An older behef maintains that the first loaf out made the vigorous and varied fairy traditions
broadsides 34

recorded by 19th-century folklorists readily which the printers thought would sell. Given
aimed at a wide audience.
accessible in books the fact that the printers copied freely from
The most important are A Dictionary of Fairies each other and tried to mirror the pubUc's j

(1976) and The VanisUng People (1978), which taste, many items included were traditional in |
offerthorough coverage of British fairy lore their own right, such as the 'Pack of Cards
and some comparative material from Ireland SpirituaUzed', or the 'Letter from Our Lord
and Europe. Jesus Christ'. From the late 18th to the late
Her other concern was to disprove the 19th centuries, the printers of broadsides were
|
charge that Britain (and more specifically Eng- at the decidedly lower end of the trade and, 1

land) 'has no folktales'. Scouring a wide var- indeed, many of the sheets were appallingly
iety of pubUshed sources, from medieval to printed, but others gave good value for the
modem times, and drawing on the extensive cost of a penny or halfpenny, giving two or
manuscript collection of F. J. Norton, she more songs, with woodcut illustrations (often
brought together previously scattered texts to having any connection with the song
little if

form a Diaionary of British Folk-Tales in the English itself). A typical mid-1 9th-century sheet would j

Language—she knew no Celtic languages, so be quarto size (about 10 in. x 8 in.) with two
had regretftilly to limit herself to those in Eng- songs and two cuts, but many sellers chopped
hsh. The result was four large volumes (1970- the sheets in half to make two 'slips', and
1); the first two reprint or simimarize all others sold much bigger sheets which could
known fairytales, animal fables, jocular tales, hold as many as 50 songs— in very small print.
novelle and nursery tales within her remit, Much of the broadside trade was centred in
while the other two give an extensive selec- London, and some printers such as James
tion of local and historical legends, thematic- Catnach, John Pitts, and Henry Such had a
ally arranged to illustrate topics t5rpical of Eng- national reputation, but there were also
lish tradition. It is an essential reference work, important regional centres in Newcastle, Bir-
showing the range of traditional narratives mingham, Manchester, and Liverpool, and
recoverable from printed sources. most small towns had a printer who turned
Her interest in the art of storytelling (at out broadsides as and when he or she could.
which she was herself very skilled) brought Between them, they churned out hundreds of
her into contact with Ruth *Tongue, whom thousands of sheets.
she helped considerably by editing her Somer- In the earlier period, from the mid-1 5th to
set FoMore (1965); she regarded Tongue as a the late 17th centuries, most sheets were
valuable source for oral folktales, and printed by better class printers, in the old
included many of her stories in a joint work. gothic script, called 'Blackletter'. In addition
Folktales of England (1965) and in her 1970-1 Dic- to general songs, those engaged in religious
tionary. Briggs also wrote on the traditions of and political controversies often used the
her own home area in The FoMore of the Cots- broadside form to carry on their pubUc
wolds (1974), and was a frequent contributor to debates, and these sheets were much prized
folklore journals. by collectors and examples are still preserved
She played a major role on the Council (later in major collections such as the Pepys,
Committee) of the Folklore Society in the Roxburghe, and Bagford.
1960s and 1970s, and was President from 1967 Devotees of the traditional * Child ballad and
to 1970; she was much appreciated as an many folk *song scholars were particularly
international lecturer, especially in America. scathing about broadside ballads, but much of
Her warm charm and enthusiastic scholarship the evidence used in folk song research is per-
inspired all who knew her (Davidson, 1986). force taken from printed examples. Appear-
ance on a broadside is often the only way a
broadsides. Flimsy sheets of paper, sold song can be dated, and few song researchers
streets, at fairs, and wherever
cheaply in the have not used broadside texts to complete
working people gathered. On them were fragmentary versions they have collected, or
printed songs, prose accounts of horrible to elucidate obscure or incoherent phrases.
crimes, scandals, newsworthy items, pictures, The exact relationship between traditional
wonders, tales, religious tracts, parodies, pol- song and broadsides has never been quite
itical sqibs, the 'last dying speeches of mur- determined. Certainly, very many of the songs
derers' sold at the foot of the gallows while the collected from the people have appeared on
body was still hanging, or any other piece broadsides at one time or another, and it is
35 broom

also known that many traditional singers editorial standards set a high example which
learnt songs from print, and some even made influenced the way the Society viewed and
collections of their own. Broadsides could be presented its material. Lucy Broadwood had

stored away in scrapbooks, passed around problems reconciling the respect she had for
from hand to hand until they fell to pieces, or the songs and the singers with popularizing
pasted on the wall: '1 will now lead you to an movements such as represented by Cecil
honest ale-house, where we shall find a clean- Sharp. It is a great pity that she did not pub-
ly room, lavender in the window, and twenty hsh any sustained pieces of opinion, but main-
ballads stuck about the walls' (Izaak Walton, ly restricted herself to annotations in the
The Compleat Angler (1653)). A purely oral folk *]oumal of the Folk-Song Society and in her three
song tradition has probably not existed in this books of songs: English County Songs (with J. A.
country for centuries. Nevertheless, a minor- FuUer-Maitland, 1893); Sussex Songs (with H. F.
ity of songs do not seem to have appeared Birch Reynardson, 1889); English Traditional
widely in print and, as broadsides did not give Songs and Carols (1908).
tunes yet song collectors found versions of
Margaret Dean-Smith, JEFDSS 9:5 (1964), 233-68; Ralph
songs with similar tunes all over the country, Vaughan Vk^ilUams, JEFDSS 5:3 (1948), 136-9; Frank
an element of orality must have existed, and Howes, ED&S 30:1 (1968), 14-15; Gammon, 1980: 61-89.
so we must assume that a flexible mix of print/
oral traditions was the norm. broom. Many people in 19th-century Suffolk,

Leslie Shepard, The Broadside Ballad (1962); Leslie

Sussex, and Wiltshire thought that during the
Shepard, The History of Street Uterature (1973); Claude M. month of *May the broom meant bad luck,
Simpson, The British Broadside Ballad and its Music (1966). even death; one must not bring its flowers into
*
the house, nor sweep the floor with broom
Broadwood, Lucy Etheldred (1858-1929). A twigs:
member of the Broadwood piano family and
If you sweep the house with broom in May,
thus comfortably off, well connected, and
You'll sweep the head of that house away,
musical, she lived in Sussex and London.
Lucy's uncle, John Broadwood, had pubUshed and:
a collection of Sussex folk songs in 1843, and
Bring broom into the house in May,
she herself started collecting songs in the It will sure sweep one of the family away.

neighbourhood of the family home. In 1893,

her book, English County Song$, edited with her The taboo applied, in modified form, to the
cousin J. A. FuUer-Maitland, burst on the household broom as well as the plant; it was
musical scene which had just started to take (and is) thought very unlucky to buy a broom
folk song seriously. The book was enormously or brush during May, and the rhyme became:
influential,and immediately placed Lucy
Buy a brush in May,
Broadwood at the centre of the new move- Sweep a friend away.
ment, and she was thus involved in setting up
the *Folk-Song Society in 1898. She served the In medieval and later art, a broom is often

new society in various capacities— Secretary, the typical attribute of a woman, especially a
President— for the rest of her life, and
Editor, housewife, in humorous contexts; a miseri-
thus worked in close contact with all the cord in Bristol Cathedral shows a man and his

major figures of the time, including Ralph

wifetilting, pitchfork against broom. Hence it

* could be used as social comment:

*Vaughan Williams, Percy Grainger, and
Frank *Kidson, often as their mentor and When local opinion decides that a wife has been
adviser. Broadwood's scholarship and broad absent from homelonger than justifiable, a broom,
knowledge of a wide range of musical forms decorated with a ribbon, will be hung over the door-
were formidable and belie the image of dilet- way, or stuck in a chimney or window, as an
. . .

tante maiden aunt with which educated advertisement for a housekeeper. When the man
women of her era are often dismissed. She himself puts out the broom, it is understood that he
invites his friends to carouse with him during his
continued to collect in Surrey and Sussex and
wife's absence, the broom in this case being equiva-
elsewhere in England as opportunity arose,
lent to the bush (the old sign of an inn) . . .
(Wright,
and also made important discoveries in Co.
1928: 25).
Waterford in 1906 (JFSS 3 (1907), 3-38).
Although she certainly 'softened' and adapted See also *broomstick, *sweeping.
texts, like most of her contemporaries, her Opie and Tatem, 1989: 45-6; Vickeiy, 1995:
51.
broomstick 36

broomstick. Modem artists and fiction A vicar of Beetham (Westmorland), making

writers take for granted that a witch's magic notes on local lore in 1777, stated firmly 'A
flight requires a broomstick, but folk trad- Browny is not a Fairey, but a tawney colour'd
ition mentions other means too, including Being which will do a great deal of work for a
pitchforks, staffs, plant-stems, hurdles, bowls, Family, if used well.' Sir Walter Scott agreed:
and pig-troughs. Two sources which may have "The Brownie formed a class of beings distinct
helped fix the stereotype are a chapbook on in habit and disposition fi-om the fireakish and
the famous Lancashire witch trial of 1612, mischievous elves' (Minstrelsy of the Scottish
where one woodcut shows a woman, a devil, Border (1802-3), 41). In modem scholarly ter-
and a man, all on broomsticks; and Reginald minology, the category of 'household spirit' to
*Scot, who (quoting a French source) said that which the brownie belongs is regarded as a
when witches dance at Sabbaths 'everie one subdivision v^thin the fairy species, but one
hath a broome in her hand, and holdeth it up which has very distinctive features of its own.
aloft'. Such beings alongside humans in their
live
own homes and farms, bringing them luck
Brown, Theo (1914-93). A good recent and helping them in various ways, and there is
example of the regional folklorist concentrat- only one per house; in contrast, other types of
ing on a single area— in her case, Devon and fairy are more remote, often dangerous, and
adjacent parts of the West Country. She spe- often thought of as Uving in groups.
cialized in first-hand recording of local tradi- Behefs and tales about brownies are every-
tions, folk narratives, and otherworld behefs; where similar. They work by night, doing
her attitude was that of a serious academic, housework and farm tasks, and their presence
citing source materials with care. For deeper ensures prosperity. As a reward, a bowl of
interpretation she drew on Jungian symbol- cream or porridge, or a small cake, is regularly
ism, but never let theory obscure or distort the set out for them, often on the hearth. They

primary material. Her most important book. punish lazy and slovenly servants by upsetting
The Fate of the Dead (1979), examines legends and breaking things, pinching them as they
about laying troublesome ghosts in relation to sleep, and so on; they may also rummage
the impact of the Reformation on popular about noisily and create untidiness out of pure
reUgious behefs. She had planned a fiill study fun. Brownies should not be spied on while
of the *black dog, but the mass of material she working, criticized, or laughed at, or they will
gathered proved unmanageable; a preliminary take offence and either leave for ever (taking
report appeared in Folklore 69 (1958), 175-92. the luck of the house with them) or turn into
Much of her work consisted of articles and angry and troublesome *boggarts. Occasion-
reviews in FoMore and the Transactions of the ally, a brownie is given an individual name;
Devonshire Association, pamphlets, and contri- such was the Tawny Boy at Overthwaite
butions to symposia. She became an Honorary (Westmorland) around 1650, and the *Cauld
Research Fellow at Exeter University; her lec- Lad at Hilton (Northumberland).
tures there, and to local organizations, The most striking tale concerns the gift of
encouraged many others to collect folklore. new clothes. The first Enghsh mention of this
See Davidson and Blacker, forthcoming. comes in Reginald Scot's Discoverie o/Wttchcrq/l:
(1584). book 4. chapter 10:
brownie. Now the standard term for a helpful
In deede your grandams' maides were woont to set a
household *fairy anywhere in Britain, but
him and his cousine Robin Good-
boll of milke before
when first recorded in the early 16th century a
fellow, for grinding of malt or mustard, and sweep-
dialectword limited to Lowland Scotland and
ing the house at midnight: and you have also heard
the English Border counties; many of the early
that he if the maid or good-
would chafe exceedingly,
descriptions are Scottish. Corresponding wife of the house, having compassion of his
beings in areas further south were called nakednes, laid anie clothes for him, beesides his
*hobs, *pucks, or *pixies. King James VI and 1 mess of white bread and milke, which was his stand-
defines the brownie in his Daemonologie as a ing fee. For in that case he saith.
devil 'who appeared rough man' and
like a
What have we here? Hemton, hamten.
'haunted divers houses, without doing any
Here will I never more tread nor stampen.
evill, but doing as it were necessarie tumes up
and down the house'; foohsh people thought Immediately thereon he would take himself off and
their homes prospered if they had one. be never seene again.
 37 building trade

Versions differ in what explanation

(if any) church choir sing the Creed (Courtney, 1890:
isgiven for this odd outcome. The Canld Lad 79, 129).
accepted a green cloak and hood with delight,
but left at dawn, singing: buckets. According to N&Q.(5s:6 (1876), 24), it

Here's a cloak, and here's a hood! was the custom for the mother of a newly
The Cauld Lad of Hilton will do nae mair good! christened baby in 19th-century Cumberland
(Keightley, 1889: 296) to give a tea to her neighbours. When they
were ready to leave, a bucket was placed in the
Perhaps, like the Devon *pixy, he now thought
himself too grand to work. A Lincolnshire doorway which all the women had to jump
over. If they was taken
stumbled or tripped it
I: story rationalizes the motif; there, a brownie
as a sign that they were pregnant. Over 50
who had regularly accepted a linen shirt took
years later, but referring to the 'old days',
umbrage when given one made of sacking, i.e.
another reference to Cumberland (Folk-Lore 40
hemp, and sang:
(1929), 279) describes a similar situation but
Harden, harden, harden hamp, with the different detail that the bucket held a
I will neither grind nor stamp;
lighted candle, and if the draught of a wom-
M
|r
Had you given me linen gear,
an's skirts put the candle out 'it was taken as
Ir Ihad served you many a year.
an omen she would be the next to require the
Thrift may go, bad luck may stay,
1 shall travel far away.
midwife'. Another variant was for a besom to
be placed across two buckets, and jumped
(M. Peacock, Folk-Lore 3 (1891). 509-10)
over. The link between pregnancy and the
From a ftmctionahst point of view one can domestic bucket is confirmed by a comment
say, with L. F. Newman, 'The brownie or hob- from a young Yorkshire woman reported in
thrush fitted easily into the old, generous Opie and Tatem— 'Jump over a bucket to bring
rural economy. He typified the good servant in on labour'.
kitchen, dairy or stable' (Folk-Lore 63 (1952),
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 46.
103-4). Belief in him could be exploited in two
ways— by servants, to lay the blame for break-
bug, bugbear. A widely used word in medi-
ages, untidiness, or odd noises in the night on
evaland EUzabethan EngUsh for a *bogey or
his mischief-making; by employers, to foster
the belief that he would reward those who anything which scares people; the simple
'bug' is now obsolete, though its compoimd
worked and punish the idle. The EUza-
well,
'bugbear' is still well knoMoi.
bethan fairies who, in Bishop Corbet's poem
'The Fairies' Farewell', put sixpence in the
shoe of a good maid were probably brownies. building trade. One of those ^occupations
1959 and 1976; Gillian Edwards, Hobgoblin and
which had a rich variety of traditional customs
Briggs,
Sweet Puck (1974), 103-121. and beUefs, but as there has been no system-
atic collection or study devoted to them our
bucca, bucca-boo. The Cornish spelling of a knowledge of them is patchy. The overriding
Celtic word for various supernatural crea- principle for most seems to be the same the
tures, usually frightening *bogeys; it is ultim- country over— at certain key points in the
ately from the same root as *bogey and *puck. building the workers expected a ceremony of
In Cornwall, it was 'a spirit it was once some sort, and money for a drink.
thought necessary to propitiate'; fishermen, What passes for building trade lore now-
tin-miners, and harvesters would deliberately adays are 'official' customs such as cutting the
leave a few scraps of their food for him, and first turf, laying a foundation stone, and top-

spill a few drops of beer. Children were told to ping out. The latter has been particularly
stop crying, or the bucca-boo would come and popular since the 1960s, and few major con-
carry them off. Some said there were two buc- struction projects are completed without a
cas, one white and kindly, the other black and gathering of company officials, local dignitar-
dangerous. Fishermen applied the name to a ies, and newspaper photographers on top of
sea gobUn of some sort, causing a 19th-century the new building to perform some ceremony
vicar to refer to the bucca-boo as 'the storm- such as laying the last brick. This custom has
god of the old Cornish'; marks on a certain some roots, as there are earlier references to
pile of rocks were said to be traces of fishing the workers hoisting a bush, or a flag, to the
nets he stole, turned to stone when he heard a roof of a completed building.
bull-baiting

A personal experience recounted in 1900 example was at Stamford (Lincolnshire),

details some belieft of the time: which obtained celebrity by inspiring one
its

of the first successful campaigns by the Royal

My littleboy of four years old was taken one day
house now in building for us in Bar- Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
lately to see the
after the passing of the Cruelty to Animals Act
net. It had already been arranged that he should
in 1835. The local people had been fighting
formally lay the date-stone when it was ready, but he
wanted to be able to help at once, so the workmen hard to keep their custom since at least 1788,
good-naturedly let him lay a brick. As he was leaving when the first attempt to ban it had taken
the house afterwards, the head bricklayer called place, but the buU-running was finally sup-
after the nurse, 'the Uttle boy will have no luck with
pressed in 1839.
the stone if he don't wet the brick!'. When she told The other known example of bull-running
me this, I took back the child later in the day with a was at Tutbury (Staffordshire), where the cus-
small coin to give to the friendly bricklayer who had
tom was bound up with a curious organization
superintended his work, and 1 foimd the words 'no
luck' scribbled upon the brick he had laid. On our
called the Court of Minstrels, apparently
next visit to the house, we foimd that the words had founded in the 14th century. The minstrels
been smudged out, but after the laying of the date- had the privilege of one bull a year from the
stone, which we were carefiil to 'butter' with a var- local Priory (and after dissolution from the
iety of coins, we noticed that even the smears were Duke of Devonshire), which was 'run' in the
carefuUy washed off. In my native district (the bor- town and which they could keep if they could
ders of Shropshire and Staffordshire) this would
catch it before simset. Originally, it was only
have been called 'pa)dng his foot-ale'. The builder of
the minstrels involved, but later the local
our house tells us that when the first chimney is fin-
ished he himself will have to give the men a pint of people were permitted to join in and it
ale apiece, after which they will hoist a flag on the developed into a contest between Staf-
roof-tree. If they do not get- the ale, they will very fordshire and Derbyshire men. as the town is

likely hoist a black flag, and perhaps even refuse to on the border between the two counties. The
continue the work. (Folk-Lore 11 (1900), 457-8) bull-nmning lapsed in 1774. An origin story
states that John of Gaunt, who rebuilt Tutbury
A follow-up letter in the same journal
castle, married a Spanish princess in 1374, and
describes a 'rearing', common in the northern
he started the bull-running to make her feel at
counties, which was a supper given to the
home.
workmen when the roof principals of a house
The description of bull-running in Birming-
were fixed {Folk-Lore 12 (1901). 104).
ham. pubUshed in the Victoria County History:
See also *shoes and *cats.
Warwichihire, ii (1908. 416-17) appears to be

based on one from Stamford and is not evi-

bull-baiting, see *blood sports. dence for the custom in Birmingham (see N&(1
185 (1943). 82).
bullbeggar. In North Country and West Malcohnson, 1973; Hone. 1827: i. 741-3; Brand, 1849: ii.
Country dialects, a term for any frightening 63-5. Chambers. 1878: ii. 225-6. 574-6; Edward G. Fair-
supernatural figure. In Reginald *Scot's The holme and Wellesley Pain, A Century of Work for Animals:
Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584), it comes at the The History of the RSPCA 1824-1924 (1924), 75-9; F. W.
Hackwood. Staffordshire Curiosities and Antiquities (1905).
head of a mixed fist of scary creatures: 'Our
110-17.
mothers' maids have so fraied us with bull
beggers, spirits, witches, urchins, elves . . . and
other such bugs that we are afraid of our ovme burial, irregular. Traditionally, outcasts in
shadowes' (p. 153). lifewere outcasts in death. In early modem
England. 'The infliction of damage upon the
bull-running. One of the well-known popular corpses of executed criminals the quartering
—
*blood sports of the past, although it appar- of traitors, and the use of dissection upon
ently took place in only a few locations, and miurderers— historically constituted a deliber-
is often confused with bull-baiting which ate judicial breach of society-wide norms
was much more widespread. BuU-ruiming in- and values . . . the deliberate mutilation or
volved letting a bull loose in the streets of a destruction of identity, perhaps for eternity'
town, if necessary goading him with dogs and (Richardson. 1987: 28-9). The same could be
sharp sticks to encourage him to rampage said of gibbeting, and of the *skins of sacrili-
through the streets just for the fiin of the gious robbers nailed to church doors, like
chase for all concerned. The best-knowoi vermin to bam doors.
39 burial with grave-goods

*
Religious burial was also refused to suicides the *north side of the churchyard. Until 1823,
and the excommunicate, symbolizing their 'self-murderers' were buried in a roadway (not
damnation, and to *unbaptized babies, whose necessarily at a *crossroads), to be trampled
status was ambiguous. Jews, Nonconformists, underfoot. A stake was often driven through
and Roman Catholics were not admitted to the body to pin it in its grave; its top
AngUcan churchyards, and used private burial was sometimes left visible, as a deterrent
grounds until public cemeteries were estab- (MacDonald and Murphy, 1990: 44-9, 137-9).
lished. Another solution was to bury the Broken pottery, fUnts, and stones might be
rejected person on his own land; the Hereford thrown in (Shakespeare, Hamlet, v. i) as a fiir-
June 1783 reported the discovery
Journal of 19 ther mark of disgrace, or perhaps a precaution
of a skeleton in a paddock near Grantham, against ghosts.
under a stone inscribed: 'Here hes the body of Roadside and crossroads burials are a fairly
Zacharias Laxton, deceased the 27th of common topic for local legend, as is the idea
August, 1667, being for his excommunication that a particular tree grew from a stake driven
denied the usual place of burial.' through a corpse, or from a seed laid in its
Many Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon mouth— e.g. Dab's Elm near Winchcombe and
corpses have been discovered decapitated (the Maud's Elm in Swindon (both Gloucester-
head often between the feet), laid face down, shire), grown from the stakes of suicides.
crushed under large boulders, bound, or dis- Some unconventional burials were freely
membered; some are in normal cemeteries, chosen; WilUam Chambers's Book of Days
others in boundary earthworks. The latter (1864) Usts several examples fi-om the late
may have been criminals, buried at execution 18th century of men buried on hilltops, in
sites; their remoteness 'probably reflects the woodland, or in fields (i. 804-5, ii. 627-8). In
desire to banish social outcasts to the geo- 1800, the coffin of a notorious eccentric. Major
graphical limits of local territories' (Reynolds, Peter Labelliere, was lowered head first into a
1998). At Sutton Hoo (Suffolk), the practice deep grave Uke a well, on Box Hill in Surrey
continued into the 10th or 11th centuries at (The Gentleman's Magazine 70: 2 (1800), p. 693); it
the site of a gallows (Carver, 1998: 137-44). was said he expected the world to turn topsy-
Such treatments could also be rituals to stop turvey on *Doomsday, so he would then be the
them returning as *undead; indeed, both right way up. Such graves become a topic for
intentions may be present, since executed storytelling;run round them seven times, it is
criminals, having died by violence, would be often said, and the ghost will jump out. Isol-
thought hkely to 'walk'. ated towers, obeUsks, and follies are some-
Belief in the effectiveness of prone burial times alleged to cover odd burials, e.g. of a
persisted remarkably long. On 29 July 1915 a man on horseback, or holding a bottle of wine;
letter to The Times describes how British sol- the macabre here blends with humour.
dierswere impressed by the evil expression on It is said of various legendary *wizards and

a dead German's face: 'Later, I found our men local heroes that they cheated the Devil by

burying him most carefully— face downwards. promising he could have their souls whether
You know why. If he began digging his way they were buried inside or outside the church,
out he would only go deeper' (reprinted in and then getting themselves buried in the
Folk-Lore27 (1916), 224-5). On 30 July 1915, the thickness of its wall, i.e. 'neither in nor out'.
Daily Chronicle reported what must surely be Merrifield, 1987: 71-6; David Wilson, Anglo-Saxon Pagan-
the same incident, with the soldier's explan- ism (1992), 77-86; Andrew Re)molds, British Archaeology 31
ation: 'If the beggar begins to scratch, he will (Feb. 1998), 8-9; Martin Carver, Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground
of Kings? (1998); MacDonald and Murphy, 1990.
scratch his way to the devil. It's an old beUef in

our district, and it took our fancy' (quoted in

N&Q.lls:12 (1915), 118). burial, normal, see *funerals.
Suicides also received dishonorable burial.
From medieval to modem times, English law burial with grave-goods. In pagan burials
distinguished between those guilty of 'self- and cremations, the dead body was often
murder' and those 'of unsound mind'. By (though not invariably) accompanied by
Church law, the former could not be laid in jewellery, weapons, food, and drink, and
consecrated ground, nor could the burial ser- sometimes a horse or dog, presumably its
vice be read over them; the latter were possessions in life. Christianity aboUshed the
allowed these rites, but were often placed on custom for ordinary people, but allowed
Burne, Charlotte Sophia 40

monks, and nuns to be buried in their

priests, folklore, but the defining moment came when
religious vestments and habits, and bishops her notes were shown to Miss Georgina Jack-
and abbots to have their rings and croziers son in the early 1870s. Jackson had for many
with them. Throughout the Middle Ages and years been working on a projected book on
beyond, there was always a conflict between Shropshire dialect, and had collected much
the urge towards the humble anonymity of a folklore in the process, but faihng health
shroud, and the wish to dress a corpse in prompted her to hand the projects to Burne
clothing appropriate to its status. Recent for completion. The latter thus brought out
clearances of over 2,000 18th- and 19th- the planned Shropshire Word-Book (1879) and,
century coffins from vaults of London after adding a great deal of her own material,
churches produced a good many wedding which proved to be
Shropshire Folk-Lore (1883),
rings, but only two cases of men buried in one of the best of the *regional folklore collec-
normal clothing: one in miUtary uniform, one tions and is still in demand today. Burne also
a dandy in fashionable dress, Vkdth wig and joined the *Folklore Society in 1883, and was
cane (Litten, 1991: 73). Nowadays shrouds are soon involved on its Council and in various
still common, but many people prefer clothes, organizing roles, editing the journal *Folk-Lore
which can be anything from high-quaUty (1899-1908) and serving two terms as the
nightwear to one's wedding dress or a favour- Society's President (1909-10). In her first
ite suit. presidential address (Folk-Lore 21 (1910)) she
In modem times, it is normal at military claimed, probably correctly, to be the first
and state ftmerals for flags, items of uniform, female president of a learned society in Brit-
insignia, etc., to be laid on the coffin; they may ain. She continued to contribute numerous
or may not go with it into the grave. The same articles and notes to folklore journals and to

may be done for other occupational symbols, local Shropshire/Staffordshire periodicals for
as when the friends of an old bargeman who the rest of her life, and her other major pubU-
was being buried at Havant (Hampshire) in cation was the second edition of the influen-
1994 cap and a small anchor on the
laid his tial Handbook of Folk-Lore (1914), for the Folk-
coffin at the end of the service (FLS News 22 lore Society.
(1995), 13). It is fairly common for small per- Bume's particular forte was fieldwork, in
sonal possessions such as photographs to be contrast to her fellow folklorists who were
sUpped into the coffin or dropped into the primarily library scholars and thinkers, basing
grave; even more frequently, suitable objects their theories on other people's books and
are laid on graves, either after the *ftineral or manuscripts. Shropshire Folk-Lore demonstrated
on anniversaries and festivals. the wealth of material waiting to be collected,
Archaic customs such as animal sacrifice and also identified an important practical role
and food offerings occasionally reappear; available to those interested in the subject but
Lovett stated that in the London working unable to indulge in high theory. She became
classes early in the 20th century, it was 'by no an advocate of fieldwork, urging systematic
means be killed at the death of
rare' for pets to collecting programmes, offering advice on
their owner; he notes two instances— a little how to go about it, and urging high stand-
girl's canary laid in her coffin, and an old ards of documentation. In the process, she
woman's cat buried in the garden on the day experimented with methods such as the geo-
of her funeral, 'so that the old dear might have *
graphical mapping of calendar custom
her best fiiend with her' (Lovett, 1925: 35, 48). variants, which were later to be adopted as
In 1928 at Paignton (Somerset), a woman who normal practice. At the time of her death, she
used to put chickens, pigeon pies, fi:iiit, and was working, with the Society's 'Brand Com-
wine on or in her family vault sued the local mittee', on an ambitious plan to publish a new
council because they had forbidden her to do comprehensive survey of customs, to serve as
so, saying this constituted a 'nuisance'. She an updated and expanded edition of *Brand's
lost her case (Daily Express, 21 Mar. 1928 and 11 Observations on Popular Antiquities.
Nov. 1928). Bume's major articles were 'The Collection
See also *funerals, *graves. of EngUsh Folk-Lore', Folk-Lore 1 (1890), 313-
30; 'The Value of European Folklore in the
Burne, ChaHotte Sophia (1850-1923). An History of Culture'. Folk-Lore 21 (1910), 14-41;
and antiquities of
interest in the local history 'The Scientific Aspects of Folklore', Folk-Lore 22
her adopted county of Shropshire led her to (1911), 14-32.
 Butterworth, George Sainton Kaye

Obituary: Folk-lore 34 (1923), between pp. 99 and 100; There came two Angels from the north.
Dorson, 1968: 318-22; Gordon Ashman, Talking Folklore One was fire and one was Frost.
1:1 (1986), 6-21 and in Davidson and Blacker, forthcom-
Out, Fire; in. Frost.
ing; Simon J. Bronner, Folklore Women's Communication 24 name of Father,
In the Son, and Holy Ghost.
(1981), 14-19.
(Latham. 1878: 35-6)

Burning Bartle. An apparently unique cal-

bus tickets. Fieldwork by lona and Peter Opie
endar custom which takes place on the even-
in the 1950s revealed a cluster of beliefs con-
ing of the Saturday after St Bartholomew's Day
cerned with the humble bus or tram ticket.
(24 August) in West Witton (North Yorkshire).
Children all over the country reported various
A larger-than-life *effigy (known as Bartle) is

constructed of combustible material and is ways in which the serial number printed on
the ticket could be interpreted, the simplest
paraded down the village street followed by a
crowd of local people. At certain houses, Bartle being that if the numbers added up to 21 it
was lucky for you and should be kept. More
is halted, while his bearers declaim the follow-
complex ways of calculating the number
ing lines:
revealed the initials of your ftiture spouse,
At Pen Hill Crags, he tore his rags when you would be married, and so on. Sev-
At Hunter's Thorn, he blew his horn eral reported the use of the rhyme more usu-
At Capplebank Stee, he brak his knee
ally associated with *magpies: 'One for sorrow,
At Grassgill Beck, he brak his neck
two for joy', etc. Ticket customs are still car-
At Waddam's End, he couldn't fend
ried out by some children (SR).
At Grassgill End, he made his end,
Opie and Opie, 1959: 329-34; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 50.
and the assembled people cheer heartily. At
the far end of the village, Bartle is first stabbed butterflies. In William Hone's Table Book
and then burnt, while the crowd sings. Noth- (1827, I, col. 678), a young woman describes
ing is known aboutthe custom's origins,
having recently seen, in a Devonshire lane, 'a

although one local legend seeks to explain it: man mnning at full speed, vidth his hat in one
Bartle represents a local pig thief who was hand, and a stick in the other'; he was trying
chased, captured, and killed by an irate popu- to kiU a butterfly, the first he had seen that
lace. The chant, with its local place-names, is
year, because 'they say that a body will have
cited as evidence of the chase. It is most likely, cruel bad luck if a ditn'en kill afurst a zeeth'.
however, that the name Bartle simply reflects In Lincolnshire, anyone who crushed the first
the day (St Bartholomew's Day), which is the
butterfly of the year underfoot would crush all
logical day for local festivities as it is the feast his enemies that year. A
related omen was that
day of the parish church. That said, however, if the first butterfly you see is white, you will
we are no nearer understanding the origin or eat white bread all year (implying enough
purpose of the custom, as its provable history money for good food); but if it is brown, then
only dates from the late 19th century. you wiU. eat brovm bread, i.e. be unlucky and
Smith, 1989: 119-22; NEtQ^ 200 (1955), 127-8; Rightly, poor (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 51).
1986: 59-60. Butterflies and moths were associated with
death, sometimes merely as *omens, some-
burns. A spoken *charm for curing bums and times as the soul or *ghost (Opie and Tatem.
scalds has been recorded ft-om various parts of 1989: 266-7). In Devon and parts of Yorkshire
England. The Shropshire version ran: they were thought to be souls of *unbaptized
babies (Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961:
There was three angels came from the west.
The one brought fire and the other brought frost. 77-8).
The other brought the book of Jesus Christ. See also *wasps.
In the name of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, Amen.

(Bume, 1883: 183-4)

Butterworth, George Sainton Kaye (1885-
1916). One of the most promising of the
From Fittleworth (Sussex), there is more Edwardian generation of musicians interested
information about the associated ritual. The in folk music, his work was sadly curtailed by
words, there called a 'blessing', could only be his death in France in August 1916. He came to
used on a Sunday evening by one particular folk music through his acquaintance with
woman, who would bow her head, blow on Ralph *Vaughan Williams, and with character-
the bum, and murmur: istic energy and enthusiam started collecting
Butterworth, George Sainton Kaye 42

songs in 1906 and continued to do so until the musician prompted him to use some of the
FirstWorld War. His manuscripts (now at the material he collected in his own compositions,
*Vaughan Williams Memorial Library) contain and he published a number of pieces which
over 300 songs, collected in various counties, included traditional th'dhies, although he des-
although he is best known for his work in Sus- troyed many of his unpublished manuscripts
sex. In 1911, he joined the *English Folk Dance while in the army. Two of hft best-known
Society and became a disciple and collaborator pieces, A Shropshire Lad and Banks of Green
of Cecil *Sharp, collecting and editing *morris, Willow, are still heard regularly today.
*sword, and country dances at his behest and
George Butterworth, Folk Songs from Sussex (1913); Michael
helping with several of his books; he was also
Dawney, FM] 3:2 (1926), 99-113; Russell Wortley and
an energetic member of Sharp's demonstra- Michael Dawney, FM] 3:3 (1977), 193-207; Ian Copley,
tion dance team. Butterworth's interests as a George Butterworth: A Centennial Tribute (1985); DNB.
cabbages. The method of *love divination by that devised by Julius Caesar, the 'Juhan cal-
means of a cabbage (kail) stalk pulled at ran- endar'. It has twelve months, beginning on 1
dom from the ground is best known by the January, but as the Christian Church disap-
note to Robert Bums's poem 'Halloween' proved of the wild festivities held by pagan
(1787), and would seem exclusively Scots and Romans around that date it chose 25 March,
Irish if it were not for isolated English refer- the Feast of the Annunciation, as New Year's
ences such as Ella M. Leather's note from Here- Day; some countries adopted this for civic
fordshire: 'If a girl go into the garden on this purposes too, but not all. In England, the year
night (Halloween), and cut a cabbage, as the was held to begin either on 1 January or 25
clock strikes twelve, the v^aith of her ftiture December up to the late 12th century, when
husband will appear' (Leather, 1912: 64). Cab- 25 March was chosen instead; the two systems
bages also had various uses in folk-medicine, ran concurrently till 1751, with calendars and
although again the Irish and Scots examples almanacs using 1 January, but legal and
outweigh the English in number and variety. official documents using 25 March. The year

Vickery records a reference from Cambridge reckoned in the latter way was called the 'Year
in the 1960s which recommends a cabbage- of Grace'.
leaf tied round a swollen knee, and from Astronomically, the Julian calendar was
Devon in the 1990s to drink cabbage-water as faulty, being based on a slightly mistaken
a cure for colds, flu, headache, and especially estimate of the length of a year. As centuries
hangovers. passed, it became visibly out of sjmch with the
Vickery, 1995: 57-9; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 53.
astronomical solstices and equinoxes, and in
1582 Pope Gregory XIII directed that that year
be shortened by ten days, reorganized the
Cadbury Castle. Two early antiquaries, John
method of reckoning leap years, and restored
Leland (1542) and William Camden (1586),
1 January as New Year's Day. CathoUc coun-
claimed that this site, a large Iron Age hill-fort
tries adopted this 'Gregorian calendar', but
about twelve miles from * Glastonbury in Som-
Protestant ones did not, though the mathe-
erset, was the Camelot where King *Arthur
matician Dr *Dee argued as early as 1583 that
often held court; this contradicts Malory, who
England too should make an adjustment,
identified Camelot with Winchester. Local
preferably of eleven days. At last, in 1750, Par-
people had told Leland that Arthur 'much liament decreed that the year 1751 would end
resorted' to Cadbury, and that Roman coins
on 31 December, and that in 1752 September
and a silver horseshoe had been found there.
would be shortened by eleven days, with 2
Stories current in the 1890s were ftiller. It was
September being followed immediately by 14
then being said that the hill was hollow, with
* September. (The tax year, however, was not
a golden gate that opened on Midsummer Eve
changed, and still starts on 5 April, eleven days
to show the king and his court feasting inside;
after the old New Year date of 25 March).
at every full moon Arthur and his men rode
The 'loss' of eleven days worried many
round the hill to water their silver-shod horses
people, and some were upset that festivals
at a nearby well. Some antiquaries visiting the
would no longer be held on the 'right' date, i.e.
fort at this period were asked by a local man if
precisely twelve months after they
were last
they had come 'to take the king away'. held (see *Holy Thorn). An 'Old Style' date is
eleven days later than the adjusted calendar;
calendar. The EngUsh calendar is based on thus 10 October is an Old Style equivalent to
calendar customs

Michaelmas (29 September), while 6 January is Corpus Christi, but also (especially before the
both the Feast of the Epiphany or Twelfth Reformation) a series of saints' feasts on fixed
Night in its own right (New Style) and the Old dates. These determined the patronal feast of

Style equivalent of Christmas (25 December). the local church (see *church ales and *wakes),
Quarter Days were four dates marking the and/or the date of the local fair. Some saints

beginning or end of legal contracts, especially were the patrons of particular guilds or trades,
between landlord and tenant or employer and so their feasts were celebrated by these

employee. In England they were Lady Day (25 craftsmen throughout the country; thus, cob-
March), Midsummer Day (24 June), Michael- blers observed *St Crispin's Day and black-
mas (29 September), and Christmas Day. smiths *St Clement's, and were still doing so
late in the 19th century. Other saints' days
calendar customs. Those which take place were the occasion for 'visiting' and 'display'
once a year, at a particular date or season; also customs which continued after the reason
called seasonal customs. Examples are bon- was forgotten; *catteming, *thomasing, and
fireson *Novemberthe Fifth, *wassaiUng apple grottoes are examples.
trees on *Twelfth Night, or sending *valentine Superimposed on the natural and the
cards on 14 February. They are thereby dis- ecclesiastical calendar come the
turning-
tinguished from *Ufe-cycle customs and occu- points of the legal year (New Year's
Day, the
pational customs. Quarter Days); the official commemorations of
The folklore calendar is complex, since it is national events, of which at least two (Oak
a combination of several historically Apple Day and November the Fifth)
independent systems. Scientific calculation developed folkloric traits; civic and academic
*
plays hardly any part; even Midsummer Day, celebrations; and Bank Holidays set on arbi-
24 June, is not identical with the astronomical trary dates but attracting traditional pageants,
solstice, while the midwinter festivities have sports, etc., to themselves. It should also be
always stretched across a range of dates in late remembered that the reform of the calendar
December and early January, and the equi- in 1752 caused the 'loss' of eleven days; this

noxes are totally ignored. From the mid-1 3th led some people to claim that 6 January was
century there is evidence that 1 May (*May the 'real' or 'old' Christmas Day, and to trans-
Day) was regarded as marking the beginning fer certain behefs and customs to that date. A
of spring in England, as it does over much of dating which noV(^ looks arbitrary can some-
Europe; its counterpart, 1 November, is more times be better understood by making an
composite, since it seems to draw part of its eleven-day adjustment (see blackberties,
significance from the start of an old Celtic grottoes).
cattle-rearing year, and part from two major At present, the traditional calendar is

Church festivals, *A11 Saints Day and *A11 Souls. undergoing exceptionally rapid changes.
One extremely important factor is the Many customs have been moved from their
annual cycle of food production, which itself traditional dates to the nearest weekend, or
varies according to the crop and the cUmate; even to the nearest Bank Holiday, for the con-
arable farming sets a different pattern from venience of performers and spectators. May
stock-breeding or fishing or fruit-growing. Day and Whitsun are both threatened by the
Each of these generated festivals to mark the establishment of Bank Holidays on nearby
beginning of major activities (ploughing), or Mondays; Whitsun has succumbed, but so far
more often their ending (*sheep-shearing, popular attachment to May Day itself remains
harvesting). The cycles of dearth and abun- sttong. Traditional foods once linked to one
dance, of hard work and leisure, also affected special day, such as hot cross buns, chocolate
festivals, both positively and negatively; for Easter eggs, and mince pies, now appear in the
instance, the abundance of com, beer, and shops about two months ahead of time. On the
meat in late autumn favoured them, whereas other hand, some new dates are becoming
in summer they were impossible until the prominent, and new ways of celebrating old
vital work of harvesting and
haymaking was ones are devised.
finished. Apart from considering their dates, calendar
Equally important was the Church calendar, customs can be useftiUy classified in a number
supplying not only the major cycle of Advent, of ways. One is to identify the people involved
Christmas, *Shrove Tuesday, *Lent, *Good as participants or performers: does the per-
Friday, *Easter, *Ascension, *Whitsun, and formance involve everyone in the village, or a
45 candle auctions

particular age-group, sex, occupation, area, major customs, see Hole, 1976; Pegg, 1981;
A further method is to
religion, or interest? Shuel, 1985. Sutton 1997 combines detailed
analyse the characteristics of the performance recent fieldwork with archive material for a
itself— drama, singing, disguise, display, and single area.
so on— and of the place where it occurs.
'Display' customs are those where the parti- calendars. 'Calendars received about
cipants have made
or gathered something
Christmas time should not be hung on the
which they display to a potential audience, wall till the new year, as it is unlucky to do so'
usually in the hope of receiving something for was noted from a Birmingham informant and
showing it; children's *grottoes, *garlands, or pubUshed in Folk-lore (45 (1934), 162). Other
*
poppy shows are examples.
examples of the same behef are given by Opie
In 'visiting' customs, the participants visit
and Tatem, including one where it was con-
people's homes or other buildings (e.g. shops, sidered unlucky even to display the next
pubs) to carry out their performance, either month before it arrived. This appears to be
indoors or outside, depending on the tsqje of
based on the idea that to do so would tempt
custom. They thus give the same performance
fate.
over and over again at different locations, but
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 53.
the journey from one place to another is not
part of the performance. *Mumming plays,
Camelot. In French medieval romances,
*souling, and *clementing are examples. In
some cases the visit itself is expUcitly claimed Camelot was one among several towns where
to bring luck, either generally (e.g. *first foot- King *Arthur regularly held court, but unlike
the others (London, Carlisle, Caerleon) it has
ing) or for specific items (e.g. wassaiUng trees,
cattle, crops),but by no means always. The come to symboUze the glamour of Arthurian
times. Its name corresponds to Camulodonum,
performance can be of many kinds, including
drama or display, but in most cases the visitors the Roman forerunner of Colchester, the
ruined walls and gateways of which were still
sing a song and hope for money, food, or drink
in return. In a few customs, such as thomas- conspicuous in the 12th century, but medieval
writers were unsure of the identification.
ing, simply the visiting which elicits gen-
it is

erosity, forno real performance is involved. Malory said it was Winchester; the Ehza-
'Processional' customs are those in which bethan antiquaries Leland and Camden more
the performance continues while moving tentatively suggested *Cadbury Castle

from place to
place, as in a parade, though the (Somerset).

performers may also halt at certain points to

perform particular static actions. *Helston candle auctions. 'Auction by candle' or 'sale
Furry Dance is a good example, since the by inch of candle' was one of the normal ways
dance itself processes through the town, as in which auctions were organized until about
does the *Padstow Hobby Horse. The *Bacup the turn of the 18th century. There are two
Coconut Dancers are another example main variations. In one a short candle (usually
because even though they perform static about an inch) is Ut and bidding continues
dances they also dance on their way from one until it goes out, and the last bid made before
place to another. The *Abbots Bromley dancers it goes out is the one that stands. Alter-

sometimes walk normally as they go from natively, a pin or nail is stuck into a lighted
farm to farm, or sometimes progress in a candle, and the bidding stops when it falls out.

winding single file, i.e. processionally. Samuel Pepys provides excellent historical
'Static' customs are stationary, so that the perspective: '6 November 1660—To our office,
audience comes to the custom rather than vice where we met all for the sale of two ships by
versa; *well-dressing is an example, as are an inch of candle (the first time that ever I saw
children on a street comer asking for 'a penny any of this kind)', and there are further refer-
for the Guy'. ences on 28 February 1661, 9 April 1661, and 3
All books on regional folklore include a sec- September 1662.
tion on calendar cusoms. For an extensive col- Although the practice was new to Pepys, it
lection of illustrative texts, historically had been in operation since at least the 15th
arranged, see Wright and Lones, 1936-40; for century, and was sufficientiy reputable to be
a thorough historical analysis, see Hutton, the stipulated method in, for example, the Act
1994 and 1996. For introductory accounts of for Settling the Trade to the West Indies
Candlemas 46

(1698). Candle auctions have survived in a *Herrick wrote three poems on the topic, not-
number of places, always concerned with ing that sports and dainty foods were at an
land tenure and annual leasing arrange- end, the remains of the *Yule Log quenched
ments. At Hubberhohne, North Yorkshire, a and set aside till the next year, and all decora-
sixteen-acre field called the Poors Pasture, left tive greenery removed.
over from the local enclosure, is auctioned on Duffy, 1992: 15-22; Hutton, 1996: 139-43.
thefirst Monday night in January. The vicar

and churchwardens are in charge, and the

bidders cannot actually see the candle's pro- candles. In reUgious ritual, candles express a
gress. Church Acre meadow in Aldermaston, widespread symbolism whereby light is
Berkshire, is let every three years by candle equated with goodness and spirituality—
(and pin) in December. Stowell Mead, seven specifically, in Christianity, with Christ as the
and a half acres at Tatworth in Somerset, is let Light of the World. In all Cathohc and many
annually on the Tuesday following 6 April. Anglican churches, there must be two aHght
Church Acre, Chedzoy, Somerset, is let every during they feature in the com-
all services;

21 years (and this claims to be the oldest can- munal *Candlemas, and
liturgy at Advent,
dle auction in the country). In Leigh, Dorset, Faster; they are often used in processions
the 'aftergrass' (i.e. autumn and winter graz- and *baptisms, and placed beside deathbeds
ing) of two meadows is let in the same way. and coffins. They also are a material expres-
Brian Learmount, A History of the Auction (1985); Kightly, sion of individual prayer; hence the customs
1986: 65-6; Hole, 1975: 127-8; Sykes, 1977: 50-1. 163. of bu5dng a small candle (or itsmodem equiva-
lent, a night-light) and leaving it to bum
Candlemas (2 February). This is the English before an altar or statue, and carrying candles
name for a religious festival, the last of the during vigils of mourning or protest. Para-
Christmas cycle, which celebrates the Purifi- doxically, they also express celebration, so
cation (i.e. the *churching) of the Virgin Mary have a place on *Christmas trees, *birthday
40 days after the birth of Jesus, in accordance cakes, and dinner tables.
with Jewish custom. It necessarily falls on 2 In medieval CathoUcism, candles blessed by
February, the fortieth day after 25 December. a priest (especially at Candlemas) were kept at
It began in Byzantium in the 4th century, and home to protect the house against demons,
was estabUshed in Rome by the 7th century; it witchcraft, and thunderstorms, and to be lit
has no connection with the Irish feast of for the sickand dying; they were one of the
Imbolc on 1 February. commonest gifts offered in pilgrimage;
Candlemas was important in the medieval people left money to ensure that lights would
CathoUc calendar; each parishioner attended bum in front of specified altars, crosses, or
Mass and joined a procession, bringing a can- statues in their parish church, especially dur-
dle as an offering to the church. Other candles ing Mass (Duffy, 1992: 16-22, 134, 146-9;
were blessed and then taken home, to be kept Finucane, 1977: 95-6).
as protection against *thunderstorms, ReUgious ritual is recalled in the idea that
demons, and sickness, and lit by the beds of solemn cursing involves 'bell, book, and can-
the dying. Elaborate processions and liturgical dle',and stories about ghost laying where the
dramas were devised, using candles to symbol- exorcist's candle must be kept alight. An
ize Christ, the Light of the World; at Beverley ingenious variation of the latter concerns the
(Yorkshire), a woman 'nobly dressed and ghost of 'Old Coles', who haunted a road
adorned as theQueen of Heaven' carried a doll between Bransford and Brocamin (Worcester-
representing the Infant Jesus, while other shire): twelve parsons trapped him one dark
parishioners represented Joseph, Simeon, night in a nearby pool, by the light of an inch
Anna, and angels, the latter carrying 24 large of candle, bidding him stay there till the
candles. These riteswere suppressed after the candle burnt out— and, to make sure he
Reformation, but in Dorset and Notting- does, they threw the candle into the pool and
hamshire there are occasional 19th-century filled it in (HazUtt, 1905: 458).
references to people hghting candles in their Occasionally candles were used in magic; in
own homes on this day, or exchanging them 1843 a Mrs Bell in Norwich was said to have
as gifts. stuck a candle with pins in order to immobil-
In the 17th century, the Eve of Candlemas ize the arms and legs of a man she had quar-
marked the end of the Christmas season. relled with (Hole, 1973: 91). Henderson reports
47 cards, playing

two love *spells, the first being from Durham, and

where a servant girl who kept a candle stump
studded with pins explained, Come, let us go to bed,
'It's to bring my My own sweet, sweet one.
sweetheart. Thou see'st, sometimes he's slow
(Philip, 1992: 95-6)
a-coming, and if I stick a candle-end full o' pins
it always fetches him.' His second account is
from Buckinghamshire: Cap o' Rushes. This Suffolk *fairytale was
Damsels desirous of seeing their lovers would stick contributed to the Ipswich Journal in 1878 by
two pins through the candle they were burning, tak- Mrs Anna Walter-Thomas, from memories of
ing care that the pins passed through the wick. how her nurse used to tell it some twenty
While doing this they recited the following verse: years earlier. Itbelongs to an international
It's not this candle alone I stick
type known as 'Catskin' (part of the Cin-
derella cycle), but has rationalized the magic
But 's heart I mean to prick
Whether he be asleep or awake elements. It tells how a man with three daugh-
I'd have him come to me and speak. ters asks each one how much she loves him;
the youngest answers, 'I love you as fresh meat
By the time the candle burned down to the pins and
loves salt', so he angrily drives her away. Dis-
went out, the lover would be certain to present him-
self. (Henderson, 1879: 172-3; cf Opie and Tatem, guising herself in a hooded cloak of rushes,
1989: 55-6). she takes work as a kitchenmaid and hides her
own fine clothes. Some time later, she secretly
Henderson's informant thought this dan-
goes to a grand dance being held nearby, look-
gerous. Of three girls she knew who had used
ing so lovely that her master's son falls in love
this spell, one did marry the man but was very
with her, but she slips home unnoticed. This
unhappy; a second was harangued by her
happens twice more, and though the third
lover when he arrived, as 'no tongue could tell
time he gives her a ring he still cannot learn
what she had made him suffer' by summoning who she is, and falls ill with longing. By drop-
him, and he immediately left her.
ping the ring into his gruel she reveals herself,
One of the regular * Halloween games was to and they marry. She orders the food at the
hang a short stick from a rafter, with an apple
wedding feast to be cooked without salt,
fixed to one end and a lighted candle to the
which causes her father, who is among the
other. With their hands tied behind their
guests, to understand just how essential salt is,
backs, the players attempt to bite the apple and repent of his injustice to her; they are
while avoiding the singeing candle. Strutt
reconciled.
reproduces two illustrations from 14th-
Jacobs, 1894/1968: 34-6; Briggs. 1970-1: A. ii. 387-9;
century manuscripts showing games where Philip, 1992: 122-6.
people are sitting on a pole above a large bowl
of water, holding candles which they must
cards, playing. Invented in the 14th cen-
manipulate carefully to avoid losing their bal-
ance (Sports and Pastimes of England (1801; 1876 tury, and a popular pastime ever since for
edn. by William Hone, 503-4).
both pleasure and profit.lt
is hardly surpris-

See also *blessing the throats, *candle ing that numerous superstitions concerning
AUCTIONS, *CANDLEMAS, *HAND OF GLORY. card-playing have been reported, including,
for example: sitting *cross-legged, changing
or turning your *chair, being the first to
cante fable. A
technical term for spoken
touch the two of clubs, and even possessing a
prose narratives interspersed with short songs
piece of hangman's rope (NEril 4s:l (1868),
conveying crucial information magical (e.g.
193; 4s:12 (1873), 41; Gentleman's Magazine II
utterances, riddles, threats, etc.). English
*folktales often contain verses, but they are (1832), 491-4). Since at least the 17th century,

not sung; one of the few references to a true card-playing was particularly popular at
cante fable performance is by W. H. Jones, Christmas, and even those who did not play
the rest of the year would take a hand or two
who noted he had recently heard
in 1889 that
at the festive season. 'The country-maid
a version of The Frog King from a storyteller in
leaves half her market, and must be sent
Holdemess, who used 'a traditional air'
again if she forgets a pack of cards on
(unspecified) for the frog's calls:
Christmas-eve .'
.
(Hone, 1827: 804, quoting
.

Come bring me my supper. Stevenson, Twelve Mouths, 1661). Card-playing

My own sweet, sweet one was also prevalent at *ftmerals and wakes.
 Carpenter, James Madison 48

even on the coffin itself (Henderson, 1879: unpubUshed. A microfihn copy of most of the
55). material lodged at the *Vaughan Wilhams
is

The popular view of cards has long been Memorial Library, London.
ambivalent, however, as there has always Special issue of FM] 7:4 (1998); Quarterly Journal of the
been an awareness of the moral and spiritual Library of Congress 30:1 (1973), 68.

danger involved in handling them. Not for

cars. Fine examples of living behefs about
nothing were they termed by many 'The Dev-
il's Picture-Books', either in earnest or in good and bad luck. Some owners hang all sorts
of *charms and *mascots from the driving mir-
uneasy jest. Playing on Sundays was particu-
ror or from their key-rings; *green cars are
larly frowned upon (N&Q, 4s:10 (1872), 377). A
morahstic story, known all over Europe in rarely seen, because this colour is widely
various versions, reflects this ambivalence by feared—yet, oddly, British racing cars were
relating how members of a card-playing party traditionally green. *Red, on the other hand, is
safe and lucky. Behefs about *numbers are
suddenly reaUze that they have been joined by
the Devil. This is often told as a developed tale, readily applied to cars; recently there have
but also exists in more modest form: been press items about a supposedly unlucky
Ford Capri with the 'Satanic' *number 666 in
(The Devil's) partiality for playing at cards has long its registration {Telegraph (15 Feb. 1997); Mirror
been proverbial, both in Lancashire and elsewhere. A
(31 July 1998)). If a car persistently gives
near relative of the writer firmly believed that the
devil had once visited their company when they had
trouble, some say 'it must have been made on
a *Friday'.
prolonged their play into Sunday. How he joined
them they never rightly knew, but (as in the Danish A good many *contemporary legends
legend respecting a similar visit) his presence was involve cars. Two of the earUest to be identi-
first suspected in consequence of his
extraordinary fied are the famous *Vanishing Hitchhiker (a
'run of good luck'; and a casual detection of his cloven
pathetic ghost story), and 'The Stolen Corpse',
foot completed the dispersion of the players. (Har- a macabre joke about hoUday-makers who try
land and Wilkinson, 1882: 81; see also Puhvel, 1975)
to smuggle the body of an elderly relative
Some cards were generally thought to be home on the roof-rack, only to have both car
and corpse stolen. There are others about cars
unlucky, the Four of Clubs, Queen of Spades,
and Ace of Spades, are usually the ones quoted in which a suicide occurred, where blood-

in this context, while others stains or a stench of death remain perman-

had individual
names: Four of Clubs Four of
(Devil's bedpost).
ently; about maniacs and murderers either
Hearts (Hob CoUingwood), Ace of Diamonds lurking inside one's car or trying to enter it

(Earl of Cork), Nine of Diamonds (Curse of

when parked; about ghost cars haunting roads
where they crashed; about ghostly hands
Scotland), Six of Hearts (Grace card). Queen of
Clubs (Queen Bess), Four of Spades (Ned gripping the steering-wheel. Old tales about
witches immobilizing horse-drawn vehicles
Stokes), Jack of Clubs (a Sunderland Fitter),
and so on. Each has a story (or several stories) are echoed by modem ones where a car is
to explain it. inexplicably halted by a UFO.
There are innumerable anecdotes about
Lean, 1902-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 56-7, 68, 109-10.
189, 382-3, 449; Chambers, 1878: i. 281-4; Martin Puh- drivers and driving, and about particular
vel Folklore 76 (1975), 33-8; N&Q. 5s:12 (1879), 426, 473; makes of car; some are mocking, while others,
185 (1943), 199, 262-3, 294).
especially about the Rolls Royce, express awed
admiration (Sanderson, 1969: 246-7). Back
Carpenter, James Madison (1888-1984). A window stickers are a good medium for jokes,
Harvard-trained scholar who conducted either against oneself ('When Igrow up, I'm
extensive fieldwork in Britain between 1928 going to be a Porsche', seen on a Mini), or
and 1935. While here, he amassed a against other drivers ('This may be small,
staggering
amount of material including 1050 *Child bal- but it's mine, it's paid for, and it's ahead of
lads (with 850 tunes), 500 sea songs and *sea yours').
shanties, 1,000 lyric folk-songs, and 300 Stewart Sanderson, Folklore 80 (1969), 241-52. For discus-
sion based on American versions, see Jan Brunvand, The
mumming from England, Wales, and
plays,
Vanishing Hitchhiker (1981), and The Choking Doberman
Scotland, noting items by ear and hand but
(1984).
also using a dictaphone to record
many of the
tunes. His collection is now housed in the Castieton Garland. This takes place on *Oak
Library of Congress, but remains largely Apple Day (29 May) in Castieton, Derbyshire,
 49 cats

and in itself is unique although there are other Geoff Lester, Castleton Garland (1972); Shuel, 1985: 32;

*garland customs. The main event is a proces- Kightly, 1986: 67-8.

sion, led by the King and the Lady, on horse-

back, dressed in Stuart-looking costume, and, caterpillars. Make but few appearances in
until 1955, the part of the Lady was played by a EngMsh lore, in most cases as one of the many

man dressed as a woman. Also in the proces- small creatures who must be sacrificed to cure
sion are costumed Attendants who lead the someone of whooping cough or, in at least one
horses, a number of village schoolgirls, instance, the ague. The usual procedure is to
dressed in white and carrying flowers and col- tiethe caterpillar in a bag round the neck of
oured ribbons, and a band. The centre of the afflicted person, or carry it in their pocket,
attention, however, is the Garland. This is
and as it wastes away so will the malady.
made annually by each of the This was reported weU into the 20th century.
village pubs in
turn. It isa large bell-shaped structure made Charlotte Bume (1883: 239) reports from
up of a circular metal rim with upright wood- Shropshire that it was considered lucky if a
en lathes meeting at the top. The whole thing hairy caterpillar crawls on you. However,
is covered in garden and vnld flowers and is according to the play Wily Beguiled (1606), '. . .

large enough to fit over the King's head, with

how now caterpillar. It's a sign of death, when
the aid of straps to rest on his shoulders. A such vermin creep hedges so early in the morn-
separate, smaller bunch of flowers, called the ing'. In some quarters, the caterpillar was
Queen, is fixed to the top, and the complete beUeved. particularly by children, to be poison-
ous (N&Q. 5s:6 (1876) 462; 5s:7 (1877) 53, 237).
garland is over three feet high. The procession
sets off round the village, stopping outside Opie and Tatem, 1989: 64.
each of the pubs, where the schoolgirls dance,
and they then proceed to St Edmund's Church. cats. Behefs concerning cats, especially *black
The Queen is removed, and the Garland is ones, are numerous and often contradictory
then hoisted up the church tower by ropes and (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 57-62, 241). On the
fixed to a pinnacle, where it will stay for a few whole, black cats are lucky in England, and
weeks. The girls dance round a maypole set up therefore appear on greetings cards and as
in the village square. The King then places the *charms; however, informants fi-om several
Queen on the village war memorial, while the counties say it is unlucky if one crosses your
band plays the Last Post. path, especiaUy on the way to work, or if it sits
The earhest known reference is in the with its back to you. Occasionally, the beUef is
Churchwardens' Accounts of 1749, with a found that *white cats bring bad luck. Dream-
payment for 'an iron rod to hang ye Ringers ing of cats is usually interpreted as a warning
Garland in'. The custom was organized by the that someone is being spiteftil or treacherous
church bell-ringers until 1897, and it was they towards you.
who did the dancing. The war memorial visit, Perfectly normal feUne actions, such as
and the maypole, were introduced in 1916. As washing behind the ears or rushing wildly
discussed elsewhere, *Royal Oak Day is the day about the house, are thought to foretell rain or
of celebration for the restoration of the mon- gales; the matter was debated in N&Q, in 1889,
archy in the person of Charles II in 1660. There with some correspondents saying it was true,
are numerous oak-motifs at Castleton, the but 'the paw must go right over the outer side
church tower is decorated with oak branches, of the ear', or the cat must 'place the paw
many of the locals wear oak-leaves, and the behind the ear, and work it to the front right
modem costumes reflect the Stuart theme. over her head, more as if she was brushing her
However, most authorities presume that the hair than washing herself (N&Q. 7s:7 (1889).
custom is a hybrid of Royal Oak Day and a 309-10). A later issue (169 (1935), 202) adds:
*Jack-in-the-Green custom, and there is no 'To discover from which side the wind will
doubt that the King looks remarkably similar come it is necessary to observe the direction in
to a Jack when he is underneath the Garland. which the cat is looking while scratching the
However, Boyes argues persuasively for an earth.'DrowTiing a cat at sea will raise a strong
origin in a village *rushbearing custom, and wind, which in most circumstances is reck-
she also documents the major changes which oned unlucky. All kittens bom in May should
the custom has undergone over time. be drowned, for they will be bad mousers,
S.O. Addy, Folk-lore 12 (1901), 394-430; 13 (1902), 313; unlucky, good-for-nothing, and fond of bring-
Georgina Boyes, in Buckland and V^ood, 1993: 105-18; ing snakes into the house.
catterning 50

cats could be witches' famil-

The idea that The dried-up corpses of cats are quite often
found in writings and trial reports of the
iars is found hidden away in cavities in the walls of
16th century, and has now become a cUche. old *buildings, and though some may have
But they were only one among many animals accidentally got trapped there, many are set
of which this was said; similarly, though there up in lifeUke attitudes, some even holding a
are references to witches changing into cats, dead rat or mouse. Traditionally, this was said
*hares are mentioned more often. There is no to be done to scare mice away, just as dead
evidence from England of regular large-scale vermin would be nailed to a bam door 'to
massacres of 'satanic' cats, or of burning them warn others'; however, some folklorists inter-
in Midsummer bonfires, as sometimes pret the custom as a survival of *foundation
occurred in Europe. They were occasionally sacrifices, or as intended to repel witches'
used for demonic 'special effects'— in 1677 a familiars in the form of *mice (Margaret M.
bonfire for *Q.ueen EUzabeth's Day consumed Howard, Man (Nov. 1951), 149-5; Merrifield,
the effigy of 'a most costly pope ... his belly 1987: 129-31). Small mutilated wooden cat-
filled with live cats which squalled most hid- figures were found in the 1950s hidden in two
eously as soon as they felt the fire', supposedly old Essex houses, one accompanied by a piece
representing a dialogue between Pope and of newspaper dated 1796; perhaps they too
Devil (Cressy, 1989:177). brought protection (N&Q,197 (1952), 367).
Various cures involving the death or mutila- See also *alien big cats.
tion of a black cat are recorded in the 17th and
18th centuries: its head, burnt to a powder, catterning, see *souling.
was supposed good for eyeache, and blood
from its cut-off tail or ears for shingles and Cauld Lad of Hilton. According to Surtees's
erysipelas; the whole tail, buried under the Historyand Antiquities of Durham (1820), this was
threshold, kept sickness away. * Styes were the ghost of a stable lad, killed by one of the
healed by stroking them *seven or *nine times Barons of Hilton in an outburst of temper,
with a black cat's tail— hopefiiUy, still who haunted Hylton castle; he worked like a
attached to its owner. brownie by cleaning up untidy kitchens, but
According to old medical theory, cats' blood would also mess up anjrthing which was
and brains are poisonous, and their very pres- already tidy. In order to get rid of him, the
ence harmful to man; the evidence cited in servants gave him a cloak and hood, which he
support sounds typical of allergy: put on gleefully, and then vanished, as
brownies do. However, he was still sometimes
there is in some men a natural
dislike and abhorring heard waiUng in and around the castle, where
of cats, their natures being so composed, that not
there was one room called 'the cauld lad's
onely when they see them, but being neere them and
room' and never used except in emergencies.
vnseene, and hid of purpose, they fall into passions,
fretting, sweating, pulling off their hats, and trem-
Henderson, 1866: 229-30; Keightley, 1889: 296-7; West-
wood, 1985: 334-6.
bling feareflilly, as I have knowne many in Germany
. and therefore they haue cryed out to take away
. .

the Cats. (Edward Topsell, A History of Foure-Footed cauls. A belief repeatedly recorded from the
Beastes, (1608), 106) 16th century to the present day is that when a
baby is bom with a caul covering the face (also
Topsell also thought that if a child got a cat's called a 'mask', 'veil', or 'sillyhow'), it must be
hair in his mouth, it would stick there, and kept for luck; whoever has one will never
cause wens or *king's evil. It was commonly drown. This is a case of like-cures-like: 'for as a
said that a cat must never be allowed near a caul is removed from the head of a newly bom
baby in its cot, lest it he on the child and 'suck child to save it literally from being suffocated
its breath'; this fear is still current, and not
by moisture, it became regarded as a charm
unreasonable, since the weight of a large cat against drowning by any who carried one
might smother an infant. It was also thought beneath their clothing' (Lovett, 1925: 52).
wrong to let a cat into a room where a corpse Formerly, cauls were often advertised for sale,
was laid out, for if it jumped on to it, it would for once sold they protected the new owner. In
bring death to others (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 1799, as much as 30 guineas was being asked,
63-4). Some said a cat would never settle in a but prices fell steadily during the 19th cen-
house while there was an unburied corpse tury,and by the early 20th century had
there (Denham Tracts, 1895: ii. 74). dropped to a few shilUngs, though rising to
51 Celtic influence

three or four pounds during the First World took for granted that Celtic-speaking Iron Age
War (Forbes. 1966:106-7). Britons differed sharply from the Germanic
Another belief is reported from Liphook Anglo-Saxons in religious and artistic tem-
(Hampshire): perament, and that these differences persisted
in their descendants. Contrasting stereotypes
An old woman told my niece lately that her brother
was so bom, and so potent was the influence of the
were established: Celts were mystical, poetic,
caul that when his mother tried to bathe him he sat and 'superstitious'; Anglo-Saxons pragmatic
upon the surface of the water, and if forced down, and unimaginative.
came up again like a cork. There seems no doubt that This has become something of a self-
this was fully believed and related in all seriousness. fulfilling prophecy, especially among non-
The mother had kept the caul stretched over a sheet academic writers, to whom Celts seem mys-
of note paper, and whenever her son was in danger it terious and awe-inspiring in a way that other
became wet and soft, but it remained dry and Uke a
early peoples do not. Where similarities exist
dried bladder so long as he was safe. It got destroyed
between a fairly localized custom or beUef in
somehow, and soon after that the brother, a sailor,
was shipwrecked and drowned. (N&Q_9s:3 (1899), 26) England and a more widespread one in a Celtic
area, many are tempted to see the former as
was very unlucky to lose or throw away a
It inherited from native Britons rather than
caul; in one case in early 20th-century Somer- incoming Anglo-Saxons, or as due to contact
set a toddler drowned soon after his mother with neighbouring Celts. The problem with
had been persuaded to throw away his caul, this theory not that the proposed Celtic par-
is

and 'almost everyone in the village' thought allels do not most cases they do,
exist, for in
this was the reason (Hole, Folk-lore 68 (1957), but that the true distribution of the item
412). It was also said that someone whose caul under discussion may be much wider. Irish
was lost would become a restless wanderer. and Scottish folklore is easily available for
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 66-7; Forbes, 1966: 94-111. Most comparison, whereas that of France, Ger-
regional collections mention this belief, as do contribu- many, or Scandinavia is known only to spe-
tors to many issues of N&Q; letters in the Daily Mail on 26
cialists; what seems 'Celtic' when viewed from
Aug. 1996 showed it is still current.
an English perspective may in fact be due to a
wider inheritance of European traditions
Cecil Sharp House. Built by public subscrip- rather than to direct influence of Britons on
tion in of founder Cecil *Sharp, to
memory Anglo-Saxons.
serve as the national headquarters of the *Eng-
The calendar custom most commonly
lish Folk Dance Society, and (from 1932) the
claimed as Celtic is *Halloween, long cele-
*EngUsh Folk Dance and Song Society, the brated in Ireland, Wales, and Highland Scot-
House was opened on 7 June 1930. The build-
land, by a medieval combination of the
ing was badly damaged in the Second World ancient Irish festival *Samhain with the Chris-
War, and reopened on 5 June 1951. It houses tian *A11 Saints and *A11 Souls' Days. There are
the important *Vaughan Williams Memorial and Derby-
isolated allusions in Lancashire
Library. Address: 2 Regents Park Road, London shire (see *A11 Souls, Day and Halloween),
NWl 7AY (Tel: (0207) 485 2206). but its spread in 19th- and 20th-century Eng-
ED&S 16:1 (July 1951); 17:6 (June 1953), 188. land was fostered by Scottish, Uterary, and
American influences. Celtic origins are also
Celtic influence. The folklore of regions claimed for *May Day and * Midsummer, which
where Celtic languages are spoken (or were Bede does not Ust among Anglo-Saxon festi-
until recently) is particularly abundant and vals; it is true that all Celts celebrated these
well documented; this is true of Ireland, the dates, but so did the medieval French (whose
Scottish Highlands, and Cornwall.
Wales, influence on English culture was immense)
What is is whether this merely
uncertain and most other continental countries.
reflects the fact that they were less affected In the sphere of beUef and ritual, it has been
than England by 19th-century economic argued that holy *wells and *wishing wells are
changes, and hence kept their ttaditions rela- updated versions of sacred heaUng waters
tively stable, attracting more attention from venerated by the Britons, and their offerings
folklore collectors; or whether it imphes deep- made in shafts, pits, and wells; the similarities
rooted differences in ethnic culture going are strong, though on the Continent such
back to prehistoric times. Most Victorians, practices were not limited to Celtic peoples,
steeped in nationalist and racist assumptions. and could have been familiar to Anglo-Saxons
Centre for English Cultural Tradition and Language 52

too. Some think that when * skulls and stone hint that there was once
Resistivity tests
heads are regarded as luck-bringers, this something hanging from his extended left
derives from the way early Celts displayed arm, which could have been the lion-skin of
severed heads and carved stone heads as Hercules. Alternative suggestions are mostly
magical protectors; others, that some bogeys Celtic: that he is the Irish god called the
such as Black Annis are related to British div- Dagda, or the Gaulish thunder-god Taranis,
inities. A was long accepted for
Celtic origin both of whom wield clubs, or that the object
the *Ufifington White Horse, which now turns in the left hand was a severed head. The Saxon
out to be even older; the dating of hill figures thunder-god, Thunor, has also been proposed.
atCeme Abbas and *Wilmington is currently Like other hill figures, this giant needed
under debate. It was long thought that the periodical scourings to maintain his visibility,
*sheela-na-gig was an archaic fertility charm and in the 18th century these were being done
with strong Irish connections, but modem every seven years. They sometimes went
research shows it belongs to the history of beyond mere maintenance— at some stage,
European church art. The idea that *circUng to someone elongated the penis (Grinsell, 1980).
the *right (sunwise) brings good luck, but circ- There may be a link between the scourings
ling to the *left is linked to *witchcraft and and the May Day games formerly held in a
curses, is predominantly Scottish and Irish prehistoric enclosure on top of the same hill;
(Opie and Tatem. 1989: 383-6); the fact that it but this is uncertain, as hilltop games wer^
is now well known in England can count as a common.
Celtic influence, albeit a recent one enhanced In view of the giant's notable physique, it is
by popular books and films. not surprising to hear various versions, more
One of the aims of this book is to contest the or less discreet, of a belief that he can confer
facile prejudice that 'the English have no folk- fertihty. Already in the 19th century it was
lore"; naturally, the authors, while not deny- being said that 'if a girl sleeps on the giant she
ing that Celtic influence is probable in certain wiU be the mother of many children', and in
cases, do not regard it as an automatic explan- 1922 J. S. Udal, in his Dorsetshire Folk-Lore,
ation for everything eerie, magical, or pictur- explicitly stated that a man and woman want-
esque in this country. ing children should make love on the giant's
penis; writing in 1968, H. S. L. Dewar found it
Centre for English Cultural Tradition and was then common for women and girls to
Language (CECTAL), see *national centre 'visit the figure and perambulate his frame' to
FOR ENGLISH CULTURAL TRADITION (NATCECT). get a husband, to keep a lover true, or to have
children. The continues— during the
practice
Cerne Abbas Giant. On a above
hillside 1990s Wicca groups have held ceremonies
Ceme Abbas, Dorset, stands the figure of a there for infertile couples, who then follow
giant, 55 metres (180 feet) high, waving a huge Udal's prescription.
knobbed club, and with an erect penis meas- Marples, 1949: 159-79; Leslie Grinsell, Antiquity 54
uring 26 feet (7V2 metres). Its age is hotly dis- (1980), 29-33; J. H. Bettey, Antiquity 55 (1981), 118-21;

puted. There is no reference to it before 1694, Rodney Castleden, The Ceme Abbas Giant (1996).
when churchwardens' records show a pay-
ment of three shillings 'for repaireing of ye chain letters. A relatively recent phenom-
Giant'. John Hutchins in his History of Dorset enon, but one which already has its own trad-
(1774) described it as 'a modem thing, cut out itional mixture of continuity and variation
in Lord Holies' time' (i.e. 1641-66), and this which makes it an interesting folkloric genre.
unromantically late dating could be the true The essence of a chain letter is that each
one. However, there undoubtedly were medi- recipient is required to copy it a number of
eval hill figures elsewhere, while the one at times and forward those copies to others, thus
Ufifington is prehistoric, so a medieval or even making an ever-growing chain. Many
a pre-Conquest date for the Ceme Abbas figure examples do no more than this, but the more
is arguable. A silt-luminosity test, as at Ufifing- complex types include a list of names and
ton, would settle the debate. addresses with instructions what to do. You
Assuming him to be old, the main theory should send something (money, a postcard, or
about the Giant views him as a Romano- whatever is dictated) to the person at the top
British representation of Hercules, dated of the list. Before forwarding it the required
about AD 200, since Hercules wielded a club. number of times, you should add your name
53 changelings

to the bottom of the Ust of names and chairs. A mixed coUection of beUefs focus on
addresses given in the letter, and omit the top chairs. A well-attested idea known to card-
one. Depending on how many copies each playersis that you can 'turn your chair and

recipient is instructed to make, everyone change your luck'. In many cases this was
involved should receive a large number of let- taken Uterally and the chair turned round
name climbs to the top
ters in return as their three (or more) times, others simply changed
of the Ust, provided nobody breaks the chain. chairs. This notionis first reported in the early

The earUest example so far found is handwrit- 18th century, and relatively regularly weU into
ten on a postcard, postmarked 15 July 1916: the 20th century. In another context, how-
ever, turning a chair round in someone else's
Endless chain of prayer. Lord we ask thee to bless our house means you would quarrel (Hone, 1832:
soldiers & sailors & keep them in the hollow of thine 126). Still cmrent, even if only jokingly, is the
hand & bring them to rest with thee for thou art our idea thatyoung women should avoid sitting
refuge & helper in time of trouble & we would ask on a chair which has just been vacated by a
thee to give us peace in our time send thine help
pregnant woman, as they will soon become
from above Amen. This is to be sent all over the
world. Send it & see what will happen. It is said in
pregnant if they do. This is firequently heard in
olden times, that he who wrote it would be free from
modem offices which have young female staff,
all misfortune send it to 7 persons & on the 7th day
but it is difficult to gauge how old it is as, apart
you will receive great joy. Do not send more than one
from one reference in Opie and Tatem, it
a day. Commence when you receive this. Please do seems to have escaped the notice of folklorist
not break the chain. writers. In the experience of the present edi-
tors it was certainly extant in the 1960s if not
It is interesting to note the very real poign- before. Another chair belief, reported here

ancy of a chain of prayer for soldiers and from Lincolnshire: 'When having a meal with
sailors in the midst of the slaughter of the First an acquaintance, do not push your chair vmder
World War juxtaposed with the promise of the table when you get up, or you will not
good luck. come there again for a meal' {Folk-Lore 44
Throughout its short history, the chain let- (1933), 196). Opie and Tatem include a similar
ter has attracted strong criticism. The promise report collected ia Yorkshire in 1963. Knock-
of good fortune is often hnked with the ing over a chair is also deemed ominous 'You
—
exphcit threat of misfortune if one does not won't be married this year' in 1738, but in
obey the instructions, and some people are 20th-century hospitals it meant that a new
upset by these threats. Indeed, many believe patient, or emergency case, would soon be
that chain letters are now actually illegal. arriving.
Modem examples, mostly aimed at children Opie and Tatem, 1989: 68-9, 318; Lean. 1903: ii. 42, 158,
and in an apparent effort to circumvent the 321, 573.

worrying threat, appeal to the better nature of

recipients by stressing the length of time the changelings. In societies where the belief in
chain has been going, and saying that they fairies was strong, it was held that they could

hope to get into the Guinness Book of Records. steal human babies and substitute one of their
The genre has also been utiUzed for political own race; the latter would never thrive,
and pressure-group ends— Greenham Com- remaining small, wizened, mentaUy
mon Peace Camps and Nuclear Disarmament abnormal, and iU-tempered. A baby whose
chain letters in 1986, for example, and Uke- defects were not obvious at birth but appeared
wise humorous spoofs circulate ft-om time to in the first year or two could thus be explained
time, including a feminist one which asked as not tmly human. In 16th- and 17th-century
women to send their husband to the woman England, such an infant was caUed either a
on the top of the Ust and in x days they would 'changeling' or an 'auf or 'oaf —-a variant of
receive 149 men in return, and one of them at 'elf, defined by the OED as 'a gobUn child . . .

least must be better than the one they sent. In left by the elves or fairies; hence a misbegot-
recent years, new communications technolo- ten, deformed or idiot child'.

gies have been utilized and there are now the They were often ill-treated, as this sup-
chain E-mail and chain fax. posedly drives changeUngs away. In Cornwall,
Folklore Society Library Cuttings Collection; Opie and for instance, one should 'put the small body
Tatem, 1989: 67-8. For the 'Saviour's Letter' as an 18th upon the ashes pile and beat it well with a
century chain, see Davies, 1999a: 126-30. broom, then lay it naked under a church-way
chapbooks
1
stile ... tillthe turn of night; and, nine times children's literature, and they proved
first real

out of ten, the thing will be took off and the an excellent means by which folklore could be
stolen cheeld put in his place'; alternatively, disseminated across the land. Favourite items
lay it on the hearth beside a thickly smoking were reprinted again and again over the years.
fire (Bottrell, 1873: 202). In 1843 a Penzance Most towns had their printers, but London was
man was charged with letting one of his chil- the acknowledged centre of the trade.
dren be cruelly treated by a servant; the child Edinburgh-bom James Boswell records in his
had been put up a tree and left there for over London Journal for 10 July 1763:
two hours on a cold winter night (The West some days ago I went to the old printing-office in
Briton (14 July 1843)). Bow Church-yard kept by Dicey, whose family have
By the 19th century, accounts of alleged kept it fourscore years. There are ushered into the
changelings are rare. From Kington (Hereford- world of literature Jack and the Giants, The Seven Wise
shire) comes the sole English example of a tale Men of Gotham, and other story-books which in my
well known and abroad.
in Scotland, Ireland, dawning years amused me as much as Rasselas does
how a changeling was detected and now. I saw the whole scheme with a kind of pleasing
telUng
it was told by a woman who said she romantic feeling to find myself really where all my
expelled;
old darlings were printed. I bought two dozen of the
had heard it from another woman, 'who knew
story-books and had them bound up with this title.
that it was true'. It begins reaUstically:
Curious Produaions . . .

A woman had a baby that never grew; it was always Leslie Shepard, The History of Street Literature (1973); John
hungry, and never satisfied, but it lay in its cradle Ashton, Chapbooks of the Eighteenth Century (1882); Roger

year after year, never walking, and nothing seemed Thompson, Samuel Pepys' Penny Merriments (1976).
to do it good. Its face was hairy and strange-looking.
One day the woman's elder son, a soldier, came Chappeli, William (1809-88). A member of
home from the war, and was surprised to see his the successftil music publishing family, Wil-
brother still in the cradle . . .
Uam Chappeli became a well-known 'gentle-
The
man scholar', and the leading historian of
soldier then begins brewing beer in an
popular music in his day. He founded the
eggshell, which startles the changeling into
Musical Antiquarian Society (with G. A. Mac-
saying: 'I'm old, old, ever so old, but I never
faren and Edward Francis Rimbault) in 1840,
saw that before!' The soldier takes a whip and
and pubUshed A Collection of National English Airs
drives it out, and at once the stolen human
now grown (2 vols, 1838-40). This was revised and
reappears, to a fine young man
expanded into his most enduring work. Popu-
(Leather. 1912: 46-7).
larMusic of the Olden Time (2 vols., 1855-9). Later
Briggs, 1976: 69-72; Susan S. Eberly, Folklore 99 (1988),
folk song collectors such as Cecil *Sharp were
58-77.
dismissive of Chappell's work because he paid
little attention to traditional tunes, but his
chapbooks. For over two centuries, from the thorough knowledge of popular music and his
17th to the 19th, street Uterature in the form
high standard of scholarship make his books
of chapbooks and *broadsides provided the
indispensable for tracing the history of print-
basic reading matter of the poor in Britain. ed songs and tunes. A revised edition of Popu-
Chapbooks were paper-covered booklets, usu- lar Music,edited by H. E. Wooldridge (1893), j
ally of eight to 24 pages, and they were cheap- was not successftil.
ly, often crudely, printed in their hundreds of
Introduction to the Dover reprint of Popular Music (1965);
thousands by specialist printers all over the Claude M. Simpson, TTie British Broadside Ballad and its

country and sold in town streets, at country Music (1966).

fairs, and by traveUing hawkers for a half-

peimy or a penny a time. They contained bal- charities. In former times, it was quite com-
lads, romances, foUc tales, jokes, riddles, mon for people to leave money in their wills
superstitions, news both true and fabricated, for the reUef of the local poor or other good
reports of trials, grisly murders, last dying causes. The care of the poor was viewed as a
speeches of condemned criminals, amazing local affair and many bequests were for purely
wonders, sermons, squibs, catchpennies, and altruisticmotives, but in pre-Reformation
whatever else the printers and hawkers times there was the added bonus of ensuring
thought would take the public fancy. When- that people gathered to pray for your soul, and
ever possible they were illustrated by woodcut as thisbecame forbidden, 'being remembered'
illustrations. Chapbooks also provided the became a major factor. Some benefactors
 Charlton-on-Otmoor Garland

sought to set up lasting memorials to them- bours gave the name Cuckold's Point to the
selves by arranging for a perpetual charity, river boundary and they started wearing horns
and this needed a regular supply of money and at the fair as a derisive gesture. See *horns for
some fonn of trustees. The money was often an examination of the connection between
supplied by leaving land for the purpose, horns and cuckoldry/adultery.
which could either be rented out or its crops Needless to say, no charter from King John
sold to finance the charity. Some benefactors can be found. In an early reference to the fair,
indulged themselves vdth strange compli- in Kilbum's Survey of Kent (1659), it already has
cated bequests, laying down many rules and the Horn nickname, and a previous mention
regulations, and often stipulating that the takes the horns, if not exphcitly the fair, back
charity be distributed over their grave. Over to 1598. Although we cannot pinpoint its

the years, however, social changes have often starting date, there more prosaic theory
is a
made a nonsense of the charity, and the about the horns connection. The 18th of Octo-
money involved has usually become neg- ber is St Luke's Day, and St Luke is the patron
Ugible. Of more interest to folklorists, how- saint of the local parish church. In medieval
ever, that the original documentation has
is pictures, Luke is invariably seen in writing
often been lost and the charity has become a posture, vnth a homed ox or cow prominently
custom. Smallchanges have crept in, and what displayed. It is likely that the canying of a
may have made sense at the beginning has lost large pair of horns, on a pole, indicated the
any rational explanation. In the absence of opening of St Luke's Fair. Given the popular
real information (or, in some cases, in the connection between horns and cuckoldry, the
absence of any interesting information) legends origin story was concocted later to fit the
have been created to explain, and as these are known facts. Be that as it may, the people who
necessarily post /arto creations, they fit the bill visited the fair made a point of wearing horns

nicely. These legends then begin a life of their if they could, and many appeared in fancy
own. Lack of space precludes the inclusion of dress, v^dth sexual *cross-dressing a common
most surviving charities, but see Shuel, 1985; theme. William Fuller, for example, relates
Kightly, 1986; H. Edwards, A Collection of Old how his landlady's clothes were spoilt by

English Customs and Curious Bequests and Charities horseplay, while he was wearing them (Wil-
(1842). Uam Fuller, The Whole Life of William Fuller
(1703), 122, quoted by Muncey, c.1935: 76).
charivari, see *rough music. Many other writers denounced the fair for its
rudeness and indecency, or, as Daniel Defoe
Chariton Horn Fair. One of London's most called it 'the yearly collected rabble of mad-
popular fairs, until it was discontinued in people' (A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great
1872, famous for its obsession vnth *homs. In Britain (1724-1726)).
its heyday in the 18th century, visitors flocked W. Munc-
Brand, 1849: ii. 194-5; Hone, 1826: i. 693-4; R.
to the fair in their thousands canying or wear- ey, Our Old English Fairs (c.l935), 74-8.

ing horns and every stall was decorated v^th

them. Every sort of horn imaginable, and Charlton-on-Otmoor Garland. In another
everything possible made of horn, was for variation on the *garland theme, a wooden
sale, and even the gingerbread men had horns. cross on the rood-screen of the parish church
An origin legend provides a neat reason for at Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire, is decor-
the horn motif. King John was out hunting on ated with box and yew leaves, making it look
Shooter's Hill, and he stopped to rest at a mill- more like a person than a cross. This greenery
er's house. The only person home was the is replaced twice a year— 1 May and 19 Sep-
miller's attractive v^dfe and she and the king tember (the patronal feast day). On May Day,
were just 'kissing' when the miller returned local children also go to the church, in pro-
and caught them. He drew his dagger, threat- cession, carrying a long rope-like garland
ening to kill them both, but when he realized made of leaves and flowers, and each also
who he was dealing with, he wisely asked for carrying a small cross made of flowers (see
some other recompense instead. The king Shuel for photograph), and these are used to
therefore granted him all the land visible from decorate the church. There is a church service,
Charlton to the river beyond Rotherhithe, and and they sing the May Garland song. The cross,
also the right to hold a fair every 18 October which is always referred to as 'she' or 'my
(St Luke's Day). The miller's jealous neigh- lady' is presumed to be the
remnant of the
charmers 56

pre-Reformation custom of having saints' There are many references to charmers in

images in the church which were taken out 19th-century sources, and some were still

and carried in procession round the parish on practising well within living memory.
set days. It is known that two images formeriy Davies, 1996 and 1998; Theo Brown, Folklore 81 (1970),

stood on the rood screen —one of St John and 37-47.

the other of the Virgin Mary. These vanished

at the Reformation, but the villagers replaced charms (material). The etymology of the
them with two hooped gariands, although it is word 'charm' (ft-om Latin carmen, 'a chant')
not recorded how they managed to get away shows that in medieval times it meant verbal
with The larger of the two garlands was
that. formulas (see next entry), but in modem lan-
still once a year, to what had been a
carried, guages it is far more widely appUed. All the

local Priory for blessing, while the other was varied objects which are worn, carried, or dis-
carried round the village. One garland disap- played to bring good luck and success, or to
peared, and the other was replaced by the avert bad luck and evil powers, are popularly

present cross. called 'lucky charms' or *mascots (see the lat-

ter for a selection); one can also say actions are
Shuel, 1985: 31, 35; Kightly, 1986: 123; Hole, 1975: 59.
'charms' when done to produce magical
results, for example turning a coin on hearing
charmers. Certain men and women were the first cuckoo, to have money all year.

thought to have the of healing a specific

gift Certain objects were careftiUy guarded as
disease or injury in humans or farm animals, healing charms, and lent out to those who
for example *bleeding, *bums, *king's evil,
—
needed them *eaglestones for women in
*warts, or ringworm. For some, the gift was labour, beads and *holed stones for sore eyes,
inborn, notably in the case of a *seventh son or *lrish stones and sticks against snake bites.

daughter; more often it depended on a secret

verbal ^charm and ritual learnt from an older charms (verbal). In a general sense, all trad-

healer— usually a relation who was near to itionalspoken formulas to bring good luck or
death. Each charm cured only one trouble, good health are charms, apart from expUcit
and the charmer rarely knew more than one prayers such as 'God bless her and all who sail
or two. A third group were those owning a in her', said when launching a ship. So are
material object such as a *snakestone, which those that turn aside evil, like the rhjane to be
would be lent out when needed. saidon seeing a *magpie.
Methods used were various. Many charmers Heahng charms form a distinctive subtype,
stroked the injured area with a hand wetted of medieval origin, often noted by collectors.
with their own spittle (preferably when fast- Practitioners called them 'blessings'; they
ing); others blew on it; for warts, looking at were uttered in a whisper, and often accom-
them or counting them might be enough. All panied by ritual actions— making the sign of
these actions might be accompanied by prayer the cross; stroking, breathing over, or spitting
or by verbal charms, uttered mumblingly and on the sufferer; rubbing with different col-
low. Some charmers undertook heaUng at a oured rags or threads, etc. A few come straight
distance and by telephone, provided they from the Bible; thus one way to staunch
knew the name of the person or animal to be bleeding is to repeat: 'And when 1 passed by
treated and the nature of the trouble. They thee, and saw thee polluted in thine own
and their patients regarded this as a natural blood, I said unto thee when thou wast in thy
God-given ability; they must therefore be dis- blood, Live; yea, 1 said unto thee when thou
tinguished ft-om *cunning men, who used wast in thy blood. Live' (Ezekiel 16: 6). More
magic to combat the effects of witchcraft. widespread are those which recount some
Occasionally, charmers turned 'profes- pseudo-biblical event as precedent; for
sional' and charged for their services, espe- example, that Christ miraculously stopped the
cially in towns (see *seventh son), but most Jordan, as in this charm from a Shropshire
took no money, believing this would destroy blacksmith's notebook early in the 19th
their power; however, they would acccept century:
hospitality or a gift-in-kind if tactftiUy offered. Our Saviour Jesus Crist was borne in Bethalem was
Their liveUhood was usually farming, or one of
Baptsed of Jon in the river of Jordan. God com-
the rural crafts such as smithying; women manded the water to stop & it stoped so in his name
charmers were of equivalent social status. do I command the blood to Stop that run from this
57 cheese rolling

orrafas vain or vaines as the water Stoped in the river charms have been preserved; one is against
of Jordan in the name of the Father Stop blud in the 'elf-shot' (see *elves); another, which involves
name of the son stop blood in the name of the
making a paste from *nine herbs and includes
Holeygst not a drop more of blud proceduth Amen mention of both Christ and Woden, is effect-
Amen Amen— to be sed 3 times or if the case be bad 9
ive against nine evil spirits, nine poisons, nine
times and the Lords praier before & after holding
your rithand = right hand] on the place and marck
[
plagues, and nine snakes; another is not
the place thus + with your midel finger. (Davies, against sickness, but to 'mend thy fields if they
1996: 20). will not produce well, or if sorcery or witch-
craft has harmed them'. It is extremely com-
Similar examples are the 'St Peter' charm
pUcated; the farmer must cut four sods by
against *toothache, the 'Angels' charm against
night, wet them with holy water in which he
*bums, the 'St George' charm against the
has mixed honey, milk from every cow, and
nightmare. In all cases, it is impUed that the
leaves from every kind of plant on his land,
power whereby the holy personage resisted or and take them to church for four Masses; then
defeated evil will be available to heal the pres-
replace them in the field, bow nine times
ent sufferer; often the formula includes words
towards the east, recite various prescribed
of command supposedly uttered at the ori-
prayers, and eventually put incense, fennel,
ginal event and now used by the healer,
salt, soap, and seeds on his plough with the
enhancing his authority, and ends with a
words:
religious phrase:
There came two Angels from the north. Erce, erce, erce, mother of earth.
One was fire and one was Frost. May the Almighty, the everlasting Lord, grant thee

Out, Fire; in. Frost.

Fieldsgrowing and flourishing . . .

In the name of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.

And may it be guarded against all evils.
Witchcrafts sown throughout the land.
(Latham, 1878: 35-6)
Whether 'erce' is a proper name, or just a non-
Those against recurrent troubles such as
sense word chosen as a half-rhyme for 'earth',
toothache and ague were vio-itten down and
is not known.
given to the sufferer, sometimes on sealed
See also *charmers.
paper which must not be opened and read; he
or she would then carry the paper perman- Forbes, 1971: 293-316; Davies, 1996: 19-32; Davies,
1998: 41-52; Theo Brown, 'Charming in Devon', Folklore
ently, to prevent recurrence. Several medieval 81 (1970), 37-47. Many regional folklore collections con-
charms against ague stipulate that the words tain one or two charm texts from the 19th century. For
be written on a leaf, or on a communion early examples, see Storms, 1948; Bonser, 1963; Hunt,
wafer, and eaten; this was to be done three 1990.

days running (Forbes, 1971: 296-7). Medieval

and Elizabethan charms made copious use of charm wands. A name sometimes given to
names of God, Jesus, and angels, in garbled ornamental glass objects shaped as *roUing-
Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, plus scraps of Biblical pins or small walking-sticks, in which either
quotations, usually in Latin. Some seemingly the glass itself has a multicoloured twisting
gibberish words, such as AGLA, were acro- pattern, or the object is filled with beads,
nyms for religious phrases— in this case, for threads, or coloured seeds; it implies they
the Hebrew for "Thou art powerflil and eter- were intended as protection against a vdtch's

nal, O Lord'— though the users probably did *evil eye. They were also sometimes said to
not know it. draw infections to themselves, thus protecting
A charm against sprains, known in many people in the house from sickness if they were
countries, is especially interesting as one of wiped daily (Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961:
the few with demonstrably * pagan origins. It 94-5). They date from the late 18th and 19th
tells how Christ healed his horse's sprained centuries, and are now collected as antiques.

leg with the words, 'Bone to bone, sinew to

sinew, vein to vein'; in an early medieval cheese rolling. In this annual custom a large
German version, it is Balder's horse which is round Double Gloucester cheese is set off roll-
hurt, and the god Woden who heals it. Here, ing dovm a very steep hill at Cooper's Hill,
and in many other cases, the crucial formula is near Brockworth (Gloucestershire). People
made memorable by rhythmic phrasing, repe- chase after it— themselves running, tumbling,
tition, rhyme, or alliteration. rolling, and bouncing—and the one who gets
A number of elaborate Anglo-Saxon verse to the bottom first v^dns the cheese. There is
Child, Francis James 58

usually no shortage of runners. There are sev- scope of the genre, and the 305 ballads he
eral cheeses, and therefore several races, selected rapidly became a closed corpus avail-
including one for females only. The custom able for further study but not amenable to
formerly took place on Whit Monday, but is extension or diminution. Successive ballad
now held on the Spring Bank Hohday. Its ori- scholars have suggested a handful of other

gin and development are not known, but items which could perhaps have been
there are references at least as far back as the included, but the majority have accepted the
early 19th century. The locals even managed corpus without demur. While this has had cer-
to keep the custom going during the food tain administrative benefits, there is no doubt
rationing of the Second World War, and in that this situation has had a stultifying effect
1998, when the custom was banned by the on ballad studies for many years.
local authority because of safety fears, a few Child's scholarship is indeed impressive. For
dedicated traditionalists came out early on the each ballad, he gives several texts, with exten-
day to chase one cheese down the hill and thus sive comparative commentary which dis-

'keep the tradition going' (Daily Telegraph (26 cusses motifs and plots on an international
May 1998), 3); it resumed officially in 1999. scale. When he died he had finished editing
The Cooper's Hill custom is a unique survival, the ballad texts and commentaries, and his
but cheese rolling certainly took place else- pupil and colleague George L. Kittredge saw
where. Thomas Hughes' The Scouring of the the last parts through the press. Unfor-
White Horse (1859), for example, mentions the tunately, Child did not have time to write the
custom taking place at Uffington in the 18th proposed introductory essays on balladry, and
and 19th centuries. this lack of a definitive word from the acknow-

Shuel, 1985: 17, 24-5; Kightly, 1986: 70-1. ledged master has bedevilled ballad scholar-
ship ever since, particularly in the realm of
definition. By modem standards. Child's one
Child, Francis James (1825-96). By far the major faihng was that as a literary scholar he
most important figure in *ballad studies, his was little interested in the music of the bal-
work still dominates the field. Bomin Boston, lads, but this shortcoming was more than
Mass., Child enrolled as a student at Harvard compensated by Bertrand H. Bronson's The
College in 1842, and stayed there, as teacher, Tradittonal Tunes of the Child Ballads (4 vols.,
for the rest of his Ufe, becoming Harvard's first 1959-72).
Professor of English in 1876. Child had already
English and Popular Ballads in five volumes (1882-
Scottish
edited books on ballads and early poetry, 1898); G. Kittredge, 'Francis James Child' in volume i of
L.

when he encountered Svend Grudtvig's Dan- English and Scottish Popular Ballads, pp. xxiii-xxxi; Sigurd
Bemhard Hustvedt, Ballad Books and Ballad Men (1930);
marks Gamle Folkeviser (1853-90), and realized
Tom Cheesman and Sigrid Riewerts, Ballads Into Books: The
the potential for further work on the subject.
Legacies of Francis James Child (1997).
After the Civil War Child, with characteristic
thoroughness, set out to investigate all knovm
sources of British ballad material. Aware of the childbirth. Books on British folklore are sadly
poor quality of previous scholarship and the inadequate on this topic. This must be due
reputation that ballad collectors and editors partly to women's natural unwiUingness to
had for tampering with the texts, he was discuss intimate details openly, and partly to
determined to trace original manuscripts and their fear that traditional practices would be
early printed material and his success on this scorned as 'superstitious' or unhealthy by
score is evidenced by the fact that Harvard has middle<lass researchers; moreover, until
the best collection of ballad source material in recently folkloristspublished any
rarely
the world, and his name is still synonymous 'unpleasant' material they encountered. Cer-
with ballad scholarship 100 years later. The tain related topics were freely mentioned (e.g.
five volumes of Child's English and Scottish Popu- the harelip, the *caul), but not childbirth itself.
lar Ballads, published between 1882 and 1898 Some English information comes from
represent his Ufe's major achievement, and it Protestants confiscating rehcs, including
is difficult to overstate their influence. Not those to help women in labour; thus, a Bristol
only did he gather all the known key primary convent had a red silk 'girdle of Our Lady' and
material and bring his own considerable a white 'girdle of Mary Magdalene' (Forbes,
knowledge and scholarship to bear on the 1966: 125), which would have been lent to
material, but he single-handedly defined the women to tie round their waists, to speed
59 children's folklore

delivery and guard against evil forces. Contin- called in 'the handywoman'; by the mid-20th
ental evidence shows cords and ribbons century, home births were rare.
blessed during *pilgrimage were similarly See also *babies, *cauls, *conception,
used, and *candles lit. Some late medieval ver- placentas, *pregnancy.
bal *charms from English sources are lengthy Chamberlain, 1981, examines the history of women as
adjurations to the baby itself, in Latin, urging healers and midwives, including oral information from
it to come out of the womb: 'Christ said, London and East Anglia in the early 20th century. Forbes,
1966, has chapters on several birth-related topics, using
Lazarus, come forth! O child, whether aUve
. . .

learned sources. Cf Gelis, 1991; his material is French.

or dead, come forth, because Christ calls thee
to the light' (Forbes, 1971: 302-3).
Childermas, see *holy innocents' day.
Early treatises on midwifery, such as that
ascribed to Trotula, a woman gynaecologist in
11th-century Cordoba, Nicholas Culpeper's A children's folklore. This, or child-lore, is the
Direaory for Midwives (1653), Jane Sharp's The generic term used to refer to children's own
Midwives' Book (1671), and her The Compleat folklore, as distinguished from folklore-about-
Midwife's Companion (1724), were intended for children or folklore taught to children by
educated readers, and some of their prescrip- adults (e.g. *nursery rhymes). Children as a
tions expensive
require ingredients- socialgroup clearly have a very wide range of
powdered ivory, coral, or pearl, for example cultural traits and material, which mirror the
(Forbes, 1966: 76-7). But information from adult world, but the fact that much of their
these books, adapted to suit simpler house- learning is done through informal channels,
holds, spread into the wider community, and that they have genres, such as games and
either orally or through family 'recipe' rhymes, which are lacking in the adult world,
notebooks— for example the use of eagle- makes them a particularly rewarding area of
stones, and the idea that during pregnancy a research for the folklorist. Early folklorists
male child lies more on the right. Sometimes took it as read that children preserve in their
learned writers incidentally reveal current games and rhymes the serious practices of
'vulgar' sneering at
practices by them; previous adult generations, and were thus
Culpeper, discussing prolapse of the womb, quick to see survivals of bride-capture, funeral
remarks: 'My own Magnetick Cure is this. customs, or foundation sacrifice. It is true that
Take a common Bur leaf (you may keep them echoes of adult traditions can be found in
dry if you please all year) and apply to her children's lore, but there is rarely any evi-
Head, and that will draw the womb upwards dence that these date back more than three or
. whereas the vulgar way of Cure is to push it
. . four hundred years at the most, and the
back, bind it in, and fumigate.' Citing this, notion of survival from ancient times has long
Mary Chamberlain (1981: 191) comments acid- been discredited.
ly that manipulation plus antiseptic fumiga- The first English scholar to take a real inter-
tion might work, but a leaf on the head never est in children's lore was J. O. *Halliwell,
would. whose The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842) and
Until well into the 19th century childbirth The Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales of England
was generally a neighbourly affair, supervised (1849) presented hundreds of children's
by a local midwife whose knowledge came rhymes, songs, narratives, and other verbal
from experience rather than formal training, lore to an adult audience for the first time and
and attended by the pregnant woman's female provided the basis for most subsequent dis-
relatives and friends— a situation where trad- cussion in that area. Alice Bertha *Gomme's
itional advice and behefs would flourish. Traditional Games of England, Scotland and Ireland

According to a Warwickshire joumahst in the (1894/98) did a similar thing for games, on a
1940s, having many people present used to be more systematic basis, collecting a huge mass
*
thought a protection against changelings of material. Individual studies continued to
(M. H. Powis, Birmingham News (13 November appear, but it was not until the post-war work
1944)); the distribution of the
*
'groaning of lona and Peter *Opie that other genres were
cheese' reflects communal jollity after a safe brought into the folklorist's net. The Opies
delivery. But women
of the upper and middle pubUshed a string of books which immedi-
classes turned increasingly to doctors and atelybecame standard works, including The
trained registered midwives, so by the late Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (1951,
new
19th century only working-class mothers edition 1997), Lore and Language of Schoolchildren
chime hours 60

(1959), Children's Games in Street and Playground coachmen and race-goers (Opie and Tatem,
(1969). The People of the Playground (1993), and
1989: 71-2).
Children's Games with Things (1997). Lore and Lan- Still common is the custom of having a

guage, in particular, widened the horizons of sweep outside the church at a *wedding to kiss
child-lore researchers to include supersti- the bride and shake hands with the groom,
tions, *calendar customs, nicknames, taunts, generally interpreted as a means of ensuring
jokes, *riddles, *truce terms, and so on. fertility. A recent press report (Sunday Tele-
It is a recurrent characteristic of the adult graph (28 Dec. 1997), 17) states that sweeps can
view of children's lore that it is always eam £60 for this, as against £25 for a cleaning
beUeved to be on the verge of extinction. This job, and that many do two or three weddings
is partly because adults confuse change with every weekend; they generally attend in pairs,
decUne, but also because they seem to lose the wearing top hat and tails, carrying their
abiUty to recognize play unless it is highly bmshes, and with their faces blacked. They
structured and overtly rule bound. claim that George II decreed that sweeps
See also *clapping rhymes, *counting-out would 'bring good luck to the land' after his
RHYMES, *HALLOWEEN, *CHILDREN'S GARLANDS, life was saved by one who managed to halt his

mischief night, *nursery rhymes, *singing carriage horses when they bolted, and that
GAMES, *SKIPPING (1), *TRUCE TERMS. this is generally known: 'Old people have

Brian Sutton-Smith, The Folkgames 0/ Children (1972); Brian always come up to us in the street and touched
Sutton-Smith et al. Children's Folklore; A Source Book (1995) us for good luck, and since the National Lot-
(includes Rosemary L Zumwalt, 'The Complexity of tery began everybody has been doing it.'
Children's Folklore' (pp. 23-48)); Andy Sluckin, Growing
See also *black, *jack-in-the-green.
Up in the Playground: The Social Develojmient of Children
(1981); Sandra McCosh, Children's Humour (1976).
christening, see *baptism.

chime hours. There was a beUef in some

Christianity. The religion which has shaped
parts of England that those bom
at certain
Enghsh culture for the past 1,500 years is
hours could see ghosts. The crucial time was
Christianity, whether in its CathoUc or its
generally said to be *midnight— a *Friday mid- Protestant form; much folklore
English
night, according to Dickens {David Copperfield, embodies Christian ethics, echoes bibUcal
chapter 1). But in Somerset and East AngUa
themes, or presents a modified, secularized
people spoke of being 'bom in the chime- version of what was once a religious custom or
hours', a term alluding to the old monastic
festival. This ought to be self-evident, but folk-
hours of night prayer, which some churches
lorists have often neglected the obvious while
marked by bell-ringing even after the Refor-
pursuing archaic origins. They would bmsh
mation; at Blaxhall (Suffolk) these were 8 p.m.,
aside as unimportant any element which did
midnight, and 4 a.m. (Evans, 1956: 216-17). In not spring from the distant past; moreover,
Sussex, though the term 'chime hours' is not
many Victorians knew little about medieval
mentioned, the behef was that 'those bom at and despised what they did
Catholicism,
three, six, nine or twelve o'clock' would be
know. Today, academic folkorists have a
able 'to see much hidden from others'
that is
sounder historical sense, and build their
(Wales, 1979: 56); these are the daytime hours
interpretations on documentary evidence, not
of monastic prayer. Ruth *Tongue said that in
cross-cultural analogies. Regrettably, many
Somerset it was the period from Friday mid-
current writers for the popular market are less
night to cockcrow on Saturday; she claimed
rigorous. Greatly admiring prehistoric pagan-
(incorrectly) to be a 'Chime Child' herself.
ism, and wishing to prove it survived under a
veneer of Christianity, they repeat the Vic-
chimney-sweeps. That sweeps bring luck is torian error by regarding intervening centur-
impUed by the *Jack-in-the-Green, known ies as irrelevant except in so far as selected
since the late 18th century, and is explicitly items can be made to support the argument
stated in many texts from the 1880s to the for continuity.
present. On seeing a sweep in the street in his In fact, medieval and early modem Christi-
working clothes and with his face blackened, anity deeply affected folklore. Most old cal-
one had to bow, raise one's hat, curtsey, or call endar customs (with the important exceptions
out a greeting; some of the references show of May Day and Midsummer) are 'holidays'
that this belief was particularly strong among related to 'holy days'; to Catholics, there is
61 Christmas

nothing inappropriate in having secular either directly or by impUcation. Particularly

amusements alongside church-going. Later, common are stories, supposedly true, which
*Queen Elizabeth Day and *November the describe God's *judgements on sinners and
Fifth were deliberately created by Church providential protection of the virtuous, and
authorities to celebrate Protestant deliver- stories involving the *Devil; saints also feature
ances from Catholic threats. However, Puritan in a few local legends. Others cany traditional
Christianity usually opposed festivals, on four moral messages— murder will out, ill-gotten
grounds: that it was wrong to consider any day gains never prosper, pride comes before a fall,
(except Sundays) as more significant than and so on—which are of course not unique to
another; that most festivals involved 'popish' Christianity, but have long been associated
doctrines or practices; that religion and with it.
menymaking should be kept apart, with the See also *churches, *cross, *paganism,
few approved holy days, for example Easter, pilgrimages, and *saints.
being stripped of secular elements; and that
the merrymaking was reminiscent of classical Christingle. This popular pre-Christmas ser-

paganism. At the Reformation, and again in vice for children was introduced in the Church
the 17th century, Puritans campaigned to des- of England in the late 1960s, in imitation of a
troy calendar customs; so did some Victorians, custom of the Moravian Church in Britain and
disapproving of the associated drunkenness, America dating from the 18th century. Chil-
brawls, and sexual opportunities. Thus, dren are given oranges decorated with fi:aiit,

whereas medieval Christianity encouraged nuts, and a candle, symboMze the earth, the
to
Uvely communal celebrations, later reUgious fruits of the earth, and Jesus the Light of the

opinion often opposed them. World. The word comes from German dialect
In some respects, Christianity offered strong Krist Kindl = 'Little Christ Child', via its Ameri-
support for folklore. Scriptural texts were can corruption Krisskringle.
cited by educated writers well into the 17th

century as proving the reality of certain Christmas. By far the most popular festival in
supernatural beings— *ghosts, *witches, England today, imposing itself even on those

giants, *dragons, and of coiu-se demons— thus whose rehgious or pohtical behefs would
strengthening and prolonging popular behef normally rule out Christian celebrations; the
in them. The great abundance of traditions greatest pressure is to conform for the sake of
about ghosts and witches in 19th<entury folk- the children, who are swamped by advertise
lore may reflect the seriousness with which ments, shop displays, and peer pressure.
the Church had discussed them two centuries Thanks largely to the inadvertent genius of
earlier, as well as their enduring importance the Victorians who reinvented it (see below),
as an explanation for subjective experiences. Christmas is now an astonishingly successfiil
In contrast, *fairies lacked bibUcal endorse and cohesive blending of reUgious and secular
ment, which may be one reason why behef in elements, which operates on many levels;
them dwindled to a pleasant whimsy. Folk there is space within its framework for people
medicine and verbal *charms drew heavily on to choose activities and meanings according to
rehgion; to the users, this legitimized them, their individual tastes and needs.
despite the opposition of Protestant clergy. Thus, we may or may not go to church; we
Similarly, *churches, churchyards, and *graves can have an angel, or a fairy, or a teddy bear on
were credited with various healing and the tree; we can make decorations, or buy
magical powers because of their sanctity, as them; they can be a tasteftil construction of
were sacraments. Many behefs that are older holly and fir-cones, or a riot of tinsel and flick-
and more widespread than Christianity never- ering lights; we can send rehgious, humorous,
theless fitted easily into its framework; pohtical, or risque cards, or charity cards, or
*dreams, *omens, and *ghosts, for example, (by agreement with fiiends) none at all, donat-
could all be viewed as sent by God with warn- ing the money to charity; we can play board
ings or information. games or charades with our grandparents or
Fair5^ales and other narrative genres computer games with our children; we can
intended as entertainment usually have no watch Snow White videos, or the Queen's
overt religious content, though their morality Speech; we may get drunk, or have just one
is generally compatible with
principles of just- glass of sherry— and we will still be within the
ice and kindness. *Legends, however, often do. parameters of 'normal' Christmas behaviour.
Christmas 62

The one thing that is extremely hard to do This officials (also found at Oxford and
with Christmas is to ignore it. Cambridge Colleges, the Inns of Court, and
Within this broad consensus, there are some civic corporations, such as the City of

degrees of conformity, the two main variables London) combined the roles of planning
being whether the family is religious or not, committee, master of ceremonies, jester, and
and whether children are present. Childless mock king; sometimes he was accompanied
couples and persons living alone often prefer (or replaced) by an Abbot of Unreason, who
to go to a hotel or guest-house, among parodied the Church in the same way as the
strangers, but with the same festive spirit as Lord parodied the court. They are first men-
others create at home. Major elements in the tioned (under various titles) in the 15th
standard modem image of Christmas are: it is century, and were conspicuous at the courts of
family centred; it is child centred; presents are Henry VIll and Edward VI; at the accession of
exchanged; homes, churches, shops, and Mary (1553) they vanished from the court, and
streets are decorated, according to loose but rapidly went out of fashion elsewhere, except
definable rules; food is special and plentiful, among young men at the universities and Inns
again following loose rules; greeting cards are of Court. A far less expensive domestic equiva-
exchanged, and everyone we meet is verbally lent, the 'King of the Bean' chosen by lot on
wished 'Happy Christmas'; carols are sung or *Twelfth Night, remained popular. To Victori-
heard everywhere; many who do not regularly ans, the Lord of Misrule, despite his relatively
go to church attend special services; the sea- brief and socially exclusive existence, came to
son is universally declared to be one of 'peace symbolize a jovial role-reversal for which
and good will'. there is little or no evidence.

Christmas has a complex and much debated Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries
history. There is no scriptural clue to the date Puritans waged a well-documented campaign
of Christ's birth; the Early Church celebrated against saints' days and other reUgious festi-
it (if at all) on 6 January, and the first docu- vals, as unscriptural and as encouraging glut-
ment setting it on 25 December is a Roman tony, drunkenness, sexual Ucence, and public
calendar of ad 354. Possibly it was a conscious disorder. In the 1640s Christmas became a
takeover of a Roman festival, 'The Birthday of major target; in June 1647 Parliament finally
the Unconquered Sun', honouring Mithras banned Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas, but
and other sun-gods. This dating had become each successive year of the Puritan reign saw
standard throughout Western Europe well major disturbances in various parts of the
before Augustine's mission to England; it was country, and increasingly draconian enforce-
not devised to match Anglo-Saxon midwinter ment. John Evelyn's Diary for 25 December
festivals. The Council of Tours (ad 567) ruled 1657 records his own arrest for attending a
that the twelve days from the Nativity to the Communion service in London: '. the
. .

Epiphany would be a work-free period of Chapell was surtounded with souldiers; all the
religious celebration, and this became EngUsh communicants and assembly surpriz'd & kept
law in AD 877. The word 'Christmas' itself only prisoners by them . These wretched miscre-
. .

appears in 1038; previously the festival period ants held their muskets against us as we came
had been called *Yule, a native word for the up to receive the Sacred Elements, as if they
midwinter season. would have shot us at the altar ..." This policy
Medieval manorial records show villeins proved counter-productive; the fate of
were not required to work during the Twelve Christmas became a rallying-point for anti-
Days; the lord of the manor provided a com- Puritan feeling, and a symbol of lost freedoms.
munal feast, and his tenants and subjects gave After the Restoration most aspects of the cele-
him gifts, normally farm produce. The pattern bration were revived, though with wide vari-
was varied; some wealthy landowners appar- ations in the degree of lavishness even by the
ently kept open house, feeding and entertain- wealthy. As the festival was now no longer a
ing all comers, while others concentrated on bone of contention, documentary sources
their own local people. By Tudor times, become fewer.
Christmas at court and on the estates of the The diaries of 18th- and early 19th-century
nobility was characterized by increasingly rural clergy take little notice of Christmas,
splendid banquets, balls, plays, masques, and though regularly noting money distributed to
mummings, often co-ordinated by a 'Lord of the poor around this time. Bell-ringing is

Misrule'. sometimes mentioned, and drunkenness

63 Christmas cards

complained of. The tradition of charitable hos- route by which German models impinged on
pitality was still strong; thus William Holland, English customs.
a Somerset parson, on 25 December 1799, had: This 'new' Christmas evolved gradually by
an astute combination of existing elements
dinner by myself on spratts and fine woodcock. The
(e.g. carols, mince-pies, holly and mistletoe,
kitchen was tolerably well lined with my poor
candles, ample food and drink, hospitality to
neighbours, workmen, &c. Many of them staid till
neighbours) with recent importations and
past ten o'clock and sang very melodiously. Sent
inventions (presents, crackers, turkey, greet-
half-a-crown to our Church Musicians who had ser-
enaded the family this cold morning at five o'clock. ings cards, the tiee. Father Christmas/Santa
Claus as gift-bringer), each of which has its
(Holland, ed. Jack Ayres, 1984)
own history, as outlined in the entries hsted
Many traditional *visiting customs occurred below. But many of these took a long time to
at this season: of various kinds,
*mumming filter down to the poorer sections of society; it
*sword dancing, *Hooden Horses, *01d Tup, can be argued that the 'Victorian' Christmas
Plough Stots, *wassailing, and *waits (Wright only became truly the norm after the Second
and Lones, 1940: iii. 209-79). This concentra- World War.
tion may reflect the impori:ance of midwinter Some commentators describe this reinven-
festivals in the remote past, but practical fac- tion as if it had been consciously aimed at
tors were important too; there was a lull in taming the working classes and imposing
farmwork, potential audiences had gathered 'respectability' on their boisterous and drunk-
in gentry households, and the tradition of en tiaditions. Concern for pubUc morals was
Christmas hospitality and generosity ensured certainly one factor, but commerciaUsm was
a good welcome for performers. At least one powerftil too; cheap illustrated periodicals
custom, *thomasing, was specifically aimed at spread the fashion, and industry was eager
soliciting alms. to supply cards, toys, and other presents.
What is regarded as the archetypal Christ- It is significant the new elements
that
mas was forged in the second half of the 19th are conspicuously secular; the stress on
century by popular writers such as Charles charity was the only one with real religious
Dickens and Washington Irving, using a com- underpinnings.
bination of indigenous elements, imported See also *ashen faggot, *christmas cards,
ones, and new ones, in response to a wide- crackers, decorations, food, presents,
spread opinion that Christmas was no longer superstitions, tree, *father christmas,
what it had once been, and something should holly, *holythorn, *mistletoe, *MUMMING,
be done. Their reinvention harked back to a mumming plays, *ST STEPHEN'S DAY, *SANTA
romantic ideal of the lost golden age of *'Merrie CLAUS, *SQUIRREL HUNTING, *SWORD DANCES,
England'— perhaps specifically to Walter twelfth NIGHT, WASSAILING, WAITS, yULE.
Scott'sdescription of a medieval baron's Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 230-73; Colby and Purdue,
Christmas in his best-selling poem Marmion 1984; Weightman and Humphries, 1987; Mutton, 1994
and 1996; Chris Durston, History Today 35 (Dec. 1985), 7-
(1808). Key elements in their vision were the
14; Underdown, 1985.
Lord of Misrule, Boar's Head, Yule Log, and the
squire's lavish display of hospitality in his
'baronial hall'. Models for more homely cele Christmas cards. These emerged in the mid-
bration were sometimes sought abroad. As 19th century, combining an older custom of
early as 1821 a correspondent in the Gentle- sending New
Year verses to fi-iends with the
man's Magazine (pp. 505-8) praised a Christmas new emphasis on Christmas. The first was
custom in the north of Germany 'which can- designed by John Calcott Horsley, at the insti-
not be too strongly recommended and gation of Henry Cole, in 1843. A large central
encouraged in our own country': children panel shows a family sitting with wine glasses
make or buy Uttle presents for their parents in their hands, and a banner saying 'A Merry
and each other, which they lay out on Christ- Christmas and a Happy New Year to You'; two
mas Eve under 'a great yew bough' in the par- side panels show a man and woman giving
lour, decked with tapers and streamers; next alms to the poor. Though this card was too
day the parents bring presents for the children expensive to be commercially successfiil, the
(reprinted in Gomme, 1884: 97-102). Written idea gradually spread, and by the 1860s cheap
twelve years before Victoria married Albert, cards were generally available. Religious sym-
this shows court influence was not the only boUsm is strikingly absent; family gatherings.
Christmas carol singing

dancing, eating, winter scenes, holly, and ivy,and at Westminster as late as 1647 'for
Christinas tiees were the standard fare. An rosemarie and bales that was stuck about the
advertisement in the Illustrated London News of church'; other sources add cypress, laurel,
17 November 1883 lists 27 categories of box, and yew (Brand, 1849: i. 522-3). In homes,
of which only two were remotely
design, the centrepiece was the Kissing Bush (Bough
religious. or Bunch), known all over England from the

of the Christmas Card (1954).

18th century until superseded by the *Christ-
George Buday, The History
mas tiee. Basically, it was constructed from
two hoops at right angles, intertwined with
Christmas carol singing. Nowadays there
are carol concerts in schools and churches in ivy and holly, and fixed to the ceiUng; from it

the run-up to Christmas, and groups of carol- hung apples, oranges, streamers, sugar mice,
and, most importantly, a sprig of *mistietoe.
singers can be found in shopping centres or
homes and pubs in the evenings to More elaborate decorations became fash-
visiting
ionable in Victorian times, including greenery
collectmoney for charity. Earlier, singers
festooned over mirrors and pictures, and.
would have been earning money for them-
selves, but by the 20th century this was mainly later,paper garlands, hanging confections,
Umited to children, and has now apparently
and seasonal mottoes embroidered or picked
died out. There was a very strong and long-
out in artificial flowers. German influence is

Ukely here; Hannah CuUwick, maid to a

standing custom of serenading people in their
homes early on Christmas Day; this could be London family, thought it 'a German way'
done by informal groups (sometimes not very when a fellow servant put up paper festoons
and coloured candles for Christmas in 1871
well), but in the 19th century was more usu-
(Cullwick, Diaries, ed. Liz Stanley, 1984:
ally an organized activity of the church choir
or of the *waits, where these existed. Some 184-5). Tinsel, baubles, and other artificial
writers use that term for all perambulating
adornments are now ubiquitous.
Traditions differ sharply on when to take
singers and musicians. A few carols in the cur-
rent repertoire are tiaditional folk-songs ('God decorations down and what to do with them.
Rest You Merry Gentlemen', 'As I Sat on a
*Twelfth Night is generally mentioned now-

Sunny Bank', 'The Holly and the Ivy'), but adays, though some say they must be removed
most were composed by Victorian or later on others on its eve. In eariier
this date,

musicians. records, they stayed up till *Candlemas (2 Feb-

See also *waits. ruary). Once taken down, many sources state
the evergreens should be burnt— especially
the mistletoe, according to Charles Igglesden,
Christmas According to Tom
craclcers.
otherwise 'all who have kissed beneath it will
Smith's, the leading cracker manufacturers in
be foes before the end of the year' (Igglesden,
Britain, crackers were invented by their foun-
C.1932: 69-70). Others insist they should never
der, aLondon confectioner, in 1847. Smith's
be burnt. Occasionally, they were fed to cattie.
idea was based on French bon-bons, sweets
See also *holly, *mistletoe.
wrapped in screwed-up coloured paper, to
Opie andTatem, 1989: 76; Brand. 1849: i. 519-25.
which he added first a motto and then the
characteristic snapper, inspired by a crackling
log on his fire; it was an immediate success. Christmas food. It has always been tiad-
However, it should be noted that the OED gives
itional to eat well at Christmas, but the fare
two sUghtly earher references (1841 and 1844)
has changed over the years and become more
to people 'exploding a cracker bonbon' or
standardized, with a decline in regional vari-
'puUing' one, implying a rather more complex
ation. Leaving aside the lavish banquets in
history. and noble households, whose swans,
royal
Tom Smith Group, A History of the Cracker (booklet c.1997).
peacocks, and boars' heads were not found
lower down the social scale, three meats dom-
Christmas decorations. Decorating houses inate. Roast beef was the staple fare from the
and churches with evergreens is an old cus- 17th century to the 19th, with 'roast beef and
tom; London streets were decorated too, in plum pudding' so frequently mentioned as to
John Stow's time (Stow, 1598 (1602): 123). be a cliche; thereafter, goose for the poor and
Churchwardens' accounts throughout the turkey for the wealthy was the norm. Turkey
16th century record payments for holly and slowly spread down the social scale, becoming
 Christmas tree

in the 20th century the unchallenged Christ- One can probably assume continental
mas bird. influence.
The iced cake was originally a *Twelfth See *FATHER CHRISTMAS, *SANTA CLAUS.
Night speciaUty, many other traditional cakes
being eaten at Christmas in various regions Christmas superstitions. Most regional col-
(see, for example, Brears, 1987: 177-8; Morris, lections report a belief that at midnight on
1911: 217). Mince-pies are first recorded by welcome the
Christmas Eve cattle kneel to
this name and frequently mentioned
in 1600,
Holy Child, and bees buzz, or hum the Hun-
throughout that century (and ever since). At dredth Psalm (e.g. Harland and Wilkinson,
that time they were oblong or coffin-shaped,
1882: 253). During this night *cocks crow,
which John Selden {Tahle-Talk, 1686), and later
and 'the powers of darkness can have no evil
writers, said represented the manger at Beth- influence on mankind' (Udal, 1922: 51; cf
lehem; this is unlikely, as they were actually Hamlet i.
i).
called 'coffins' (Dyer, 1876: 458-9). Plum pud-
Babies bom on Christmas Day are fortunate,
ding, or the synonymous plum porridge, is either in general, or because they cannot be
also regularly recorded from the 17th century
drowned or hanged, or cannot see ghosts and
onwards; the current idea that everyone in the Brand (1849: i. 478-80) quotes a long
spirits.
household must stir it and make a wish first a manuscript of c. 152 5 setting out
poem from
appears in the mid-1 9th century (N8Ci 2s: 12 for each day of the week what it will mean if
(1861), 491). Christmas falls on that day, as regards the
Brand, 1849: i. 526-32; Hone, 1827: i, 819-20. weather and events of the coming year, and
the destiny of children bom on that Christmas
Day. It was also an appropriate time for divin-
Christmas presents. Essential to the modem
ations, though less so than the *New Year; in
Christmas, these came to the fore in the 1840s who had been
19th<entury Yorkshire a girl
and 1850s, replacing a much older tradition of kissed under the mistletoe would take a berry
New Year gifts between adults which by then and a leaf to her room, swallow the berry,
was in decline. The rapid upsurge of Christmas and
prick the man's initials on to the leaf,
gift-giving had several concurrent causes: the stitch it inside her corset to keep him true
growing child-centredness of the festival; the (Blakeborough, 1898: 69).
example of Germany, where small presents Some New Year beliefs apphed to Chrismas
were associated with the *Christmas tree, the
Day too, including the taboo on taking *fire
availabiUty of mass-produced toys, especially out of the house or borrowing from neigh-
imported from Germany. At first most pres- bours, and the custom of first footing, espe-
ents were for children, but those for adults 1912: 108-9).
cially in Herefordshire (Leather,
became ever more popular during the rest of 'let Christmas in' by open-
Many households
the 19th century. It must be stressed, though,
ing doors early in the moming and saying
that these were upper- and middle<lass
'Welcome, Father Christmas' or the Uke. A
habits, which the less well-off could not handful of sources call it unlucky to bring new
afford; numerous people who grew up in the
shoes, or new leather into the house (Opie and
half of the 20th century attest that their
Tatem, 1989: 230, 350). More common, from
first

Christmas presents at that time were still a

the mid-1 9th century to the present, is the
handful of nuts and sweets, an orange, and, if
idea that you will have as many happy months
they were lucky, a new sixpence. in the coming year as you eat mincepies— in
Some famiUes pin up pillowcases as recept- different houses, most say (Opie and Tatem,
acles for small presents, but most use a stock-
1989: 248-9).
ing. It is not certain when this began, nor See also ashen faggot.
whether it is a native or imported custom.
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 74-8.
Henderson, in 1866, noted that 'The old cus-
tom of hanging up a stocking to receive
Christmas presents has not yet died out in
. . . Christmas tree. It is generally assumed that
the North of England', and that friends of his this indisputably German custom was intro-
did it 'without the excuse of a child to be sur- duced to Britain by Queen Victoria's husband.

prised and pleased' (Henderson, 1866: 50). Yet Prince Albert, but this is only partly true. The
others writing in 1879 and in the 1880s British royal family had had regular Christmas
trees since the days of Princess Charlotte of
reported it as unfamiliar (see *Santa Claus).
church ales 66

Mecklenberg Strelitz, who married George III reUgious grounds, and in the works of poets
in 1761, and Victoria had been brought up and playwrights when they begin to construct
knowing them (see Miles). Other famihes with the romanticized rural idyll with which Utera-
Gennan connections had them too. But it was ture would abound for the ensuing centuries,
cert:ainly due to active promotion by Victoria and both sides give a biased picture. Exactly
and Albert: that the fashion for trees spread so what went on at the earlier ales varied from
remarkably fast, at least among the better-off. place to place and over time, but the key
From 1845 to 1855 the Illustrated London News elements of food, drink, and music, men-
featured Christmas trees more and more, tioned in the accounts, connect with the
including the famous picture of the royal fam- opposing voices which concentrate on glut-
ily round its tree at Windsor in 1848, though tony, drunkenness, and the moral dangers of
the accompanying article still labels this 'a men and women dancing together. The food
German custom' (ILN Christmas Supplement and drink were supphed by the church, or
(1848), 409-10). By 1854, a Suffolk farmer's contributed beforehand by parishioners, for
wife, Ehzabeth Cotton, could simply record in which officers and a local committee could be
her diary, 'Had a Christmas tree for the chil- elected, and equipment such as spits, kettles,
dren'. However, there were many working- and so on, belonging to the parish was avail-
class famihes, well into the 20th century, who able for their use. Ales would also attract
could not afford one; they improvised, or did people from neighbouring parishes, and there
without. are records of organized reciprocal visits, and
Delia Miles, Country life (3 Dec. 1992), 60-3; Golby and also some instances of parishes staging joint
Purdue, 1984; Weightman and Humphries, 1987. events.
One of the first areas of contention between
church ales. A feature of the medieval trad- traditionalists and reformers was the siting of
itional calendar which lasted well into the the from the earUest records that
ale. It is clear
17th century but which at various times it was customary for celebrations to take place
became a major focus of religious, moral, and in the churchyard, or even in thechurch itself
pohtical contention, and has been described Throughout the period from about 1220 to the
as 'a crude precursor of today's sedate parish 1360s there were repeated, and eventually
fete' (Barnes, 1959: 106). In essence, as the successful, attempts to banish the festivities
name implies, the ale was originally a local from holy ground, and also to forbid the active
festive gathering involving food, drink, and involvement of the clergy (see Heales for
entertainment, organized, or at least sup- examples).
ported, by the church, and held to raise money The feature of the games which has excited
for the church. These ales were mainly held in most interest in folklore circles was the elec-
spring or summer, and were thus often called tion of a King and Queen or Lord and Lady, to
May games, Whitsun ales. Summer games, or, preside over the festivities, and, in some cases,
after a feature discussed below. King game or the presence of particular characters such as
Robin Hood game. Nevertheless, ales could be *Robin Hood. To get the matter into some per-
held at any time, and there could be a series of spective, however, Hutton estimated that of
them throughout the year, or they could be 104 parishes for which he could find records
held for specific fund-raising purposes, such as of ales, only 17 per cent had a King or Lord,
the annual 'Cobb ale' in Lyme Regis (Dorset) and a further 20 per cent a Robin Hood— httle
which helped maintain the harbour wall (the over a third all together. Of those which had a
Cobb) which was essential to the town's eco- King/Lord, only three mention a Queen or
nomic well-being. (Underdown, 1985: 57). Lady. *Frazerian writers have been quick to see
They could even be organized as benefits for these figures as remnants of nature or fertility
individuals— 'Bid-ales', or 'Clerk-ales' (for the spirits, but there is no evidence to support this
It is clear that the word 'ale' was
parish clerk). view. They are better seen as examples of the
used for any get-together or feast. medieval tendency to put people in charge of
Most of our early information about church festive events— compare, for example, the
ales comes from churchwardens' and other Twelfth Night King of the Bean, or the *Lord
parochial accounts, which provide numerous of Misrule. These temporary rulers were elect-
bare bones but little flesh. Fuller descriptions ed beforehand to preside over the celebra-
appear from the 16th century in the writings tions, and in some cases they could be fined if
of those opposed to the ales, usually on they refused. One set piece in the event was
 churches

the procession of the King/Lord, with days, but although local wakes and revels
and dressed in suitable
retainers, in full state were quickly revived, most churchmen were
costume. There is no evidence that these content to leave the routine raising of money
ceremonial positions were treated as parody for the church in the hands of the rate-
or burlesque in the way that *mock mayors gatherers rather than the ale-sellers and
certainly were, but appear to have been treat- *hoglers. Nevertheless, some were trans-
ed with good-humoured respect and dignity. formed into other celebrations, such as the
Nor is there evidence of a reversal of roles, *Whitsun ale.
such as in the *boy bishop ceremonies, where Underdown, 1985; Thomas G. Barnes, 'County Politics
social inferiors take charge of their superiors and a Puritan Cause Celebre', Trans, of the Royal Historical
for a specified time. Spring ales in particular Soc., 5s:5 (1959), 103-22; Hutton, 1994; Alfred Heales,
'Early History of the Church of Kingston-upon-Thames",
were also notable for their bowers and use of
Surrey Archaeological Collections 8 (1883), 103-9.
greenery.
As with other traditional festivals, church
churches. As appears in many entries in this
ales came under increasing pressure from Pur-
book, a remarkable number of Enghsh calen-
itans and other moral reformers from the mid-
dar customs are associated with churches,
16th century onwards, who attacked them on
even though they now contain no reUgious
a variety of linked fronts, reUgious, moral, and
elements. Sometimes, their dates Unk them to
legal (the maintenance of pubhc order), and in saints' days; sometimes, as with *ales, *wakes,
particular the staging of entertainments on and *rushbearing, they were a way of raising
Sundays. Many Puritans were convinced that ftinds for the church and supplying its needs.
church ales were remnants of popery (which, The further back one explores the historical
in a sense, was true, as they were indeed sur-
record, the more one sees church buildings
vivals of pre-Reformation ways). Ales had their
ftinctioning as centres for community events,
supporters, however, in the shape of many secular as well as sacred, while for individuals
traditional churchmen (partly because of the
they were places where major life-cycle rites
church's financial interest in their continu-
were held, and the dead visibly commemor-
ance), those who believed in the old ideal of
ated; unlike castles and manor houses, they
conununity, as well as those with political were used by aU classes, not merely the eUte.
leanings which became increasingly polarized Their interiors, brightly painted and crammed
between Royahsts and Parliamentarians. with statues, murals, lamps, candles, draper-
Richard Carew, for example, defended ales in
ies, and votive offerings, gave work to local
his Survey of Cornwall (1602: 141) on the
craftsmen; in some regions, notably East
grounds of the good fellowship they
Anglia, wholesale rebuilding and moderniza-
engendered, and the innocent pastime raising tion of churches was undertaken as a proud
money for good causes, but this is a far cry
statement of economic prosperity.
from the description by Kethe in 1570: '. the
SymboUcally, a church could represent
. .
its
multitude call (Sunday) their revelyng day, whole community— a fact neatly expressed by
which day is spent in bullbeatings, bearebeat- various taunting rhymes in which 'steeple'
ings, bowUngs, dicyng, card5mg, daunsynges, and 'people' are jointly mocked:
drunkennes and whoredome (quoted in
. . .'

HazUtt, 1905: 126). Dirty Tredington, wooden steeple.

The struggle for control was carried out at Funny parson, wicked people.
local level, and,throughout the first decades (Gloucestershire)
of the 17th century, parishes up and down the It is also notable that traditions about coastal
country replaced church ales by church rates villages abandoned to the encroaching sea
as a more seemly way of raising money for the the poetic detail that the
commonly have
church. In many places this transition was church can still be glimpsed under water, or
accompanied by sharp local conflict, but the that its still ring in stormy weather.
bells
trend was clear, and even though the older
Along the Welsh Border, there is a cluster of
customs received something of a boost with
legends about lakes and pools in which vil-
the issue the king's *Book of Sports in 1618 and of
lages were miraculously engulfed because
1633, they were increasingly seen as old- some crime or impiety, and again the loss of
fashioned and inefficient. With the Restor- the church is stressed (Bume, 1883: 64-73;
ation of the monarchy in 1660, there was a
Leather, 1912: 11).
much-pubUcized return to the old pre-Puritan A type of legend found throughout England
churching

purports to explain why a church comes to the presence of a nearby rock which sparks
stand where it does, by alleging that super- the tale.
natural events guided the builders; naturally, Churches and churchyards being eerie
such tales generally apply to those which are places, especially by night, they figure fre-
inconveniently sited in relation to the village quently in magical and divinatory rituals. The
they serve. Sometimes the story has reUgious oldest and most serious was watching in the
overtones; just as cows, wandering freely, church porch on *St Mark's Eve to see who
brought the Ark of the Covenant to an would die that year. In Lincolnshire, Hereford-
appropriate halting-place (1 Samuel 6: 8-14), shire, Cambridgeshire, and Sussex in the early
so the site for Clodock Church (Herefordshire) 20th century, it was said of various village
was indicated when oxen drawing St Cly- churches that anyone who ran round the
dawg's bier stood still (Leather, 1912: 214). building seven times on a moonht night (or, at
More often, it is said that the work had been midnight) and then peered through the key-
started elsewhere, but every night what had hole (or *whistled through it, or dropped a pin
been built by day was torn down, and the through) would see the Devil (Rudkin, 1936:
stones shifted— by fairies, or the Devil, or an 71-3; Leather, 1912: 40; Porter, 1969: 337;
invisible force— till the builders gave in and Simpson, 1973: 66). A *love divination for
adopted the new site. Animals can play a role young men in the 17th century, still known in
here too: at Winwick (Lancashire) the builders Shropshire in the late 19th, was to go to a
mistakenly thought they were raising their churchyard at midnight with a drawn sword
church on the precise spot where St Oswald and circle the church nine times (or three

died, but a pig carried the stones away one by times), saying 'Here's the sword, but where's
one in its mouth to the right place, so a pig is the scabbard?', after which the destined girl
carved on the church wall. would appear (Mother Bunch's Goset Newly Broke
Some churches have structural oddities Open, 1685, ed. G. L. Gomme, 1885: 18; Bume,
which call for explanation— for instance, 1883: 177).
when the weight of shingles twists a spire hke Lead cut from the windows or guttering of a
a corkscrew. At Chesterfield (Derbyshire), church, water dripping from its roof, dust
where the effiect is very pronounced, there are from its altar, and chips of stone from its carv-
at least two stories to account for it: that the ings have allbeen regarded as having heaUng
*Devil, enraged by the *bells, wrenched the power (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 78, 81, 94).
spire round as he flew past; or, that a bride See also *bells, *christianity, *graves,
who was a virgin was arriving for her wed- pilgrimages.
ding, and the spire, amazed at her unheard-of
virtue, turned to stare at her, and got stuck. At churching. Jewish law stated that women
West Tarring (Sussex) the twist is only slight, were under taboo after childbirth, because of
yet enough to cause a story that the architect pollution by blood, until ritually cleansed by a
made an error in his plans, and flung himself priest (Leviticus 12: 1-8); Mary obeyed this rule
the spire (or off Beachy Head) in despair at
off" after the birth of Jesus (Luke 2: 22-4). Modem
the sad result [JS]. liturgies stress thanksgiving, but medieval
Large boulders near a church are sometimes symbolism still impUed impurity, for the
said to be missiles which the Devil vainly women came to church veiled, 'without look-
aimed atthe most dramatic example being
it, ing at the sun or sky', or other people, tiU they
the huge prehistoric stone at Rudston (Hum- had been blessed with holy water, and given a
berside); in other cases, he is said to have candle. Traces of this attitude remained in the
kicked a church, or attempted to fly away with refiisal of some Anglican clergy, even as late as
it, or flood it, or drop a hill on it. Such tales are the 1950s, to let a woman take Communion
now jocular, but probably began as religious before she had been churched (Sutton, 1992:
propaganda, since the Devil constantly attacks 68).
the Church but can never defeat it (Matthew In popular belief, a woman who went out of
16: 18). sometimes suggested that they
It is her own house
before being churched would
refer particularly to local conflicts with pagan- bring bad luck on anyone she met, or any
ism at the Conversion; in itself, the motif house she entered, and often on herself too. It
might well be that old, but the churches was still common in many areas in the 1950s
where it is now found (both here and in for vicars to be asked to perform the rite for a
Europe) are not exceptionally ancient— it is non-churchgoing woman, so that she would
69 civic customs

be free to go shopping or visit friends (Rad- Native English versions probably once existed,
ford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 100). In other for a Scottish one, 'Rashin Coatie', discovered
places, 'being churched' did not refer to a spe- by Andrew *Lang in 1878, is clearly independ-
cial ritual but to the first time a woman ent of Pertault— the heroine is helped by a
attended a normal Sunday service after giving magical 'Uttle red calf which enables her to
birth; in Yorkshire in the 1980s, women who appear in church three times at Christmas in
never normally went to church or chapel fine clothes and satin sUppers, instead of her
would slip in for a few minutes during a ser- ugly cloak of rushes; a prince sees her and
vice as soon as they were fit to walk, for tries to catch her as she sUps out before the
otherwise nobody would let them into their service ends. Twentieth-century versions have
houses— it would be 'asking for trouble' been found among Gypsies in Lancashire and
(Clark, 1982: 115, 122-4; Gill. 1993: 26-7). Scotland (Phihp, 1989: 60-9, 161-74). *Cap o'
Rushes is also related, though less closely.

churchyard, see '^graves. See Marian Roalfe Cox, Cinderella: Three Hundred and Forty-
and Cap o' Rushes (1893),
Five Variants of Cinderella, Catskin,
and Anna Birgitta Rooth, The Cinderella Cycle (1951). Neil
cigarettes. The beUef that it is very unlucky
Philip's The Cinderella Story (1989) gives 24 versions with
to light three cigarettes from one match is still
commentary, including the British G3^sy ones. Per-
extremely well knovm. The popular explan- rault's text is in Philip, pp. 10-16; also in Opie and Opie,
ation is a soldier's superstition: in the
that it is 1974: 117-27.

trenches, an enemy sniper would use the Ught

made by a match to locate a target. Keeping circles, circling. SymboUcally, a circle can
the match burning to Ught three cigarettes stand for perfection, wholeness, or a boundary
gave him time to take proper aim and fire, (protective or confining); circUng round some-
whereas two would not. The superstition cer- thing can be a way of honouring or blessing it,
tainly came to be widely known during the or, conversely, of receiving blessing or power
First World War, and the earhest concrete ref- from it. Circling can also summon a super-
erence is a letter from Private Bradstow pub- natural being— it is one of the commonest
lished in N&Q^ in 1916. Various commentators Enghsh local traditions that if you run round a
have written that the beUef was held during specified mound, tree, cross, grave, church, or
the Boer War (1899-1902), while others place stone at a sp>ecified time and/or a specified
it in the Crimean War (1853-6), but with no number of times without stopping, you will
evidence for their assertions. None of the raise a *ghost, or the *Devil; the condition is

standard folklore collections published before lesseasy than it seems, since running round a
the First World War mentions it. There have small object causes giddiness, and round a
been various attempts to connect this belief largeone is exhausting. The circle as boundary
with older ones concerning three *candles, but isexemphfied by the common instruction in
this is unhkely. Cigarette packets feature in a manuals of *magic to draw a circle round one-
children's superstition/custom. lona and Peter self as protection against spirits summoned,

Opie (1959) report that children in the 1950s, or to conjure the spirit into a circle which will
and before, on finding packets of particular confineit; more prosaically, it appears also in

brands— Black Cat, Player's Navy Cut, the Devonshire beUef that a snake cannot
Churchman's Tenner are mentioned— stamp escape a circle drawn round it with an ash
on them and say a rhyme, for example: stick (Bray, 1838: 95).
See also *leftward and *rightward
Black cat, black cat, bring me luck
If you don't tear you
MOVEMENT.
I'll up
Opie andTatem, 1989: 55, 82; N&Q.12s:l (1916), 208, 276;
12s:9 (1921), 528; 12s:10 (1922), 38-9, 116; Opie and Opie, civic customs. Those which are performed as
1959: 222-3. part of the ceremonies of local government.
The history of local government in England is
Cinderella. The oldest known version of this highly complex and Uttered with responses to
famous European and Asiatic *fairytale is Chi- special local circumstances, many of
which
nese, from about ad 850, translated by Arthur became the stuff of folklore as the reasons
Waley {Folk-lore 58 (1947), 226-38); but the faded but the form continued. The Municipal
story as it is now knov^^ is always based on Corporations Act of 1835 vras the first attempt
Perrault's French 'Cendrillon' (1697), trans- to introduce a uniform system of local author-
lated into Enghsh by Robert Samber (1729). ity and swept away many of
the remnants of
clapping games

previous practice, but a few customs still Gypsy famihes. His four collections were:
remained. Examples which still continue Poems Descriptive of Rural Life (1820); The Village
range from the spectacular Lord Mayor's Show Minstrel (1821); The Shepherd's Calendar (1827);
in London, to the homely 'weighing the The Rural Muse (1835), and others have since
mayor' ceremony at *High Wycombe, and the been pubhshed from his manuscripts.
*scrambhng for coins at *Rye (Sussex) and George Deacon, John Clare and the Folk Tradition (1983);
Durham, and the *Hungerford Hocktide cere- Eric Robinson, John Clare's Autobiographical Writing (1983).

monies in Berkshire.
Kightly, 1986: 77-9; 'Curious Corporation Customs', New elementing, see *souling.
Penny Magazine 55 (1899), 125-8.

clipping the church. A widespread but rela-

clapping games. Most are played by two
tively under-researched custom. 'Clipping', in
girls standing face to face and clapping their
this context, means 'To embrace, fondle,
own and each others' hands in a set pattern
encircle with the arms' (EDD) and this custom
and in time with a chanted or sung text. To the
involves people holding hands and encircling
uninitiated, the process seems dextrous and
their local church. The best-known example is
complex, but the movements are relatively
at *Painswick in Gloucestershire, where it is
few and repetitive and can be picked up quite
now a church-organized custom, carried out
quickly. Most junior school girls in England
will know a half a dozen clapping games, and by children, but earher versions were less
the overall repertoire is not large, perhaps 20 tightly organized. In most places it was a
Shrovetide or *Easter Monday custom. The
to 30. The more innovative, however, will
known geographical distribution is inconclu-
adapt other rhymes if
necessary. Clapping
sive: most common in Somerset and Wilt-
games were certainly known in earlier periods
shire, but also reported from Gloucestershire,
but seem to have lost favour from about 1900
Worcestershire, Birmingham, Shropshire,
to after the Second World War. Since then
Derbyshire, and West Yorkshire. No reference
they have enjoyed a renaissance, probably
has been found earlier than the early 19th
under American influence, and are now
an integral part of the playground game century, although a correspondent in Hone's
Every-Day Book (i. 431) pubhshed in 1825, writes
repertoire.
An example of a clapping rhyme is 'When I was a child, as sure as Easter Monday
came, was taken to see the children clip the
1

Have you ever, ever, ever, in your long-legged life churches', which would probably carry the
Seen a long-legged sailor with a long-legged wife.
record back into the 18th century. Other fea-
No, I've never, ever, ever, in my long-legged life tures should be noted. Partridge (1912) brings
Seen a long-legged sailor with a long-legged wife. attention to a number of instances where
church chpping is associated with *Thread the
(Successive verses replace 'long-legged' with
Needle. Another noteworthy feature is that in
'knock-kneed', 'bow-legged', etc.)
some reports the clipping was accompanied
Opie and Opie, 1985, 440-80.
by much joyftil shouting and cheering, and/or
the blowing of tin trumpets. Some accounts
Clare, John (1793-1864). Bom in Helpston,
specifically state that the clippers had their
Northamptonshire, the son of a farm labourer,
backs to the church while clipping it. It is clear
he Uved virtually all his life in his home
that there is much further work to be done to
county, although the last 20 years were spent
in mental asylums. By dint of his own effort he map and document this custom.
B. Partridge, FoTk-Lore 23 (1912) 196-203; Word-Lore 1
became a well-known poet, with four collec- J.

(1926), 257; 2 (1927), 30, 55, 131, 166-7. 218; Wright and
tions pubhshed in his own lifetime. He drew Lones, 1936: i. 20-1, 121; 1940: iii. 65, 70;
N&Q.5s:5 (1876),
heavily on his observations of nature and vil- 226, 316; 5s:6 (1876), 308, 436, 520-1; 5s:7 (1877). 38; 5s:9
lage hfe and custom for the matter of his (1878), 367; 7s:l (1886), 329, 420, 486.

poems, and his work is thus an excellent

source of information on early 19th-century clocks. Until recently only found in wealthy
customs and *superstitions. His autobiograph- homes, or on public buildings. Nevertheless
ical writings (pubhshed in 1983) also contain they became the subject of several supersti-
much useful material. Clare was particularly tions, from the 1820s onwards. The basic one
interested in *song and music, and collected is that a clock will stop at the very moment its
items from his parents, neighbours, and local owner dies; the first example given by Opie
71 clothes

and Tatem one of the most dramatic,

is also Sacramental bread and wine,
ture' (p. 47).
for it Houses of Parlia-
refers to a clock in the miraculous conception and virgin birth, the
ment having stopped on 27 January 1820, second coming, exorcism, holy water, saints,
'being nearly the hour at which HM King were all cited as examples. Unrepentant, he
George the Third had expired'. A clock stop- also commented, 'if in analysing a beUef we
ping inexplicably, or striking the wrong hour, kill a superstition, this does but show what
could be *omens of some death soon to occur. mortality lay at its core' (p. 42). It had been, in
Parallel to these beUefsis the custom that as fact, only a matter of time before these ideas
soon as someone dies any clock in the room were voiced, as many of the leading folklorists
(or, according to some, all the clocks in the and scientists of the period had been moving
house) must be deUberately stopped, to sym- in the same direction. They had already been
bohze the fact that time has now ceased for hinted at by *Frazer (The Golden Bough) and
that person. Hartland (The Legend of Perseus), but Clodd
If the church clock strikes the hour during a had the courage to say them out loud, on a
wedding, within a year the bride or groom will public platform. As expected, the Christian
die, though if the timing is such that the bride press roundly denounced him in terms vary-
hears the chime while still outside the church, ing from the misguided fool to the Anti-Christ,
that brings good luck. Similarly, if it strikes and he remained a bete noire for many Cathohc
while a hymn is sung at a Sunday service, this writers for the rest of his hfe. A number of
foretellsdeath within a week for someone in Folklore Society members tried, unsuccess-
the parish; a town clock striking while the ftiUy, to prevent the pubUcation of the address
church bells are ringing, foretells a fire. In in the journal, and some, including ex-Prime
Devon around 1900, it was even thought Minister Gladstone, resigned from the Society
unlucky to speak while a clock is striking in protest, but others publicly or privately
(Opie and Tatem, 1989: 84-6). applauded his courage and agreed AAdth his

interpretation. The
gradually subsided,
fiiss

Clodd, Edward (1840-1930). By profession a and the lengthy obituary in the Society's jour-
banker, he was an excellent example of the nal does not even mention the affair. Despite
part-time Victorian folklorist: widely read, his controversial views, Clodd was a popular
articulate, and intelUgent, making major con- and respected member of the folklore firater-
tributions to the scholarship of the time while nity, but outhved most of his generation.
holding down a demanding ftill-time job in a Other books by Clodd include: Myths and Dreams (1885);
completely different field. Clodd was a found- The Story of Creation: A Plain Account of Evolution (1888): Tom
An
ing member of the *Folklore Society (1878), Essay in Philosophy in Folk-Tale (1898);
Tit Tot: Savage

having already pubhshed books on cultural

Ma^ in Names and Other Things (1920).
Obituary (with bibUography) by A. C. Haddon, FoUc-Lore 40
evolution (The Childhood of the World, 1873) and
(1929), 183-9; Dorson, 1968: 248-57.
reUgion (The Childhood of Religions, 1875). Fol-
lowing the debate opened by Darwin, Huxley,
and *Tylor, Clodd steadily became more open- clothes. Many beUefs focus on new clothes,
ly agnostic as he pursued folklore in search of and there are several times when it was good
early humans' mental development, and was to wear them for the first time. One was *New
particularly dismissive of spirituahsm and Year, on the principle that whatever you did
occultism, so fashionable at the time, and of on that day would affect the rest of the year,
the Society for Psychic Research and Andrew while others swore by *Easter. If you could not
*Lang's psycho-folklore. Clodd was elected the manage new garments, you could at least
Folklore Society's President in 1895 and 1896, spruce up the old ones, as Samuel Pepys
and in his second Presidential Address (Folk- recorded in his Diary for 30 March 1662:
lore 7 (1896), 35-60) presented a highly con- 'Easterday: Having my old black suit new-
tentious paper which caused an immediate fiirbished, was pretty neat in clothes today—
I

fiirore in the Society and elsewhere, by com- and my boy. his old suit new-trimmed, very
paring the 'savage' materials with which folk- handsome.' The third important time for new
lorists were by now abundantly familiar with clothes was *Whitsun: '(Cleveland. Yorkshire)
Christianity and pointing out not just the ... on Whitsunday, if you don't put on at least

connections or vague similarities, but 'the one brand-new article of dress the birds will be
persistence of barbaric ideas and their out- sure to come and "drop" on you (N&Q. 5s:10. . .'

ward expression throughout the higher cul- (1878). 287). It v*^s also believed
that to wear
clover 72

new clothes on a Sunday was very good,

first country (e.g. Leather, 1912: 89; Wright, 1928:
as they would twice as long if you did, but
last 21) was that dead people's clothes, if given
it was unlucky to wear them first on a Friday. away, wore badly and soon deteriorated. Many
When someone you knew was wearing new beliefs focused on particular items of clothing.
clothes for the first time you should pinch A notion reported twice early in the 20th cen-
them, for luck, or else greet them with the tury (Hertfordshire in 1914, and Gloucester-
formula 'Health to wear it. Strength to tear it. shire in 1915), maintains that if the hem of a
And money to buy another' (Wright, 1913: woman's skirt accidentally becomes turned

224). up, she will receive a present or some other

The second area of focus was on untoward form of good luck (Folk-Lore 25 (1914), 372; 26
or unusual things happening: '1 lately heard (1915), 210). On the other hand, if a girl's
that apron-strings unfastened mean either petticoat or sUp is seen to be showing beneath
"He loves you very much", or as a variation, her dress it was a sure sign that her father
"Someone is thinking about you" So wrote a '. loved her more than her mother, 'perhaps
correspondent to N&(1 in 1940 (179: 302). because it is plain that her mother does not
These two related meanings have been given attend so much to her dress as she ought to'
to apron strings suddenly coming untied since (Chambers, 1878: ii. 322). In post-Second
at least the mid-1 9th century, although in the World War Britain, there were a number of
firstmention of the phenomenon quoted by traditional remarks said about women whose
Opie and Tatem (from Scotland) it was clearly slip was showing, either as a coded message
a bad omen. Other sources mention the garter said by a female friend, or shouted derisively
as the recalcitrant item, but do not agree on its by boys: 'S.O.S. (Slip on show)', 'It's snowing in
meaning. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was Paris', 'Your washing is hanging out', or the
considered unlucky, while in several 19th- incomprehensible but very widely reported
centuiy sources it is a sign of the thoughtful 'Charley's Dead' (see Eric Partridge, A Diction-
sweetheart. But S. O. Addy reports from York- ary of Catch Phrases (2nd edn., 1985, 47, 175,
shire that 'if a woman loses her garter in the 383). A woman in Surtey in 1959, however,
street her lover will be unfaithful to her' commented, 'If any of the staff are showing a
(Addy, 1895: 98). petticoat they are accused of husband hunt-
It is still said to be unwise to mend clothes
ing' (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 303).
while wearing them, an idea which has been SeealS0*SH0ES;*SH0ELACES;*DRESSMAKING;
reported regularly since 1850, often in rhyme weddings; *washing.
(Lean, 1902: ii. 158; Igglesden, c.1932: 174), and Opie and Tatem, 1989: 4-5; Lean, 1903: ii. 28, 158. 220,
how you dress yourself in the morning can be 226, 236, 328, 452; N&Q.lls:8 (1913), 288-9, 336-7, 377;

significant: 'If you put a button or hook into lls:9(1914), 136, 157.
the wrong hole while dressing in the morning,
some misfortune will occur during the day' clover. The first EngUsh reference to the *luck

(Henderson, 1879: 113). Putting something on of the four-leafed clover dates firom 1507:
inside out has been considered ominous at whoever finds one and keeps it reverently can
least since 1340, but opinions have again var- know 'for all so true as the gospell y' he shall
ied on what it means. In earlier times it was a be ryche all his Ufe' (Anon., The Gospelles ofDys-
token of bad luck (Scot, 1584: book 11, chapter Others say it brings luck in
taues, part 2, p. xv).

15), but for most the opposite was true as long love, or a long healthy Ufe. Nowadays plants
as you let it be and did not turn the offending producing four-lobed leaves are commercially
article the right way round (Connoisseur, 13 grown, and the leaves encased in plastic are
Mar. 1755). In certain circumstances, however, sold as charms.
it was definitely advisable to turn some item of A charm reported twice from East Anglia in
clothing inside out. This was a sure way of the 1850s involves 'a clover of two', i.e. a piece
breaking the spell if you had been *pixy-led or with only two leaves: if a girl puts one in her
beguiled by the *fairies in some way, and in shoe, the next man she meets (or someone of
many calendar customs, such as *guising or the same name) will be her husband (N&Q^ ls:6
mumming by children, it was standard prac- (1852), 601; ls:10 (1854), 321).
tice to turn your jacket inside-out in heu of
other costume to wear. coal. A lucky substance. It is regularly brought
Another behef reported fi-om the mid-1 9th as one of the traditional *
gifts in first footing
century onwards from various parts of the on *New Year's Eve; some say this guarantees a
73 Cockle-Bread

warm hearth for the year, others that the which the master could exact from each of the
main point is 'black for
good luck' (cf *black). boys in order to provide for the sport.
In Herefordshire around 1900, 'a box of coal Sporadic attempts to ban the game, from
and a plate of salt should be the first things the 14th century onwards, seem to have been
taken into an empty house, before moving any ignored, and the wide support is still evident
furniture in' (Leather, 1912: 86). There are ref- in 1761 when 'an hostler in his apron often
erences from the 1950s to the luck of carrying wins several guineas from a lord' (quoted Mal-
a lump of coal in one's pocket, and to making colmson, 1973: 50). However, as the voices of
a wish when picking one up in the road and protest gathered against *blood sports in the
throwing it over one's shoulder (Opie and mid-1 8th century, cock-fighting came in for
Tatem, 1989: 89); now that coal fires are so increasing levels of criticism and attempts at
rare, these customs must have died out. abohtion. It was specifically banned in the
See also *midsummer coal. 1835 Cruelty to Animals Act, but con-
tinued quite openly in a number of areas, and
cockatrice. This legendary creature, first still takes place in secret.
described by classical authors, remained Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 24-6; Malcolmson, 1973;
Edward G. Fairholme and Wellesley Pain, A Century of
acceptable to the educated till the 17th cen-
Work for Animah: The History of the R.S.P.CA. 1824-1924
tury. Belief in it was reinforced by the fact
(1924), 75-82.
that 'cockatrice' is used several times in the

King James Bible to translate one of the cocking a snook. The most common name
Hebrew words for 'serpent'. It was supposed for the gesture formed by holding the thumb
to have the head and legs of a cock, but the to the tip of the nose and spreading the fin-
body and tail of a small dragon; it was venom- gers. Sometimes varied by waggUng the fin-
ous, and could kill people with its deadly
gers, or by adding the second hand (a 'double
glance. It was said to come from an egg laid by
snook'). Also called 'taking a sight', 'cocking a
a *cock (or from a duck's egg) hatched out by a
snoot*, or the 'Shanghai gesture', its meaning
*toad.
ranges from mocking to rude, although in the
According to legend, the monster could only present day its use is considered childish.
be killed by tricking it into seeing itself. At Unlike most gestures, cocking a snook is
Saffron Walden (Essex), a knight is said to
found, with a similar meaning, across the
have donned crystal armour to destroy a whole of Europe. The gesture is described in
cockatrice; at Wherwell (Hampshire), where a the writings of Francois Rabelais in 1532, but
man lowered a mirror of polished steel into its first known unmistakable depiction is in La
the creature's den, it fought its reflection till Fete des fous, a drawing by Pieter Brueghel of
exhausted (Simpson, 1980: 40-1). 1560. It is not clearhow far back the gesture
dates in England. References are relatively
cock-fighting. Particularly popular at common in England in the 19th century,
*Shrovetide, but found at any time of year, almost always referring to schoolboys, and
either on an ad hoc basis or in specially Hone (1832: 33) writes that it 'suddenly arose
constructed cock-pits which featured a raised as a novelty within the last twenty years
circular platform in the centre and tiered among the boys of the metropohs'. cor- A
benches for spectators. Fighting cocks were respondent in N&Q.(5s:3 (1875), 298), however,
specially bred and trained, and successful ones gives a reference to a 1702 pubUcation, The
fetched high prices, and the sport enjoyed English Theophrastus.
widespread support from all levels of society. See also *gestures, *thumbs, *v-sign.
The earUest reference links cock-fighting with Morris, 1979: 25-42; Archer Taylor, The Shanghai Gesture
schoolchildren: (FF Communications No. 166. 1956); N&Q.5s:2 (1874). 166,
234, 255-6. 299; 5s:3 (1875), 39, 119, 298. 376; cor-
each year upon the day called Carnival boys respondence in The TinKS (9-23 July 1936).
. . .

from the schools bring fighting-cocks to their mas-

ter, and the whole forenoon is given up to boyish
Cockle-Bread. In the 19th and 20th centur-
sport; for they have a holiday in the schools that
ies, Cockle-Bread was a children's game in
they may watch their cocks do battle (Fitz Stephen,
which one squats on its haunches with hands
C.1183: 56)
clasped beneath the thighs, while others grasp
and there are numerous references in literary its arms and swing it to and fro. This action

and historical sources to the 'cock-penny'. was often accompanied by a rhyme:

cocks 74

My granny is sick and now is dead A 'cockstride' was a country term for a tiny
And we'll go mould some cocklety bread distance; it was used of the increase of day-
Up with the heels and down with the head light in early January, as in John Ray's A Collec-
And that's the way to make cocklety bread. tion of English Proverbs (1678): 'At twelf-day the
Earlier references, however, show both rh5niie days are lengthened a cock-stride.' In some
and action with a more serious purpose. John legends about *laying ghosts the banished
Aubrey (1686: 43-4) notes: spirit is said to be creeping home at the rate of

a wanton sport, which they call

one cockstride per year.
Young wenches have
See also *cock-fighting.
moulding of Cocklebread; viz. They gett upon a
Table-board and then gather up their coates with
their hands as high as they can, and then they wab-
cocks, throwing at. A number of traditional
ble to and fro with their Buttocks as if they were
sports, called 'cock-threshing', 'throwing at
kneading of Dowgh with their A and say these ,

cocks', 'cock-running', were particularly

words:
popular at Shrovetide. In its basic form a live
My dame is sick and gonne to bed cock, or hen, is tied by one leg to a stake or
And rie go mowld my cockle-bread . . .

other immovable object. Players take it in turn

The dough thus kneaded would be baked to throw heavy sticks at the bird, and the one
and the bread given to the object of the young who kills it wins it. The game existed at least
woman's fancy, which would thus ensure his since 1409, when the Corporation of London
undying love for her. Cockle-Bread is also was trying to stop youths exacting payment
mentioned in George Peele's play The Old Wives from passers-by to fund their activities, but it
Tde (1595) and Richard Brome's Jovial Crew is clearly much older and involved aU levels of

(1652). society, including royalty. Over the years,

Gomme, 1894: i. 74-6; EDD, 1898: i. 685. however, it gradually became the province of
the lower classes and children. Schoolchildren
cocks. A
cock crowing at daybreak drives were typically allowed to play the game at
away *ghosts and evil spirits, and even Satan, Shrovetide, with the schoolmaster's assist-
as in the legend of the *Devirs Dyke. Henry ance, although *cock-fighting was more com-
Bourne noted in his Antiquitates Vulgares mon in this context. So prevalent was the
(1725), chapter 6, that: game that Cesar de Saussare, a French visitor
It is a received tradition among the Vulgar, That at in 1728, warned.
the Time of Cock<rovvdng, the Midnight Spirits for-
It iseven dangerous to go near any of these places
sake these lower Regions, and go to their proper
when this diversion is being held; so many clubs are
Places Hence it is, that in Country-Places, where
being thrown about that you run the risk of receiv-
the way of Life requires more early Labour, they
ing one on your head. (Quoted in Malcolmson, 1973:
always go chearfully to Work at that Time; whereas
if they are called abroad sooner, they are apt to
48-9)

imagine everything they see or hear, to be a wand-

'Threshing the fat hen', mentioned by Tus-
ring Ghost. ser in 1580, involved a live hen suspended
Crowing at unusual times generally meant from a man's back, with sfraw stuffed into his
death or ill luck— except on *Christmas Eve, clothes to protect him, and some horse bells
when cocks crow joyfully all night (Shake- attached. Players were blindfolded, and had to
speare, Hamlet, i. i). But a cock crowing at the killthe bird by hitting it with sticks (Hone,
door only meant that vistors would shortly 1827: 123-4). Alternatively, a cock was placed
arrive. Cocks on church spires guarded the in a specially made earthen vessel, with its
building and the graveyard, and would crow head and tail protruding from the pot, which
on Doomsday to wake the dead (Opie and was then suspended across the street about
Tatem. 1989: 90-1; Radford, Radford and Hole, twelve feet above the ground (c.l760. Hone,
1961: 108-9). 1827: 126).
Itwas thought that cocks might occasionally These cock-based customs were the first of
lay eggs, a behef based on the fact that old hens the *blood sports to come under sustained
sometimes develop male plumage and pressure for abolition, partly because they
behaviour, yet still lay small, sterile eggs; this were deemed particularly unsporting, but also
was regarded as ill-omened, and the egg would because by that time the game was a purely
be broken, for fear it hatched into a * cockatrice working-class activity. By the end of the 18th
(Blakeborough, 1898: 149; Forbes. 1966: 1-22). century the custom was regarded as nearly
 75 colours

extinct, with Quainton (Buckinghamshire) danger, as part of a cure, or for general good
being cited as the last place it occurred, in luck. In each case the bent coin was offered to
1844. A memory of the sport continued in the a saint.
form of throwing sticks at lead figures (made Most other coin beUefs have been short-
in the shape of a bird, animal, or man) and have escaped being recorded
lived or at least
trying to knock it over. This could be a fair- more than once or twice, except in the case of
ground game, or boys could own their own fishermen who used to cut a sUt in one of the
leaden 'cocks' and play at the game (Hone, cork floats of their nets, reputedly to let
1827: 127). Neptune know they were wiUing to buy the
Hone, 1827: 122-5; Malcolmson, 1973: 48-9, 118-22; fish they caught, and the widespread practice
Hutton, 1996: 153-9; Wright and Lones, i. 1936: 22-4; of placing a coin under the mast of any new
Dyer, 1876: 65-9. boat— 'for luck'.
See also *gold for the use of gold coins in
coffee grounds, see '^tea. folk-medicine.
Lovett. 1925: 13-14, 54-5. 70-1; Opie and Tatem, 1989:
coffins. One of the paradoxes of folk medi- 92-3; Lean, 1903: ii. 44-5, 134-5.
cine that objects connected with death are
is

deemed curative. In several parts of England, Colchester oyster fishery. The town of Col-
from the 18th century to the end of the
late
chester in Essex owns all the oyster beds on
19th, there are references to *rings made out the river Colne by virtue of a grant in the 12th
of 'the handles of decayed coffins', or their
century by Richard I. The start of the oyster
hinges, or their lead lining, worn to prevent season on 1 thus marked by the
September is
*cramp, fits, or rheumatism. In Shropshire, Mayor, Town Clerk, and other officials setting
the ring was 'made of three rings taken fi-om
out by boat into Pyefleet Creek, to assert their
three coffins out of three several churchyards'
ownership and officially start the season's
(Opie and Tatem, 1989: 91).
dredging. The Town Clerk reads the proclam-
ation (dated 1256) which states that the oyster
coins. The beUef reported most regularly beds have belonged to Colchester 'from the
about coins is that a holed or bent coin is time beyond which memory runneth not to
lucky. The coin with a hole is mentioned from the contrary'. Tne loyal toast is given in gin
the 1830s to the 1950s. The Poole and Dorset- and gingerbread, and the Mayor pulls up, and
shire Herald of 11 February 1847 details how a the first oyster. A few weeks later, about
eats,
localshopkeeper had kept all holed coins she 20 October, they stage a great Oyster Feast in
had received over the counter, in the belief Colchester's Moot Hall, where about 400
that they were special and should only be
people consume thousands of oysters.
;

used for holy purposes (reprinted in Morsley,

Kightly, 1986: 82; Hole, 1975: 106-7; David Cannadine,
1979: 305). Edward Lovett, collector of First "The Transformation of Civic Ritual in Modem Britain:
World War beliefs, described meeting a sol- The Colchester Oyster Feast", Past and Present 94 (1982),
dier who showed him an old farthing with a 106-30.

hole in it, which he carried as his mascot.

Also lucky was a bent coin, such as the colours. In English folklore, the main signifi-
'crooked sixpence' of the nursery rhyme, but cant colours are *black, *white, *red, *green,
this is recorded from a much earlier date, and to a lesser extent *blue. The ascribed
being mentioned (as 'bowed silver' or 'bowed meanings, however, do not form a systematic
groat', etc.) by playwrights from the 16th cen- code, nor are they self-consistent; each colour
tury onwards (see Lean), often in the context is considered individually, not in parallel or

of a gift, as for example in the description by contrast to others in a set, and each can cany

John Foxe of the martyrdom of Alice Benden either good or bad meanings, according to
at Canterbury, in 1557: 'A shiUing also of context. In some cases rhyme determines the
Philip and Mary she took forth, which her meaning, notably in the association of blue
father had bowed and sent her when she was and 'true'.
first sent to prison', and similar gifts were Various more coherent codes associated
reported into the late 19th century (N6Q.ls:10 with religion, astrology, and alchemy in the
(1854), Finucane (1977: 94-5) reports
505). medieval and early modem period, were
numerous examples of coin-bending in medi- known to at least some sections of the com-
eval times, in confirmation of a vow, when in munity. The traditional Catholic liturgical
colt-pixy 76

colours were: white for the feasts of Christ, thought to favour conception, and the full

Mary, and saints that are not martyrs: red for moon was best of all [JS]; Lincolnshire women
martyrs; violet in penitential seasons: black on interviewed in the 1980s stated:
Good Friday and green at all other
at funerals:
times (the system was modified in the 1960s). We were told by our mothers and grandmothers:
CathoUcs also associate blue with the Virgin have intercourse when the tide is coming in, the sea
will wash it in.
Mary.
A powerfiil modem code is the red/amber/ We used to say, do it when it was a full moon, (but) I

green of traffic controls, according to which think really you could do it any time and get a baby.
red = 'danger/stop', and green = 'safety/go If live on the do when the tide is going
you coast, it
ahead'. out and the sea will take it all away. (Sutton, 1992:
53, 93)

colt-pixy. A Hampshire name for a mischiev-

*
ous fairy, which takes the shape of a horse Some believed the time of conception had
and neighs to the horses of travellers, leading physical results; in Kent in the 1950s a girl
them astray into bogs (Briggs, 1976: 78-9). In with a facial birthmark was told she must
Somerset, acccording to Ruth Tongue (1965: have been conceived during an eclipse, and
119), it also attacks boys who steal apples from her red-haired brother that his parents must
orchards. have made love during the mother's period
US].
comets. As with spectacular * storms and It was thought that a death in a family

winds, whenever a comet appears, it is bound would soon be followed by a conception, the
to portend great events. Tacitus thought so, child coming, according to an old saying, 'to
and Bede in the 8th century agreed— 'Comets replace the one lost'; also, that if a childless
are long-haired stars with flames, appearing couple adopts a baby, the woman will very

suddenly, and presaging a change in sover- shortly become pregnant. Position during
eignty, or plague, or war, or winds, or floods' intercourse was thought important, the deep-
(De Natura Rerum (c.725), xxiv). Queen Eliza- er the penetration the Ukelier conception.
beth was reputedly above such things
I Some held that position could determine the
(Hazlitt, 1905: 142), but John Evelyn was not baby's sex: 'A woman from Hackthom (Lin-
sure. He noted in his Diary, 12 December 1680: colnshire) remembers her mother's advice in
'They may be warnings from God, as they the 1930s: "Lay on your right side when doing
commonly are for-runners of his animadver- it and you'll have a boy, lay on your left if you

sions . . .' want a girl"' (Sutton, 1992: 54). The same

advice was given in the so-called Aristotle's Mas-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 93; N&Q. lis: 1 (1910), 448; 151
(1926), 224, 267 terpiece ((1684), book I, chapter 2), which
recommends continuing to he thus when
conception. Until modem times, conception sleeping, for at least a week. It was said that if
was a topic fraught with anxiety. For a married the mother's 'system' was acid, she would
woman to be childless was a disgrace and conceive a girl, but if alkaline, a boy; women
disaster— but unwanted pregnancy could be would adjust their diet accordingly, and use
disastrous too. Traditional advice on how to douches of boracic acid, or bicarbonate of soda
conceive (or avoid conceiving) must have been US].
copious, though little has been recorded in Two common fallacies among young girls
print; early folklorists and their informants were that you cannot become pregnant the
probably avoided the subject as unseemly. In first time you have intercourse, nor if you do it

general terms, it is known that medieval standing up JS). To urinate or take violent
women went on *
pilgrimages and visited holy excercise straight afterwards was thought to
*wells to cure barrenness, and that the 'luck' be a safeguard; girls would make themselves
of various folk customs could include human cough or sneeze, jump about— or jitterbug.
but personal measures are very rarely
fertihty, Various strange contraceptive methods were
mentioned. Nowadays, there is less reticence; used. One was to insert one's wedding ring
the information which follows was easily into the womb and leave it there; this is

gathered orally and by a questionnaire in known to have been practised in London some
1998. 50 years ago JS]. Another, recorded from East
A waxing *moon and a rising *tide were AngUa, depended on contact with death; the
 contemporary, urban legends

woman might hold a dead man's hand for two land's Dictionary of English Plant-Names (1878-
minutes — some said, by opening up a new 86) imply that the game was known in certain
grave— or put a coin which has lain on a parts of the country only.
corpse's mouth under her pillow, thus The modem game of conkers is replete with
averting pregnancy while it was there, or, itsown etiquette and terminology, including
according to others, for ever after (Porter, the scoring by which a victorious conker takes
1969: 11-12; Sutton, 1992: 92). In the north of on the score of its defeated opponent (e.g. if a
England around 1850, it was commonly ten-er beats a six-er it becomes a seventeen-er,
thought that if a woman bore twins of which 10 + 6 + 1). Your opponent can stamp on your
one was a boy and the other a girl, she would conker if you drop it unless you shout 'Bagsie
never get pregnant again (Denham Tracts, no stampsies' first; a 'cheesecutter' was a
1890: II, 30). conker with a flat side; the cry to claim first hit
Plants reputed to prevent conception or variesfrom place to place but always has to
cause abortion included *parsley, penn5a-oyal, rhyme with 'conker':
nettles, and saffron (Hatfield, 1994: 17-20);
aloesand purgatives were also used as aborti-
Iddy iddy onker, my first conker
Iddy iddy oh, my first go
was gin (preferably hot), and vin-
facients, as
egar in which twelve pennies of church
As with other children's games there are
money had been steeped for two or three days periodic worried questions whether the game
(Folklore 69 (1958), Violent excercise, of conkers is dying out, and there are also
113).
especially throwing oneself downstairs, was adult competitions during the season which
also thought effective. are well reported in the national press.
See also *childbirth, *menstruation, Opie and Opie, 1969: 227-32; Vickery, 1995: 189-97.
*PREGNANCY.
Contemporary Legend. Founded in 1991,
conjurer. Until was appropriated by fair-
it this is the annual journal of the International
ground and stage performers, this word was Society for Contemporary Legend Research,
used for *wizards and *cunning men who covering all aspects of the genre, and using

could conjure up demons and spirits, and lay examples from many countries, including
ghosts. England. ISCLR also publishes a biannual
newsletter, Foaftale News, reporting current
conkers. The popular name for the horse- items in the media, on the internet, etc.
chestnut, and for the game played with them
suspended on a string. The history of the game contemporary, urban legends. From the
is not quite as clear as it could be, but its out- 1940s onwards, folklorists became aware of a
lines are known even if the precise dating is 'new' type of folktale— frightening, macabre,
unclear. The name appears to derive from a and/or amusing anecdotes going round orally,
previous game called 'conquerors' or 'con- and sometimes in newspapers. These fitted
quering', in which snail shells are squeezed the * legend genre because the tellers pre-
together, point to point, to see which will sented them as really true (and often genu-
break first. The earliest description of this inely beUeved they were) and the hearers
game was written by Robert Southey in 1821, accepted this. But whereas legends as previ-
recaUing his childhood near Bristol in 1782. In ously defined had mostly been collected from
parallelwith this game, however, another country-dwellers, and were always set in the
existedfrom at least the mid-1 7th century in past, these were common in cities and were
which hazel-nuts or cob-nuts were strung and about things alleged to have happened very
knocked together, in the same way as our recently, within a few weeks of the telling.
modem conkers. By the 1850s, horse- Their plots often tumed upon some typically
chestnuts and walnuts are mentioned, but the modem behaviour or invention— baby-sitting,
earliest known unambiguous reference to hitchhiking, takeaway food, microwave
horse-chestnuts being used dates from the ovens, kidney transplants, etc.— and reflected
Every Boy's Book of 1856. It is clear that this the fears and moral judgements of today's
game was not nearly as well known in the sec- society. Collectors therefore labeUed
them
ond half of the 19th century one would
as 'contemporary', 'urban', or 'modem' legends;
expect from its ubiquity in the 20th. As Vick- a more flippant term is 'foaftale', an acro-
ery points out, the entries in Britten and Hol- nym based on the way narrators claim the
coopering trade 78

adventure happened to 'a^end of ajriend' of significanceand relevance in the conununity.

theirs. The label 'urban' is much used by jour- The legends being international, Jan Brun-
nalists and the public, but slightly misleading, vand's influential American collections of
for they circulate throughout a whole country; texts and commentaries are relevant: The Van-

'contemporary' is now widely preferred. ishing Hitchhiker (1981), The Choking Doberman
With the exception of some ghost stories (1984), The Mexican Pet (1986), Curses! Broiled
(notably the *Vanishing Hitchhiker), their con- Again (1989), and The Baby Train (1993). For Brit-
tent is not supernatural but bizarre, violent, ish collections designed for the popular mar-
and gruesome— a grandmother's corpse is ket, see Rodney Dale, The Tumour in the Whale
stolen from a car roof-rack; a madman decapi- (1978) and It's True, It Happened to a Friend
tates a motorist who has left his car, and bangs (1984); Paul Smith, The Book of Nasty Legends
the head on the
car roof; a serial killer, dis- (1983) and The Book of Nastier Legends (1986);
guised as an old woman, hitches a Uft, but is Phil Healey and Rick Glanvill, Urban Myths
detected by his hairy hands; someone with (1991), The Return of Urban Myths (1993), and
Aids dehberately infects others, and leaves a Urban Myths Unplugged (1994). Verbatim record-
message saying so; a takeaway chicken por- ings of current teenage versions are included
tion really a rat. Others, more Ught-hearted,
is in Wilson, 1997.
involve sexual and social humiliations (nudity, Bennett and Smith, 1993, is an annotated
open flies, farting, etc.) in complicated and international list of texts and scholarly stud-

barely credible circumstances; these are basic- ies; a selection of major essays is reprinted in

ally narrative jokes, sometimes presented as Bennett and Smith, 1996. Papers have
such, while other tellers beUeve them utterly: appeared in many folklore journals, both here
'This is very funny, but this is absolutely true. and in America, and in the following volumes:
It was my aunty's neighbour who we knew Smith, 1983; Bennett, Smith, and Widdowson,
very well ..." (Bennett, 1988: 13-14). 1987; Bennett and Smith, 1988; Bennett and
Initially the sinister stories seem persuasive Smith, 1989; Bennett and Smith, 1990. This
because of their mundane setting, and series has now been replaced by the journal
because they grow out of a more diffuse body Contemporary Legend.
of beliefs, prejudices, and experiences current
in the community. The tellers generally give coopering trade. One of the old established
convincing details of time and place, sajdng trades which had its own set of ^occupational
they heard of the occurrence from someone customs, concentrated on key points in the
who knew the people it happened to; the worker's life, such as entering the trade,
hearers do not know that the event has coming of age, qualifying, and so on. Given
allegedly also happened in many other places, the trade, the barrel naturally features in
thus casting doubt on which account (if any) is most of the customs, with the victim being
factual. However sincere an individual teller placed in one and rolled around the yard or
is, and howeverfully he/she trusts his/her factory, but other features such as covering
informant, somebody back along the line of him with shavings and beer, and making a
transmission consciously created an effective great deal of noise, are common to most
tale, which others transferred to new loca- trades which have such ceremonies. 'Truss-
tions, adapting the details to suit. The process ing the Cooper', to celebrate the end of an
by which contemporary legends appear, apprenticeship, is illustrated in Picture Post
spread, are updated, and develop new vari- (30 November 1946), 16-17, and essentially
ations by recombining older elements, can the same procedure is also described in the
thus be regarded as a speeded-up version of Independent on Sunday (28 June 1998), 28, as
the dissemination of *migratory legends. still being practised. Photographs published

Such a widespread genre can be studied in Drake-Camell, 1938: plates 106-7, depict a
from several angles. Scholars concerned with similar process to celebrate an apprentice's
folk narrative produce accurate transcripts of twenty-first birthday at a Birmingham
actual teUings, and study the rhetorical strat- brewery.
egies of the narrators. Others trace the history J. Geraint Jenkins, Gwerin 1:4 (1957), 149-60.
of particular plots and themes, and identify
legends which were told as contemporary in coral. Coral beads hung round babies' necks
previous centuries. Others use sociological were seen by some as purely decorative, and
and psychological approaches to show their coral teething rings as purely practical; how-
 corpse candles, lights

ever, others believed coral warded off evil, as corn dollies. A modem craft form based
Reginald *Scot noted in 1584: loosely on traditional figures made of straw,
previously connected with *harvest customs.
The corrall preserveth such as beare it from fascin-
ation or bewitching, and in this respect they are
Many references to harvest figures exist,
under various names (Com baby. Com maid-
hanged about children's necks. But from whence
that superstition and who invented the en, Kem baby, etc.), and the treatment of the
is derived,
lie, I know not: but I see how readie the people are to figures also varied from place to place. Some-
give credit thereunto, by the multitude of corrals
times the image was large enough to be car-
that be employed. (Discoverie ofWitchaaft, 1584: book ried in triumph on a pole or in pride of place
13, chapters). on the last load, but in others it was a more
homely affair apparently made more for its
Some elaborate children's corals of the 18th decoration than for its representational fea-
and 19th centuries, silver mounted and with
tures. Some were hung up in farmhouse or
bells attached, have a tapering and twisting
bam till the following year, others were dis-
shape reminiscent of Neapolitan phaUic
played in the church at the harvest festival,
horns, famous as charms against the Evil Eye; while some places had a tradition whereby the
it may well be that the superstition, like the
figure could be sent to mock a nearby farm
substance itself, is imp>orted. which had not finished its harvest. Some were
rough and ready, others well crafted. Com fig-
ures, like harvest customs in general have not
Corby Pole Fair. Held in Corby, Northamp-
tonshire, on Whit Monday, the fair claims to received the detailed attention they deserve
have been founded by charter of Queen Eliza- because writers have been content to adopt
beth 1 in 1585, in gratitude for an incident in the discredited *Frazerian theory of com spir-
which locals rescued her from a nearby bog its and fertility and have thus needed to

into which she had somehow wandered. Need- enquire no ftirther, so their distribution and
less to say, no such charter can be found, but ftinction remains unclear. The custom of

Charles II did confirm the fair in 1682, and it is making com figures had virtually died out in
now held every twenty years. The distinctive England well before the Second World War,
feature from which the fair gets its name but was revived in modified form, by a num-
involves the barring of local roads and exact- ber of enthusiasts, under the generic name of

ing tolls from anyone who wants to pass. Any-

'com dolly' as a rural heritage handicraft in
one who reftises to pay, or commits any other the 1950s and 1960s. Minnie Lambeth, the
misdemeanour, is carried through the fair on wife of the Curator of the Cambridge Folk
a pole (or, if female, on a chair) and placed in Museum, was one of the leading Ughts of the
the stocks. Compare *Riding the Stang.
new movement, and she produced the first
practical manuals, A Golden Dolly; The Art, Mys-
Rightly, 1986: 87; Hole, 1975: 163; Stone, 1906: 1-4.
tery, and History of Com Dollies (1963, enlarged

1969) and Discovering Com Dollies (1974). The

cork. The beUef that cork keeps *cramp at bay craft 'com dolUes' have evolved far beyond
has been recorded a number of times since the the original traditional styles.
1850s, and is still current. Sufferers place the lorwerth C. Peate, Folklore 82:3 (1971). 177-84; Porter,
substance under their pillow or between the 1969: 123-4; FoMore 79:3 (1968), 233-4; FoOc-Lore 15
sheets, or even wear home-made cork garters (1904), 185.

or cork between their toes (Folk-lore 62 (1951),

268). Another letter published in N&(1 (12s:3 corpse candles, lights. One of the *omens
(1917), 449) asks why it is believed that wear- warning of impending death was the appear-
ing cork will keep off a heart attack, but no ance of small faint lights flitting about near
other report has been found to corroborate the home of the person fated to die, or along
this idea. A completely different notion leads the road by which the fiineral will reach the
to the keeping of champagne corks, popped at
churchyard; they might also be seen hovering
some significant time, 'for luck', oft:en with a over the place where the grave would be dug.
slit cut in the cork and a coin placed in it. Opie In areas bordering on Wales, where the beUef
and Tatem Ust examples back to the 1950s, was particularly common, they were called
and the custom is still widely observed at 'corpse candles', and in Sussex 'corpse lights';
weddings, major birthday parties, and so on. the 19th<entury Sussex folklorist Charlotte
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 69, 96. Latham found the belief was widespread, but
Cottingley fairy photographs

thought glow-worms might account for it By casting a spell, the witch had created a
(Folk-Lore Record I (1878), 49-50). magical link with her victim, which could be
used in reverse to punish her. Thus, in 1626 a
Cottingley fairy photographs. Five photos woman recalled how, as a servant in Hull, she
taken in 1917 and 1920 by two teenage girls at had been told by her mistress to 'clap the
Cottingley (Yorkshire) purported to show fair- chum-staff to the bottom of the chum' and lay
ies dancing in a nearby glen; they convinced her hands across the top of it, because a
Edward Gardner, a prominent Theosophist, woman thought to be a witch had come to the
and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Over 60 years house to spoil the butter-making; the woman
later, the girls admitted to a hoax, originally was immediately fixed to the spot, and after
simply meant to deceive their family (Yorkshire six hours 'fell down on her knees and asked

Evening Post (19 Mar. 1983); The Times (9 Apr. forgiveness, and said her hand was in the
1983)). The photographic process itself had chum, and she could not stir before (the) maid
not been faked, but the objects photographed lifted up the staff of the chum'. On another
were painted cardboard cut-outs pinned on to occasion, the girl's mistress being ill, she was
bushes. The photos and related documents told 'to take a horseshoe and fling it in her
fetched £22,000 at auction in July 1998. dame's urine, and as long as the horseshoe was
For the original report, see Sir Arthur Conan hot, the witch was sick at the heart' (Sharpe,
Doyle, Strand Magazine (Dec. 1920), 436-8; and 1996: 160). These principles were remembered
Edward L. Gardner, Fairies: A Book of Real Fairies for generations. In Sussex in the 1930s, it was
(1945; many reprints). For fuller discussion, waggon was halted by witchcraft,
said that if a
see Geoffrey Crawley, 'The Astonishing Affair one must flog the wheels or cut notches on
of the Cottingley Fairies', pubhshed in ten them; one man who did, saw the witch come
parts in The British Journal of Photography (1982- out of her cottage 'a-yellin' an' sloppin' blood,
3); Cooper, 1990; Paul Smith, in Narvaez, 1991: and for every notch on the spokes there wor a
371-405. cut on her fingers' (Simpson, 1973: 71).
The commonest way of exploiting this Unk
counterspeils. Some traditional measures was to apply heat to the object bewitched, so
against *witchcraft were general defences, e.g. as to bum the witch. If cream could not be
horseshoes, *hagstones, various plants hung churned to butter, one should dip a red-hot
at the door, the sign of the *cross, a bent *coin poker or horseshoe in; a sick person's *urine
laid in the chum, etc. But if a particular should be boiled in a *witch bottle, or made
witch's curse had already taken hold, aggres- into a cake and baked hard, or buried; his or
sive procedures were needed to break it; there her excrement should be thrown into a fire; if
are numerous accounts of these from Tudor a farm animal died, its *heart should be cut
times to within Uving memory, from all parts out, stuck with *pins, and thrown in the fire or
of England. put up the chimney to dry slowly; or its car-
The simplest and best known was to 'draw cass burnt, to save the rest of the livestock.
blood above the breath', i.e. to scratch the Occasionally, an animal would be burnt ahve;
witch's face to make it was widely
bleed; this The Times of 3 July 1810 reported (p. 3) that:
used in the 17th century, suspected women
At a village about two miles distant from Burton, in
being forced to submit to scratching, on the
Kendal, a farmer had lately several of his calves die of
assumption that those bewitched would then the distemper; some of his credulous neighbours
recover, and the witch lose her power. Illegal
persuaded him that they were bewitched; and a cun-
assaults still occurred in Victorian times. At
ning woman told him, that nothing would thrive
Stratford-upon-Avon in 1867 a man made 'a about his house till the witch was burnt, and that the
frightful gash' in a woman's cheek, saying, most effectual mode of breaking the enchantment
'There, you old witch, 1 can do anything with was to cause a calf to be burnt alive. This plan was
you now'; at Long Compton (Warwickshire) in accordingly adopted on Friday the 11th ult., and a
1875 a woman of 80 was killed with a pitch- firewas kindled for the purpose on an adjacent
fork by a man who thought she had bewitched moss, whither the poor victim (a fine heifer calf) was
taken in a cart, and placed on the burning pile. Two
him (Palmer, 1976: 83-4). Symbolic violence men and a servant-woman were the barbarous exe-
was also thought effective: to stab the witch's
who held the animal on the fire, one by its
cutioners,
footprint or shadow with a *nail, preferably a
legs,another by its tail, and the third by its head; it
coffin-nail, or to bum straw from her thatch, however escaped from them several times, and was
would break her power. again and again committed to the flames.
 coven

See also *cunning men, *hag-riding, isevidence, however, that the 'nigger' word
hearts and pins, *urine, *witch bottles. was imported relatively late from the USA,
with 'chicken' or 'tinker' being the older Brit-
counting. It has long been considered ish form (Opie and Opie, 1997: 184-6). The
unlucky to count things too accurately— it is turns up in dozens of other counting-
first line

tempting fate to announce (even to yourself) out rhymes, and is also found in German,
the exact number in case it makes you lose Ausfrian, and a French-Canadian version, but
some. 'Don't count your chickens before they the middle two lines are first reported in 1888
are hatched' is an oft-quoted maxim even (from Scotland). Enghsh children have a wide
today. The references given in Opie and Tatem range of rhymes from which to choose:
show that the fear of counting stretches back
One potato, two potato, three potato, four
at least to biblical and classical times, but Brit- Five potato, six potato, seven potato, more
ishexamples only appear ft-om the 18th cen- One bad spud!
and the majority of illustrations given by
tury,
[SR]
them are from Scotland. Nevertheless, Enghsh
* is common over Britain, USA, Canada, and
all
card-players are particularly advised against
Australia, but does not seem to have been
counting their winnings at the card-table, and
on a similar principle: 'A Suffolk shepherd . . .
reported before 1885 (in Canada). A number of
will seldom willingly tell even his master the rh5mies start with the words 'Ip dip', and
number of lambs bom until the lambing- indeed many children refer to the process as
season is over for fear of bad luck' (Folk-lore 54 'dipping':

(1943), 390). The only thing one should def- Ip dip sky blue
* Who's
initely count is warts, as from the mid-1 9th it not you

century to the present day this has been a is a simple version, but more common now-
standard way of getting rid of them.
adays (but rarely published) is:
See also: *counting-out rhymes; shep-
herds' score; *standing stones; *vv^ighing. Ip dip dog shit
Fucking bastard silly git
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 101-2.
(Norbuiy, Croydon, 12-year-old girls, 1986)

counting-out rhymes. Used by children See also *shepherds' score.

(and sometimes adults sotto voce) to make a Bolton, 1888; Abrahams and Rankin, 1980; Opie and
random choice between options but particu- Opie, 1969: 17-61.

larly to choose who vdll be 'it' in a game. The

children stand in a circle or line, and one child country dance, see *dance.
points to each in turn in the rhythm of the
chanted rhyme and either the one pointed to coven. In medieval Enghsh, this word, a vari-
on the last word is 'it' or, more usually, is elim- ant of 'convent' and derived from Latin conven-
inated from the count and the process is tus, 'assembly', had no hnk to witches; it

repeated until there is only one left. As such it

meant either a gathering of people (number

is normally accepted as a fair method of choos- unspecified), or a community of thirteen

ing, but in the hands of a skilftil practitioner

monks and their abbot, modelled on Christ
the outcome can be manipulated to a certain and his apostles. However, in Scotland from
about 1500 it was occasionally applied to a
degree. There can be few people in Britain
who do not know a variant of witches' meeting, possibly by association with
the similar-sounding word 'covin', meaning a
Eenie meenie minie mo
plot or a group of plotters; in 1662 a Scottish
Catch a nigger by his toe
witch, Isobel Gowdie, said in her confession
If he hollers let him go
that 'ther is threttein persones in ilk coeven'.
Eenie meenie minie mo.
A second example of this usage occurs in the
deposition of a Northumbrian girl called Anne
[SR]

The offensive word in the second Une, under Armstrong, a witness in a witch trial in 1673;
pressure from parents and teachers, is usually she spoke of witches attending the sabbath in
rendered now as 'beggar' or other two-syllable 'coveys' of thirteen (Sharpe, 1996: 279).
The
word, much to the annoyance of those who term remained rare until it was picked up by
believe that our fraditional lore should not be Sir Walter Scott in his Letters on Demonology and

changed for mere 'poUtical correctness'. There Witchcraft, 1830.

cowslip

In 1922 Margaret *MuiTay launched the the- sleeps init, otherwise it 'will end its days lack-

ory that witches were always organized in ing the means to pay for its own coffin'
groups of thirteen where the leader imper- (Blakeborough, 1898: 114-15). An annual
sonated the Devil, and alleged that trial Candlemas custom at Blidworth (Not-
records showed several such groups, including tinghamshire) involved the vicar rocking the
five in England. When checked by historians, last-baptized infant in an old cradle bedecked
her figures turned out to be wrong; she had with flowers and surrounded by candles,
manipulated information in her sources to before the altar. The custom was revived in
achieve the desired number. Though the idea 1923, although it is locally beUeved that it
of organization by covens is now rejected by dates back to the 13th century (Wright and
scholars as unhistorical, it is widely taken for Lones, 1938: ii. 123-4).
granted in fiction and joumahsm; it is also Opie and Tatem, 1989: 103, 315-16.
central to the organization of the *Wicca
movement.
cramp. Numerous cures for cramp have been
recorded, some with an alleged physical basis,
cowslip. Cowslip balls were made by hanging while others are purely magical. Forbes
the flower heads from a string and tying the gives several examples of verbal *charms, in-
ends. Children would toss them to each other, cluding the following from a schoolboy Samuel
reciting, as the ball gradually fell to bits: Coleridge Taylor:

Tissty-tossty, tell me true, The devil is tying a knot in my leg

Who am I going to be married to? Mark, Luke, and John, unloose it I beg
Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor, Crosses three we make to ease us
Rich man, poor man, beggarman, thief. Two for the thieves, and one for Christ Jesus!
In Lincolnshire, women attempted to throw A widespread belief in a particular animal
these balls over a house (presumably having bone, carried in the pocket or placed under
weighted them), which some said was 'to keep the pillow, to prevent or cure cramp has a long
away evil, the devil'; others hung bunches in history, and is still found. In the earUest refer-
cowsheds to keep witches out (Sutton, 1997: ences, in the 16th century, it was a bone from
105-6). a hare: 'The lytle bone in the knee ioynt of the
hinder legge of an hare, doth presently helpe
cradle, pram. A number
of behefs cluster the crampe if you touch the grieved place
around the cradle and, by extension, the therewith. Often proved' (Lupton, 1579: i. 87;
pram. Rocking an empty cradle is regularly quoted in Opie and Tatem) and Reginald *Scot
reported, from the early 19th century (1584: book, 13 chapter 10) agreed. By the 19th
onwards, as resulting in a new baby arriving century the effective bone was usually the
soon, and is still current in the idea of advice patella, orknuckle-bone of a sheep.
not to push an empty pram. It is also con- See also *cramp rings, *cork, *eels.
sidered by many that to have a cradle or pram Forbes, 1971: 293-316; Black, 1883: 27, 86, 95, 154, 156,
in the house before the baby is bom is to 175, 182, 199; Lean, 1903: ii. 491-3; Opie and Tatem,

tempt fate and run the risk of bad luck, 1989: 104.

while the underl5dng fear is the baby being

bom dead or dying young. This notion is first cramp rings. From the reign of Edward III to
reported in the 1890s, and is still regularly that of Mary Tudor, monarchs used to bless a
mentioned, although it is nowadays accept- plateful of gold and silver rings every *Good
able to buy one, but it should not be delivered Friday at the altar of the Chapel Royal, mb-
to the house in advance of the birth. Other, bing them between their fingers; thanks to
less common, beliefs can be quoted. Referring the royal healing touch (cf *king's evil), they
to the north of England in the mid-1 9th cen- could cure epilepsy, cramp, or palsy, provided
tury, Denham reported, 'In all sales either they were 'given without money or petition',
under distraint for rent or common debt, it is as Andrew Borde noted in his Breviary of Health
an ancient and invariable custom to leave the (1557, fo. 166).
cradle unsold, and the original owner is at lib- This royal ritual either developed from, or
erty to repossess it' {Denham Tracts, 1891: ii. inspired, a less elitist one described in a
40). In Yorkshire, new parents were warned manuscript of c.1400 (MS Amndel 275, fo.
that a cradle must be paid for before the baby 23b). Five silver pennies must be taken from
83 cross

the Mass-offerings on Good Friday in five dif- Cromwell, Oliver. Chiefly remembered in
ferent churches; these 25 coins must be laid folk fradition as a destroyer. A considerable
before a crucifix while five 'Our Fathers' are number of castles and manor houses, espe-
said in honour of the Five Wounds ofJesus, for cially in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, are said
five days running, and then hammered into a (incorrectly) to have been destroyed or
ring inscribed v*^th 'Jesus of Nazareth' and the severely damaged by Cromwell's cannon-fire;
names of the Three Wise Men. an even larger number of churches, in several
After these customs had been abolished in different counties, are said to have been dese-
the reign of EUzabeth, people took to making crated by Cromwell (or Cromwell's men) stabl-
rings for themselves, to cure fits or rheuma- ing horses there. Presumably as a result of this
tism, out of metal that was in some way special. and destructive
violent reputation, Cromwell
The most popular method was to collect 12 or became a *bogey figure. Flora Thompson men-
30 pennies, each from a different person, and tions in her Lark Rise to Candleford (1945) that in
ask a clergyman to exchange them for a shil- Oxfordshire in the 1880s 'the older mothers
ling or a half-crown from the collection plate; and grandmothers still threatened naughty
this 'sacrament *silver' was then made into a children with the name of Cromwell. "If you
ring. There are references to this in Hereford in ain't a good gal, old Oliver Cmmmell'll have
the mid-1 7th century, in Berkshire in the 18th, 'ee!" they would say, or "Here comes old
'
and in several 19th-century regional collec- Cmmmell!" (chapter 14).
tions. In Cheshire, the ring couldbe made from His sudden death on 3 September 1658, at
a shilling obtained by begging a penny each the height of his power, made a deep
from twelve people of the sex opposite to the impression on the popular mind. Shortly
sufferer (Moss, 1898: 166); in Essex and Devon, before, on the night of 30/31 August, there
from nine sixpences, and in Suffolk from had been a great gale, and it was soon being
twelve scraps of broken silver, all to be got in said that the two events were connected —
*
the same way
(Radford, Radford, and Hole, indeed, that the storm had come on the very
1961: 293-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 327-8). In night Cromwell died. Such signs were
Yorkshire, pieces of lead cut from *coffins were ambiguous; they could mark the death of a
used; in Shropshire and Devon, coffin nails — great hero, or of a sinner bound for Hell. In
'three nails taken from three coffins out of the case of a regicide the latter was more
three several churchyards' (Bume, 1883: 193). likely, and became the accepted interpret-
ation in folk tradition.
To add to the drama, Cromwell's body was
crickets. The belief that a cricket singing in exhumed from Westminster Abbey after the
the house means something is well attested Restoration in 1660 and decapitated, the head
from the early 17th century onwards, but being displayed at Westminster Hall, and
there is no consensus whether it is good or these events too are said to have been accom-
bad. John *Melton (1620: 46) was quite clear: 'It panied by storms. The body may have been
is a signe of death to some in that house,
secretly buried in Red Lion Square in Hol-
where Crickets have been many yeeres, if on a bom, London, or taken by his daughter to her
sudden they foresake the Chimney Comer', home at Newburgh Prioryand laid in a vault
whereas only 30 years later, Nathaniel Homes there; it is said that any attempt to open this
(Daemonologie (1650), 59) maintains that death vault to estabUsh the tmth will lead to
is foreshadowed 'of a cricket crying in an disaster.
house, where was wont to be none'. Charles Alan Smith, FoMore 79 (1968), 17-39.
Dickens titled one of his stories The Cricket on
the Hearth (1846) in which there is no equivoca- cross. The many ways in which material rep-
tion, 'To have a cricket on the hearth is the resentations of the cross, and the gesture of
luckiest thing in all the world!' Charlotte prayer and blessing called the Sign of the
Bume (1883: 238) sums it up in her work on Cross, are used in official religious rituals need
Shropshire lore: 'The cricket on the hearth not be listed here. At the level of folk custom
appears somewhat in the Ught of a domestic and behef the cross fiinctions as a powerftil
of
familiar, or household bogy, sometimes protection against evil, and hence as a way
regarded as a "lucky" inmate and sometimes ensuring luck. Children draw a cross on them-
as quite the reverse.' selves with thumb or finger (generally licking
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 104-5. it first) as a form of oath, saying 'Cross my
cross-dressing

heart and wish I may die!' To draw it on one's 'for luck', or to ward off" ill luck (e.g. after

shoe said to cure cramps, and revive a foot

is walking imder a *ladder) is one of our most
that has 'gone to sleep'; Coleridge recalled this well-understood *gestures, although we may
from his schooldays, with the rhyme: often say it— 'I'll cross my fingers for you'—
rather than actually cany out the action. Mor-
Foot. foot, foot is fast asleep!
ris shows that the gesture is understood by
Thumb, thumb, thumb in spittle we steep!
Crosses three we make to ease us.
some on mainland Europe but is only com-
Two for the thieves and one for Jesus! monly found in Britain and parts of Scandi-
navia. Given its ubiquity in this country, it is
(Table Talk (1835). ii. 59)
surprising to find that the earhest reference
There are many references to marking found by Opie and Tatem only dates from 1912
bread-dough and cake mixtures with a cross (Leather, 1912: 88), where it is already linked
before baking, to keep the Devil and witches to the ladder superstition. See *thumb for an
away, so that they rise properly in cooking; older gesture, of similar protective nature.
other foods were sometimes protected in the One sphere in which crossed fingers are still
same way. No witch could step over sticks or taken seriously is in the school playground,
straws laid crossways, or enter through doors used as a protective action to accompany a
or chinmeys where a cross had been carved; *truce term to obtain temporary respite in a
the symbol was therefore common on *witch
game. One of the popular explanations for the
posts and *threshold patterns. gesture's origin is that it dates from classical
times when Christians were persecuted for
cross-dressing. Despite the Biblical prohib- their religion, and crossing the fingers was a
ition against cross-dressing, 'The woman shall secret way of invoking the cross. Given its late
not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, appearance, restricted distribution, and the
neither shall a man put on a woman's gar- fact that crossed fingers bear no relation to the
ment: for all that do so are abomination unto shape of a cross, the explanation is completely
the Lord thy God' (Deuteronomy 22: 5), men unfounded.
dressing as women (and occasionally the other See also *crossing legs, *fingers, ges-
way round) is a recurrent feature of traditional tures, *THUMBS, *TRUCE TERMS.
customs, including *morris dance, *mumming Opie and Tatem, 1989: 109; Morris, 1979: 15-24; Opie
plays, *occupational customs (especially mock and Opie, 1959: 122-5. 142-53, 211-17.
weddings), *Molly dance, *sword dance,
*Castleton Garland, *Abbots Bromley Horn crossing legs. John Aubrey commented in
Dance, and even the Lady *Godiva procession, 1686: 'To sit cross legged or with our fingers
and is regularly mentioned as a feature of pectinated, shutt together, is accounted bad.
other events such as * Charlton Horn Fair, and Friends will psuade us from it. The same con-

private Christmas parties. Some folklorists ceit was reUgiously observed by ye ancients as
pronounced that cross-dressing had a ritual, is observable from PUny', and also 'When one
fertiUty-enhancing function, but there is no has ill luck at cards, 'tis common to say that
evidence of this, and the practice has other somebody sits with his legges acrosse, and
more prosaic features which are sufficient to brings him ill luck' (Aubrey, 1686: 111, 199).
explain presence and continuity. Until the
its Most other reports, from before his time until
17th century women were routinely debarred the present day, report crossed legs as a way of
from taking part in all performance milieux, ensuring good luck, especially at cards, or (in
including the legitimate stage, and this pro- 1671) girls wanting luck in the lottery by
hibition would have been even stronger in the 'praying cross-legg'd to S. Valentine'. In two
realm of customs which involve heavy drink- specific situations, however, crossed legs must
ing, rough horseplay, and fighting. A further definitely be avoided—while someone else is

reason is that in our society men dressed as giving birth and, according to a note in Folk-
women have been regarded as inherently lore (33 (1944), 390-1), at a spirituahst seance.

fiinny, allowing scope for ribaldry and innu- Compare *crossing fingers.
endo which normal social mores would hardly Opie and Tatem, 1989: 109-10.
allow if women were taking part.
crossroads. Traditionally felt to be uncanny
crossing fingers. The act of crossing the places, likely to be haunted; this may be due to
*fingers (i.e. middle finger over index finger) their ambiguous nature (belonging to two or
 85 cuckoos

more roads at once), and is certainly national television news, but by March 1986
reinforced by their association with death and seems to have been forgotten. It will be inter-
punishment. esting to note whether any previous examples
Until 1823, EngUsh law required that sui- of this belief come to Ught, or if the newspaper
cides be buried in the highway; crossroads concocted it, and whether it continues with-
were generally chosen, and the corpse was out the help of the media. Either way, it is an
often staked— a ritual of pubhc disgrace, to excellent example of how the mass media play
deter others. According to local stories, some a major role in creating and spreading modem
witches were similarly treated, while cross- folklore.
roads burials of executed criminals are known See also *picture.
from Anglo-Saxon times. Those chosen were Main articles: Sun (24, 25, 26 Oct. 1985); 13 Nov.
(12,
usually outside the town boundaries, probably 1985); (24 Feb. 1986).

symbohzing expulsion of the wrongdoer.

Some have speculated that they might also
cuckoos. The arrival of cuckoos is the signal
confuse the ghost of the deceased, who could
that spring has come; various April dates are
not then return home to haunt.
called 'Cuckoo Day' in different parts of the
Crossroads also feature in magical cures. In
country: 14th in Sussex, 15th in Hampshire
Shropshire, grains of wheat rubbed against
and Northamptonshire, 20th in Worcester-
*warts were left there in the hope that some
shire, and so on. These are dates of local fairs,
passer-by would pick them up; in Suffolk, the
and there is often a tradition that an old
remedy for ague was: woman goes to the fair and lets a cuckoo out
You must go by night alone to a cross-road, and just of her bag or apron (Wright and Lones, 1938:
midnight hour you must turn
as the clock strikes the ii. 177-8).
yourself about thrice and drive a tenpenny nail up to A good deal of light-hearted rivalry sur-
the head in the ground. Then walk away backwards
rounds the question of when and where the
from the spot before the clock is done striking
first cuckoo is heard, and many letters on the
twelve, and you will miss the ague; but the next per-
son who goes over the nail will catch the malady in topic have been pubUshed in The Times over
stead. (Gurdon, 1893: 14). the years. *Omens were drav^m from the first
your
caU heard: lucky if to your right, unlucky if to

your left or behind you, or if you have not yet

crows. Generally regarded as unlucky, and as
*omens of death, eaten; if you have money in your pocket at the
especially if they croak per-
time, you will have plenty all year (especially if
sistently near a house, or fly low over its roof
Occasionally, the number of crows seen at you turn it or jingle it), but if not, you will stay
once poor; if you are in bed, this forebodes an ill-
is important, as v^th *magpies; in Leeds
ness, unless you start running at once; if you
in the 1860s it was said 'When one crow is
are standing on grass, that bodes well, but if
seen, a sign of bad luck; two, of good luck;
it is
on earth or stones, you will be dead before
three, of death; and four, of a wedding' (Opie
next spring. The number of calls you hear
and Tatem, 1989:111).
shows how many more years before you die,
or before you marry. Another divination, first
'Crying Boy' painting. Apparently out of the
mentioned in 1579, was to look inside your
blue in October 1985, the tabloid newspaper
shoe on hearing the first call, for in it would be
The Sun ran a story about a popular painting,
a hair of the same colour as that of whoever
which they dubbed 'The Crying Boy', being
cursed or jinxed. In a series of articles, they you were fated to marry.
There was a custom among some 19th-
built up the story that the picture was very bad
luck to those who owned it, and that it some- century workmen, especiaUy Shropshire col-
liers, to stop work on hearing the first cuckoo,
how caused fires, but was untouched when
claim the day as a holiday, and go off to drink
everything else in the room was burnt. A
ale or beer out of doors, to welcome the bird.
number of readers wrote in agreeing that the
This custom was called 'Wetting the Cuckoo',
picture was cursed, although some claimed
or 'Cuckoo Foot-Ale' (Wright and Lones, 1938:
that it was actually good luck when paired
iii. 20). It was kept up at Hoffleet Stow (Lin-
with the 'Crying Girl' painting. When the
colnshire) within Uving memory:
.
newspaper offered to destroy any pictures sent
to them (paradoxically on a giant bonfire), In the 1920s and 30s was the custom to welcome in
it

they 'came flooding in'. The item made the the spring. When we heard the first cuckoo of the
cunning men, women
spring call we would take a barrel of beer into the It is impossible to arrive at any figures, but

spinney or wood where it was calling that's anecdotal evidence indicates that they were
where the ale was drunk, in the centre of the
quite common throughout the 19th century,
wood There we drank the health of the cuckoo
and in some country areas in the first half of
with the new cuckoo ale. (Sutton. 1997: 80-1)
the 20th century. There were various popular
At Mere (Wiltshire) in the 16th century the names for them: wizards, conjurers, sorcerers,
*church ale was held in spring and its master *charmers, wise men/women, cunning men/
of ceremonies was entitled 'Cuckoo King' (Folk- women, the latter two being the most wide-
lore 18 (1907), 340-1). spread. 'White witch' was a term more used by
The cuckoo's habit of laying eggs in the outsiders than by practitioners and their cli-

nests of other birds explains why its cry was ents. 'Conjurer' implied the ability to summon

regarded, in medieval and Elizabethan times,

—
and dismiss devils or spirits a power claimed
as mocking cuckold husbands— they would by some rural magicians, such as Jenkyns
have to bring up another man's child. In folk- of Trelleck (Monmouthshire) (Wherry, 1904:
song, 'cuckoo's nest' is sometimes a term for a 76-81).
woman's genitals. Cuiming men were called upon to heal
Cuckoos are also associated with stupidity; sickness in humans
or animals, to detect and
in northern 'gowk' means both
dialects punish thieves, look into the future, give
'cuckoo' and and *April Fools are often
'fool', information about people far away, cast horo-
called April Gowks. 'You're cuckoo' is still a scopes and tell fortunes, and to procure love;
slangy way of saying 'You're crazy'. Or it may perhaps their most important function, and
be the humans who are stupid, as in the old certainly the most dramatic, was to diagnose
joke about the men of Borrowdale witchcraft, identify the witch, and defeat her
(Westmorland/Cumbria), who are said to have by their own *counterspells. Some claimed
built a wall to imprison the cuckoo, so that their power was inborn and hereditary, but
summer would never end; the bird flew out, many others used manuals of fortune-telling
skimming the top, at which one exclaimed, and/or astrology, and handwritten collections
'By gow! If we'd nobbut laid another line o' of herbal recipes and magical formulas; the
stanes atop, we'd 'a copped him.' The same is predominantly illiterate clientele were awed
said about the people of *Gotham; also of by such displays of book-learning. Several
Wing (Leicestershire), which has a pub called regional folklore collections give reminis-
the Cuckoo Inn, offering further opportunities cences about famous individuals such as the
for wit. cunning man named Wrightson who lived at

James Hardy, Folk-Lore Record 2 (1879),

47-91; Swainson, Stokesley (North Yorkshire) around 1810
1885: 109-22; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 112-14. (Henderson, 1866: 177-82; Brockie, 1886: 21-
5; Blakeborough, 1898: 187-92). He was the

cunning men, women. From the medieval *

seventh son of a seventh daughter, and
period almost to the present day, there have appeared to have clairvoyant powers, though
been people who were employed by others to some thought him a fraud, and 'his private
practise magical skills on their behalf, and character was said to be very bad'; Blakebor-
were paid in money or small gifts, thus use- ough says he favoured counterspells 'of the
fully supplementing the income from their heart-frizzling, pin-sticking, wickenwood and
regular occupations. Frequent complaints by bottery-tree order'.
the educated classes indicate how popular The educated classes criticized or mocked
they were. In a sermon in 1552, Bishop the influence of such persons throughout the
Latimer lamented: 'A great many of us, when whole period; they could be prosecuted under
we be in trouble, or lose anything, we run the Witchcraft Act of 1736, which, while deny-
hither and thither to witches or sorcerers,
ing that magic had any reality, imposed
whom we wise men
call seeking aid and
. . .
penalties on anybody who publicly claimed to
comfort at their hands' {Sermons (1844), 534). practise it, this being regarded as a form of
In 1807, Robert Southey could still say: 'A fraud. Such prosecutions were rare, and were
Cunning-Man, or a Cunning-Woman, as they generally brought by dissatisfied clients who
are termed, is to be found near every town,
thought themselves cheated, rather than by
and though the laws are occasionally put in the police.
force against them, still it is a gainful trade'
Thomas, 1971: 177-252; Sharpe, 1996: 66-70; Maple.
(Letters from England, p. 295). 1960; Davies. 1997; Davies. 1998; Davies, 1999 6: 27-91.
87 curses

cures, see "medicine. practice. In 1899 a lead tablet was found bur-
ied in Lincoln's Inn, bearing invocations to the
curses. Although invoking God's power to moon and the wish that Ralph Scrope (a Gov-
curse is generally done by the clergy, in previ- ernor of the Inn in 1570-2) should never suc-
ous centuries some lay people who believed ceed in anything he did. Two more, also
themselves deeply wronged would utter a probably of the 1570s, were dug up from a
ritualized curse, kneeUng on their bare knees barrow on Gatherley Moor (North Yorkshire);
in some public place in the presence of wit- they had astrological symbols and rows of
nesses. Records of a Hereford diocesan court figures, and a curse that several members of a
describe how in 1598 one man cursed another family named Phihp should 'come presently
on his knees in the churchyard, 'praying unto to utter beggary', and 'flee Richemondshire'
God that a heavy vengeance and a heavy (Hole, 1973: 92-3). Another, found in a cup-
plague might Ught on him and all his cattle', board at Wilton Place near Dymock (Glouces-
and in 1614 a woman cursed a man she tershire) in 1892, and now in Gloucester
believed had killed her husband, 'and prayed Museum, was also designed to drive away its
to God that his house, his children and all he victim. At the top is the name 'Sarah EUis',
had were one wild fire' (Thomas, 1971: 506-8). written backwards in 17th-century script;
Psalm 109 was called 'the cursing psalm' for then come complex designs and some num-
its vidictive words; it was said that if a dying bers, all referring astrologically to the moon,
man recited it while thinking of someone who and then the curse itself, which invokes eight
had wronged him, the latter was doomed (Bot- demons, the first being one linked to the
trell, 1873: 227-33). moon: 'Hasmodait Acteus Magalesius
There was a widespread belief that when Ormenus Leius Nicon Minon Zeper make this
monastic estates were confiscated at the Ref- person to Banish away from this place and
ormation the monks laid the curse of God on Countery amen. To my desier amen' (Mer-
those who received them; they and their des- rifield, 1987: 147-8).
cendants suffered financial disasters (since 'ill- In 1960, an 18th-century doll was foimd
gotten gains never prosper'), and sometimes hidden in a house in Hereford, with a written
untimely deaths and personal misfortunes. curse pinned to its skirt: 'Mary Ann Ward. I act
These ideas were widely discussed in books this spell upon you from my hoU (whole) heart
and pamphlets from the 17th century wishing you to never rest nor eat nor sleep the
onwards, notably Henry Spelman's The History resten part of your life I hope your flesh will
and Fate of Sacrilege, published in 1698; the waste away and I hope you will never spend
fourth edition, in 1895, was updated with fur- another penney I ought to have. Wishing this
ther local traditions (Thomas, 1971: 96-104). from my whole heart' (Hereford Times (22 Jan.

Cursing through black magic was greatly I960)).

feared, and is mentioned in many *witchcrafi: No doubt others too vented their anger in
trials and traditions. Occasionally, material similar ways, using whatever magical rituals
objects are found which definitely prove they knew; a more recent development is the
that someone had been turning theory into belief that *Gypsies can lay potent curses.
daisies. The daisy features in a light-hearted couples, which arrived from France in 1816
*love divination, the petals being plucked off (although it was based on eariier EngUsh

singly with the words 'He loves me, he loves country dances) and several 'round' or couple
me not' till all are gone, the last one deciding dances such as the Waltz (1812), the Polka
the issue. Daisy-chains are made by slitting the (1844), and the Schottische (1848). Each of
stem with a thumb-nail, threading another these was characterized by its own musical
through it, and repeating the process; since rhythm, and the Waltz and Polka in particular
modem lav^ms have few weeds, the game is took the middle classes by storm, with thou-
getting rarer. It was said that spring had truly sands of new tunes and variations flooding the
arrived if one could set one's foot on seven (or market. Each took its time filtering dovm the
nine, or twelve) daisies at once (Vickery, 1995: social scale. QuadriUe dancing underwent a
100-2). vigorous revival in the late 19th century in
middle-class circles. Since the late 19th cen-
dance. A standard basic distinction in folk tury, new dances have tended to come from
dance scholarship is between 'ceremonial' and America rather than Europe. What the ordin-
'social' dance. Ceremonial dances are per- ary working village or town dweller was dan-
formed by a special group wdthin the com- cing before these fashionable new dances
munity for display at special times, in special arrived is still open to some debate.
costume (as, for example, *morris dance, The usual assumption, based largely on the
*
sword dance, * Molly dance, *Bacup Coconut writings of Cecil *Sharp, is that the indigenous
Dance, and the *Helston Furry Dance) or as an EngUsh folk dance was what became known as
integral part of a *calendar custom performed the 'country dance'. The key difference
only on certain occasions (such as *Wishford between the old country dances and the new
Magna, *Padstow Hobby Horse, and the *Shaft- couple dances is that while in the latter

esbury Byzant). Social dances, on the other couples progress independently round the
hand, are performed in everyday situations by room, repeating a short sequence of specified
both sexes, without special training beyond steps, in the country dances couples are
knowing the basic steps and movements. This included in a particular formation (circle,
entry will concentrate on social dance. square, lines, etc.), and they perform a series
In the sphere of social dance, the notion of of figures and steps in co-operation with other
a separate identifiable English 'folk' dance couples. Sharp started trying to collect coun-
repertoire is difficult to sustain. It would be try dances in rural areas about 1907, with only
difficult to find a dance form which is not hmited success:
'traditional', that is, informally learnt, passed
In the village of today the polka, waltz and quadrille
on, and More than most cultural
practised.
are steadily displacing the old-time country dances
forms, dances have moved up and dov^m the
and jigs, just as the tawdry ballads and strident
social scale, have gone in and out of fashion,
street-songs of the towns are no less surely
and undergone revival at different times, and
exterminating the folk-songs. (Written in 1909;
at any given historical moment there were
Sharp: i.
9)
several possible dance repertoires existing
side by side, as now. The 19th century, for There is abundant evidence from hterary

example, was dominated by new dance crazes and historical sources that 'country dances'
introduced fi:om the Continent, including the had been exfremely popular at court and
Quadrille, a lively square dance for four other fashionable balls, particularly in the
89 dance

17th century. Samuel Pepys, for example, people had different dances, 'which were reels
recorded a ball in the presence of the king and of all sorts, jigs, a long dance called the "horse-
queen on 31 December 1662; after a bransle race", another called "thread-the-needle", &c.
and a coranto: '. very noble it was and a
. . These were danced with hops, leg-crossings,
great pleasure to see. Then to country dances: and rather boisterous movements' {EFDS News
the King leading the first which he called for: (Sept. 1926), 383-5; JEFDS 2s:l (1928), 52-6). He
which was, says he, 'Cuckolds All a-Row', the maintained that 'country dances' were intro-
old dance of England .'
Sharp's basic
. . duced to the tradespeople class in the village
assumption was that these fashionable 'coun- in about 1800, and the work people were
try dances' were the existing vernacular vil- extremely reluctant to take them up. Sharp
lage dances, tidied up and developed for the was disdainful of town-dwellers' traditions,
court and the ballroom, while they also con- but a detailed account of London coster-
tinued in their natural habitat, the remnants mongers' 'tuppenny hops' in the 1840s, writ-
of which he had hoped to find in the villages. ten by Henry Mayhew, gives weight to Hardy's
He used early dance manuals, in particular view. These events included jigs, hornpipes,
John Playford's English Dancing Master, first polkas, and country dances, 'the last men-
published in 1650 and then in sixteen other tioned being generally demanded by the
editions until 1728, to attempt a reconstruc- women' (Henry Mayhew, London Labour and
tion of earlier 'country dance' forms. The the London Poor (1861), i. 12; a much shorter
problem is no real proof that
that there is version was contributed by Mayhew to the
the courtly country dances were taken from Morning Chronicle (27 Nov. 1849), letter XII).
the village at all, but may have been largely Both Mayhew and Hardy indicate the factor
invented for the court, and only loosely based which ismissing in most accounts of 'folk'
on the 'folk' dances of the time. What evi- dancing, in that at least in the 18th and 19th
dence there is concerning the latter points to centuries, and probably before, an extremely
people dancing in circles, linked lines (moving common form of dance for the working
in serpentine fashion), heys, or weaving in and classes, both rural and urban, was 'stepping'
out when two lines met, and a *thread the or 'stepdancing'. In its basic form, this
needle movement as the line passed under an involved 'the rhythmic beating and scuffUng
arch made by two dancers holding up their of the feet on the floor' (Hall, 1990: 77) and
hands. The first uses of the term 'country could be performed solo, or in pairs facing
dance' (from 1579 onwards) rarely give clear each other, in threes or fours, with alternate
information but seem to refer to these types of sequences of stationary stepping and chan-
dances. was probably these which Queen
It ging places or doing a figure of eight, the latter
Elizabeth was deUghted to watch the 'coun-
1
being the basic form of dance called a 'reel'.
try people' dancing at Warwick in 1572, but by Stepping could be done any time, any place,
1600 she was present to 'see the ladies dance providing there was music and a reasonably
the old and new country dances' {fEFDSS 3:2 suitable floor, and there are descriptions of
(1937), 93-9). It seems Ukely, but at present people taking bam doors off their hinges to
unprovable, that the new fashionable fig-
still dance on. It could also be taken seriously
ured country dances were invented at court, enough for competitions to be organized,

probably using Italian models, and simply util- often dancing on a farm cart, with the
izing the lively music of the older English folk musician and judges with their backs to the
dances. These new country dances only fil- dancers to avoid favouritism. In some parts,
tereddown to village level at a later date. stepping developed into clog-dancing (also
Thomas Hardy, for example, offers some cor- mentioned by Mayhew), in which the wearing
roboration. According to him, there were two of clogs with metal tips gave a more satisfying
classes of people in the Dorset villages of his aural dimension. Regional styles of clogging
youth and his parents' time (i.e. the first half developed (e.g. Lancashire and Westmorland),
of the 19th century); the tradespeople, free- and champion dancers were famous enough
holders, upper servants in one group, and the to appear on the local music hall stage.
labourers and lower servants (work people) in Until recent years, studies of dance history
the other, and the two had quite distinct gath- have usually concentrated on the dance forms
erings at which they rarely mixed. The 'coun- themselves, and have largely ignored the
try dances' were the regular fare of the social context, the venues and events, and,

respectable tradespeople, while the work most importantly, the style of dancing. What
dandelions 90

little information we have in these spheres later,on the back of the *song revival, a boom
must be gleaned from other sources, such as in from a younger generation of
interest
novels and newspapers. The Mayhew descrip- enthusiasts. The new revival deliberately
tion quoted above is unusually informative, shunned the 'plimsoles and gymsUps' image
while Thomas Hardy includes several descrip- of the pre-war dance scene, and created a
tions of 19th-centiuy rural dance events in his much livelier movement. The terminology
novels. His short story, Msentmindedness in a changed— the word 'ceiUdh' (under various
Parish Choir (1891) revolves around the fact spellings) was adopted from Ireland, coming
that the same musicians played for dances and to mean a much livelier type of event than a
in church, and other works include dancing at 'country' or 'folk' dance implied. At the time
a Christmas party {Under the Greenwood Tree of writing, however, the term 'bam dance'
(1872) part 1, chapters 7. 8), the social grad- is used by most lay people, while 'ceiUdh' is

ations of an outdoor village dance (The Return of mainly restricted to the cognoscenti. There
the Native (1878) book 4, chapter 3), the inno- is still a thriving bam
dance/ceiUdh scene in
cent dance of the girls in the fields on May Day England, as one of types of vernacular
many
(Tess of the d'UrbeviUes (1891), chapter 1), and dance forms from which people can choose.
many more. Dance venues and settings can be There are specialist clubs and festivals in most
categorized according to the social class of the parts of the country, and the EFDSS continues
participants; the degree of formality involved; to co-ordinate and encourage. It is also quite
the social cohesion of the group (family, common for non-specialist groups, such as
friends, work colleagues, strangers); the phys- sports and social clubs, PTAs, staff associ-
icalvenue (pub, hired village schoolroom, vil- ations, churches, and so on, to organize occa-
lage hall, commercial ballroom), and so on. sionalbam dances as social events, and many
Other regular venues not already mentioned people also choose to have bam dancing at
include dancing-booths at fairs, where couples their wedding receptions, as it is ideal for all-

paid for each dance they wished to do, while age gatherings. The basic repertoire of these
in some areas a peripatetic dancing-master events is usually based loosely on the old
might stay a few weeks in the locality, giving country dances, with some newly composed
lessons and organizing a social at the end of dances on the same lines, and often a few
his stay. similar dances from America, Scotland, and
The 'country dance' was vital for Sharp as Ireland. Thus the repertoire is deliberately
the basic social dance in his planned revival revived/contrived, but the informal
movement, and he formed the *English Folk gathering— the event itself— has many claims
Dance Society (EFDS) in 1911 to help spread to be termed 'traditional'.
the message. While country dances continued Hall, I Never Played to Many Posh Dances: Scan Tester,
Reg
to fade from the village repertoire, the EFDS Sussex Musician (1990); Cecil J. Sharp, The Country Dance
Book 1909-22); Belinda Quirey, May Have the
produced dedicated enthusiasts and dance (6 parts, I

teachers for whom Pleasure: The Story of Popular Dancing (1976); Cecil Sharp
country dancing at clubs, and A. An
P. Oppe, The Dance: Historical Survey of Dancing in
festivals, and garden parties became a normal
Europe (1924); Julian Pilling, FM] 1:3 (1967), 158-79; Anne-
hobby pursuit, and Sharp also succeeded in Marie Hulme and Peter Clifton, FM] 3:4 (1978), 359-77;

getting country dancing accepted on to the

Theresa Buckland, FM] 4:4 (1983), 315-32; Derek
Schofield, FM] 5:2 (1986), 215-19; Melusine V^ood, JEFDSS
school curriculum. Throughout the inter-war
3:2 (1937) 93-9; Melusine Wood, JEFDSS 6:1 (1949), 8-12;
years, country dancing remained a regular 9:3 (1962), 148-54.
J. P. Cunningham, JEFDSS
hobby pursuit of thousands of enthusiasts up
and down the country, but had no appreciable
effect on the mass popular culture which took dandelions. The commonest belief about
its various dance crazes from America. Some dandelions is that picking their flowers causes
revivahsts continued Sharp's work and col- bed-wetting— hence its alternative name 'pee-
lected ftirther fraditional dances, and, indeed, bed' or 'pissabed'. But there is no taboo
discovered that some 'country' dances were against picking the seed-heads, called 'dan-
still danced in amongst other dance forms, at delion clocks'; children blow the seeds away,
village socials in many places in the country. counting the number of puffs needed, and
After the Second World War the *English Folk claiming that this tells them the time, or the
Dance and Song Society (as it had become in number of years before marriage. They may
1932) was shaken by a sudden national craze also recite the divinatoiy 'Loves me, loves me
for American square dancing and, a few years not', or 'This year, next year, sometime, never'
 deaf and dumb fortune-teller
(Vickeiy, 1995: 102-5). Another pastime was and mythological meanings; it would be
reported in Victorian times: appropriate for spells aimed at obtaining
Dandelion chains are made with the flower stalks power or wealth to be done on Thursday (Jupi-
ter's day), and love spells on Friday (day of
only.The supple hollow stalk, denuded of its flower,
isbent in a circle, and the smaller end is pushed for Venus). There was nothing like this at the
about half an inch into the larger. A circle is thus popular level; only two days were individually
formed, its size depending upon the length of the characterized— Sunday as holy (see Sabbath-
stalk. This is the first hnk of the chain. Link is added
breaking), and *Friday as unlucky. However,
to link, and the only limits to the length of the chain there are rhymes Unking the luck of days with
are the paucity of dandelions and the persistency of
*babies, *fingemails, *washing. and *weddings.
the child making it. Some children make necklets of
the chain. (N&Q, 9s:7 (1901), 397; cf 474. 511 and 9s:8
(1901), 70, 232, 466)
dead man's hand. A traditional cure for
cysts,wens, scrofula, goitre, and ulcers was
Rubbing with dandeUon juice is a well- the touch of a dead man's hand— preferably,
*
known remedy for warts, and
traditional
as Reginald Scot wrote in 1584, one who has
dandelion tea believed good for indigestion
is
died an untimely death. *Aubrey knew of a
and as a spring tonic (Hatfield, 1994: 54, 56, man's wen and a child's hunchback cured by
58). thismeans (Aubrey 1686/1880: 198). Margaret
Courtney noted instances in 19th-century
Dando's dogs, dandy-dogs. In Cornwall, Cornwall where the cure was used for persist-
the *Wild Hunt was said to be due to the Devil ent sore eyes, for a 'peculiar tuberous forma-
carrying off a Avicked priest named Dando who tion' on a child's nose, and for a sore on a
went hunting on Sundays. Since then, he and was told that 'there is no virtue
child's leg; she
his dogs are seen or heard galloping across the in the dead hand of a near relation', presum-
moors on stormy nights. An alternative name
ably because that would be too easy of access
was 'the Devil's dandy-dogs'; a man who was
(Courtney, 1890: 152-3).
chased by a pack of them, all breathing fire,
Throughout England, the hand of a hanged
had the presence of mind to kneel and pray, at man was thought to be especially effective.
which they fled (Hunt, 1865: 220-3).
People went to pubhc executions and paid
the hangman to let them rub the corpse's
Davy Jones. Among modem sailors, 'Davy hand across their swellings as it hung on the
is an imaginary figure supposed to lurk
Jones' gallows; in 1785, Boswell saw 'four diseased
on the seabed, where he collects wrecked rubbed with the sweaty hands of
persons . . .

ships and anj^hing thrown or dropped over- malefactors in the agonies of death'.
board; to be buried at sea is to 'go to Davy In the Fens, where famiUes were large and
Jones's Locker'. He is first mentioned in 1751, poverty acute, it was thought that if a woman
in Smollett's novel The Adventures of Peregrine held the hand of a deadman for two minutes,
Pickle(chapter 15), in a way which shows he she would not become pregnant during the
was well known as supernatural and ominous. next two years (Porter, 1969: 11-12, Sutton,
Wanting to scare an officer, a sailor dresses up 1992: 92).
in an ox-hide and a leather mask stretched See also *hand of glory.
over a shark's jaws; has broad glasses for
it
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 99-100; Radford, Radford, and
eyes, lit up with rushhghts, and a firework Hole, 1961: 124-6. Mabel Peacock. Folk-lore 7 (1896), 268-
between its teeth. The officer takes this for 83, includes European parallels.

Davy Jones, exclaiming: 'I know him by his

saucer-eyes, his three rows of teeth, his horns deaf and dumb fortune-teller. Occasional
and tail, and the blue smoak that came out of Uterary references in the 18th and 19th cen-
his nostrils.' Smollett adds that this fiend 'pre- turies indicate that deaf or dumb people were
sides over all the evil spirits of the deep, and is
particularly sought after as fortune-tellers.
often seen in various shapes, perching among This is confirmed in a Scottish example
the rigging on the eve of hurricanes, ship- reported in N&Q.(ls:12 (1855), 488), and in the
wrecks and other disasters'. 1718 Diary of Revd John Thomlinson (pub-
Alan Smith, in Davidson and Chaudri, forthcoming. hshed in Six Northern Diaries (Surtees Soc., vol.

118), 1910),but most clearly in an entry in the

days of the week. For practitioners of high Overseers account book of Wyke Regis (Dor-
*magic, the days of the week had astrological set) for February 1754:
'Gave to two dumb
deafness, earache 92

women with a pass being fortune tellers. Is.' antiquarians who sought to explain Uterary
(Dorset County Record Office). A trial reported material by reference to folklore, while she
in The Times ((24 Sept. 1863), 4, 6) records how sought to understand and elucidate folklore
a deaf and dumb Frenchman known as by tracing literary examples, but unusually for
'Dummy', and feared for his powers, died at her generation she was equally at home with a
SibleHedingham, Essex, after being repeatedly number of genres including dance, song,
'swum' in the local river. music, drama, and Uterary history, and wrote
also on fairy-lore, calendar customs, and other

deafness, earache. A regular cure for deaf- topics. Her indispensible series on John Play-
ness or earache in English folklore is to apply a ford's English Dancing-Master (1943-5) displayed
hot *onion to the ear, or to drip its juice into considerable bibhographic, literary, and
the ear, although some sources claim that gar- musical knowledge, and her delightfully titled
lic, figs, or even leeks can be used for this pur- article 'The Pre-Disposition to Folkery' (1968)

pose. Another substance used is the ft-oth of a sought to explain the flowering of interest in
snail pricked with a pin. Less obviously medi- 'folk' material in England in the late 19th cen-

cinal, however, is the ftirther instruction tury by tracing international currents and
which is sometimes mentioned, that the ear fashions of romanticism and nationaMsm back
should also be stuffed or covered with 'black to the 18th century and beyond. Her views on
wool', the significance of which is not the *mummers although only expressed
play,
explained. Yet another infallible cure is to use in a handful of articles, greatly influenced
adder fat. Correspondence in N&d (5s:9
Alex *Helm, and through him the post-war
(1878), 488, 514; 5s:10 (1878), 57) reveals some generation of traditional drama scholarship.
confusion about field-poppies in this con- Dean-Smith's works include (with E. J.
text. A writer claims that a local name for the Nicol), 'The Dancing Master 1651-1728',
flower in Derbyshire was 'Ear-ache' because JEFDSS 4:4 (1943), 131-45; 4:5 (1944), 167-79;
that what would happen if you put one to
is 4:6 (1945), 211-31; 'The Preservation of Eng-

your ear. A reply from Lincolnshire claimed Ush Folk-Song and Popular Music', JEFDSS 6:2
they were called 'Head-aches', which hap- (1950), 29-44; A Guide to English Folk Song Collec-
pened if you sniffed them. A third writer tions 1822-1952 (1954); 'The Life-Cycle or Folk

claimed, however, that poppies were effective Play', Folklore 69 (1958). 237-53; 'An Un-
in curing pains in the ear (see also under Romantic View of the Mummers' Play', Theatre
*poppy). Research 8:2 (1966), 89-99; 'The Pre-Disposition
See also *eels. to Folkery', Folklore 79 (1968), 161-75; 'The

N&Q.lls:3 (1911), 69, 117. 171; llsrll (1915), 68, 117-18,

Ominous Wood: An Investigation into some
247-8, 328, 477; Hatfield, 1994: 36-7; Denham Tracts, Traditionary Sources of Milton's Comus', in
1895: ii. 294-5; Black, 1883: 117, 158, 161, 193. Venetia Newall, The Witch Bgure (1973), 42-71.
Obituary by Malcolm Taylor: FMJ 7:3 (1997), 388-92.
Dean-Smith, Margaret (1899-1997). The
stepdaughter of Arnold Dunbar-Smith (1866-
1933), a well-known architect within the Arts death. BeUefs and customs surrounding
and Crafts movement, and thus brought up death are well documented at all periods and
in an artistic and intellectual circle which most social levels. Historical and Uterary writ-
influenced her later interests in music and ings amply describe those of the educated
Uterature. She worked in bookselling and classes, while folklorists recorded any beUefs
hbraries,and her first contact with folklore or practices among the 'folk' which were not
came with the *English Folk Dance Society in part of official religion, or which struck them
London in the early 1920s, and after the war as differing from middle-class norms in an
she took on the important task of organizing archaic or picturesque way. There is almost
the Ubrary of the *EngUsh Folk Dance and invariably a section on death and *funerals in
Song Society (now the *Vaughan WiUiams books on regional folklore, where the customs
Memorial Library). At the same time she start- described vary very little; quotations iUustrat-
ed writing a string of influential articles in the ing the 'superstitious' beliefs can be conveni-
journals of that society (which she edited from ently found in Opie and Tatem (1989) under
1947 to 1950), the Folklore Society, and others. the relevant headwords.
In many ways, Dean-Smith was a direct Formerly, it was widely beUeved (and to
descendant of the 19th century folklore- some extent that *dreams and *omens
still is)
93 death

provide forewamings of death, for oneself or Until well into the 20th century, people
another; there was a great variety of the latter, normally died at home, where the corpse
mostly drawn from the behaviour of animals spent the interval between death and the
and birds, or from simple household occur- *ftineral. The laying-out, which was done by
rences such as a picture falhng, sudden creak- hired women (often midwives), involved
ing or rapping sounds, and so on. For the washing the body, closing eyehds and
its

bereaved, such events hold great emotional weighting them with pennies until they stiff-
significance, which may, paradoxically, be ened, holding the mouth shut by a bandage
comforting; they suggest that death is part of a beneath the chin, and tying the feet together.
destined plan, not a mere accident. Also, until The washing was symboUc as well as practical;
fairly recent times, there was a strong in 1980 a Suffolk woman explained, 'the wash-
rehgious emphasis on the value of a 'good ing is so that you're spotless to meet the Lamb
death', one frilly prepared for, as opposed
i.e. of God' (Richardson, 1987: 19). The body
to a swift and sudden one; in this context, would then be dressed in a shroud and white
forewamings were a blessing. stockings, or stitched into a winding-sheet; in
It was beUeved that certain things would both cases, the face remained visible until just
ease, and others hinder, the process of dying. before burial. Sprigs of *rosemary, *yew, *box,
In many parishes, a church *bell was rung as or *rue were often tucked into the shroud;
death drew near, the purpose of this 'Passing flowers might also be displayed in wealthier
Bell'being to remind people to pray for the households. A more curious custom was to lay
d5dng; in earlier times, it would also have been a pewter dish of *salt on the breast of the
thought to drive away demons. An ebbing corpse, or beneath the bed where it lay;
*tide and a waning "^moon hastened death, but occasionally, a piece of turf might be used
a pillow stuffed with * feathers of pigeons or instead (Leather, 1912: 120; Bume, 1883: 299).
wild birds made it painfully slow, and should This was said to prevent the corpse swelUng.
be removed. If the *bed stood across the floor- From medieval times to the early 18th cen-
boards, rather than parallel to them, this too tury, was usually considered essential, as a
it

prolonged the agony, and it should be shifted. mark of respect, that the body should never
There are several references in folklore collec- be left alone in the room, even for a few
tions to relatives helping someone who was moments, or be left in the dark; after that
dying 'hard' by jerking the pillow away, hfting period, the custom gradually weakened
him out of bed and on to the floor, or even among the upper classes, but country people
throttling him with tape, but some seem sus- and urban poor still often observed it. It was
pect, since they all end with the same words: called 'watching' the dead, and required only
'He went off like a lamb'. A more detailed one or two people to sit quietly near the
account comes from the Fens, and refers to the corpse; it is not the same as the lively social
late 19th century; the village nurse would *wake, which is rare in English tradition. On
speed death by laying the dying man's head on the other hand, 'viewing' the dead was
a special black pillow, making him common— indeed, almost obUgatory— for
unconscious with opium and gin, and then both adults and children until the 1920s and
jerking the pillow away (Porter, 1958: 119). 1930s; those who had known the deceased
As soon as death occurred, doors and win- came to offer condolences to the family, and
dows must be opened, to give the soul free spend a few moments looking at the body,
passage; in Warwickshire the main door of the usually also touching or kissing it; this would
house remained ajar, night and day, until the ease grief, and ensiu-e that one would not
ftmeral, because the deceased's spirit is still dream of or be haunted by, the dead person.
nearby, and must be able to enter or leave at The effect, however, was not always sooth-
will (N&a 170 (1936), 231). Some people also ing. A contributor to N&Q. in 1914 remembered
*
put out the *fire and stopped the clocks, pre- being taken 'as a frightened child' to view a
sumably to mark the transition from time to body in a Derbyshire village. It was laid out
eternity. A common custom of the 19th cen- with its feet on a Bible, a sprig of box in its
tury was to turn *mirrors and pictures to the folded hands, and a plate of salt on a green turf
wall, or cover them with cloth; this was usu- on its breast:
ally said to be for fear that someone looking
into them should see the ghost, or the corpse, Round the chin was a white cloth tied in a knot on
reflected there. the top of its head, and the 'laying-out woman' was
Dee, Dr John 94

in the act of laying two penny-pieces on the eyelids; for the 1846 one, and in 1928 it was to raise
but she could not make them keep in position. This money for the local Infirmary. In 1988 they
frightened me most of all, for the right eye seemed to baked a bicentenary pie, and held parades,
be glaring at me; and the woman said to the rest in
fiinfairs, and helicopter rides, and 50,000
the room, 'He's lowkin' fer th'next un.' (N&Q. lls:ll
people bought £1 tickets to ensure a piece of
(1914), 296-7)
the pie. A similar custom took place in the
See also *burial, *funerals, *sin-eating, 19th century at Aughton (Lancashire) (NErCl
*WAKES (2). 7s:2 (1886), 26).

There is an excellent summary of this subject in Richard- David Bostwick, FoDc Life 26 (1987/8), 12-42; Smith, 1989:
son, 1987: 3-29. See also Radford, Radford, and Hole, 125-9; Kightly, 1986: 100.
1961: 126-31; Puckle, 1926; Clare Gittings, Death, Burial
and the Individual (1984); Litten, 1991: 143-52.
Denham Tracts. Michael Aislabie Denham
(died 1859) a general merchant of Pierce-
Dee, Dr John (1527-1608). A learned math- bridge, Durham, was early in the field of folk-
ematician, astrologer, and Hermetic phil- lore collecting, and he died before the new
osopher, who had a high reputation both at movement had become fashionable. As with
the court of Elizabeth I and on the Continent. many of his generation, Denham's interests
However, many people believed him to be a were wide and he collected coins and other
'conjurer', i.e. one who raised evil spirits; the physical antiquities as well as less tangible
influential Protestant writer John Foxe made beliefs, proverbs, rhymes, and sayings in
this accusation as early as 1563, and it was Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland,
repeated at intervals throughout Dee's Ufe and Westmorland, Isle of Man, and Scotland. The
beyond. In 1583, a hostile mob plundered his mass of material which he gathered was pub-
home and burned his books in his absence. hshed in a series of limited circulation book-
Dee's work was in fact a pious form of Renais- lets and leaflets, newspaper articles, and other
sance ritual 'high' magic, which involved ephemeral formats. The nature of these pubU-
summoning angels and questioning them cations has made them very difficult to obtain,
through a medium who could see them in a and we would know hardly anything of him if
crystal; the diaries in which he recorded these many of them had not been collected and
sessions were posthumously published in *
reprinted by the Folklore Society as The Den-
1659, with a hostile preface by Meric ham Tracts: A Colkaion of Folklore hy Michael Ais-
Casaubon, who insisted such spirits could only Denham, edited by James Hardy (London:
labie
be devils. By the 19th century it was widely David Nutt, 1892-5, 2 vols.) which immediately
beheved that Dee and his medium Edward became a standard source for material on the
Kelly had been necromancers who desecrated northern counties of England.
graves in attempts to speak with the dead.
Peter J. French, John Dee: The World of an Elizabethan Magus Derby Ram, see *old tup.
(1972); Edward Fenton (ed.). The Diaries ofJohn Dee (1999).

Devil. In folk traditions, the Devil is some-

Denby Dale Pie. On special occasions, the times a powerfully evil tempter and destroyer,
people of Denby Dale, West Yorkshire, bake a sometimes a stupid enemy whose plans fail
pie— eighteen foot long, six foot wide, and through his own clumsiness, or because he is
eighteen inches deep. The 1964 pie, to cele- outwitted by ordinary humans. Broadly speak-
*
brate royal births, contained three tons of ing, the stupid Devil is found in local legends
beef, one and a half tons of potatoes, and half where he hurls rocks, builds bridges, digs
a ton of gravy, and 30,000 people had a piece. hills, etc., but is thwarted; in stories about
The money raised built the village hall, known magicians who obtain his services but elude
as Pie Hall. The occasions chosen are nothing his power; and in comic tales where he is
if not eclectic. The first great pie was made in tricked, or loses a wager. The powerful Devil
1788 to celebrate George Ill's recovery from features in moralistic tales; in traditions about
his mental illness, the next was for the Battle witchcraft; and in accounts of sinister and
of Waterloo (1815), and another for the repeal inexplicable events like the apparition of the
of the Com Laws (1846). The 1887 version, for Mowing Devil or the *Black Dog at Bungay. By
Queen Victoria's Jubilee, was found to be bad bringing sinners to a bad end he is the instru-
when opened, and a replacement had to be ment of God's *judgements. His name should
baked in a hurry. The 1896 pie was a jubilee not be mentioned—'Talk of the Devil and he'll
95 display customs

appear' has been proverbial since the 17th making her cockerel crow (William Hamper,
century. He may appear as a *black dog or a Gentleman's Magazine 80 (1810), 513-14); later
black cock; if in human form, he wears black Uterary variants give the credit to St Cuthman
clothes. or *St Dunstan, but in oral tellings the old
Though contradictory, both ideas spring woman is the usual heroine. The tale is typical
from medieval Christianity, which taught that of the international theme of the Devil being
though the Devil constantly attacked the indi- duped, often by weak or marginaUzed
vidual with temptations, his overall strategy humans, and danger narrowly averted (Simp-
was ultimately futile, since Christ had already son, 1983).
defeated him. Stories on the pattern of the
Devil's Arrows may have been meant to teach Devil's hoof prints. On the night of 8/9 Feb-
this lesson through concrete imagery, since ruary 1855, during an unusually severe win-
the planned destruction of a church invariably ter, long trails of prints appeared in the snow
fails, and nobody is harmed by it. Landscape in at least 30 different places in Devon. Each
features ascribed to the Devil are was about 3V2 inches long by 2V2 inches broad,
unproductive ones (tracts of stony or sandy resembling a donkey's hoofprint, and some
soil, ravines, rocky mountains, large boul- seemed cloven; they were said to have crossed
ders), for all good things come from God. roofs, high walls, and haystacks, adding to the
Many minor place-names, and some names of supernatural impression. The first known
animals and plants, involve the Devil, gener- press report, from DawUsh, says that the
ally indicating that the place or creature is marks had 'caused an uproar of commotion
ugly, unfit for cultivation or for human con- among the inhabitants in general', and that
sumption, or eerie (Wright, 1913: 203-4). 'several of the very superstitious' were saying
'it must be the marks of Old Nick', while
Briggs, 1970-1: B. i. 43-155.
others blamed 'some monkey which has

Devil's Bridge. A fine 15th-century bridge escaped a travelling menagerie with some-
spanning the Lune at Kirby Lonsdale, thing on its feet' (The Western Luminary and Fam-
ily Newspaper for Devon, Cornwall, Somerset & Dor-
Cumbria/Westmorland, is said to have been
set (13 Feb. 1855)).
built by the Devil in one night, as a favour to
an old woman whose cow had strayed to the The story was taken up in The Times (16 Feb.
far side of the river, on condition that he could 1855) and the Illustrated London News (24 Feb.
the 1855, 3 Mar. 1855, 10 Mar. 1855), the latter
carry off" first living thing that crossed it.

At dawn the old woman arrived, with a dog being particularly detailed. Explanations
hidden under her cloak; she tossed a bun on to offered were naturahstic, if implausible; over

the bridge, and the dog rushed after it. Furious the years, badgers, rats, cats, a variety of birds,
at being cheated of human prey, the Devil a kangaroo, a toad, and groups of Gypsies on
stilts have been suggested. A ftirther burst of
clawed at the coping stone of one arch (the
marks are still there), and disappeared. The interest in NEKl many years later led people
tale was first recorded late in the 18th century,
with personal memories of the event to speak
but fits an international pattern. There are of the general excitement and consternation
felt at the time {NdQ, 7s:8 (1889), 508-9; 7s:9
similar tales elsewhere in England (Briggs,
1970-1: B. i. 52, 86-9). (1890), 18, 70).
Theo Brown, Report & Transactions of the Devonshire Associ-
ation 82 (1950), 107-12; 84 (1952), 163-71. An extensive
Devil's dandy-dogs, see *dando's dogs. discussion, reprinting all original and secondary sources,
is Mike Dash, Fortean Studies 1 (1994), 71-150.

Devil's Dyke. A deep gash in the north slopes

of the Downs near Hove, East Sussex, is said to Devil's Kettles, see *hell.
have been dug by the Devil, who wanted to let
the sea through to drown low-lying villages Devil's Knell, see *ringingthe devil's knell.
with many churches. He had to finish the
work in one night, but was tricked into think- dipping, see (a) *book (dfvination with),
ing dawn had come, and flew off^. The first (b)*COUNTING-OUT RHYMES.
recorded account, a humorous poem, says an
old woman deceived him by letting a candle display customs. This term has been in-
shine through a sieve hke the rising sun, and vented here to define a range of customs
divinations 96

which involve children making something, the Company of Watermen and Lightermen,
and then displaying their handiwork by stand- who still run the event. The race was for six
ing with it in the street, or visiting friends and Thames watermen who had just completed
neighbours, hoping for a reward of money, their apprenticeship to compete, every
sweets, food, or whatever they could get. Many 1 August, for a prize of a splendid orange coat
previous writers called them simply 'begging' and even more splendid badge, the latter rep-
customs, but this is unjustifiably insulting; resenting 'liberty'. This all had a poUtical
there is a strong and long-lasting tradition that meaning at the time, as Doggett was a staunch
this is a legitimate way for children to get supporter of George 1 and the new house of
pocket money and treats, sanctioned by Hanover. The first of August was the day of
custom. Included under this heading would George I's accession to the throne, the orange
be *grottoing, 'penny for the guy' (see and the horse motif on the badge also repre-
under *November the Fifth), and many sented the royal family. The race was suf-
others, including some where what is dis- ficiently well known to form the background
played is their own fancifiil costume, as in to a ballad-opera by Charles Dibdin, entitled
*trick or treat. Some former adult customs The Waterman, or The First of August, first pro-
were also displays, for example the milk- duced at the Haymarket in 1774. An account
maids' garland. of the race and a biographical sketch of Dog-
gett can be found in Hone (1827: ii. 531-3).
divinations, see *love divinations, *st Some changes have been made over the years.
mark's eve, and *wraiths. See also *bible, The coat is now red. The boats have gradually
*BOOK (divination with), * fortune-telling, become smaller and lighter and the date is
sieve and shears, *tea, coffee. fixed more by the state of the tides than by
Doggett's original decree. Late July is usually
Dobbs, dobby, dobie. These are regional the time now. Most important of all, for the
nicknames for various supernatural beings, racers, they now move with the tide rather
probably short for 'Robin'. Dobbs was used for than against it. When there were too many
a *brownie in Sussex, dobby in Yorkshire and applicants, the six were chosen by lot, but now
Lancashire, and dobie in Northumberland. there are eliminating heats. The winners wear
The latter was proverbially stupid, according their coats at subsequent races, where they act
to Henderson (1866: 209). However, according as stewards, and on other ceremonial occa-
to Francis Grose (late 18th century), a dobie sions on the Thames.
was a wild moorland spirit who could control Hone, 1827: ii. 531-3; Shuel, 1985: 145-8; Kightly, 1986:

deer, and jumped upon travellers. Outdoor 101-2; Stone, 1906: 51.

ghosts were also sometimes called 'dobbies' in

Lancashire (Bowker, 1883: 152); some haunted dogs. It is commonly believed that dogs can

the sands and coves of Morecambe Bay. In sense anything uncanny, and show terror if
County Durham, the Shotton Dobby appeared forced to pass a haunted spot; if they howl for
at births or deaths in the village, as a goose, no reason, especially at night, it 'portends
dog, horse, donkey, or cow (Brockie, 1886: 50- death, either in the house nearest to which
1). In the Yorkshire Dales, *holed stones are they howl or to some of their kith and kind-
called 'dobbie stones'; small ones are hung at red' (Denham Tracts, 1892: ii. 55), or is a general
doors and windows, larger ones built into dry- sign of evil being about. A spayed bitch, how-
stone walls. ever, may drive off uncanny forces:
I believe all over England, a spaied bitch is accounted
Doggett's Coat and Badge Race. This scull- wholesome in a House; that is to say, they have a
ing race of over four miles, down the Thames strong beliefe that it keeps away evill spirits from

from London Bridge to Chelsea, has been haunting of a House; e.g. amongst many other
staged every year since 1715, apart from dur- instances, at Cranbom in Dorset about 1686, a house

ing the two world wars. It was founded by was haunted, and two Tenants successively went
Thomas Doggett, actor-manager at the Hay- away for that reason: a third came and brought his
market and Druiy Lane theatres who, when he spaid bitch, and was never troubled. (Aubrey, 1686/
1880: 53)
died in 1721, left money to form a trust to per-
petuate the custom, which later handed over There are many supernatural dogs in EngUsh
responsibility for organization to the London folklore— *black dogs, the dogs of the *Wild
Fishmongers' Company in association with Hunt, the Devil as a dog, *Grim, and various
97
dragons

shape-changing bogey-beasts, for example Major LabeUiere, was indeed buried head
*guytrash, *padfoot, and *Shuck. down on Box Hill (Surrey) in 1800, allegedly so
as to be the right way up on Doomsday;
donkeys. Donkeys, proverbially stupid, ob- whether this really was his motive is
stinate, and over-sexed, were despised, yet the uncertain. The same is said (almost certainly
cross on their backs was a holy marking, since falsely) about the burial of a Mr Hull in a tower
Jesus rode a donkey. Nineteenth-century on Leith Hill (Surrey) in 1772; of a miller on
sources credit them with healing powers; Highdown Hill (Sussex) in 1794; and of the
children suffering from whooping cough, Revd J. H. Smyth-Piggot, leader of an
measles, fevers, or rickets were passed *three unorthodox sect, buried in a garden at Spax-
or *nine times over and under a donkey, or ton (Somerset) in 1927. Some who hear and
made to wear or swallow hairs from this mark repeat these rumours take them seriously; for
(Opie and Tatem, 1989: 122-3). others, they are jokes.
See also *number 666.
Doomsday. Early Christians expected Dooms- J. C. Harrison, The Second Coming: Popular MiUenarian-
F.

day to occur when the world was 6000 years ism (1979). For discussion of the year 1000, and the

old; since Creation was then reckoned at 5200 growth of modem beliefs about the millennium, see
Damian Thompson, The End of Time: Faith and Fear in the
BC (not at 4004 bc, the date proposed in the
Shadow of the MiOennium (1996).
17th century). Doomsday was due around ad
800. Bede, writing in the 720s, criticised nistici,
Douce, Francis, (1757-1834). Although he
'country folk', for frequently asking him how
studied for the law, he did not practise long as
many years were left before the sixth millen-
his lifelong passion for hterary research soon
nium ended (De Tempore Ratione, cited in
prevailed. For a time he was keeper of manu-
Thompson, 1996: 32). However, there is no
evidence of millenial panic in 1000 or 1033. scripts at the British Museum, which gave him
access to such key sources as the Lansdowne
Doomsday is of course inseparable from the
and Harleian collections. Although he only
concept of the Second Coming and the estab-
Ushment of a just and godly world. These ideas pubUshed one major study, and that a hterary
have strong poUtical implications; they were one, Douce's name is cited as a major in-
fluence by all the leading figures of the
conspicuous in England during the Civil War
and Commonwealth, but after the Restoration generation of antiquarian-folklorists which
lost all prestige (Thomas, 1971: 140-6).
emerged in the late 18th and early 19th cen-
turies. Everybody knew him and was grateful
Doomsday preoccupations periodically
for his help— he lent books and manuscripts
recurred at the level where popular religion
and folklore meet, causing anxiety about from his own vast collection, answered quer-
ies,introduced people to others, suggested
'signs' such as comets and earthquakes. There
was panic in 1794 when a currently famous Unes of enquiry and annotated collections.
*Brand, Strutt, Thoms, *Hone, *Ems, all pro-
prophet, Richard Brothers, announced that
claim their debt, and he also worked with Irish
God would destroy London by earthquake on 4
and Scottish folklore writers such as Thomas
June 1795, and again in 1881, because of a fake
Keightley and Sir Walter Scott. Douce's one
prophecy attributed to *Mother Shipton.
Some, thinking it important that their major pubhcation. Illustrations of Shakespeare
and ofAncient Manners (1807), set the scene for a
corpses should be complete and intact, ready
for resurrection on Doomsday, arranged for generation of Shakespearian scholars, such as
Halhwell, who would comb early books and
their amputated hmbs to be buried with them
(Folk-lore 11 (1900), 346; 18 (1907), 82; 19 manuscripts for elucidatory material, and turn
(1908). 234; 21 (1910), 105, 387), or even their
up a great deal of folklore in the process.
*teeth. Gibbetting, burial in quicklime, and DNB; Dorson. 1968: 57-61.
anatomical dissection, were viewed with hor-
ror on the assumption that they would pre- dragons. Throughout the medieval and early
vent resurrection, and hence salvation (Rich- modem periods, dragons were accepted as
ardson, 1987: 28-9). real but rare beasts. The Bible mentions fiery
One curious notion occasionally recorded serpents in Exodus, and a great dragon sym-
(and parodied by Swift in Gulliver's Travels, part boUzes the Devil in Revelations 12; many
I, chapter 6) was that the earth would turn writers on natural history also described
upside down on Doomsday. One person, a various strange reptiles, including winged
dragon's blood 98

serpents, on the authority of PUny, Aristotle, tombstones may be used as 'proofs' of the
and others. Myths, hero legends, saints' story, but the attitude towards it is often
legends, and heraldry all exploited the con- humorous. One Yorkshire tale is now known
cept of this dramatic monster. Pre-Conquest only through an anonymous farcical poem,
heroic dragon legends are lost, apart from that 'The Dragon of Wantley', printed in 1699
in *Beowulf. Religious ones are more common, (Simpson, 1980).
the most influential being that of *St George.
In Church art and writings, dragons always dragon's blood. A useful and powerfiil
stood for evil, but in the secular world they ingredient in *love divination and other spells,
also symbolized ferocity in battle, and hence used in a number of ways, but usually involv-
were often adopted as heraldic crests. ing the fire: 'Buy a pennyworth of dragon's

Model dragons were a fairly common fea- blood from a chemist, sprinkle the powder in
ture of rehgious and civic pageantry in late the fire any night when the clock is striking
medieval and Tudor/Stuart times, of which twelve,and your fiiture husband or wife will
'

only *Snap at Norwich survives. Civic account appear .

(Billson, 1895: 59-60). It was being
. .

books at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in April 1510 used in this way well into the 20th century
record the purchase of twelve yards of canvas, (N&(1 12s: 10 (1922), 248). Joseph Wright's Eng-
nails, spars, and straps for building a dragon Dialect Dictionary glosses Dragon's Blood as
lish

(presumably for *St George's Day), and pay- the herb Robert {Geranium Robertianum); A. R.
ments for building it, painting it, and 'going Wright (1928: 69) defines it as 'the resin from
with' it; also the purchase of thick twine and the Calamus draco and certain other trees, used
candlewax— perhaps to give it glowing eyes chiefly in varnish-making'.
and jaws. The Midsummer Show at Chester, a
large and spectacular affair, is known to have Drake, Sir Francis (15407-96). According to
included a two-man fiery dragon in 1564 and West Country folklore, Drake was a *wizard —
*
again in 1610 when it pursued Green Men, a notion possibly taken from the Spaniards,
spat fire, and 'died' dramatically. Although the who believed in all seriousness that the Devil
hero of the *mumming often St (or
play is helped Drake in battle. The fact that his sur-

King) George, it is extremely rare for a dragon name means 'dragon' added to his prestige. In
to appear among his adversaries there. the 1830s Devon people said he could turn
Dragon-slaying is a theme in several English chips of wood into fireships, draw a river from
*local legends, for example at Brent Pelham Dartmoor to Plymouth, and fire a cannonball
(Hertfordshire), *Mordiford (Herefordshire), straight through the earth from the Antipo-
*Lambton (County Durham), Lyminster (Sus- des, to warn his wife that he was still alive and
sex).Only twice does St George appear as the she must not remarry. This cannonball is still
hero: once at Dragon Hill beside the White displayed at Combe Sydenham Hall; it is said
Horse of *Uffington, and once at Brinsop always to return if shifted, and to roll about at
(Herefordshire), where the church is dedicated times of national danger. Other tales are that
to him and boasts a fine carving of his feat. he once built a bam with the Devil's help, and
More often, the hero is alleged to be the foun- that his ghost drives a hearse on stormy
der, or an early member, of some important nights,drawn by headless horses and followed
landowning family nearby, who was rewarded by headless hounds.
with a title or great estates, for example Sir The most famous Drake legend is a modem
John *Lambton, or Sir Piers Shonks at Brent one concerning his drum, kept at Buckland
Pelham. Often the heroes are sturdy working Abbey. A rousing poem written by Henry
men, who do not usually kill their dragon in Newbolt in 1895 and set to music in 1904 by
open combat, but by cunning tricks. Among C. V. Stanford, says that when Drake lay dying
the devices used are poisoned or indigestible he ordered that his drum should be taken
food, hiding inside a spiked barrel, or using a home to England, and promised that if it were
spiked dummy as decoy (the dragon wounds struck wheninvasion was threatened, he
himself by attacking it); rolling a large stone would return to drive off the enemy. There is
into the beast's open jaws; kicking it in the nothing to show that this 'tradition' existed
vent. Again, the hero's reward is practical, not before Newbolt wrote. In 1916 another poet,
romantic; treasure hoards and endangered Alfred Noyes, added a ftirther marvel: that the
maidens are absent in this genre. Local place- dmm need not be struck by human hand, for
names, church carvings, and ornate medieval it sounded of its own accord. This legend was
 drowning

exploited patriotic propaganda in both

as rare experience; others are thought to have a
worid wars, and it is claimed that drum-beats psychic abiUty, akin to *second sight, which
have indeed been heard, for example at the brings such dreams regularly. A Cheshire
evacuation of Dunkirk. woman in 1981 said:
Hunt, 1865: 230; Bray, 1836: ii. 170-3; both are summar- I've never experienced it myself, but I have a fiiend,
ized in Briggs, 1970-1: B. i. 138-9; ii. 38-9. For the drum,
a colleague, and she does, and I know she does! She
see E. M. R. Ditmas, Folklore 85 (1974), 244-53.
has dreams, and she'll come in and say very vividly,
and she knows what's happened and it does come to
dreams. The idea that dreams convey true
happen! It may not be soon. And it's happened a lot
information and/or foreshadow future events of times with her. I've known it happen with her.
is widespread, so it is rather puzzling that She might dream of, say a fire, or a national
folklore collections do not give it much space. disaster— something like that— and it does come to

Perhaps the very fact that it was current at all happen. She comes in some mornings quite
bothered when she's had one of those dreams very
social levels (and endorsed by the Bible) pre-
vividly (Bennett, 1987: 134)
vented Victorian scholars from regarding it as
folklore, except in *love divinations. In fact, These personal accounts of ominous dreams
popular pubUcations show there was (and is) a are underpinned by strong beliefs and emo-
lively interest in dream interpretation as a tions; one reason they rarely appear in folk-
form of * fortune-telling, taught through man- lore collections may well be a concern for
uals listing numerous items and their mean- privacy in both informant and collector.
ings. They often exploit obvious associations
of ideas: dressmaking. One of those trades which has
declined considerably over the second half of
LIPS. To dream of thick, unsightly lips, signifies dis-
the 20th century. The occupational lore of pro-
agreeable encounters, hasty decisions, and ill temper
in the marriage relation. Full, sweet, cherry lips, fessional dressmakers is not well recorded,
indicates harmony and affluence. To a lover, it although the three sources Usted below pro-
augurs reciprocation in love, and fidelity. (Gustavus vide some information, including:
Hindman Miller, What's in a Dream? (1901), reprinted
as The Dictionary of Dreams (1983), 357)
to jump over a dress when finished is a certain
means of preventing its return for alterations.
Some alternate between this method and the Dressmakers will not fit with black pins, nor tack
rule that 'dreams go contraries': with green thread. Care is taken not to bring bad
by
luck on a bride by staining the bridal dress with
GRENADIER. For a girl to dream of a grenadier blood from a pricked finger. 'Unpick on Monday and
denotes a civilian husband in the near future.
you unpick all the week'. It is a sign of the worker's
GREYHOUND. You will win more than a race despite own wedding coming soon if she accidentally sews
keen rivalry. one of her own hairs into a garment of a trousseau. If
GRIEF. This indicates joy and merry times. (Anon, The by chance, in tr3ang on, a new garment is pinned to
Mystic Dream Book (Foulsham: n. d.), 86) the customer's other clothes, it is reckoned that each
pin so attached means that a year will elapse before
The older manuals are notable for their many
her marriage. (Wright, 1928: 36)
gloomy interpretations, and if taken seriously
could have caused considerable anxiety; the See also *clothes, *weddings, *pins.
compilers also favoured moral admonition: Wright, 1928: 36; Christina Hole. Folk-Lore 68 (1957),
SEA FOAM. For a woman to dream of sea foam, fore- 411-19; E. M. L, Folk-Lore 25 (1914), 371.
tells that indiscriminateand demoralizing pleasures
will distract her from the paths of rectitude. If she drowning. This has attracted a number of
wears a bridal veil of sea foam, she will engulf herself and customs, the most widespread
beliefs

being that anyone bom with a *caul will never

in material pleasures to the exclusion of true
refinement and innate modesty. She will be likely to drown. It was considered unwise to save
cause sorrow to some of those dear to her, through
someone from drowning; at best they will
their inability to gratify her ambition. (Miller, 1901/
turn into your enemy, at worst the sea vyall
1983: 500)
take you instead. It was also believed that the
At a far more serious level, many people rescuer of a drowning person would after-
recall that they themselves, or others known wards be legally responsible for maintaining
to them, have had warning dreams whose that person, or that anyone who pulled
meaning only became clear later on, when a drowned body from the water was Uable
death or misfortune struck. For some, it is a to pay for his/her ftmeral. Still extremely
Druids 100

widespread is the notion that a drowning p>er- in the 18th century; the motive was Welsh
son will surface three times before succumb- patriotism, and the model Freemasonry.
ing, and that one's life flashes before one's There are now nearly twenty. They practise
eyes in the process. pantheistic nature worship, holding seasonal
In popular beUef, there are several ways of rituals on Primrose Hill (London) and at pre-
finding the bodies of drowned people. One is historic sites, especially at Midsummer at
to float a loaf of bread, loaded with a quantity *Stonehenge.
of merouy, across the pond or river, and it See also *mistletoe, *snakestone.
will stop over, or near to, the place where the Stuart Piggott, The Druids (1968); Miranda Green, Explor-
body Ues (N&Ci 6s:8 (1883). 367, 435-6), a ing the World of the Druids (1997).
method which goes back at least to the 1580s.
Another way of locating the corpse is to fire a dumb cake. One of the specialist forms of
gun across the water, which will bring the *love divination, named after its central
body to the surface. Sailors believed that the elements— the making of a special cake while
concussion of the shot bursts the gall bladder maintaining absolute silence. Precise details
of the drowned body and thereby makes it vary, but the overall pattern is remarkably
float (Denham Tracts, 1895: ii. 72). A variation similar across the country and over the two or
on this principle was to fill bottles with gun- three hundred years since its first recorded
powder and contrive to explode them under mention in the 1680s. An unvarying character-
water (N&(1 5s:9 (1878), 478). A number of istic isthat the process to be undergone is
other long-standing beliefs existed about complex and difficult to achieve successftiUy.
drowned bodies. It was thought that a body In most cases, the making of the cake must be
found floating on the water cannot have been a joint effort by several people, usually young
drowned but must have been a murder victim, women but not exclusively so. Other recurring
already dead before being placed in the water, motifs are the use of a high proportion of salt,
on the premiss that drowned bodies sink. N&(1 the scratching of initials on the pieces, and
(167 (1934), 297, 336-7; 168 (1935). 214) cites a sometimes the placing of the cake under the
court-case of 1699 in which this behef is cited pillow. Earher recipes for the cake itself are
as evidence. Corpses were, however, beUeved generally more testing to the participants'
to riseon the ninth day after drowning (when resolve, including, apart from the salt, soot
their gall bladder broke), and it was also main- and even urine. Some mention the measuring
tained that males floated face up, while of the ingredients in thimbles or egg-shells,
females floated face down. Thomas Browne presumably to make the cakes easier to eat.
devotes a chapter of his Pseudoxia Epidemica The times when this ceremony are usually
(6th edn. (1672), book 4, chapter 6) to reftiting reported are those traditional to love divin-
these notions. ation: *midsummer, *St Agnes' Eve, and Hal-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 34, 127; N&Q.8s:2 (1892), 48; 161 loween, and *Christmas Eve. Opie and Tatem
(1931), 164, 230, 337-8; Lean, (1903), ii. 615-16. identify the first two references in 1685:
Mother Bunch's Qoset (where it is called 'Dutch
Druids. Late in the 16th century, scholars Cake'), and G. Sinclair. Satans Invisible World
became intrigued by accounts of the Druid Discovered (referring to the Scottish Highlands),

priesthood by classical authors. Some stressed and. from available references, the custom
the barbaric cruelty of their human sacrifices, does not much seem to have survived the end
but others saw them as virtuous sages; the lat- of the 19th century. Henderson (1879: 90-1)
ter view became increasingly
popular. gives a detailed description.
Aubrey, though regarding Druids as semi- Opie and Tatem, 1989: 127-8.
savages, was the first to suggest cautiously
that they might have built *Stonehenge; in the Dunmow flitch. At Great Dunmow, Essex, a
1740s William Stukeley enthusiastically custom now takes place every year which can
adopted this theory and extended it to other definitely tiace its history back at least 600
monuments. Soon local historians were claim- years. In the earliestknown form, any man
ing that not only megahths but various nat- who had been married for more than a year
ural rock formations were Druids' altars, and without ever regretting it or wishing himself
these ideas passed into place-names and folk- single could apply to Little Dunmow Prioiy
lore, especially in Cornwall. and, if he could prove his assertion, claim a
The first modem Druidic Order was created flitch of bacon from the Prior. If successftil, he
101 dwarves

was carried in procession, in a special chair on ously it was serious. The custom is not quite

poles.Recorded instances of successful claim- unique, as there are references to a similar one
ants are few and far between— 1445, 1467, at *Wichnor in Staffordshire, and there are
1510, 1701 are the first four. But the custom analogous customs on the European main-
must be much older, as both William Lang- land. Its ultimate origin at Dunmow is prob-
land {Piers Plowman, c. 1360-99) and Chaucer ably as a manorial land-holding custom, but of
(Tale of theWife of Bath, c.1387) mention it in a this there is no real proof
matter-of-fact way. The 1701 occasion was the Francis W. Steer, The History of the Dunmow Flitch Ceremony
first time that wives are mentioned as having (1951); Shuel, 1985: 120-3.

a part to play, and also a formally constituted

jury to hear the case. After 1751, the custom dwarves. Traditional rural English speech
lapsed until a novel by Harrison Ainsworth, rarely, if ever, uses the term 'dwarf for a super-
entitled The Ritch of Bacon, published in 1854, natural creature, even though in the 19th and
gave the trial the publicity which resulted in 20th centuries it has become very familiar in
the revival which continues today. There have literature as the preferred translation of vari-
of course been numerous changes, in particu- ous German, French, and Scandinavian words
lar the tone of today's proceeding is decidedly for sturdy gnome-like beings living under-
comic, parodying a real trial, whereas previ- ground or in forests.
eaglestones. Reputed the finest amulets for earnest money, see *god's penny.
use in pregnancy and *childbirth, they are
mentioned in English sources from at least the ears. The idea that your ear or cheek burning
13th century, though many of these will be or itching is a sign that someone is talking
basing their knowledge directly on Pliny (Nat- about you is still generally known, if not actu-
ural History (ad 77), xxxvi. xxix). Also known as ally believed. The behef is of considerable age,
Aetites, they were hollow stones, often brown being included by PUny (Natural History, (ad 77),
and egg-shaped, containing sand or small xxviii). In Britain, Chaucer is the first to men-
pebbles rattling inside; it was said they could tion it (Troilus and Criseyde, ii. i), and it turns up
only be found in eagles' nests, and that with- regularly in the written record from then on,
out them the birds could not produce young. with httle alteration.It is generally agreed that

Worn round the neck or on the left arm, they the right or left mean different things, 'When
would act hke a magnet to hold the foetus in the lefte cheek bumes, it is a sign somebody
place and prevent miscarriage; English trad- talkes well of you; but if the right cheek bumes
ition adds the instruction (not given by Pliny) it is a sure sign of ill' (Melton, 1620: 45). 'In the

to tie them inside the left thigh during labour, case of the right ear I have been advised to
thus quickly drawing out the baby and the pinch it, and the person who is speaking spite-
placenta, but then remove them at once, for fiiUy of me wiU immediately bite his or her
fear of bleeding or prolapse. tongue" (Hampshire, N&(1 7s:10 (1890), 7).

They were expensive, and families lucky Other reported remedies to get back at the
enough to own one were expected to lend it talker are to wet the ear with your finger, tie a
around; in 1662 Dr Bargrave, Dean of loop in a piece of string or leather lace, tear up
Christchurch, Canterbury, wrote of one he a tuft of grass and throw it away, or tie a knot in
had bought from an Armenian in Rome: the comer of your apron (Opie and Tatem,
1989: 130-1; N&Q.12s:2 (1916), 310, 413).
It is so useful that wife can seldom keep it at
my Ringing in the ear is also widely held as sig-
home, and therefore she hath sewed the strings to nificant, although it is not recorded much
the knitt purse in which the stone is, for the con- before the mid-1 8th century. It is usually
venience of the tying of it to the patient on occasion, believed to be of ill omen, presaging bad news,
and hath a box to put the purse and stone in. It were
and is thus called the 'dead-bell' or 'news-bell':
fittthat the Dean's (Canterbury) or vice-dean's wife
'What a night of horrors! I've had the news-
. . .

(ifthey be marryed men) should have this stone in

bell ringing in left ear quite bad enough
my
their custody for the public good, as to neighbour-
for a murder, and I've seen a magpie all alone!'
hood; but still, that they have a great care into whose
hand it be committed, and that the midwives have a (Thomas Hardy, Far from the Madding Crowd
care of it, so that it shall be the Cathedral's stone, (1874), chapter 8). Alternatively, if you get a
(cited in Forbes, 1966: 67) ringing in your ear, immediately ask someone
to give you a number. Translate that number

Similarly, it is known that a ftiend of the into a letter of the alphabet, which will be the
Countess of Newcastle lent her one in 1633 first letter of the name of the person whom
(N&a 12s:12 (1923), 189), and that a Norfolk you will marry, or who is thinking about you.
family in 1881 had one as an heirloom (JV&Q The first recorded instance of this is from
6s:3 (1881), 327). Oxfordshire in 1865 (N&Q.3s:8 (1865), 494) and
Forbes, 1966: 64-71; C. N. Bromehead, Antiquity 21 (1947), Opie and Tatem report it still current in the
16-22; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 129. 1980s.
 Easter

The size and shape of ears are thought to face east, as the rising sun s5miboUzes God
worthy of notice, although references are too (or Christ) as the Light of the World; it was also
scattered and various to provide a consensus: thought that when Christ returns on Dooms-
'Small ears denote generosity, well-curled day he will appear like a blaze of Ughtning in
ones a long hfe' (Lean, 1903: ii. 307). 'Will the east (Matthew 24: 27). These beliefs
someone tell me why ears that lie flat
against affected the layout of burials, both inside
the head are said to be a sign of good breed- churches and in churchyards; for preference,
ing?' (NEKl 167 (1934), 391), and the curious graves should lie east-and-west, with the body
idea that anyone with ears that stick out is facing eastwards.
nicknamed 'Pontius Pilate' (N&(1 167 (1934),
352). Easter. The death and resurrection of Jesus
Until recently it was generally agreed, even Christ is the central defining event of the

by many in the medical profession, that pier- Christian rehgion, and the time appointed to
cing one's ears improved the eyesight: celebrate it would clearly be the most import-

ant festival in the ecclesiastical calendar. Holy

When I was a house-surgeon (about 1881) at the
Scripture defines the time as early spring,
Royal National Hospital, Margate, I several times
around the time of the Jewish Passover festi-
pierced the edrs of children suffering chronic oph-
thalmic conditions as a remedial measure, doing it val, but it was not until the 8th century that

by the order of the visiting surgeons. (NEtQ_ lis: 3

Britain and western Europe finally settled on
(1911), 294) the standard still in use today— the first
Sunday after the moon has reached its fiillest
A more was reported in the
elaborate idea
point after 21 March.
Exeter and Plymouth Gazette for 15 March 1877
It has never been clear why the EngUsh lan-
(quoted by Radford) in which a Braunston
guage calls this season Easter when all other
woman went from house to house collecting
European languages (apart from one early
pennies towards the cost of earrings to cure a German medieval dialect) call it by a variant of
sight problem, in the belief that they would 'Pasch'. Bede says pagan Anglo-Saxons called
only be effective if she collected money solely the fourth month of the year Eosturmonath
from men and did not say 'please' or 'thank
after a goddess 'Eostre', 'for whom
they were
you' when asking. The notion of the opposite accustomed to hold festivals at that season' (De
sex in cures and superstitions is relatively
Temporum Ratione, 13), and this is frequently
common.
quoted as estabUshed fact. However, since
The two groups which had formerly a near
there is no other mention of her in any of
monopoly on male earrings were Gypsies and the numerous sources of information about
sailors. Both had the usual traditions about
Germanic heathenism, some scholars doubt
eyesight, but it was also said that sailors' ear- Bede's asertion, suggesting instead that he or
rings would save them from drowning, while his informants created the goddess by specu-
others argued that should a sailor be drowned
lative 'back-formation' from a pre-existing,
and washed up on some foreign shore, his
and perplexing, name for a season. The word
gold earrings would pay for a proper Chris- is certainly related to 'east', and to ancient
tian burial (FLS Nofis 22 (1995), 16; 23 (1996),
words meaning 'dawn' in various languages.
7-8)
April may have been regarded as the dawn of
N&Q_ 5s:8 (1877), 361-4, 453-4; 9 (1878), 133, the year. Whether Bede was right in thinking
156) gathers together numerous classical and the season was personified as a goddess is
biblical references to earrings (and, inciden-
more doubtful— especially since the 'goddess
taUy, noserings); N&Q,lls:3 (1911), 149, 171-2, Hreda' whom he gives as the explanation for
235, 294; 4 (1911), 481-2; 153 (1927). 248; Rad-
the name of March (Shedmonath) is equally
ford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 146-7; Opie and
unconfirmed by other sources— but on bal-
Tatem, 1989: 176-7.
ance many are willing to accept it (Wilson,
See also *deafness and earache.
1992: 35-6; NewaU. 1971: 384-6).
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 128-30. In the medieval church, there were numer-
ous customs and duties carried out at Easter
east. Normally, churches have the main altar including extinguishing and renewing all the
1992:
at the eastern end, and altars in side chapels Ughts, 'Watching the Sepulchre' (Duffy,
set against east walls; some early Christian 29-37, 436, 461; Andrews, 1891: 111-19), the
writers recommend those praying out of doors decoration of churches, and the performance
Easter 104

of plays and pageants dramatizing appropriate John Suckling's 'Ballade Upon a Wedding'
biblical events, but these were swept away (1646) but was already sufficiently well known
with the Reformation (Wright and Lones, for the arch-sceptic Sir Thomas Browne to feel
1936: i. 95; Brand, 1849 edn: 157-9). the need to refute it— 'We shall not, I hope,
In the secular sphere, the most abiding disparage the Resurrection of our Redeemer, if
Easter custom is the giving and eating of we say the sun does not dance on Easter Day^
*Easter Eggs, but in the past numerous games (Browne, 1672 edn.: book 5. chapter 22) but
and customs also clustered around the season. this did nothing to diminish its popularity
As with the other spring festival at *Whitsun, (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 131-2).
Easter was a favourite time for *church ales, A customary game which, like *Lifting and
revels, and other outdoor celebrations, with other customs, pitted males against females,
sports and games to the fore. For Londoners, was reported fix)m Yorkshire, Northumber-
Greenwich Park was a favourite place of resort land, and Co. Durham in the 18th and 19th
on Easter and Whitsun Mondays, where thou- centuries. On Easter Sunday, youths tried to
sands of people gathered and an unchartered waylay young women and steal their shoe-
fairsprang up to cater for them. Niraierous buckles, or even their complete shoes. The
other fairs and gatherings were held up and women retaliated on Easter Monday by taking
down the country. the men's hats or caps. Both sides met that
Easter was one of the occasions when it was evening, or the next day, and a small sum was
*
felt essential to have new clothes, or at least exacted to redeem their belongings, which
some item of new dress, the other times being was then used to ftind an evening of eating
*New Year and *Whitsun. This idea is first and drinking. As is usual with such customs,
recorded in the 16th century, and is men- stiangers were not exempt, and anyone pass-
tioned by Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet (in. ing through the village on these days was like-
i). Samuel Pepys indicates that in his day the ly to be stopped by the young people and a
fashions changed at Easter: small sum demanded in Ueu of shoe, spurs, or
hat (Gentleman's Magazine (1790), 719; Dyer,
She did give me account of this wedding today, its
1876: 167-8).
being private being imputed to its being just before A children's custom which appeared at dif-
Lent, and so in vain to make new clothes till Easter,
ferent times in different areas, and under a
that they might see the fashions as they are like to be
this summer. {Diary, 15 Feb. 1667) variety of local names, took place in Derby-
shire on Easter Sunday and Monday. At
If you did not wear new clothes you would Tideswell, they called it 'sugar-cupping', and
have bad luck or birds would drop on you or, children went to the spring at nearby Drop-
in one account, dogs would spit at you, and the ping Tor, where they mixed the water with
belief lasted at least into the 1970s and is sugar to make an Easter drink (Hone, 1827:
probably still to be found (Opie and Tatem, 226). At Castleton and Bradwell it was 'Shak-
1989: 131). It was also customary to wear new king Monday' and they used peppermint, and
gloves at Easter, and they were thus a favour- children at Little Hucklow mixed water from
ite present on the Saturday, especially from the Silver Well with broken sweets. Compare
tenants to their landlords and young men to also similar customs under * Spanish Sunday,
their sweethearts. Ascension Day, and *elecampane. Nineteenth-
A widespread and deeply held belief was century children at Evesham (Worcestershire)
that the sun dances for joy at dav^^ on Easter used to play *Thread the Needle through the
Sunday. There are numerous reports of people streets on Easter Monday.

making up parties and ascending local high As noted under * hares, there is no evidence
points to watch the sun rise, and that they saw of a connection between that animal and the
it spinning, jumping, or rocking to and fro. It putative Germanic goddess Eostie, although
was said that if you did not see
happeningit the Unk with Celtic peoples is reasonably well
the Devil was deliberately obstructing your attested. It cannot be shovm, nor is it Ukely,

view, or that you were not sufficiently devout. that Celtic beliefs such as these survived the
More rare, but found particularly in the West Germanic and Nordic invasions and sub-
Country, was the notion that you could see the sequent Christianization of the Enghsh.
figure of a lamb, or a lamb and a flag, in the Nevertheless, there are a number of later con-
sun on this day. The belief first appears in the nections between Easter and hares which are
documentary record in the 17th century, in Sir difficult to explain. In Leicestershire there was
105 Ebernoe Horn Fair

an annual 'hare hunt', and the surviving *hare (dark brovim), and then scratch the dye away
pie and bottle kicking custom at Hallaton. In to leave a white pattern or an inscription.
Warwickshire, a manorial custom reported in Alternatively, the pattern or writing could be
the 18th century at Coleshill set young men applied in melted wax, which resists the dye.
trying to catch a hare on Easter Monday. The The most subtle method, still practised in
Folk-Lore Journal (5 (1887), 263-4) quotes The Northumberland and Cumberland, is to col-
Calendar of State Papers (Domestic Series) (4th lect small leaves from wild plants, press them
series, viii: 23): '1620, April 2. Thos. Fulnety against the egg, v^nrap it in bits of old cloth
the permission of Lord Zouch, Lord
solicits whose dye v^ll run, and boil; the leaf patterns
Warden of the Cinque Ports, to kill a hare on stand out white against the softly coloured
Good Friday, as huntsmen say that those v^ho ground.
have not a hare against Easter must eat a red At Carhsle on Easter Monday crowds of chil-
herring'. But none of the accounts of special dren gathered in a field to play a game like
foods for Easter mentions hare; for example, conkers: two eggs would be tapped together,
Samuel Pepys records eating hare three times end to end, till the shell of one cracked,
but never at that season. Charles Billson (Folk- whereupon it was forfeit to the ovmer of the
Lore 3 (1892), 441-66) accumulates much of the uncracked egg. There were many places where
evidence for a long-standing connection, children would roU coloured hardboiled eggs
although he is characteristic of his time in down a hillside, a sloping path, or the beach,
being too ready to invoke totemism as an until they cracked, and then eat them; the cus-
explanation. It is clear that further v^ork needs tom kept up on a large scale at Preston
is still

to be done on the subject. (Lancashire), and Derby, but elsewhere died

See also *good Friday. out after the Second World War. Some fam-
For other customs which take or took place ilies attached reUgious symbolism to these
at Easter, *bacup Britannia coconut
see customs, saying eggs were dyed red to honour
DANCERS, *BIDDENDEN DOLE, *CLIPPING THE the blood of Jesus, or rolled because of the
CHURCH, *HALLATON HARE PIE AND BOTTLE stone rolled away from the tomb, or hidden in
KICKING, *LIFnNG, *MIDGLEY PACE-EGGERS, gardens because Mary Magdalen searched for
*PACE EGGS. Jesus in a garden (Sutton, 1997: 75-7).
Wright and Lones I, 1936: 85-122; Hutton, 1996: 179- A more domestic game was for parents to
213; Brand 1, 1849: 157-84. hide eggs in the garden for children to dis-
is still done with chocolate eggs (a
cover; this
Easter eggs. Eggs have been linked to Easter major feature of the festival throughout the
for centuries throughout Europe, partly to 20th century). The 'Easter Bunny' is a recent
symbolize new hfe, and partly because of their arrival, probably due to American influence.
seasonal abundance; they must not be eaten In several German-speaking regions of Europe
during Lent, so those not used for hatching an 'Easter Hare' comes by night to lay eggs for
were available, preserved or hardboiled, as which children search; the first German refer-
Easter food. In northern England they were ence is from 1572. In America, settlers of
called 'pace eggs', 'peace eggs', or 'paste eggs', German descent kept the tradition alive, and
corruptions of pasche, the Latin-based medi- hence spread it to a wider American pubUc;
eval word for Easter, here confused wdth they also made Easter cakes in the shape of a
pax = 'peace'. Aubrey described how children
*
hare, which reveal the underlying joke— the
from poor famihes went from house to house hare is shown 'laying', i.e. excreting, its egg-
asking in rhyme for eggs to celebrate the shaped droppings (Newall, 1971: 323-6 and ill.

death of *Jack o' Lent. The custom was called 13a).

*
pace-egging, and persisted until late in the Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 76. 87-91. 114-15; Newall,
19th century; in the Wirral (Cheshire), one of 1971: 281-5 and plates xxii and xxiii; Hole, 1976: 62-6;
the rhymes was still remembered in the 1930s Hutton. 1996: 198-203.

(Hole, 1937: 77-8).

Also in the north, Easter eggs were decor- Ebernoe Horn Fair. This small Sussex vil-

ated by various techniques, the simplest being lage's fair on 25 July gets its name from the
to dye the egg a single colour by hardboihng it sheep which is and shared out,
roasted whole,
with onion peel (dark yellow, golden brown), although the main activity of the day is a
gorse blooms (light yellow), cochineal (red), cricket match between Ebernoe and a neigh-
spinach or grass (green), or coffee grounds bouring village team. The man who scores the
Edenhall, the Luck of

most runs on the winning side is presented Edric the Wild. A Saxon lord owning land
with the horns of the ram. Eariier sources along the Welsh Border at the time of the
speak of general sports and games on the day, Norman Conquest, who became a focus for
but the cricket has been featured since at least several legends. According to Walter *Map, he
the 1920s. It is known that the fair was revived kidnapped a most beautifiil fairy woman,
in 1864, but for how long it had been dormant whom he saw dancing and singing with her
is not known, nor is the date of its origin. A sisters in a hall in a forest. She agreed to marry
feature of the modem custom is the singing of him, on condition he never alluded to her
the 'Horn Fair' song, which was probably not past; some years later he broke this promise,
written about Ebemoe, but has now been and she vanished instantly. Soon after, he died
adopted. *Charlton, for example, had an infin- of grief
itely more famous Horn Fair. In later folklore, Edric himself took on
See also *horns. supernatural characteristics. Charlotte Bume
A. B. (Arthur Beckett), Sussex County Magazine 2 (1928), was told that he and his fairy wife and all their
331, 338; Stanley Godman, Sussex County Magazine 29 followers were deep in the Shrop-
still alive,

(1955), 320-3, 29 (1955), 403, 501; Hilary and Ailsa shire lead mines, and would not die till all the
Cripps, Sussex Life Quly 1968), 39-40.
wrongs done by the Normans are righted.
Miners would hear them knocking where the
best lodes ran. 'Now and then they are permit-
Edenhall, the Luck of. In the Victoria and
Albert Museum is a delicate painted and gild- ted to show themselves. Whenever war is

ed glass beaker, made in Syria in the middle of going to break out, they ride over the hills in
the direction of the enemy's country, and if
the 13th century. How and when it reached
England is unknown, but some verses of 1729 they appear, it is a sign that the war will be
mention it by name, and indicate it was a serious' (Bume, 1883: 25-9). Charlotte Bume's
cherished heirloom of the Musgraves of informant, a miner's daughter, said her father
Edenhall in Cumbria. Its leather case is had seen Edric riding out in Nap>oleon's time,
inscribed with IHS, a Catholic monogram
and she herself before the Crimean war. More
for Jesus Hominum Salvator {'Jesus, Saviour of
modem books on Shropshire lore mention
Humanity'), probably implying that it was once people who claim sightings in 1914 and 1939.
used as a chahce.
Later, in 1791, an article in The Gentleman's
eels. A common belief was that a long black
horsehair thrown into a mnning stream
Magazine gave the legend of its origins:
instantly becomes a live eel or water snake.
Tradition . . .
says, that a party of Fairies were drink- William Harrison, The Description of England
ing and making merry round a well near the Hall, (1587: provides an early reference,
321)
called St Cuthbert's well; but, being interrupted by although he reserved judgement on the truth
the intrusion of some curious people, they were of the matter, and in the early 19th century
frightened, and made a hasty retreat, and left the cup the author of the Denham Tracts (1895: ii. 29)
in question; one of the last screaming out:
admits to trying it himself as a boy in the
north of England. Correspondence in N&Cl
cup should break or fall.
If this
Farewell the Luck of Edenhall! (7s:2-4 (1886-7)) under the heading 'Ani-
mated Horsehairs' indicates that this had been
This story follows the pattern of a migra- a very widely held notion in England, Scot-
tory legend about how a precious cup or drink- land, and elsewhere, at all levels of society
*
ing horn was stolen from fairies and then well into the late 19th century.
given to a church, or to a great lord (see *Willy A different correspondent in N&Q^ reported a
Howe). If the Luck of Edenhall was indeed a A woman
belief in eels as a cure for *deafiiess.
CathoUc chalice, this would be a perfect cover at Lochleven, who was putting live eels into a
story to explain the poUtically risky act of bag, told him they were being sent to England
keeping it. to cure a lady of her deafness, and that this
Two other families in Cumbria keep heir- was a regular occurrence. Asked if she herself
looms called 'Lucks': a glass bowl at Muncas- believed in the cure, she answered, 'Od, I
ter, said to have been given by the saintly dinna ken, sir, but thae English doctors shud
Henry VI; a brass dish at Burrel Green with a ken'. {N&(1 5s:9 (1878), 65). A more generally
Catholic Latin inscription, allegedly given by a reported medical use of eels was (and perhaps
fairy or a witch. still is) to wear their skins as a garter as a
107 Egremont Crab-Apple Fair

preventative for *cramp, or a cure for rheuma- were believed to be cock's eggs. They were
tism. Enid Porter (1969: 47, 67, 72, 86-7) gives very unlucky; if hatched, they would produce
a full description of how to prepare the skin, a *cockatrice, so they were thrown over the
plus other eel lore, and Opie and Tatem (1989: roof
132) give references starting in 1684. A further A form of girls' *divination, known since the
belief, not confined to Britain, asserts that 17th century and usually done on Midsum-
eels, Uke fish, are killed by *thunder (N&Cl mer Day, was to drop egg-white into water and
10s:2 (1904), 331-2). observe what shapes it made; these foretold
one's destined husband's occupation (Opie
effigies. These appear in a number of Enghsh and Tatem, 1989: 135). Another, done on *St
customs, rarely being treated with respect, Agnes' Eve in Northumberland, was to fill an
and nearly always ending up being burnt. The empty eggshell with salt and eat it, shell and
best known in modem times are concerned all, and then go to bed backwards; the future

with *November the Fifth, ranging from the husband would be seen in a dream (Radford,
home-made domestic guy to the spectacular Radford, and Hole, 1961: 144).
processional constructions satirizing pubUc In Sussex, it was thought unlucky to bring
figures displayed at *Lewes (Sussex). Other the eggs of wild birds indoors, though strings
regular effigies include *Buming Bartle at of them were hung on outbuildings in spring
West Witton (Yorkshire) and, in previous (why, is not said) (Latham, 1878: 10); more
times. Burning *Judas in Liverpool. The parad- commonly, it was unlucky to take *robins'
ing of an effigy could also be a relatively eggs.
spontaneous customary way of showing group See also *easter eggs, *primroses.
displeasure at local or national events. Carica-
tures of the offending parties were common in
eggshells. In his Vulgar Errors (1686), Sir
*rough music ceremonies, and, for example, at Thomas Browne noted:
Sherborne (Dorset) on the news of the proc-
lamation of Charles II in May 1660, effigies of to breakan egg after ye meate is out we are taught in
our childhood .and the intent thereof was to pre-
. .

Cromwell and Bradshaw were subjected to a

vent witchcraft; lest witches should draw or prick
mock trial, dragged through the streets,
their names therein and veneficiously mischiefe ye
hacked to pieces, and thrown on a bonfire This custome of
persons, they broke ye shell
along with the arms of the Commonwealth breaking the bottom of the eggeshell is yet com-
(Underdown, 1985: 271). In much earUer monly used in the countrey. (Browne, Pseudodoxia
times, some effigies had a much more respect- Epidemica (1686), v. xxii, para. 4)
able role in *civic events such as the Lord
Others, including Reginald Scot in 1584, had
Mayor's Show and *midsummer watch pro-
heard say that witches sailed in eggshells; thus
cessions, where
*giants and *dragons were
by driving the spoon through the shells one
particularly popular characters, and before
was 'sinking the witch boats' and preventing
the Reformation statues of saints would also
have been paraded around the parish on pat- shipwrecks. Children were still being taught
this in the 1930s; a poem written in 1934 nms:
ronal feast days and other special occasions, as
on the Continent. Oh, never leave your eggshells unbroken in the cup.
See also *judas; *jack o lent; *QyEEN Think of us poor sailor-men and always smash them
ELIZABETH I'S ANNIVERSARY; *ST DAVID'S DAY; up.
SALISBURY GIANT. For witches come and find them and sail away to sea.
And make a lot of misery for mariners like me.

1993: 97)
eggs. It was thought very unlucky to take (Gill,

eggs into or out of a house after sunset. There Newall, 1971: 80-7; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 135-6.
were rules about setting them to be hatched—
itshould be done with a waxing *moon, but Egremont Crab-Apple Fair. Egremont in
not on a *Friday or Sunday; there should be an Cumbria claims to have held its fair every year
odd number, preferably *thirteen, for an even- since its charter was granted in 1267 (except
numbered clutch would produce cockerels for during the two world wars). The day, the
only. In some coastal areas, it was thought that Saturday nearest 18 October, is a series of
eggs set at ebb-tide produced hens, and those events rather than a continuous fair, starting
at the flood cockerels. The abnormally small with a greasy pole which locals are invited to
yolkless egg sometimes produced by old hens climb to claim the joint of meat (or money)
elbows 108

fixed to the top. Later in the morning a lorry is and a cure for rheumatism; a necklace of its
driven round the streets while men throw twigs prevented fits.
apples to the crowd— they used to be crab- Elderflower tea and elderberry wine were
apples, but more edible varieties are now good for coughs, colds, and fevers, and the
distributed— and during the day there are bark boiled in milk for jaundice; the leaves
children's races, wrestling, dog races and were used in poultices and ointments, for
shows, and much else. The evening includes example for grazes and for eczema. The smell
bizarre events such as a pipe-smoking contest, of the leaves repels flies and wasps, so elder
sentimental song singing competition, and bushes were planted outside the windows of
what they claim to be the World Champion dairies and larders, and round outdoor
*Guming Competition. lavatories.

Shuel, 1985: 14-16; Kightly, 1986: 98-9; Sykes, 1977: Vickery, 1995: 118-26; Hatfield, 1994; Opie and Tatem,
125-6. 1989: 127-9.

elbows. As with other parts of the body, an

elecampane. The roots of this plant were
itching elbow is significant. It is mentioned by widely used in folk medicine and particularly
Scot (1584: book 11, chapter 13) as one of 'an
veterinary medicine— for curing hydrophobia
innumerable multitude of objects, whereupon in cows and skin diseases in horses and sheep. ;

they prognosticate good or bad lucke'. In Wiltshire, at least, the plant was called |
Unfortunately, he does not tell us what this 'Horseheal' (Wiltshire, 1975: 18). For human '

particular one means. Neither is Shakespeare use, the traditional ways of processing the
very clear: 'rub the elbow at the news of hurly plant often involved mixing with sugar,
burly innovation' (Henry the Fourth Part 1
honey, or wine. In this form it eventually
{c.1597), v. i). It isonly vkith 17th-century became available as a sweet, and the name
authors that we understand that an itching lived on even after the plant ceased to be an
elbow means that you will, or should, change
ingredient:
your bedfellow. Much more recent is the idea,
So now its medical virtues are forgotten, and it is
reported in Opie and Tatem, that if you bang
sold merely as a candy in confectioners' shops, with
your elbow accidentally, you should also no more of the plant in it than there is of barley in
knock the other one, for luck. ^
what is now sold as barley-sugar. I

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 136-7; Lean II, 1903: 285-6.

One writer in Notes & Queries equates ele-
eider. Traditional attitudes towards the elder campane with the hquorish-concoction made
are contradictory. Many people thought it evil, and drunk by children on a special day in cer-
and would never lop its flowers into tain parts of the country (see under *Spanish
it, bring
the house, or make tools from its wood; to Sunday).The other way in which the plant is
bum itwould bring death, or the Devil, into remembered, after a fashion, is in the Doctor's
the house. Its shade was thought to poison all speech in many versions of the *
mummers
other plants, and even humans sleeping near- play, in which the name
garbled in all man-
is

ner of ways (such as Alhkan-pane or Hokum-

by; also, a gash from an elder stick supposedly
never heals, and babies rocked in elder-wood pokum-heUican-pain) but it is quite clear that
cradles always die young. Some said this was elecampane was the 'original' word used.
bercause *Judas hanged himself on an elder, Vickery, 1995: 126; N&Q.4s:5 (1870), 595; 4s:6 (1870), 103,
others that it is 'a witch-tree' (cf *Rollright 205, 264; 4s:7 (1871), 243, 314.

some districts anyone about to cut

Stones). In
elder wood asked permission, though the elephant statuettes. Ebony statuettes of
formula used had a trick in it: 'Owd Gal, give elephants in graded sizes were popular
me of thy wood, and Oi will give some of mantlepiece ornaments in the first half of the
moine, when Oi graws inter a tree' (or, 'when I 20th century; it was said they had to face the i

am dead', in other versions). door of the room, otherwise the good luck 1

In contrast, others thought it sacred, they gave would turn to bad.

because the Cross was made of elder wood; it
would never be struck by Ughtning, and one Ellis,Sir Henry (1777-1869). All his working
near a house would drive away all evil, espe- lifewas spent in major libraries and archives,
cially witches. Its leaves or twigs, carried in at the Bodleian and the British Museum. He
the pocket, were a defence against witchcraft was a leading figure among the hterary-
 109 English Dialect Survey

antiquarians of his day, and was Secretary for in it in silence; this thou shalt do, then take a staff,
the Society of Antiquaries for 40 years from strike the horse on the back, then it will be whole.
1814. For folklorists, Elhs's main claim to And write upon the horn of the knife these words,
fame is that he undert:ook the daunting task of Benediciteomnia opera domini dominum (All ye works of
the Lord, bless ye the Lord). Be the elf what it may,
editing the mass of material collected by
*Brand for a second edition of his Observations
this has power against him as a remedy.

on Popular Antiquities. Ellis managed this by how she-elves have

One, in verse, describes
1813, pubUshing a two-volume set, but with- plunged their spears in a victim, and the
out grasping the nettle of arrangement, and healer's counter-attack; he is to boil up fever-
the work rapidly became famous for its irritat- few, red nettle, and plantain with butter, and
ing lack of clear structure and footnotes upon plunge a knife in the mixture, reciting a
footnotes. Nevertheless, the new edition lengthy chant with the repeated adjuration,
immediately became a standard work in the 'Out, little spear, if herein you be!'

burgeoning antiquary-folklore field, being V/ilfred Bonser, Folk-Lore 37 (1926), 350-63; full transla-
referred to as 'Brand-EUis' by later writers, and tion of the verse in R. K. Gordon, Anglo-Saxon Poetry

Ellis returned to the subject with a new three- (1926), 94-5.

l volume edition, better organized, and with

English Dialect Survey. The result of the
*

additional material, in 1849.

sustained enthusiasm and effort of two lin-
Dorson, 1968: 17-20, 22-4; DNB.
guists, Harold Orton (1898-1975) and Eugen
elves. In Old English, xlf was the general all-
Dieth (1893-1956). When Orton was
purpose term for a *fairy; after the Conquest, appointed to the Chair of English Language
and Medieval Literature at Leeds University in
however, the French 'fairy' partially replaced
1947, it provided them with a base from which
it, though Chaucer and Shakespeare still used
to launch an ambitious survey of the dialects
them interchangeably, and 'elf seems to have
faded out of rural usage in most of England of England, designed to amass an archive of
accurate and authentic data, and to provide
(though not in Yorkshire). It kept a place in
material for the pubUcation of a linguistic
literary English, however, so it now sounds
atlas. Aware of the Umitations of previous
both more archaic and more elegant than
work on dialect in England, they used ttained
'fairy'.
Elvesmust have been regarded as helpful in fieldworkers, standard questionnaires, and
some professional dialectological principles, and
contexts, otherwise xlf would not have
been used as an element in personal names,
between 1948 and 1961 the team conducted
fieldwork in 313 rural locations. The 'Survey
e.g. yClfred and y^lfwine. On the other hand,
of EngUsh Dialects' was the name of the pub-
Anglo-Saxon medical textbooks and coUec-
f tions of heaUng charms refer to 'elf sickness', lishing programme launched in 1962, which

I 'water-elf sickness', and 'elf shot'; the latter pubUshed a number of books of findings in
tabular form, and the cherished The Linguistic
could afflict horses, cattle, or humans, and
Atlas of England, edited by Harold Orton, Stew-
was thought to be caused when elves shot
art Sanderson, and John Widdowson, in 1978.
them with small darts. Prehistoric flint arrow
heads were long known as 'elf arrows' or 'elf Other atlases based on the Survey material fol-
lowed. In addition to the collecting and pub-
bolts'. Elves were also blamed for tangling
human hair and horses' manes during the lishing, Orton was instrumental in forging
dialect studies into an academic discipUne,
night ('elf locks'), and for 'riding' humans and
horses by night, causing nightmares, sweat-
and more than 100 student theses on dialect
and restless sleep. were completed at Leeds University in his
ing,
The Anglo-Saxon charms against such afflic-
time. He retired in September 1964, although
he continued to play an active part in the pub-
tions are
interesting texts.
rely Some on
lication programme, and having laid the
prayers and psalms, regarding the trouble-
some elf as a demon to be exorcized; others foundations of what became in October that
mix reUgious and year the *Institute of Dialect and Folklife Stud-
non-religious elements:
ies under the direction of Stewart Sanderson.
Ifa horse be elf-shot, then take a knife of which the
Harold Orton, 'How We Say and What We Play'. The Vfl-
'^ haft is the horn of a fallow ox, and on which are
lage 8:1 (1953), 26-31; Craig Fees,
The ImperOled Inheritance:
three brass nails, then write upon the horse's fore- and FoMife Studies at the University of Leeds 1946-1962
I Dialect
f head Christ's mark and on each of the limbs thou (1991); S. F. Sanderson, 'Folklore Material
in the English

mayest feel at; then take the left ear, and prick a hole Dialect Survey', FoMore 83 (1972), 89-100.
English Folk Dance Society 110

English Folk Dance Society. The founda- less on certificates and more on enjo5mient,
tion of the EFDS was formally proposed by and this viewpoint gradually became
Cecil *Sharp, seconded by Ahce *Gomme, at a accepted as the inter-war years progressed.
public meeting in December 1911, and the When amalgamation with the Folk-Song
Society lasted until 1932 when it amalgam- Society was mooted in 1932, there were some
ated with the * Folk-Song Society to form the in the latter organization who feared that
EngUsh Folk Dance and Song Society. Sharp their relatively academic membership inter-
had been actively collecting traditional dance estswould be swamped by the hobby dan-
since 1906, and had already pubhshed the cers,and this tension remained a major force
first parts of his Morris Book (1907), Country in the development of the new combined
Dance Book (1909), and Sword Dances of Northern Society.
England (1911). His public disagreements, and The Society published a Journal: 2 volimies,
growing competition, with Mary *Neal 1914-15; second series 4 volumes, 1927-31.
prompted him to form a Folk Dance Club in Derek Schofield, FM] 5:2 (1986), 215-19; W. D. Croft,
1910, which resulted directly in the formation JEWS 2s:l (1927), 3-16; Douglas Kennedy, FM] 2:2 (1971),
of the EFDS the following year. Sharp's 80-90.

agenda at the time was heavily influenced by

his differences with Neal, which were adopted English Folk Dance and Song Society. The
wholesale by the new Society, in particular his EFDSS was formed in 1932 by the amalgam-
stress on 'artistic' rather than 'philanthropic' ation of the *Folk-Song Society (founded 1898),
principles. He believed that the newly dis- and the *EngUsh Folk Dance Society (EFDS)
covered dances should be brought back to the (founded 1911). At that time, the two societies
people by way of trained professionals rather had a number of leading figures in common,
than enthusiastic amateurs. What dis- including Ralph *Vaughan Williams and Maud
tinguished the EFDS from the existing *Folk- *Karpeles, who felt that the two bodies had
and Folk-Song Society was that it
lore Society sufficiently compatible aims to combine to
had from the beginning 'a pohcy of active make a stronger organization. Since then, the
propaganda with a view to restoring trad- EFDSS has been the leading institution in the
*
3), but
itional arts to popular use' (Croft, 1927: *song and dance field in England, and has also
only on Sharp's terms. His views openly dom- contributed significantly to their perform-
inated the Society until his death in 1924, ance, collection, and study and is still active in
when he was succeeded as Director by Doug- promoting and co-ordinating activities and
las *Kennedy, and it took years for Sharp's pubUcations at a variety of levels.
influence to begin to wane. The fact that the EFDSS has come under
The Society immediately set out a pro- constant criticism since its inception, from
gramme of training, holding classes, granting one group or another within and outside its
certificates, lecturing, and demonstrating on membership, cannot be ignored, and some of
a nationwide basis, as well as organizing its problems can be seen in the original amal-

country dance parties, balls, and festivals, gamation plan. Even at that time there were
and attracted thousands of enthusiasts, par- voices who argued against the venture—Ahce
ticularly amongst schoolteachers. Until the *Gomme, example— who feared that the
for
First World War, the activities of its members primarily recreationally minded and much
were viewed by the general pubUc as mildly larger EFDS would swamp the more scholarly
eccentric, but continued work brought wider minded Folk-Song Society, and until the post-
public acceptance during the 1920s and war song revival this looked as if it might be
1930s, although the movement was never true. With notable exceptions, the rank-and-
able to shake off the rather fussy, precious, file membership remained polarized into
serious-minded reputation it had gained. dance people and song people, with the for-
Development was also hindered by the fact mer numerically stronger. However, not only
that many of Sharp's most promising dis- were there dance and song camps, but there
ciples, such as R. J. E. Tiddy and George *But- were also within each camp those whose pri-
terworth were killed in the war. Ironically, mary interest was in research and others
considering the birth of the Society in Sharp's whose interest was in performance; and with-
disagreement with Neal and her supporters, in the performance camps there were those
there were factions within the EFDS who who wished to perpetuate the styles and rep-
believed that the Society should concentrate ertoire of the past in a relatively strict form.
Ill ethnic jokes

while others beUeved in artistic freedom and Esp^rance Morris Guild, see mary *neal,
development. Added to this, there have been CECIL *SHARP.
other areas of debate—whether women
should be allowed to dance the *morris, for Ethnic. A short-lived home-made periodical,
example, or whether the Society should be subtitled 'A Quarterly Survey of EngUsh Folk
solely concerned with EngUsh traditions. The Music, Dance and Drama' compiled and pub-
potential for conflict within this complex of lished by Mervyn Plunkett, Reg Hall, and
attitudes and agendas is obvious, and tensions Peter Grant. The first issue was dated January
have periodically flared into open conflict. 1959 and the fourth and last came in
It also cannot be denied that the Society has Autumn the same year. In an aggressive
been slow at times to understand the major style. Ethnic championed the collection and
changes taking place at large in the song and study of authentic traditional style and reper-
dance movements and has always appeared toire in contradistinction to what its editors
sUghtly behind the times and therefore slight- saw as a burgeoning *revival movement
ly irrelevant. It is perhaps expecting too much based on false principles, little knowledge,
of an organization dedicated to the preserva- and cosy middle-class fashion. The magazine
tion of traditional cultural forms to be at the included several important articles based on
cutting-edge of cultural change, but the new first-hand experience (such as one on May
revival which came into being in the 1950s Day at *Padstow in issue number three, and
and blossomed in the next two decades several on particular singers and musicians)
appeared to many to be taking place in spite of and its criticisms are also useful for evidence
the EFDSS rather than because of it. of a critical time in the post-war develop-
On the more
positive side, the EFDSS, by its ment of folklore studies and the folk-song
continued existence, has provided a focal point and dance revival.
for much of the enduring work carried out in
song and dance, and has acted as a channel for ethnic jokes. The EngUsh are not alone in
information exchange between its members having an active repertoire of jokes which
and the outside world, in addition to providing rely for their point on negative ethnic stereo-
thousands of ordinary enthusiasts with the types, as aU European countries have their
opportunity to indulge in dance and song activ- joke cycles about particular groups. In earlier
ities which would not have existed otherwise. times, the groups singled out for ridicule
The Society has provided recordings and dance were more Ukely to be the inhabitants of a
instruction manuals to countless school- local town or village— *Gotham, for
teachers and other bodies and has thus helped example— but this has graduaUy given way to
to provide the materials and foundations of jokes about particular nationalities or ethnic
each new revival, and a small but respectable groups, although different regions still hold
catalogue of books and sound recordings of stereotyped views about others. There is a
traditional song has been issued over the years. range of stereotyped traits assigned to par-
Without its continued work httle would have ticular groups in jokes, but the most common
survived to be revived. The Society's journal, is stupidity, presumably because it has much

the *Joumal of the English Folk Dance and Song Soci- wider comic possibiUties than, say, meanness
ety(1932-64), continued as the *FolkMusicJournal or avarice. In England, jokes or humorous
(1965 to date), is a major repository of material tales depicting the Irish as stupid were circu-
in its own right, and has developed into an lating at least as early as 1739 when some
internationally-respected scholarly publica- were printed in ]oe Miller's Jests (see Halpert
tion; and the magazine, *English Dance and Song and Widdowson, 1996: 647-53), and were
(1936 to date) also provides an essential outlet taken abroad by Canadian, American, and
for less formal articles, reviews, and notes. The Australian settlers, where they also flour-
*Vaughan Williams Memorial Library has the ished. Jokes and tales about the Irish have
best collection of songand dance material in existed ever since, and there is no doubt that
the country, and has developed into an essen- racist stereotypes areperpetuated in this way.
tialinformation resource for scholars, with a but as two of Sandra McCosh's English
deservedly high reputation for the support it informants said: 'we have nothing against the
gives to research. The EFDSS is based at *Cecil Irish: my father and his father were Irish.

Sharp House, 2 Regents Park Road, London They're just supposed to be stupid' (McCosh,
NWl 7AY(Tel.: 020 7485 2206). 1976: 120).
 Evans, George Ewart 112

See also *fools, wise men of *gotham. lighted the latter, suggesting that at winter
Christie Davies, Ethnic Humor Around the World: A Com- festivals they represented the unconquered
parative Analysis (1990); Christie Davies, 'Foohowns: Trad- Ufe-force, and at ftinerals immortality. This
itional and Modem, Local, Regional and Ethnic Jokes
About
may be though early sources offer httle
so,
Stupidity* in Gillian Bennett, Spoken in Jest (1991),
direct evidence, and what there is does not
215-35; Sandra McCosh, Children's Humour (1976); Her-
bert Halpert and J. D. A. Widdowson, Folktales of Newfound- always bear out the theory; *holly, for
land (1996), ii. 647-53. instance, is celebrated in a weU-known medi-
eval carol because its features recall aspects of
Evans, George Ewart (1909-88). One of the Christ's birth and life, while *rosemary pro-
founders of Oral History in Britain, he was the verbially was 'for remembrance'. The herbal-
son of a shopkeeper in the mining village of ist Willam Coles, in his The Art of Simpling

Abercynon in Glamorgan. He came to Suffolk (1656: 64-5), thought lasting memory was the
in the 1930s to work as a teacher and writer, key concept:
and after the war he discovered a field which
Cypresse Garlands are of great account at Funeralls
absorbed him, and his readers, for the rest of
amongst the gentiler sort, but Rosemary and Bayes
his hfe. After hearing his Blaxhall neighbours,
are used by the Commons both at Funeralls and
Robert and Priscilla Savage, a retired shepherd
Weddings. They are all plants v^rhich fade not a good
and his wife, using dialect and country words while after they are gathered and used (as I conceive)
which Evans recognized from his reading of to intimate unto us, that the remembrance of the

16th-century poets, he reahzed the long trad- present solemnity might not dye presently, but be
ition of farming and village ways which was kept in minde for many yeares.
about to be swept away as the last generation
However, availability must also have been
who had used horsepower and hand tools
an important factor; weddings and ftinerals
gradually faded away. In a series of highly occur at all seasons, so it was possible to make
readable books based on his researches, main-
evergreens a standard feature of these occa-
ly in Suffolk, Evans wrote about this rural
sions, but not always flowers.
heritage, gradually refining a methodology
Seealso*BAY, *box, *holly, *ivy, *mistletoe,
which combined interviewing with v^de read-
rosemary, *yew.
ing, and he became a passionate advocate for
'.
getting history directly from the people,
. .

and going about introducing the technique to evil eye. The belief that certain people can
schools, continuing education classes, and inflict disease or death simply by a glance was

groups in universities over Britain' (Spoken

all accepted by the educated throughout medi-
History, p. xiii). From the
first book, Evans eval and Elizabethan times, as it had been by
always put his Uving informants centre-stage PUny and other classical authorities. Scientists
and this feature caught the attention of a ris- held that vision was an active process, in
ing generation of social historians who went which the eye emitted rays, and that envy or
on to forge the new field of Oral History. anger made these rays destructive; Francis
Books by Evans: Ask the Fellows Who Cut Bacon, in his essay 'Of Envy' (c.l600), says the
the Hay (1956); The Horse in the Furrow (1960); The emotion causes 'an ejaculation or irradiation
Pattern Under the Plough (1966); The Farm and of the eye', inflicting a 'stroke or percussion'
Where Beards Wag All (1970);
the Village (1969); on the person envied.
The Leaping Hare (with David Thomson) In common speech, the action was called
(1972); The Days We Have Seen (1975); From and it was generally regarded as
'overlooking',
Mouths of Men (1976); Horse Power and Magic witchcraft, consciously used. Writing in the
(1979); Spoken History (1987); The Crooked Scythe: 1890s in Somerset, Elworthy said the stories
An Anthology of Oral History (1993). Also his about it there were 'almost infinite', and 'one
autobiography, The Strength of the Hills (1983). of the commonest of everyday facts'. Sick pigs
Gareth Evans, George Ewart Evans (1991); Alun Howkins, were said to be 'overlooked', and so were sick
Oral History 22:2 (1994), 26-32; Obituary by Trefor Owen, children; it was taken for granted they would
folklore 99:1 (1988), 126.
die, so no effort was made to cure them. Cer-
tain protective charms designed to attract,
evergreens. A
high proportion of the plants deflect, or conftise a witch's gaze, including
important in folk customs are evergreen— a *witch balls, horse brasses, and threshold
fact which can be seen either in practical or patterns, reveal a fear of overlooking; how-
symbolic terms. Folklorists have usually high- ever, spoken curses and physical actions are
113
eyes

more frequently mentioned than mere look- way, while doctors, on the same principle,
ing in English accounts of witchcraft. placed the patient's excrement in cold water
There are occasional EngUsh references to to cool a fever. As with *urine in a *witch bot-
the idea, common in Mediterranean coun- tle, the principle could be exploited as a

tries,that those with the evil eye cannot *counterspell (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 141-2).
control it. *Aubrey mentions a man who acci- See also *bird droppings.
dentally overlooked his own cattle (Aubrey
1686/1880: 80); there is an account from York- exorcism. Exorcizing demons from possessed
shire of a man who
kept his eyes fixed on the persons has always been regarded as a task for
ground so as not to harm anyone, and another specialist clergy, and though it played a part
who made sure he looked at a pear tree first in some witchcraft cases (Thomas, 1971:
thing every morning, so that it would take the 477-92), it ismentioned in folklore.
rarely
brunt of his power (Radford, Radford, and Exorcism of *ghosts, however, was (and still is)
Hole, 1961: 155). frequently practised at the request of people
Elworthy, 1895/1958, is a valuable introduction, and
whose houses seem unpleasantly haunted; it

there is a collection of essays in The Evil Eye: A Casebook, is also a common topic in local legends (see
ed. Alan Dundes (1992), but neither uses many EngUsh laying).
examples.

eyebrows. EngUsh folklore is convinced that

excrement. Colloquial speech abounds in eyebrows which meet are indicative of a per-
references to defecation and associated organs it cannot decide whether
son's character, but
and processes. Until recently they were good or bad, and the honours are about
it is

regarded as a form of obscenity and were even either way. For example: 'It's a good
taboo in general society, so becoming a power- thing to have meeting eyebrows. You'll never
ful mark of communal solidarity within the know trouble' (various places) [NEKl ls:7
subgroups (usually male and/or juvenile) with meeting eyebrows
(1853), 152); 'People
which did use them among themselves. Cur- are thought fortimate fellows (Durham)'
rently, they are freely uttered across a far (Henderson, 1879: 112). On the other hand:
vdder range of society than at any previous 'Those who have the eyebrows met are
period in England. Used in anger, they shock witches and warlocks unlucky to meet . . .

or insult, but they are also often deployed for someone whose eyebrows met on New Years
humorous effects: they are common in minor Day' (Denham Tracts, 1892: i. 325, 340), and
verbal genres such as riddles, playground 'They whose heaire of the eye browes doo
rhymes, and Umericks, where the humour touch or meete together, of all other are the
may consist either in uttering the offensive woorst. They do shewe that he or she is a
'
word or cleverly avoiding it. Many jokes and wicked personne . . .
(Lupton, Thousand Not-
idioms exist in both a coarse and a pohte able Things (1579), quoted by Opie and Tatem).
version— as an expression of increduhty, 'My Opie and Tatem, 1989: 143-4; N&Q.185 (1943). 41-2; 186
foot!' is acceptable anywhere, but 'My arse!' is (1944), 77, 123, 298-9.
not.
BeUefs about actual excrement are few. To eyelashes. A number of folklore collections
step accidentally on dog dirt or a cowpat is since the mid-1 9th century have included
said to bring good luck, as attested by two instructions for 'v^shing on an eyelash'. From

17th-century proverbs: 'muck is luck', and Shropshire: 'If an eyelash comes out, put it on
'shitten luck is the best'. Some say the reason the back of the hand, wish, and throw it over
some burglars befoul the scene of their crime the shoulder. If it leaves the hand the wish will
isas a charm to ensure they will not be caught come true' (Bume, 1883: 268). Cornish A
(N&Q.lls:l (1910), 296-7). schoolgirls' version dictates that the lash must
In folk * medicine, a poultice of cow-dung in be placed on the tip of the nose, and blown off
brown paper was used to induce local warmth, (Folk-Lore Journal 5 (1887). 214).
for example rheumatic pain. Since
for easing Opie and Tatem, 1989: 144.
at least the early 17th century, it was thought
that to throw somebody's excrement into a eyes. Itching on many parts of the body is held
fire, or plunge hot iron into it, would cause to be ominous, and the eye is no exception.
violent bowel pains and fever; mothers were The meaning here is relatively stable, its first
cautioned against harming their babies in this documentary appearance in Shakespeare's
eyes

Othello ((1604), IV. iii)

: Mine eyes doth itch,
'. . . led and squinting signified malice, vengeance,
Doth that bode weeping?' The behef is cautell and treason' (Shepherd's Kalendar, 1503)
recorded regularly from then on, although or 'People who squint are said to be of a pen-
sometimes embellished with a choice of urious disposition, but punctual in their deal-
eyes— right to cry, left to laugh, or the other ings' (both quoted by Lean). Most references
way round. Long before these English simply state that it isunlucky to meet a cross-
examples, however, Theocritus (Idylls, c.275 eyed person, although some maintain that it is
Bc) wrote 'My right eye itches now, and shall I allright if they are of the opposite sex to you.
see my love?'. The eyes can also be significant For the widespread belief that certain
in other ways; by their colour, size, shape or people can inflict harm simply by their glance,
other detail they can betray a person's true see under *evil eye. See also *eyebrows;
character, or simply be unlucky or even dan- eyelashes.
gerous in their own right. Cross-eyed or Opie and Tatem, 1989: 143; Lean, 1903: ii. 20. 193, 201,
squinting people are most often singled out in 311.
this respect: 'A person that is blear-eyed, goog-
fables. Short comic tales making a moral See also *ears, *eyebrows, eyelash, *eyes,
point about human nature, usually through *MOLES, *MOUTH, *NOSE.
animal characters behaving in human ways. Opie and Tatem, 1989: 119, 288; Lean, 1903: ii. 1. 284-5.
The great majority are first recorded in
Ancient Greece or India; they became very
fainites, see *truce terms.
popular in medieval Europe in both oral and
literary versions, especially those about the
trickster Reynard the Fox. By now, many are fairies. The basic European repertoire of
regarded as traditional English tales, their for- beUefs and tales about fairies is less ftiUy pre-

eign origins forgotten. served in England than in the Celtic areas of

Wales, Ireland, and Highland Scotland,
face. Certain physical features are persist- though much of it was well known here in the
ently, and irrationally, seen as clues to inner 17th century, and later. Unfortunately it has
character: a high domed forehead indicating been overshadowed by literary portrayals,
intelligence, a receding chin stupidity and medieval, Shakespearian, or modem; the
cowardice, a jutting jaw bad temper, close-set rural lore collected by regional folklorists
eyes dishonesty, thick hps sensuahty, etc. made little impact on pubUc awareness until
The size of a man's nose and a woman's the 1960s and 1970s, when Katharine *Briggs
mouth are said to correspond to that of their brought all the evidence together, demon-
sexual organs— sometimes seriously, often in strating its coherence and power.
jest. Folklorists generally use the term 'fairy'
Some minor forms of *fortune-telling were rather loosely, to cover a range of non-human
based on the face. The presence and position yet material beings with magical powers.
of *moles and dimples was considered signifi- These could be visible or invisible at will, and
cant; E. M. Wright collected the following pre- could change shape; some lived underground,
dictions of poverty or wealth, of which the others in woods, or in water; some flew. Some
first two were still known in 1958: were believed to be Mendly, giving luck,
prosperity, or useftil skills to humans who
A dimple in your cheek.
treated them respectfully; many were
Your living to seek
regarded as troublesome pranksters, or, in
(Yorkshire)
extreme cases, as minor demons; sometimes
A dimple in your chin. they were blamed for causing sickness, steal-
You'll have your living brought in
ing human babies, and leaving *changelings.
(Yorkshire) Human adults might be invited (or abducted)
into *fairyland.
If you've a mole above your chin
You'll never be beholden to your kin Fairies can be divided into two major
groups: imagined as living in
'social' fairies,
(Shropshire)
communities and pursuing group activities
and also a Lancashire belief that a mole on the such as dancing and feasting; and 'solitary'
side of the nose was a sign that the Devil has fairies, of which some (the *brownie type)
marked you for his own (Wright, 1913: 224). attach themselves to human households as
Others reported that 'it is the opinion of nurses helpers and luck-bringers, while others (the
that babies who have dimples have short bogey/boggart type) haunt an open-air site,
tongues, and wiU Usp' (N&Q. 5s:9 (1878), 466). often as a more-or-less serious threat to
fairy godmother 116

passers-by. But it is not always clear-cut; powers might say they had been granted them
*pixies, for example, can be either 'social' or by fairies; there are instances of 16th- and
'solitary', while *Robin Goodfellow behaves 17th-century healers using ointments and
equally readily as prankster or helpful house- powders alleged to be fairy gifts, or saying fair-
hold sprite. Conversely, informants some- ies enabled them to identify witches (Thomas,
times insist on rigid separations between cat- 1971: 186, 248, 266, 608-9). More sophisticated
egories; a brownie, for instance, might be magicians used rituals to conjure up fairies,
regarded as a quite different creature from a hoping to obtain great wealth, or occult
fairy, and a shape-changing apparition like the secrets (Thomas, 1971: 236-7, 608-9, 613).
Yorkshire *guytrash as something different In the final stage of fairy-lore, belief is delib-
again—which, from a fiinctionalist point of erately instilled by adults (who do not them-
view, is The number of local
true enough. selves share it) as a way of controlling children
words for species and sub-species, and for and ensuring their safety by threats of danger
individuals, is considerable. The original Eng- from a *bogey figures, e.g. *Jenny Greenteeth,
lish term for the whole species was *elf, but in *hytersprites, or *poldies. This strategy was
Middle English this was largely replaced by still used in the upbringing of some people

'fairy', borrowed from French. now in middle age, but probably no longer is.
The clergy, whether Cathohc or Protestant, A more amiable item of fairy-lore for children
usually insisted that all such creatures could is that fairies take away shed *teeth, leaving
only be devils; many realized their similarity money instead (see *teeth and *Tooth Fairy).
to the fauns, satyrs, nymphs, etc., of classical
Briggs, 1959, 1967, 1976, 1978; Thomas, 1971: 606-14.
mj^hology, which they regarded as
also For narratives embodying the beliefs see Briggs, 1970-1:
demons. In popular belief, however, fairies B; PhiUp, 1992: 307-36. Narvaez 1991 contains valuable
recent papers on various special topics.
were fitted into the Christian frame of refer-
ence in ways which left them morally
ambiguous; in Cornwall, they were said to be fairy godmother. A kind fairy godmother is

angels who refused to side either with God or already a feature of the story of *Tom Thumb
with Lucifer when the latter rebelled, and so, in 1621, but the later familiarity with such a

being 'too good for Hell and too bad for figure depends on two fairytales, Cinderella
Heaven', were thrown dovm to earth and lived and Sleeping Beauty, which reached England
wherever they happened to fall. Alternatively, from France late in the 18th century. In
they could be identified with *ghosts either
— Cinderella, the protective godmother replaced
of the dead in general, or of special categories the magical animal which helped the heroine
such as *unbaptized infants. The latter was in older oral versions, commonly associated
with her dead mother. She entered stage trad-
commonly said of the *Will-o'-the-Wisp.
Behef in the household brownie ition, and was imitated in hterary children's
(or pixy, or
puck) was closely linked to farming; he stories; she is now a stock figure in popular

threshes com, tends horses, herds sheep, imagination.

chums and so on,
butter, cleans the kitchen,
like an farm servant. He also brings
ideal fairyland. Beliefs about *fairies imply that
prosperity, and can take it away again if their world hes close alongside the human
offended; he punishes anyone who mocks world, often underground; it is a place of
him, and those who work badly. The *knock- beauty and luxury which humans normally
ers had a similar role in tin and lead mining, cannot reach, or even see. Some, however,
but not in coal mines, indicating that this may enter it by accident, for instance by step-
behef had faded by the time the latter industry ping into a fairy ring; others may be invited, or
was estabhshed. abducted, by the fairies. The theme is rela-
The Anglo-Saxon charm against *elves tively rare in England, though common in
shows how they were once dreaded for the Scotland and Wales, and is chiefly found in
diseases they inflicted; there are scattered areas of *Celtic influence. Four elaborate and
indications that the fear persisted, to some rather romantic stories from Comwall are
extent, into Tudor and Stuart times. There are in Bottrell (1873: 173-85) and Hunt (1865:
records of village healers seeking to cure chil- 114-18, 120-6). Three concem girls who go to
dren 'haunted with a fairy' by prayer and by work for a fairy master as nursemaid to his
magic measurements (Thomas, 1971: 184). On child, and eventually return home; in the
the other hand, people claiming unusual fourth, a man loses his way on the moors and
117 fairytales

finds himself in a house where fairies are feast- Ushed in 1698 and translated into EngUsh the
ing and dancing, and where he might have been following year. It is universally understood,
held captive for ever if a girl, formeriy human, but not in fact accurate, since many of the
had not warned him neither to eat nor drink best-loved stories have no fairies in them,
there.An oral tale from Wigmore (Hereford- though magic abounds; consequently some
shire), collected in 1 909, tells how a girl joined a scholars prefer the terms 'Wonder Tales' or
fairydance and vanished for a year, which to 'Magic Tales'.
her seemed only a day (Leather, 1912: 45-6). Native English fairytales must once have
See also *avalon, *herla, *orfeo. been abundant, but unfortunately at the very
period when someone might have thought of
fairy loaves. A name for fossil sea-urchins, collecting them and transferring them from
because their plump domed shape, with five orality to a flood of foreign tales
print,
Unes at the apex, resembles a small round loaf appeared— first the French ones of Charles
They are found in chalky downland; they were Perrault (1697), Madame d'Auhiois (1698),
said to be lucky, and whoever finds one should and Madame de Beaumont (1756), then the
spit on it and toss it over his left shoulder. In German ones of the Brothers * Grimm (1812,
Suffolk, where they were usually polished and subsequent editions), and the Danish ones
with black lead, it was said people who kept of Hans * Andersen (at intervals between 1835
one in the house would never lack bread. They and 1872). Selections from these were quickly
were also called *shepherd's crowns, and were translated and cheaply printed; by now estab-
sometimes used as *thunderstones. lished favourites such as Cinderella, Blue-
beard, Sleeping Beauty, Puss in Boots, Beauty
fairy photographs, see COTTINGLEY. and the Beast, The Frog Prince, Red Riding
Hood, Snow White, Rumpelstiltskin, Rapun-
fairy rings. Circle dancing (carol) was the zel. The Tinder Box, and The Little Mermaid
norm in medieval society, but later English are totally absorbed into EngUsh culture,
dances were so different that dancing in a ring together with a few items from the Arabian
came to seem not merely old-fashioned or Nights, notably Aladdin.
childish but uncanny, associated with *fairies The EngUsh fairytales which did get printed
or witches. When circles of lush, dark green in chapbooks were humorous ones (*Jack and
grass were seen in meadows, they were said to the Beanstalk, *Jack the Giant-KiUer, *Tom
mark the place where fairies had danced, and Thumb), except for the more magical *Three
anybody who set foot in one risked being car- Heads in the WeU. Later, Victorian collectors
ried off. Such rings are caused by underground found some oral examples, including *Tom Tit
fungi, which at times produce visible toad- Tot and *Cap o' Rushes from Suffolk, the
stools;they persist for years, getting steadily Small-Tooth Dog from Derbyshire, and the
larger, and grazing animals avoid them. No *Rose Tree from Devon. However, the great
serious belief now attaches to them; at most, a majority of fairytale texts recorded in Britain
vague idea that unlucky to step into one,
it is were found either in Scotland and Wales or
or, contrariwise, that one can make a wish among Gypsy storyteUers; the typical EngUsh
(Vickery, 1995: 130). narrative genres are the jocular anecdote, the
*Mr Fox), and the *local
horrific anecdote (e.g.

fairytales. This is the usual English term for legend. However, current research among
a group of oral narratives centred on magical teenage schoolchildren shows that some
tests, quests,and transformations, which are evolve personal versions of fairytales and tell
found throughout Europe and in many parts them orally to their peer group (Wilson, 1997:
of Asia too. They are defined by their plots, 255-60).
which follow standard basic patterns, and The best coUection is PhiUp, 1992, with

have been classified by Antti Aame and Stith accurate texts and valuable introduction and
Thompson, The Types of the Folktale (1961); their comments; see also Briggs, 1970-1: A. i and u,
function is to be oral entertainment for adults with some texts summarized; Jacobs, 1890/
as well as children, and telling them well is a 1968, with texts often reworked. AU three col-
skilled art. The term 'fairy tale' only appeared lections include other genres of foUctale
in the 18th century, almost certainly as a besides the fairytales. Baughman 1966 is a
translation of the French Contes des Fees, the catalogue of aU versions known at that date,
title of a book by Madame d'Aulnois pub- and their sources. Opie and Opie 1974 gives
fakelore iii

authentic texts of the 24 best-known tales and 'Satan'; in return for a drop of blood, it had
discusses their sources and histories. brought them possessions and caused people
who had offended them to fall sick and die.
fakelore. The idea of 'fakelore' came to the The first woman had been given 'Satan' by her
fore in the 1960s when academic folklorists, grandmother when she was 12 years old, with
instructions to feed him on bread and milk
primarily in America, began to take note of
occasions where traditions were being and keep him in a basket— unusual luxury,
invented or appropriated either for direct probably, for an EUzabethan cat. In such cases,
commercial gain (e.g. the rise of commercial there seems no reason to doubt that the ani-
'folk singers' or the branding of mass market mals described did actually exist, and became
the subject of gossip and suspicion.
foods), tourism (e.g. the creation of 'wishing
wells', or the appointment of 'town criers'), Many other references can be found; there
social control (see *Merrie England), national- were said to be familiars in the forms of *cats,
ism, political legitimization, or simply to sat- dogs, *toads, *mice, rabbits, flies, or grotesque
an apparent need for a definable
societal creatures of no known species. They were
isfy
but safe heritage. The term was rapidly commonly called 'imps', a word which com-
extended to cover the creation and fostering bined the meanings of 'child' and 'small devil'.
of a false picture of the traditional culture, They were thought to suck blood or milk from
the witch, causing growths on her face or body
usually by culturally dominant groups, most
clearly enunciated in the field of 'folk-song',
which looked like nipples; by the 17th century
but also in other genres. European scholars these were generally thought to be near the
have tended to use the related term genitals or anus.
'folklorism'. In rural tales and beliefs of later centuries,
The term is sometimes inappropriately mice and toads are the familiars most com-
appUed to the use of folklore motifs by poht- monly mentioned. Supposedly the witch sent
ical cartoonists, advertisers, and others with a them to bring misfortune on her enemies; in
message to convey. By its very nature, 'folk- Somerset witches are quoted as threat-
tales,

lore' is a shared system of symbols and mean- ening, toad 'ee!' It was believed that a
'I'll

ings, and traditional motifs can therefore

witch could not die before passing them on to
serve to set a scene or carry a meaning that someone else, thus transferring both her
native readers/viewers will immediately power and her guilt. In anecdotes fi-om Sussex
understand, although outsiders will be baffled. and Essex in the 1930s, people alleged that
See also *merrie England, *revival, mice had appeared at the deathbed of some

tourist lore. local wizard or witch of a previous generation,

Venetia Newall, Folklore 98:2
who persuaded a reluctant relative to 'inherit'
(1987), 131-51; Violet
Alford, FoMore 72 (1961), 599-61; Dave Harker, them. At West Wickham (Cambridgeshire) it
Fakesong:
The Manufacture of British Folksong, 1 700 to the Present Day was said that in the 1920s a vdtch tried to rid
(1985); G. Legman, The Horn Book (1964), esp. 494-521. herself of her imps by putting them in the
oven, but it was she, not they, who got burned;
demons who, at Satan's
familiars. Minor eventually they were buried with her (Simp-
command, become the servants of a human son, 1973: 76; Maple, 1960: 246-7).
wizard or witch. It is one of the distinctive fea- Thomas, 1971: 445-6, 524-5; Sharpe, 1996: 70-4.
tures of English *witchcraft: that these spirits
were very often thought to take the form of
small animals, such as would be found around
f arisees, pharisees. In the dialects of Here-
farms and homes; some witches claimed to fordshire, Suffolk, and Sussex, fairies were
have received them directly from the Devil, called 'farisees', to the amusement of edu-

others from a relative or friend. One account

cated listeners, who assumed the term arose

of 1510 concerns a schoolmaster at Knares- through stupid confusion with the Pharisees
of the Bible, and often spelled the word
borough (Yorkshire), who allegedly kept three
accordingly. It is simply a reduplicated plural,
spirits in the form of bumble bees and let
like 'waspses' for 'wasps', or 'ghostses' for
them draw blood from his finger; he was
'ghosts'.
attempting to locate treasure by magic.
According to a pamphlet of 1566, two women
on trial at Chelmsford (Essex), had succes- Farthing Bundles. A custom which has lost
sively owned a white spotted cat named much of its original raison d'etre but which is
119 Father Christmas

still carried out on sp>ecial occasions is the dis- Father Christmas. The earliest evidence for a
tribution of Fart:hing Bundles at Fern Street personified 'Christmas' is a carol attributed to
School Settlement, Bow, in East London, Richard Smart, Rector of Plymtree (Devon)
which was founded by Clara Grant in 1907. In from 1435 to 1477 (Dearmer and Williams.
addition to numerous
practical philanthropic Oxford Book of Carols (1928), no. 21, 41-3); it is a
schemes. Farthing Bundles were distributed to sung dialogue between someone representing
children every Saturday: 'Sir Christmas' and a group who welcome

him, in a way suggestive of a *visiting custom:

Farthing bundles are fiill of very human things such
as children love, e.g. tiny toys of wood or tin whole or Nowell, NoweU, Nowell, Nowell!
broken, little balls, doll-less heads or head-less dolls, 'Who is there that singeth so?'
whistles, shells, beads, reels, marbles, fancy boxes, 'I am here. Sir Christemas.'
decorated boxes, ballroom pencils, scraps of
pill 'Welcome, my lord Sir Christemas,
patchwork, odds and ends of silk or wool, coloured Welcome to us all, both more and less.

paper for dressing up, cigarette cards and scraps. Come near, Nowell!'

The bundles were so popular, attracting Sir Christmas then gives news of Christ's
thousands of children each week, that ways of birth, and urges his hearers to drink:

controlling the numbers were sought. From 'Buvez bien par toute la compagnie.
1913, to be eUgible, children had to pass, Make good cheer and be right merry.'
without stooping, under a purpose-built
wooden arch fixed on a frame, although the There were *Yule Ridings in York (banned in
1572 for unruliness), where a man imperson-
height of this arch had to be raised twice over
the years as improving living standards ating Yule carried cakes and meat through the
resulted in taller children. street. In Tudor and Stuart times, 'Lords of
Changing popula-
tionsand circumstances rendered the bundles Misrule' called 'Captain Christmas', 'The
Christmas Lord', or 'Prince Christmas' organ-
increasingingly anachronistic, and the last
ized and presided over the season's feasting
regular distribution was made in 1984.
R. Beer and C. A. Pickard, Eighty Years on Bow Common
and entertainments in aristocratic houses, col-
(1987). leges, and Inns of Court. A personified
'Christmas' appears in Ben Jonson's court
entertainment Christmas his Masque (1616).
fate. Though folklore is much concerned with
together with his sons: Misrule. Carol, Mince
*luck, it also recognizes the power of fate— but
Pie, Gambol. Post-and-Pan. New Year's Gift.
not an arbitrary or malevolent fate. On the
Mumming, Wassail, and Baby Cake. He pro-
contrary, traditional beliefs and practices tests against an attempt to exclude him:
imply that the circumstances of one's life and
death were laid down in advance as part of an Why, gentlemen, do you know what you do? Ha!
Would you have kept me out? Christmas, Old
orderly plan determined by the Will of God.
Christmas, Christmas of London, and Captain
Occasional glimpses of the future could come
Christmas? Why, I am no dangerous person ... I
. . .

unsought to anyone through *omens or pre- am Old Gregory Christmas still, and though I am
monitory *dreams, sent as forewamings. come from Pope's Head Alley, as good a Protestant as
Deliberate divination seems usually to have
any in my parish.
been tolerated when practised by young girls
with an eye on love and marriage; however, The need to defend seasonal revelry against
the 'church porch watch' on *St Mark's Eve Puritan accusations of Popery became more

(and other dates) to learn who would die dur- urgent some decades later. Pamphleteers con-
ing the coming year was viewed with fear and
tinued the device of personifying Christmas,
on the morality of as in The Examination and Tryall of Old Father
disapproval. Opinion
* Christmas (1658) and An Hue and Cry after
astrology and fortune-telling was divided.
Some folktales teach how useless it is to try Christmas (1645). Echoing this tradition. Father
to evade fate. One (from Christmas acts as presenter in many versions
Minster-in-Shippey,
Kent) tells how a man killed his horse because of the *mumming play, with such opening
of a prophecy that it would cause his death— lines as:

and so it did, much later, when he kicked its

In comes I, old Father Christmas.
skull, cut his foot on a splintered bone, and Be I welcome or be I not?
died of blood-poisoning (Westwood, 1985: Ihope old Father Christmas
97-9). Will never be forgot.
Father's Day 120

The Victorian revival of Christmas involved feasts, see *wakes (1).

Father Christmas too, as the emblem of 'good

cheer', but at first his physical appearance was feathers. A belief, widely attested in the 19th
He had always been imagined as old
variable.
century,was that if certain feathers other than
and bearded (in a masque by Thomas Nabbes those of domestic poultry, ducks, and geese
(1638) he is 'an old reverend gentleman in were used in stuffing a pillow or a featherbed,
furred gown and cap'), but pictures in the Illus- any dying person lying on them would linger
trated London News in the 1840s show him vari- in agony. Correspondence in several early
ously as a reveller in Elizabethan costume issues of N&(1 showed sUght local variations:
grasping a tankard, a wild, holly-crowned pigeons were blamed in Cheshire and North-
giant pouring wine, or a lean figure striding amptonshire, wild birds of any species in
along carrrying a wassail bowl and a log. One Cornwall, game birds in Sussex and Surrey.
famous image was John Leech's illustration for Similar ideas are recorded from other parts of
Dickens's Christmas Carol (1843), where the
England throughout the century. The remed-
gigantic Ghost of Christmas Present, sitting ies were equally traditional; either the pillow
among piled-up food and drink, wears exactly was puUed out from behind the dying man's
the kind of fur-trimmed loose gown of the head in such a way that he feU backwards, or
modem Father Christmas— except that it is he was Ufted out of bed entirely and laid on
green, matching his holly wreath. the cold floor. Various informants told horri-
Towards the end of the 1870s, he developed fied collectors how well it worked:
a new role as present-bringer for children, in
imitation either of European *St Nicholas cus-
Look atpoor Muster S., how hard he were a-dying;
poor soul,he could not die ony way, till neighbour
toms, or of the American * Santa Claus, or
Puttick found out how it were. 'Muster S.,' says he,
both. By 1883, a French visitor to England
'ye be l3dng on geame feathers, mon, surely,' and so
mentions, as a matter of common knowledge, he were. So we took'n out o' bed and laid'n on the
that hecomes down chimneys and puts toys floor, and he pretty soon died then! (N&(ils:5 (1852),
and sweets in stockings. In view of the Ger- 341)
man influence on the British Christmas, it
Conversely, 'Instances have been recorded
may be significant that in Southern Germany where some such feathers have been placed in
the saint was accompanied by a gnome-like
a small bag, and thrust under the pillow of a
servant, usually dressed in a red, brown, or
dying man to hold him in life till the arrival of
green hooded garment, carrying a small fir
some expected relation' (Wright, 1913: 277).
tree and a bag of toys. Father Christmas's cos-
tume became more standardized: it was
almost always predominantly red, though Vic- feet. English lore is apparently much less

torian Christmas cards do occasionally show concerned with feet than its Scots, Irish, and
him in blue, green, or brown; in outdoor Manx neighbours. The only beUef which has
scenes he often wore a heavy, hooded knee- predominately EngUsh examples is that if
length coat and fiir boots; he carried holly, but your sole itches or tickles you will tread
the holly crown became rarer. strange ground. This is reported first in 1755,
almost and was still current at least in the 1950s, and
Nowadays Father Christmas is
is one of the many beUefs concerned with itch-
always associated with children's presents
rather than adult feasting. His authentic dress ing parts of the body. A notion reported in
isa loose, hooded red gown edged with white; 1878 (N&Q. 5s:9 (1878), 286, 476) is that where
however, he now often wears a red belted two toes are partially joined, called 'twin toes'

jacket and tasselled floppy cap imitated from they are reputed to be lucky, although it is not
Santa Claus, and has acquired Santa's reindeer stated how this luck will be manifested. It is
also said that all important journeys should
sledge and nocturnal habits.
See also *santa claus. start on the right foot, and many accounts of
the custom of first footing at *New Year stipu-
Father's Day. This celebration, on the third late that the first-footer should not be flat-
footed.
Sunday in June, has no basis in tradition; it
was invented in the 1970s in imitation of See also *shoes.

Mothering Sunday/*Mother's Day, for com- Opie and Tatem, 1989: 165-7.
mercial profit. Greetings cards and gifts are
given. Fenny Poppers. A *calendar custom which
121 fingernails

celebrates the building of St Martin's, the par- Victorian mythological theories it is the only

ish church (1730), and takes place at Fenny one still has been so widely
remembered; it

Stratford,Buckinghamshire, every 11 Novem- pubhcized that performers themselves now

ber.The money for the church was raised and often beheve their local custom to be 'a fertil-
donated by the then Lord of the Manor, Dr ity rite', and say as much to enquirers. Cer-
Browne WiUis, and he also left money for an tainly, bawdy humour is common in festive

annual feast and the firing of the Fenny Pop- contexts, but for this very reason is more like
pers. These Poppers are six cast-iron cannon- ly to be spontaneous, rather than a ritual sur-
Uke objects which are filled with gunpowder vival from a remote culture.
and set off with a long red-hot iron rod, with Among agricultural customs actually
deafening effect. The event takes place in the recorded in England, some do explicitly aim at
recreation ground (having been moved from ensuring success for crops or fishing (see
the churchyard), and the Poppers are fired *Plough Monday, *wassailing apple trees), and
three times (noon, 2 p.m., and 4 p.m.), by the many others bring a more vague and general
vicar, the verger, and the churchwardens. good luck, and/or joyfully celebrate natural
Compare *ottery st mary. processes such as the return of spring or the
Hole, 1975: 139; Shuel, 1985: 187-8; Kightly, 1986: 114- completion of harvest.
15. For beUefs concerning human fertility, see
*CERNE ABBAS, *CONCEPTION.
fernseed. In Elizabethan times the seed of
ferns was thought to be invisible, except for a fetches, see *wraiths.
few moments around * midnight on Mid-
summer Eve, when it could be seen falling to Fig Sunday. A nickname for *Palm Sunday,
the ground; anyone who could catch some in a formerly common in Hertfordshire and
pewter plate would be invisible while he car- Northamptonshire, where figs were eaten on
ried In 19th-century Lancashire, 'It is said
it. this day, because Christ had wanted to eat
that young people went to Clough, near Mos- some when travelling to Jerusalem (Mark 11:
ton, to gather silently the seeds of "St John's 12-14) (Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 58-9).
fern" on the Eve of St John's Day, to gain the
affections of those maidens who would not fingernails. The little white specks, some-
accept their attentions' (Transactions of the Lan- times seen on the nails of the left hand, signify
cashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society 25 (1907), gifts on the thiunb; friends on the first finger;
69). In Lincolnshire, *St Mark's Eve was called foes on the second; lovers on the third; a jour-
'the Devil's Harvest' because ferns were said to ney to be undertaken on the fourth. This
bud, blossom, and 5deld seed, all between meaning given to specks on the nails was so
midnight and 1 a.m., and the Devil would har- widely known
that many people called the
vest it; anyone who caught some between two marks or 'presents'. The first docu-
'gifts'

pewter plates would become as wise as the mentary evidence for the beUef occurs in Ben
Devil (J. A. Penny, Lincolnshire N&Q, 3 (1892-3) Jonson's play The Alchemist ((1610, i. iii) and Sir
209). Thomas Browne was sceptical about it as one
of his 'vulgar errors' (Pseudodoxia Epidemica
fertility. The central theory of *Frazer's The (1672 edn.), book 5, chapter 23). The beUef was
Golden Bough was that much European folklore being reported at least as late as the 1960s.
still

preserved rituals from archaic vegetation Other meanings have been given to the marks,
cults, in which men and women ensured fer- however. In *Melton's Astrologaster ((1620), 45),
tility of trees and crops by having sexual inter- he writes to have yellow speckles on the
'. . .

course at seasonal festivals; also, that this fer- nailes of ones hand is a great signe of death'.
tiUty corresponded magically to the virihty of A widely reported and relatively constant
the local king or chief priest, who would be nails is that you must not
beUef about babies'
kUled and replaced while still in the prime of cut them before the child is a year old, the
life, to guard against any risk of impotence. mother must bite them off to keep them
This did not convince anthropologists (Ack- short. If you ignore this advice, the child will
erman, 1987), but had a huge impact on novel- grow up to be a thief The first written refer-
ences occur in the mid-1 9th century Den-
popular writers, and journalists through-
ists, (e.g.

out the 20th century, as its bloodthirsty and ham Tracts, 1895: ii. 24) and it was still being
sexual content gave it great appeal. Of all the reported in the 1980s. A slightly different idea
fingers 122

was noted from a Dorset woman and included when two people say the same thing simul-
in N&Q, (ls:4 (1851), 54): she was seen cutting taneously, they link Uttle fingers and make a
her children's nails over an open Bible, and wish. Among children in the 1950s, when two
was asked why, '1 always, when I cut the nails have had an argument they would link little
of my children, let the cuttings fall on the fingersand shake their hands up and down,
open Bible, that they may grow up to be hon- chanting:
est. They will never steal, if the nails are cut
Make up, make up, never do it again.
over the Bible!' If you do, you'll get the cane.
Removable parts of the body such as *hair
and fingernails are particularly useful for any- Another children's custom, of the 19th cen-
one wishing to harm you with any form of tury, was for boys to pinch the Uttle finger of
witchcraft and should therefore be disposed girls, and vice versa; if they screamed, it meant

of carefully. On the other hand, their intimate they couldn't keep a secret— and as boys
association with the person means they are pinched harder than girls, it foUowed that
also useful in cures. The idea that it matters girls couldn't keep secrets (N&a 5s:6 (1876),

when you cut your nails is also as old as the 108, 214, 337-8).
16th century. Most authorities agree that Finger gestures currently in use include
Monday is the best day, and Friday and Sunday crossing fingers for luck or to avert bad luck;
should be avoided at all costs. Some have a thumbing one's nose (also called *cocking a
useful rhyme such as the following from East snook or 'five finger salute') as mockery, usu-
Anglia: ally among children; thumbs up
for approval,
or to indicate that the defiant, sexu-
all is well;
Cut them on Monday, you cut them for health
ally insulting *V-sign ('two-finger salute'); the
Cut them on Tuesday, you cut them for wealth
more strongly obscene raising of the middle
Cut them on Wednesday, you cut them for news
Cut them on Thursday, a new pair of shoes finger, of American origin. Two gestures
Cut them on Friday, you cut them for sorrow known in EUzabethan England were 'the fig',

Cut them on Saturday, see your true-love tomorrow in which the thumb between
is thrust
Cut them on Sunday, the devil will be with you aU clenched fingers as a sexual insult, and 'the
the week horns', made by extending the forefinger and
(Forby, 1830:411) littlefinger while clenching the rest, as a taunt
Nails should also be cut at the to a cuckold. Nobody now uses them here, but
waning of the
*moon, and at sea should only be pared during littlependants showing hands in these posi-
a storm (otherwise it will cause one). tions can be bought as lucky *charms, because
See also: *fingers; *hair. in parts of Europe the 'fig' and 'horns' gestures
are used not only as insults but to avert the
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 273-6; Lean, 1903: ii. 267-8,
292-3 (and others). evil eye and bad luck.
See also *fingernails, *hand, *thumbs.

fingers. Traditionally, different fingers had Opie and Tatem, 1989: 149.
different attributes The forefinger
and uses.
was considered 'poisonous' and therefore fire (domestic). The domestic fire has
should never be used for applying ointment to attracted a bewildering number of beliefs, and
a cut or bruise; in contrast, the ring finger, most of the standard folklore collections
especially that of the left hand, was known in include several, which are often contradictory,
the 15th century as 'leche man', i.e. 'doctor', and are normally concerned with the fire's
since doctors always used it to stir, taste, and behaviour being lucky or unlucky, or with div-
apply their medicines. These ideas were still ination. Opie and Tatem Ust nine superstitions
remembered in 19th-century Somerset: 'The about the fire's behaviour, although only
ring-finger, stroked along any sore or wound, one or two of them date from before the 19th
will soon heal it. All the other fingers are poi- century. If you discover the fire still alight
sonous, especially the forefinger' (N&(1 ls:7 from the night before, you will hear of an ill-
(1853), 152). Another old idea, still current, is ness (Shropshire/Staffordshire servant-maid,
that a vein runs straight from this finger to the quoted in N&Q. 6s:9 (1884), 137), but fire burn-
heart, and that that is why engagement and ing on one side of the grate only could be con-
wedding *rings are worn there. sidered even worse: '. all the fires in the
. .

The Uttle finger, rarely fiinctioning alone for house burnt only one side of the grate, which
practical purposes, is used in a playfiil ritual: she considered a sure sign that a death would
123 fish falls and frog showers

shortly occur in the family' (Essex: N&Q 8s:9 ing the sky (i.e. meteorites), and sometimes
(1896), 225). Nevertheless, in Herefordshire also for the *Will-o'-the-Wisp or *corpse
this could mean a wedding (Leather, 1912: 87). candle.
An extremely widespread practice reported
regularly from the 18th to the later 20th cen- fires (accidental). Various objects were
turies, was to place a poker against the bars of thought to have magic power to preserve a
the fire-grate to induce the fire to bum briskly. house from fire if hung from the rafters or
It was widely stated that the poker and top bar placed in the roofing, for example eggs laid on
of the grate made a cross which kept the devil Ascension Day and a hawthorn twig gathered
(or other interfering forces) away from the on the same day, and buns baked on *Good
fire. Rationalists tried to argue that the poker Friday. *Houseleeks growing on the roof were
helped to cause a beneficial draught. You must protective too. As one of the dangers of thun-
not poke someone else's fire unless you have derstorms is that lightning may strike a build-
known them for seven years— first reported in ing and set it alight, the various plants and

1880, but a writer in 1938 claimed to have objects listed as warding off*thunder are also,
known it for 70 years, and added the rider 'or indirectly, protections against certain types of
been drunk with him three times' (N&Q 174 fire.

(1938), 142). 'If a servant be trying to light a

fire and it will not bum, she will frequently first footing, see *new year.
say "Oh dear, my young man's in a temper!" If
by chance the fire-irons are all at one end of the fish falls and frog showers. For nearly
fender a sign of a quarrel' (Leather, 1912:
it is 2,000 years, and from nearly every part of the
87). Approaching the middle of the 20th cen- world, there have been reports of showers of
tury, fires could still be problematic for rain which contained large quantities of live
domestic staff: frogs, fish, or other creatures, and the reports
still occur with quite startling regularity. An
The housemaid watches a newly-lighted fire and
early reference to Weymouth in The Travels of
does she can to prevent it parting in the centre.
all
Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, Volume 3 part 1:
For should it happen that the embers suddenly break
two 1634-1637 ((1919), 10-11) concerns, unusually,
into portends she will lose her situation.
parts, it

She also believes that if a fire roars it is the sign of a small snails, and implies that it was a regular
row in the house, while there is a somewhat similar occurrence and that the people found them in
saying about a fire— 'When it bums without blowing, their hats because they 'dropp out of the ayre',
You'll have company without knowing'. (Igglesden, (1584: book 13, chapter 18)
and Reginald *Scot
C.1932: 174) another early English reference.
provides
Numerous other writers mention the subject,
One of the few beliefs which can be shown
to be older is the idea that if the fire collapses
including Izaac Walton (Compleat Angler (1653))
towards an observer, it means he/she will suf-
and Samuel Pepys {Diary, 23 May 1661). The
phenomena could be taken asmore than a
fer someone's anger, which Opie and Tatem
simple wonder, as a Restoration newspaper
report from 1668. Another sign that a stranger
is coming is the presence of flakes of soot on
rails against the 'lying faction' who report
false 'prodigies' such as that 'in several places
the bars of the grate, first mentioned in the
in England it lately rained blood, frogs and
mid-1 8th century. Much older and more wide-
other animals .'
.
(Kingdom's Intelligencer (30
.

spread is the belief that fire should not be

— Dec. 1661), quoted in Picard, 1997: 270). Most
taken out of the house to be avoided at any
are second hand, but sometimes the account is
time, but particularly bad at certain seasons
from an eyewitness (N&Ci 8s:6 (1894), 191).
such as * Christmas and *New Year. Opie
Various explanations have been put forward,
and Tatem start their Ust of examples with a
including an early beUef that the sun draws up
7th-century Irish manuscript, and a late 12th-
frogspawn, which then hatches in the clouds.
century source, and it was still being reported
well into the 20th century.
Modem theories usually involve some sort of
locahzed waterspout or whirlwind which
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 150-6, 313. sucks up the contents of a pond or other body
of water and deposits them at a distance, but
f iredrake. This word, Uterally meaning 'fiery this still leaves many questions unanswered.

dragon' in Old and Middle Enghsh, was used Forteans revel in this type of phenomenon:
widely reported, suitably mysterious, on
in Elizabethan times for streaks of fire cross- the
fishing industry 124

edge of science but not (yet) accepted by the taboos was the word 'pig', and fishermen and
scientific establishment. We can thus claim their famiUes would go to extraordinary
fish falls, and related phenomena, as still in lengths to avoid saying the actual word. They
the realms of folklore, at least for the time would use synonyms such as 'porker', or spell
being. it out, but no remotely satisfying suggestion

Michell and Rickard, 1977: 12-19; Michell and Rickard, for an origin for this has been advanced. Para-
1982: 72-88; NEtQ^ 8s:6 (1894) 104-5, 189-91, 395; 8s:7 doxically, Gill points out that many families in
(1894), 437, 493. fishing areas actually kept pigs. The word was
taboo, no part of a pig should be taken on
fishing industry. Two of the main reasons board, to see a pig on the way to saiUng was
usually cited as favourable to the growth of unlucky, but the animal itself on shore was
superstition are dangerous working condi- not forbidden or even feared.
tionsand the degree on which success/failure Carrying a corpse on board ship was avoided
isaffected by 'luck' rather than skill. Fishing if at all possible, and if it was absolutely neces-
has clearly ftilfiUed both these criteria, in sary it had
to lie across the ship (not end on)
abimdance, for centuries, and even the intro- and should leave the ship before any of the
*
duction of new technologies has not altered crew. Coins figure in more than one custom.
the basic nature of the business, and fishing Allnew vessels had to have a coin beneath the
communities have a reputation for being mast, and many fishermen would cut a slit in
extremely superstitious. Beliefs clustered the cork floats on a net and insert a coin to pay
around various parts of the Ufe, both on shore for their catch. Most ships had a * horseshoe
and at sea, but at the risk of stating the obvi- nailed to the mast, and a knife stuck into a
ous, it must be stressed that not all fishermen mast would encourage a fair wind.
were or are superstitious, or to the same Many seamen share the beUef with the gen-
degree. In addition, none of the behefs cited eral population that possession of a child's
are unique to the fishing community, they all *caul will protect you from drowning, and
turn up in some guise or other in other trades they naturally have a vested interest in poss-
or communities, particularly, it seems, in the essing one. There was a curious tendency in
mining industry. past times for seamen to be unable to swim.
Fishermen had to be particularly careful This was perhaps based on an idea that to
what happened to them on their way down to learn would be to tempt fate, or that if the sea
the boat. It was considered unlucky for a sea- wants to take you it will not be cheated and
man to meet a woman on his way to the quay, there is nothing you can do to prevent it.
few fishermen would allow a woman on board That *whistling can be very dangerous is a
a ship, and they were not allowed down to the beUef shared with other professions. At sea it
quay to see the boats off (although they could was beUeved that it conjured up a wind, of
be there to welcome them home). It was also which much could be disastrous, although in
bad to meet a clergyman or see a drowned sailing days a little judicious whistling might
animal. Seeing a rabbit, hare, or pig was be necessary if you were becalmed. There was
unlucky, as was a squinting person, but meet- also a hint that whistling attracted the atten-
ing a *hunchback or an idiot is lucky. Despite tion of unwelcome forces which were best left
these dangers, it was very unlucky to turn alone. A whistling woman was a particular
back you had set off fi-om home— even
after anathema. Seamen were careful not to put
looking back was avoided. certain items upside down a bowl or hatch—
Sailing on a *Friday was avoided if possible, example— as this would cause a boat
cover, for
and beginning a voyage on *Friday the Thir- somewhere to capsize. On shore or at sea, the
teenth was out of the question. But the worst ringing sound made by a *glass accidentally
day of all, was *Holy Innocents Day (28 knocked must be stopped immediately or
December), which is not surprising consider- another sailor would be washed overboard.
ing the story of the slaughter of innocent chil- It was not only the fishermen themselves

dren after which it is named. While at sea who were circumscribed by superstition, but
there were numerous prohibitions to be con- their families at home had to be careful in cer-
sidered. Talking in plain terms about the size tain actions. Wives must never *wash the
of a catch was to be avoided as tempting fate man's clothes on saihng day (or other inauspi-
(compare *counting), and many words were cious days such as New Year's Day) or she will
avoided altogether. One of the strongest 'wash him overboard', families must not wave
125 flowers

him goodbye, or even say anything as final as chalk, wood, and plastic. The game has several
'goodbye'. Do not point to ships, or count features which have ensured its continuance.
them, or watch them sail out of sight, and so The equipment is basic, cheap, and extremely
on. In fishing communities, these worries portable, it can be played at a range of levels
were well understood, and women would be from beginner to expert, it can be played solo
as careful to avoid meeting a seaman as he or competitively by two or more players. The
would to meet them. true heart of the game, upon which all vari-
It is still considered extremely unwise to ations are built, is that the player holds the
change the name of a boat, as it brings bad stones in his/her hand, throws them up, turns
luck to the vessel and its crew. R. L. Steven- the hand over and catches as many as possible
son's novel Treasure Island ((1881), chapter 11) on the back of the hand. In many cultures, and
is the first to mention the idea, but, as Gill at various times, it has been considered a
points out, it is far from uncommon for fish- game mainly for females, but this is certainly
ing trawlers to undergo a name-change. Ships not the case in places or throughout its his-
all
which are bought second-hand by other com- tory. In England, since about the 1930s, there
panies, and whole fleets which were taken have been two basic variations available. Ter-
over, have regularly had their names changed, minology varies, but one is Fivestones— five
as did ships which were requisitioned in the pale-coloured cubes made of a chalky sub-
two world wars. Similarly, some companies stance, or wood— while the other is Jacks— a
use the same name for a succession of vessels. number of metal star-shaped objects, with a
Nevertheless, the seamen themselves dislike rubber ball. Main local names are: Bobber and
the practice, and often blame a name-change Kibs, Chucks, Chuckles, Clinks, Dibs, Dabs,
for subsequent ill luck (Opie and Tatem, 1989: Fivestones, Gobs, Jacks, Jinks, Snobs.
33; Igglesden. c.1932: 116-19).
Opie and Opie, 1997: 56-72; Gomme, 1894: i. 122-9.
On a lighter note, the mackerel fishermen
of Sussex, and their famihes, had a celebratory
floral dance, see *helston furry day.
feast every year on the day the season started,
which was often *May Day or just before. The
celebration was called 'Bendin' in', which may flowers. Nowadays, flowers play an import-
refer to the custom of bending the nets or may ant role in social behaviour, and are com-
be a corruption of the word Benediction (see, mercially available all year; they are gifts
for example, Simpson, 1973:117-18). There expressing affection, gratitude, celebration,
are various records from round the country of congratulation, mourning, or apology, and are
the sea, the boats, the men, the fish, etc., used as decoration at both personal and pubhc
being blessed at the beginning of the fishing events. * Weddings and *funerals would be
season. Another regular feature is for the fish- inconceivable without them.
ing boats to be decorated with *garlands. The use of flowers in medieval and Tudor
See also *seafaring customs and beliefs. times well documented, especially in courtly
is

Christina Hole. FoOdore 78 (1967). 184-9; Shaw circles, where fashionable men and women
Jeffrey,
Whitby Lore and Legend (enlarged edn., 1923), 137-43; Gill, wore chaplets of leaves and flowers on their
1993.
heads (a custom suriving in the modem bridal
wreath, and in daisy chains). Scented flowers
f ivestones.Under a variety of names and a or petals were strewn on floors, together with
fairdegree of difference in the basic equip- herbs and rushes, and carried in processions;
ment required, fivestones has a definite claim strewing was a feature at both weddings and
to date back at least to Ancient Greece and funerals. Churches were garlanded with fresh
Rome, and more than likely to Ancient Egypt. greenery and flowers at summer festivals, as
There is probably no country in the world that with *evergreens at other seasons, and clergy
does not have a version, and there is also indi- sometimes wore wreaths— in 1405 the Bishop
cation that they were used for adult gambUng of London wore a chaplet of red roses in St
(similar to dice-throwing) and even divination. Paul's for the feast of that saint (Goody, 1993:
The original game used knucklebones or 155).
astragalus, the ankle bone of a cloven-hoofed The Unk between flowers and religious
animal, or pebbles, but artificial ones have ceremonies was broken at the Reformation.
been made out of just about every possible From the 16th to the mid-1 9th centuries there
material, including pottery, metal, stone. were no flowers in churches, and mourners
flying 126

carried *rosemaiy or *rue, not blossoms, at cob-nuts,and many other things. We decorated pet
funerals. More research is needed to show lambs and each other with these chains, which were
often combinations of flowers, stalks, and berries.
when, and by what stages, they returned; in
1884 one writer referred to a growing 'pretty Buttercups and daisies were the favourites, dan-
delions being shunned somewhat (N&(1 9s:8
. . .

custom of sending wreaths for the coffins of

(1901), 70)
deceased friends*, encouraged by the example
of Queen Victoria and the Royal Family (Vick-
However, many wild flowers were thought
ery, 1995: 144-5). Probably there were local to cause bad luck, sickness, or death if they
variations; Charlotte Bume said that in north were brought indoors, and children were dis-
Shropshire it had long been customary to put
couraged from picking them; a survey organ-
roses and wallflowers inside the coffin, but ized by Roy Vickery in 1982-4 found that some
that laying wreaths visibly on top of it, and 70 species had this reputation. There is also a
then on the grave, had only begun in the
widespread modem taboo on having red and
1870s (Bume, 1883: 299). Writing of Cheshire, white flowers together in a vase without any
Fletcher Moss is even more precise: 'In my
of another colour, especially in a hospital; it is
memory was considered heathenish to put
it
said to be an omen of death.
flowers on graves or in them, and I believe it
Vickery, 1995 and 1985; Tony Walter, Folklore 107 (1996),
was on my father's grave, in December 1867, 106-7. For an international perspective, see Goody,
that the Rector of Didsbury first consented to 1993.

having plants or flowers planted on a grave'

(Moss, 1898: 18-19).
Towards the end of the Victorian period, FLS News. A newsletter for members of the
'floral tributes' in fancy shapes were intro- Folklore Society, begun in 1985 and appear-
duced, and are still made; some are symbolic, ing twice a year. It contains many notes and
such as a broken column or the gates of queries.
Heaven, but most represent things associated
with the deceased, from a teddy bear to a
racing car, or spell a name. Nowadays, mourn- flying. Magical flying is featured in stories
ers sometimes place an individual flower on about *fairies, *wizards, and *witches, but dif-
the coffin during the funeral service. It is ferently in each case. Fairies, who in authentic
common to put flowers on graves on the anni- folklore are never imagined as winged, were
versary of death, and at *Christmas, *Mother- generally thought of as sweeping along in the
ing Sunday, or *Easter; to plant a rose bush in wind by their innate power, but are some
the crematorium grounds; and to leave bou- times said to utter the magic words 'Horse and
*
quets as memorials at the sites of fatal acci- Hattock!', to need a magic cap, or to ride on
dents or murders. straws, sticks, or plant-stems. Wizards, such as
The traditional festivals of spring and sum- *Jack o' Kent, achieve flight simply by forcing
mer generally involve greenery and flowers; the Devil to carry them on his back, for the
the entries for *May Day, *ma5^oles, point of such tales is to show the hero domin-
^Abbotsbury Garland, *Castleton Garland, eering over evil beings. But witches, both in ^

*rushbearing, and *well-dressing describe legend and in real-hfe were thought to

trials,
J
some of the ways they are used, and many flyby sitting on some household object such '

other references will be found throughout this as abroom, pitchfork, hurdle, or pig-trough,
book. Nowadays the blossoms are mostly gar- having smeared it (or themselves) with magic
den grown, but in earlier times gathering them ointment. According to Francis Bacon's Silva
in woods and fields was itself part of the fun. it was made from the fat of
Sylvarum (1608),
Until the Second World War, wild flowers children's corpses, mixed with the juices of ,

featured largely in the *display customs of sleep-inducing plants, 'Hen-Bane, Hemlock,

country children, notably the *May garlands, Mandrake, Moonshade (or rather Nightshade),
and in their games, for example making *cow- Tobacco, Opium, Poplar-leaves, etc' There are
slip balls, *daisy chains, *dandeUon clocks — many such recipes; all include at least one
indeed, as a (male) correspondent wrote to highly poisonous, soporific, and haUucino-
N&Q. in 1901: genic plant. It has been repeatedly noted by
commentators that these ingredients,
We made chains of daisies, buttercups, 'dandies', absorbed through the skin, could cause hal-
daffadowndillies, haws, cankers, crab-apples, 'slaws', lucinations.
127 folk dance

foliate head.An ornamental motif common Ezekiel and Job in support (Basford, 1978: 12).
in sculptureand woodcarvings in churches The heads themselves vary greatly in expres-
from the Norman and Gothic periods is a male sion; some look serene, others gloomy, angry,
head with leafy sprays growing from its threatening, mocking, sick, or anguished, and
mouth and/or eyes, or partially covered by some also stick out their tongues. It is most
leaves, Uke a man peering out from a bush. Art unhkely that they all conveyed the same
historians call this a foUate head; in English meaning, and no source ascribes any name to
over the last twenty years it has been con- them. Throughout Britain, their context has
stantly called a *Green Man, a term first been distorted by the Protestant destruction of
applied to it by Lady Raglan in 1939, whose the sacred images to which they were origin-
authentic meaning was quite different. ally subordinated. For example, a foliate head
Examples are very numerous in England, supporting the pedestal of a saint's statue
and no complete Usting exists, though several might have been 'read' as meaning that holi-
researchers are hoping to compile one (FLS ness isachieved by subduing mere nature;
News 23, 24, 25 (1996-7)); they are found on now that the head alone survives, it assumes
arches, capitals, corbels, roof bosses, choir- an independent importance its carver never
stalls, misericords, chancel screens — intended.
an5rwhere where rich ornament was desired, Modem
theories begin with Lady Raglan's
and secular or humorous themes allowed. hteralistview that medieval artists only drew
Usually they are just one among many non-
—
what they had seen in real life in this case,
religious motifs in a decorative scheme; for she claimed, a leaf-clad mummer hke a *Jack-
example, on the doorway of Kilpeck Church in-the-Green enacting a spring fertility ritual.
(Herefordshire), the choir-stalls of Winchester She is followed by Sheridan and Ross (1975)
Cathedral, the passage to the chapter-house at who see secretly surviving paganism as the ex-
York Minster, and many others. planation, not only for this but for many mo-
Their history is well established. They tifs in medieval art; this idea, though it lacks
reached England early in the 12th century supporting evidence and contradicts the known
from France, as part of a repertoire of gro- history of the motif, is currently the favourite
tesque figures in the style called 'Roman- among popular writers and neo-pagans.
esque' on the Continent and 'Norman' in Eng- Others think symboUsm more likely. Weir
land; typical examples can be seen at Kilpeck and Jerman suggest that early Romanesque
(Herefordshire) and Iffley (Oxfordshire). The 'fohage-spewers' represented sins of speech,
continental Romanesque fohate heads, but that also, in certain positions such as

though stylized and distorted, were ultimately doorways, some may have been regarded as
derived from the dignified leaf-masks of late guardians of the building; Gothic ones may
Roman art, representing gods and super- have been affected by folkloric beUefs about
natural beings (Oceanus, Silenus, Dryads, etc.). woodland spirits (Weir and Jerman, 1986: 106,
When Gothic style replaced Norman, foliate 148-50). Basford (1978: 12, 19) is chiefly struck
heads became ever more varied, subtle, and by the devilish features of some heads, and the
realistic, some being strikingly beautiful, air of grief or sinister foreboding on others;
while others had the glaring eyes and snarling she says the latter symbolize how death rules
mouths of demons; identifiable leaves were the natural, as opposed to the spiritual,
shown, with oak, hawthorn and ivy being par- world— a major theme in medieval thought.
ticularly favoured. The carvings thus com- Anderson (1990) also stresses nature, but in an
bined two favourite subjects of medieval art- optimistic ecological sense, where death is
ists, fohage and the human face, and were always followed by rebirth, and humanity's
very popular from the 13th to the 15th union with nature is a desirable goal.
centuries. See also *green man.
Interpretation ismore problematic than
far The initiating paper is Lady Raglan. Folk-Lore 50 (1939).
history. Medieval writers expound the moral 45-57. For extensive discussion, see Basford, 1978/1996;
and Weir and Jerman, 1986; Anderson, 1990, Sheridan and
religious symbolism of many art motifs in
Ross, 1975. Recent comments include Bob Trubshaw, At
considerable detail, but only one ascribes a
Edge 4 (1996), 25-8: contributions to FLS News 23, 24,
—
moral meaning to greenery the theologian
tfie

25 (1996-7); Brandon S. Centerwall. FoUdore 108 (1997).

Rabanus Maurus (784-856) said leafy sprays 25-34.

symboUzed fleshly lusts and depraved men

heading for damnation, and cited texts from folk dance, see *dance.
Folk Life 128

Folk Life. Launched in 1963, Folk Life is the material culture excluded from this official
journal of the *Society for Folk Life Studies, agenda nevertheless had a place in the per-
and since 1973 has borne the subtitle 'A Jour- sonal work of some members, and sometimes
nal of Ethnological Studies'. Folk Life covers all in the pages of the journal; eventually they
parts of the British Isles, as well as including became the remit of the *Enghsh Folk Dance
*
some articles from abroad, and many of its Society, the Folk-Song Society, and the
*
contributors are museum professionals. Society for Folk Life Studies.
Although the core of most volumes concen- Initially, the Society's aim was to pubUsh
trates on the physical side of traditional Ufe; books and a journal; members met only once a
crafts, buildings, tools, costume, farming year, the work being carried on by a Council
techniques, transport, and domestic Ufe, for which met at intervals. There were occasional
example, the journal has also included many lectures in the 1880s, more regular ones from
important articles on less tangible folklore the 1890s onwards. For the first 30 years of its
topics such as custom, narrative, and medi- existence, the Society was a forum for intel-
cine, and it remains one of the few essential lectual discussion between well-known
journals for British folklorists to read. From its scholars,who debated their theories hotly,
inception, a feature of the journal has been its even acrimoniously, in its pubUcations and
excellent photographs and other illustrations. meetings, which were often reported in the
Editors:J. Geraint Jenkins (1963-79), Wilham daily and weekly press. Many debates con-
Linnard (1980-90), Roy Brigden (1991- ). cerned very broad issues, approached in a sci-
entific spirit: the origin of mythology, the
Folk Life Society, see *society for folk life relationship between folklore and the minds
STUDIES. and lives of primitive humanity, and/or con-
temporary 'savages', the cultural diffusion of
Folk-Lore Journal. The journal pubUshed by The goal was, and long remained,
traditions.
the *Folk-Lore Society from 1883 to 1889 to cover the topic worldwide, and over the
(seven volumes altogether), replacing *Follc-Lore whole span of history. One high point of this
Record and in turn replaced by *FoHc-Lore. first phase was the Society's hosting of the

International Folk-Lore Congress of 1891.

Folk-Lore Record. The first journal pubhshed Large publication programmes were
by the *Folk-Lore Society, and thus the first launched, resulting in many books of lasting
journal in the world to be devoted solely to the value. Work began on several ambitious
subject. Folk-Lore Record ran for five volumes, schemes: to collect all English proverbs and
1878 to 1882. It was succeeded by the *FoIk-Iore collate them with their foreign analogues; to

Journal,and later by Folk-Lore and *FolkIore. classify and analyse all British 'popular cus-
toms and superstitions'; to collect folktales, on
Folklore Society. The Folk-Lore Society was a worldwide scale, and tabulate them accord-
founded in January 1878 (it kept the hyphen ing to their main plots and incidental fraits;
till 1968), and was thus the first society in the Gomme's plan for a 'Dictionary of British Folk-
world devoted to the subject. There had been Lore'. Most of these wide-ranging plans
protracted correspondence in *N&(iin 1876-7, remained unfinished, for lack of manpower
initiatedby EUza *Gutch ('St Swithin'), calling and/or money. With hindsight, one can see it
for such a body to be formed. After some hesi- might have been wiser to focus research more
tation over the definition of its remit, a group sharply on Britain itself, but the Society's
of already well-known figures, including W. J. poUcy had always been to view its subject
*Thoms and George Laurence *Gomme, took from an international perspective, not an
up the challenge and announced the forma- insular one.
tion of the Society (with 107 members); its As the 20th century dawned, the Society
journal. The *Folk-Lore Record, was launched in began to lose impetus as founder members
February 1879. In the first issue, the Society's died or retired, and the Great War killed many
object was defined as 'The preservation and who might have replaced them. After 1918.
pubhcation of Popular Traditions, Legendary professional academics turned more to the
Ballads, Local Proverbial Sayings, Supersti- new subjects of anthropology and sociology,
tions and Old Customs and foreign)
(British which were gaining the foothold in uni-
and all subjects relating to them' (Folk-Lore versities which folklore had failed to achieve.
Record 1 (1878), p. Lx). The music, dancing, and Matters cannot have been helped by the fact
129 Folklore (the journal)

that the most prominent 'heavyweight' now study of folk drama and guising. A new era for
associated with the Society was *Frazer, whose the Folklore Society opened in 1967, when a
old-fashioned methods were disapproved of by 'revolution' on its Council led to Katharine
professional anthropologists. Nevertheless, a Briggs becoming President and Venetia Newall
Committee (led first by Bume, then by Hart- Secretary; together, they worked vigorously
land, then by A. Wright) worked throughout
R. with the support of an efficient Committee to
the war and on into the 1920s and 1930s on a re-estabUsh the book pubUcations pro-
major undertaking begun in 1910, a survey of gramme, renew links with scholars in Ameri-
British *calendar customs to update *Brand; ca and Europe, reinstate regular conferences,
this was eventually pubhshed in eight vol- and update the Society's image by becoming
umes between 1938 and 1946, covering Eng- more visibly active. A definite trend from the
land, Scotland, Man, and Orkney and Shetland. 1970s onwards was the increased interest
Between the wars, the FLS carried on as a members showed in living British traditions,
minor learned society consisting largely of and in modem forms of folklore such as con-
amateurs, though still attracting individual temporary legend. PubUcations and confer-
academics from diverse fields (e.g. E. O. James ences have reflected this weU.
and S. H. Hooke, experts on the history of reli- The Society's Library and Archives, which
gions, and the Modem Greek scholar R. M. began as a single bookcase in 1892, has grown
Dawkins). Folk-lore continued to be published, into an excellent resource for the study of
and though much of the theoretical basis for folklore, past and present; it contains many
itscontents at this period is questionable, it volumes and journals otherwise unobtainable
stillprovided a wealth of primary detail, as in this country. Successive Editors of the jour-
well as many sound and stimulating articles. nal *Folldore have set higher standards for con-
But the amateurishness showed; many contri- tributors,and it is now a respected scholarly
butors pursued pet topics of their own, wdth- pubUcation, while the newsletter FLS News
out reference to what others were doing even provides a lively informal vehicle for the
in this country, let alone abroad; others exchange of information and material. PubU-
uncritically echoed dubious theories of the cation of books and pamphlets has once again
previous generation, especially Frazer's on been active in recent years.
*fertiUty. Folklore study in England gradually The office and reference library are at The
gathered a negative reputation for unsound Warburg Institute, Wobum Square, London,
reasoning, lack of intellectual rigour, ahistor- WCIH OAB (Tel.: 020 7862 8564); the lending
ical assumptions, and general pottiness. Ubraiy and archives are at University College,
The Second World War brought a major Cower Street, London WCIE 6BT.
logistic and financial crisis. That the Society Dorson, 1968; A. R. W^right, Folk-Lore 39 (1928), 15-38;
survived at all, and continued to produce its Allan Gomme, Folk-lore 63 (1952), 1-18; Sona Rosa
Burstein, Folklore 69 (1958), 73-92; E. O.James, Folklore 70
journal, albeit much reduced in size, is due to
(1959), 382-94; Katharine M. Briggs, in Animals in Folklore,
a very small group of enthusiasts who gave ed. Hilda R. Ellis Davidson and W. M. S. Russell (1978), 4-
their time and money to keep it afloat. 20; R. Port:er, in Folklore Studies in the 20th Century, ed.
J.

Unfortunately this led to a concentration of Venetia Newall (1978): 1-13; Davidson, 1986: 143-7; Folk-

lore 98 (1987), 123-30.

power in the hands of a well-meaning, finan-
cially generous, but domineering and
bUnkered Treasurer-cum-Secretary, Mrs Lake Folklore (the journal). The early history of
Bamett, who contrived to block virtually all the Folklore Society's periodical was summar-
suggestions for growth and new undertakings ized by Allan Gomme (Folk-Lore 63 (1952), 6-7).
throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. Initially it appeared annually as The *Folk-Lore

Meanwhile, folklore in general was enjoy- Record (1879-82); then monthly as The Folk-
ing a revival of pubhc interest, in part hnked lore Journal (1883-4), a method entaiUng 'a
to the folk *song and *dance revivals. New great deal of effort and no very marked suc-
trends in scholarship emerged from the 1950s cess'; then quarterly, still as The Folk-Lore Jour-
onwards; in particular, the work of lona and nal until 1890, when the simple title Folk-Lore

Peter *Opie opened fresh fields, sv^tching was adopted, at the suggestion of Joseph
attention to the young, and to the present day; Jacobs (the hyphen was dropped in 1958).
that of Katharine *Briggs combined hterary During the Second World War it came close to
and folkloric expertise; that of E. C. Cawte and extinction, but survived thanks to the devoted
Alex *Helm brought factual accuracy to the work of E. O. despite various financial
James;
folklore (the word) 130

crises, it regained its pre-war size. Publication naeum on 22 August 1846, the antiquarian W. J.
changed from quarteriy to twice-yeariy in *Thoms invited readers to record 'the man-
1976, then annual in 1993; in 2000 it returned ners, customs, observances, superstitions, bal-
to two issues per year. Jacobs was Editor from lads, proverbs of olden time what we in
. . . . . .

1890 to 1893, after which responsibility was England designate as Popular Antiquities or
shared by a PubUcations Committee. From Popular Literature (though by-the-by it is more
1899, the succession runs: Charlotte *Bume, a Lore than a Literature, and would be more
1899-1908; A. R. *Wright, 1909-14; W. Crooke, aptly described by a good Saxon compound,
1915-23; A. R. Wright, 1924-31; E. O. James, Folk-Lore— the Lore of the People).' The word
1932-55; Christina *Hole, 1956-78; Jacqueline thus casually tossed out caught on, and has
Simpson, 1979-93; Gillian Bennett. 1994- . been adopted into many other languages; its
The journal, Uke the Society, took the whole crispness is an advantage, but its implications
of folklore worldwide as its remit, and also pose problems. Until recently, 'folk' was not
explored adjacent disciplines for material used inclusively, but restricted to lower-class
which might have a bearing on it. Con- and relatively uneducated rural communities,
sequently, it printed many papers discussing whose life was thought to be static, untainted
comparative rehgion and myths, supernatural by urban sophistication, and thus Ukely to
themes in ancient and medieval literatures, preserve archaic items. Tradition was defined
and anthropology, thus reflecting the very as information or custom handed on
diverse interests of its readers. At the same unchanged over many generations; the pres-
time, it was always a place where factual ent was of Uttle interest in itself, only valued
accounts of newly discovered items, large or as a pointer to the past. 'Lore' too was a
small, could be permanently recorded; there restrictive concept; it covered oral genres,
are many such contributions, which have beUefs, and behaviour, excluding all that
become increasingly valuable as time goes by, comprises material culture: crafts, tools,
whereas some of the more speculative discus- working practices, buildings, furnishings,
sions are now
only of historical interest. The decorative arts, etc.
diversity of the contributors, and the fact that These points show up plainly in Charlotte
folklore was not a university subject, meant Bume's definition in The Handbook of Folk-Lore
that the journal never became dominated by a (1913), 1:
single school of thought, methodology, jar- The word . . . the generic term under which the
[is]
gon, or interpretative theory; it was always traditional Beliefs, Customs, Stories, Songs and Say-
addressed to a scholarly but non-specialized
ings current among backward peoples, or retained
readership. by the uncultured classes of more advanced peoples,
In 1986 a survey showed that most indi- are comprehended and included In short, it

vidual members of the Folklore Society found covers everything which makes part of the mental
exotic anthropological material remote from equipment of the folk as distinguished from their
their concerns, and wished Folldore to concen- technical skill. It is not the form of the plough which
excites the attention of the folklorist, but the rites
trateon British traditions, and on European or
North American material which offered close- practised by the ploughman when putting it into the
soil . . .

ly relevant contexts or parallels; it seemed

probable that the needs of those reading it It was not till the 1950s and 1960s that these

through academic Ubraries would be similar. assumptions were widely questioned in Eng-
A shift of emphasis duly occurred, but editor- land. The mould was then decisively broken
ial policy remains broad-based, and has through the work of the *Opies on present-day
recently been strengthened by setting up an *child-lore, the discovery of *contemporary
International Advisory Board. legends, and a change of direction among
Cumulative indexes to Folklore have been published up to those stud)dng customs and performance
1992. These are: Wilfred Bonser, A Bibliography ofFoMore genres to take account of their social, eco-
(1961); Wilfred Bonser, A Bibliography of Folklore for 1958- nomic, and functional aspects.
1967 (1969); Steve Roud and Jacqueline Simpson, An Index
The present authors see folklore as some-
to the Journal Folklore, Vols. 79-103, 1968-1992 (1994). For
comments on the history of the journal, see E. O. James, thing voluntarily and informally communi-
Folklore 70 (1959), 382-94; Jacqueline Simpson, Folklore cated, created or done by members of a group
100 (1989), 3-8.
(which can be of any size, age. or social and
educational level); it can circulate through
folklore (the word). Writing in The Athe- whatever media (oral, written or visual) are
 131
Folk-Song Society

available to this group; it has roots in the past, The Society's annual *Joumal was launched
but also present relevance; it usually recurs in in 1899, and for the rest of the Society's exist-
many places, in similar but not quite identical ence it served as the major source of raw
form; it has both stable and variable features, material for the folk-song movement. A pat-
and evolves through dynamic adaptation to tern soon evolved which was adhered to for
new circumstances. The essential criterion is many years. The proof sheets of the songs
the presence of a group whose joint sense of chosen for inclusion were circulated to mem-
what is right and appropriate shapes the story, bers of the Committee, and their comments
performance, or custom— not the rules and invited, and Frank Kidson in particular pro-
teachings of any official body (State or civic vided historical information from his own vast
authority. Church, school, scientific or schol- library. The journals thus included not only
arly orthodoxy). the songs themselves, but important com-
Boyes, 1993; Gillian Bennett, Oral History 4 {1993), 77-91. parative and analytic comments by the col-
lectors themselves and a range of experts, but
Folk Music Journal. Annual journal of the no unified editorial commentary. As time
*EngUsh Folk Dance and Song Society from went on, articles began to appear beside the
* collections of songs, but they were always in a
1965, replacing the Journal of the English Folk
Dance and Song Society, and the leading British minority.
vehicle for the serious discussion of folk- Despite its roster of distinguished names,
song, music, and dance material. Successively the Society had got off" to a somewhat shaky
edited by Dr Russell Wortley (1965-71), start. Already in 1900 there were discussions

Michael Yates (1972-80), Dr Ian Russell (1981- on the need to increase the subscription, and
93), Dr JuUa Bishop (1994-7), and Michael by 1904 it had almost ground to a halt. The
Heaney (1997- The contents of the Folk
).
main problem was the protracted illness, and
Music Journal reflect a move away from the col- death in 1904, of the Secretary, Kate Lee, who
lectanea approach of its predecessors towards had been the driving force firom the start.
more scholarly articles and reviews; a trend In that year, Lucy Broadwood took over as
*
which still continues. Secretary, Cecil Sharp and Ralph *Vaughan
Williams joined and reinvigorated the
folk-song, see *song. Committee, and the Society was set fair for
a re-launch and increasing popularity and
Folk-Song Society. Founded at a meeting of influence. Folk-song collecting became all
sixteen interested parties in London on 16 May the rage for budding EngUsh musicians imtil
1898, which included Ahce Bertha *Gomme, the outbreak of the First World War, and the
Kate Lee, A. P. Graves, J. A. Fuller Maitland, and membership soon included Percy *Grainger,
Laura A. Smith. At the Society's formal inaug- George *Butterworth, Edward Elgar, and
ural meeting on 16 June 1898, Lucy Broad- Edvard Grieg amongst others.
wood and Frank *Kidson, who would both play Throughout its Ufe, the Society resisted sug-
a significant role in the Society's development, gestions to change its name to include the
were added. The Society's 'primary object' was words 'EngUsh' or 'British', but its journals
'
.the collection and preservation of Folk
. .
actuaUy included very little that was not col-
Songs, Ballads and Tunes, and the pubUcation lected in the British Isles, and the bulk of the
of such of these as may be advisable'. Meetings material was EngUsh. Nevertheless, important
were to be held, at which papers would be contributions on Irish, Manx, and Scots song
read and discussed, which would include were published firom time to time. Until the
'vocal and instrumental illustrations' (Keel, war, individual members were busy coUect-
1948: 111). It should be noticed that firom the ing, giving lectures, demonstrations, and
start the tone of the Society was academic— concerts, and were active in promoting folk-
collection and study, rather than performance singing through local music competitions, and
and teaching were the objectives. The first so on. The Society itself however, stiU had no
four Vice-Presidents chosen— Sir John Stainer, structure, no unified voice, no Director to
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Hubert Parry, speak on its behalf, and could only act as a
and Dr ViUiers Stanford— demonstrated the medium of exchange, not as a driving force.
intended standing of the new Society in the The Society was hit badly by the war, with sev-

respectable musical estabUshment of the late eral of itspromising younger men being
Victorian era. killed, and its continued existence was only
folktales 132

ensured by the unflagging efforts of Kidson, tales seem to have been formed by re-
Broadwood, Anne *Gilchrist, and a handful of combining traditional elements ('motifs') and/
others. or transferring an established plot ('tale-type')
By the late 1920s, the collecting boom was from one hero, or one location, to another.
over,most of the founders and leading figures The narrow definition restricts itself to the ^

had died. Sharp (1924), Kidson (1926), Broad- avowedly fictional narratives in the above Ust, t

wood (1929), and the feeling amongst many of excluding legends and memorates, since these 1

those who were left was that the collecting claim to be true. From an English point of
work had been done— no new songs would be view, this is regrettable, since legends make
found, only variants. An approach from the up a very high proportion of our corpus of
*EngUsh Folk Dance Society for the Folk-Song traditional narratives and still circulate vigor-
Society to join them in *Cecil Sharp House was ously, while memorates are a major source for
considered by a joint Committee and, despite the study of current beliefs.
some strong voiced by Lady
reservations The basic catalogue of folktales in the nar-
Gomme, the combined *Enghsh Folk Dance row sense is The Types of the Folktale by Antti
and Song Society came into being on 31 March Aame and Stith Thompson (1961); see also
1932. Stith Thompson's The Folktale (1977). Its system
The leading members of the Folk-Song Soci- was applied to British material in Baughman,
ety were primarily interested in the tunes of 1966; it is used in the works of Katharine
the songs, and this is reflected in the contents Briggs and other recent British folklorists.
of the ]oumal, especially in the earUer years. See also *contemporary legends, *fables,
Tunes were published exactly as they were legends, *memorates, *storytelling, *tall
noted, but texts were often not printed, or STORIES.
only one or two verses would be given. By tacit
agreement, if not overt policy, the Society's fools. Laughing at stupidity and craziness is a
definition of folk-song was narrow. Hardly basic, universal form of humour, well repre-
anything which had an identifiable author, sented in Enghsh tradition. The language is
however far back in time, was accepted for rich in inventive semi-proverbial phrases to
pubhcation in the Journal, and 'modal' tunes express just how daft someone is, from the
had a far greater chance of inclusion than medieval jeer that he or she would 'shoe a
others. Nevertheless, the pages of the Journal goose' or 'cut off the branch he's sitting on' to
include a vast amount of material on British the modem 'he's a couple of sandwiches short
folk-song which would otherwise not have of a picnic'; the nonsense world of *nursery
been pubUshed, and it is this which is one of rhymes is full of jokes about silly or impos-
the two main legacies left by the Society. The and topsy-turvy situations. Visually,
sible acts
other is the thread of interest in traditional thetheme can be recognized in medieval art
song which continued into the new EngUsh and sculpture, where grotesque figures pull-
Folk Dance and Song Society, and thereby into ing faces and/or engaging in undignified or
the post-war second *revival and through to ludicrous actions were surely intended as
today. fools.

Frederick Keel, JEFDSS 5:3 (1948), 111-26; Wilgus, 1959; Whole communities and ethnic groups have
Ian Olson, ED&S 57:1 (1995), 2-5; E. A. White, An Index of been labelled fools, and made the topic for
English Songs Contributed to the Journal of the Folk Song Society
cycles of jokes; older examples (often called
(1951).
'noodle' or 'numskull' tales) relate to people
from specified villages or rural districts, for
folktales. This term can be used either broad- example the Men of *Gotham and the Wilt-
ly or narrowly. In the broad sense it applies to shire *moonrakers, more recent ones to cer-
allprose narratives following traditional story- tain immigrant groups, especially the Irish. In
Unes, which are told orally, or were so told in some contexts, notably in schools and work-
previous generations. It thus covers *fairytales, places, custom allows practical jokes aimed at
legends of all types, *memorates, *fables, *tall making people look fooUsh, and this is espe- J
*
tales,and humorous anecdotes. The original dally true on April Fools' Day. |
author is always unknown; in the rare cases Until fairly recent times it was socially
where an individual who shaped the current acceptable to laugh at the behaviour of those
version has been identified, the tellers are bom 'simple-minded', at the mad, and at
unaware of this (e.g. *The Three Bears). Most freaks. From medieval times tiU the reign of
133 footing

Charles I, there are ample records of fools, itwas prohibited in the City of London, and
jesters, and dwarfs at court and in wealthy from then on regular attempts were made to
households; some of the fools were undoubt- ban it, and Puritan reformers such as Stubbes
edly 'innocent', i.e. half-witted, while others (1583: 184) inveighed against the game, and
were skilled entertainers, with a repertoire of the authorities attacked the game on various
bawdy and/or slapstick humour and witty rep- fronts. Firstly, the popularity of such 'point-
artee lightly masked as 'folly'. 'Jest books', i.e. less*games drew young men away from other
collections of stock anecdotes about the clev- more rational and necessary pursuits, particu-
erness (or stupidity) of fools, circulated as lary archery, and secondly the violence and
popular literature. Some are sheer fiction, lawlessness involved held moral dangers both
such as those about the legendary Marcolf for the individual and society in general. The
who supposedly disputed with Solomon; third factor was the danger to property and
others describe real people, such as Henry ttade which was a potential result of allow-
Vll's fool Will Somer, and may contain accur- ing rough, mass sports in narrow stteets and
ate reminiscences alongside the inventions. As city centtes. An early casualty was the game at
is well known, the professional fool-as- Chester, which was abolished in 1539. Oppos-
entertainer is also an important figure on ition at other places went less smoothly.
the stage, from Elizabethan plays to modem Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries there
circus clowns and cinema comedians. are records of particular communities' games
See Clouston, 1888; V^elsford, 1935; Billington, 1984; coming under increasing pressure and one by
Christie Davies, in Spoken in Jest, ed. Gillian Bennett one they were suppressed, or modified out of
(1991), 215-35; Malcolm Jones, Folklore 100 (1989), all recognition. In Manchester in 1608 and
201-17.
London in 1615, Worcester in 1743, Bolton in
1790, the pattern was very similar. By the mid-
fool's errand, see "APRIL FOOL, 19th century, there was still a number of
PATIONAL CUSTOMS.
examples alive and kicking and in each case
the custom was hotly contested between the
football. Traditional football games had vir- supressors and the players, with a key turning-
tually no rules, no Umit on the number of point coming with the Police Act of 1840. The
players, and goals, if they existed at all, could game at Derby was gone by 1849, Kingston-
be a mile or more apart. In most cases, the upon-Thames (Surrey) by 1868, and Dorking
opposing 'sides' were drawn from different (Surrey) by 1909. The Kingston-upon-Thames
parts of the town or from different trades. In case is an example of just how difficult it was
London, and other big cities, it was specifically to reform or suppress a custom until aU the
a game of the apprentices. Throughout its influential people in the community united
known history there have been repeated against it. The first attempt to suppress it
attempts to aboUsh or modify the custom, and came in 1799, but the game lasted until 1868.
most of the earliest references are concerned The origin of the game remains obscure.
with trying to suppress what must have been Although the vast majority of instances took
an already well-established tradition. In the place at *Shrovetide, there seems to have been
long-drawn-out struggle between the author- no formal church involvement. Players from
ities and the players, the former were bound various parts of the country explained that the
to win in the end, but it took centuries to game started when locals were kicking around
achieve. The documentary record starts in the severed head of a Dane (or other invader).
C.1183 vidth WiUiam Fitz Stephen's account, See also *ashbourne, *hallaton bottle-
which includes no hint of societal disapproval: kicking, *HAXEY HOOD GAME, *HURLING.
After dinner (at Shrovetide) all the youth of the City
Malcolmson, 1973; Hutton, 1996: 154-7; Hole. 1949: 50-
2; Matthew Alexander, 'Shrove Tuesday Football
in Sur-
goes out into the fields to a much-fi-equented game
rey", Surrey Archaeological Collections
77 (1986), 197-205.
of ball. The scholars of each school have their own
ball, and almost all the workers of each trade have
theirs also in their hands. Elder men and fathers and footing. One of the commonest features of
rich citizens come on horse-back to watch the con- occupational customs, found in many trades,
tests of their juniors, and after their fashion are which required a newcomer to a firm, or a col-
young again with the young . . .
(Fitz Stephen, c.1180: to pay for
league ending his apprenticeship,
56-7)
drinks, or an entertainment for the other
PubUshed disapproval started in 1314, when workers. Usually called 'paying one's footing'
Forteans 134

and sometimes referred to as *foot-ale'. See foundation sacrifice. When bones, or pots
also *building trade. presumably once containing food or drink, are
Hazlitt, 1905: 242; EDD. found under the foundations of Roman sites in
Britain, they are interpreted as ritual offerings
to bring luck to a new *building. Other
Forteans. Forteans are followers of Charles examples come from Anglo-Saxon sites, both
Hoy Fort (1874-1932), an American writer before and after the conversion, and the series
whose books, The Book of the Damned (1919), continues into medieval and early modem
New Lands (1923), Lo! (1931), and Wild Talents times with sporadic finds of animal skulls and
(1932), explored the realms of 'strange phe bones under doorways, in boundary ditches,
nomena' which science could not explain, had built into walls, under bridges, etc. (Merrifield,
declared impossible, or had refused to coun- 1987: 50-7, 116-21, 186). If the object is inside
tenance. A magazine entitied The News was a wall or ceiling space, it is not usually pos-
launched in Britain in 1973, which changed its sible to decidewhether it was deposited dur-
name in 1976 to Fortean Times: The Journal of ing construction of the building, or later, for
Strange Phenomena, and is now the leading example as protection against suspected
periodical in the field, pubhshed bi-monthly. witchcraft; *shoes and mummified *cats are
A more heavyweight journal, Fortean Studies, the most frequent finds.
was launched in 1994, and there have also See also *horses, *house, *threshold.
been a number of books and booklets from the
same stable. The Fortean movement includes a foxgloves. In 1870 the naturahst James Brit-
wide range of viewpoints, from outright ten launched the theory that 'foxglove' means
beUevers to scientific sceptics, and their typ- 'glove of the Littie Folks' or fairies, since the
ical fare includes UFOs, ahen abductions, crop flower is called 'witches' thimbles' in North

circles, sea serpents, dreams, government Country dialect, and 'fairy's petticoat' in
conspiracies, strange coincidences, mystery Cheshire. This pretty whimsey has often been
animals, ghosts, poltergeists, spirit forces, and repeated, but reference to the Oxford English
so on, and there is clearly a great deal of over- Dictionary and the English Dialect Dictionary
lap with contemporary folklore studies, at shows it to be nonsense. The word is attested
least in terms of subject-matter if not always from AD 1000 onwards, always as 'fox-' and
in approach. never as 'folks-'; there are several other plants
wdth 'fox' in their names; in Norway, the
flower is called revhjelde, 'fox-bell'. Nor is there
fortune-telling. The urge to know one's any instance of 'folk' being used without any
future takes many forms. Children count defining adjective to mean 'fairies'.
cherry stones or daisy petals, adults observe There are few fraditions about foxgloves. In
* *
omens and interpret dreams; formerly, north Devon they are said to have sprung up
young women performed *love divinations on wherever the blood of St Nectan, a locally
set nightssuch as *Halloween or *St Agnes' Eve revered saint, dripped on the ground after he
to find out who they would marry. Fortune- was beheaded; one Staffordshire man stated,
telUng, however, involves more complicated in 1917, that 'I don't like them, missus; they
systems which require interpretation, either mean war. Them foxgloves is soldiers.'
by a paid professional, or by learning from They are one of the few plants whose cura-
handbooks. *Asfrology, palmistry, and have been tested and accepted
tive properties

numerology were known in the Middle Ages; by orthodox medicine. A scientist named
cheap booklets explaining them were readily William Withering was asked, in 1775, to
available from the 16th to the 20th centuries. examine a herbal drink used in Shropshire
The 18th century saw the beginnings of to cure dropsy, and correctiy identified fox-
fortune-telling by playing-cards, and by read- glove leaves as its most effective ingredient.
ing *tea leaves and coffee grounds; the late This led to the scientifically controlled use of
19th century brought Tarot and crystal-gazing, digitalin to treat various types of heart
and the 20th century the I Ching and various disease —although, wrongly used, foxgloves
newly invented systems using fanciful cards, can also cause fatal heart failure.
runic symbols, and so forth. Since the 1960s,
interest in such things has greatly increased Frazer, Sir James George (1854-1941). An
(Davies, 1999a: 130-42. 246-70). anthropologist who held that all human soci-
 135
Friday
eties have evolved through similar stages of have originally been an independent comic
magical and religious behef. These he estab- figure based on the medieval stereotype of a
lished by comparing ancient mythologies with
disreputable ftiar— fond of fighting, hunting,
the beliefs and rituals of tribal societies in and wenching. He is ahnost certainly the
Africa, Australia, or the Americas, and with unnamed friar in a play in William Copland's
recent folk customs— since the latter, he edition of The Gest of Robin Hood
(1560), who
claimed, contained items surviving from earl- beats Robin in a fight and is invited into the
ier stages, albeit corrupted and misunder- outlaw band, where he is delighted to be given
stood. This non-historical cross-cultural a woman but
(unnamed, possibly *Maid
approach was typical of his period; it is now Marian):
rejected as invahd by anthropologists and
She is a trull of trust.
folklorists, but its influence can still be seen in
To serve a frier at his lust,
many popular works. A piycker, a prauncer, a tearer of sheets,
Frazer'smajor book was The Golden Bough, on A wagger of ballockes when other men sleeps.
which he worked throughout his hfe; the first
edition (1890) was in two volumes, the second Friar Tuck is also often mentioned as a char-

(1900) in three, the third (1911-15) in twelve. acter in Ehzabethan *morris dances,
usuaUy
Modem readers often use the onevolume linked to Maid Marian.

abridgement (1922), where the arguments Dobson and Taylor, 1976: 208-14; Knight, 1994: 61-2,
stand out more clearly, stripped of their mas- 101-5.

sive footnotes and many examples; this is a

pity, since the data remain valuable even Friday. The behef that Friday is an unlucky
where the interpretations are obsolete. day goes back to the Middle Ages, and is wide
The Golden Bough was widely acclaimed, and ly attested. As early as 1390 Chaucer wrote
influenced several major poets and novehsts 'And on a Friday fell all this mischance', and
in the inter-war years; to the general pubUc, it throughout the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries
remains the best-known, and most emotion- there are ample references to people thinking
aUy persuasive, study of myth and folklore. this abad day on which to do business, travel,
Frazer launched the idea of a sacred king who move house, start a new piece of work, be
had to be killed when he grew old, because his bom, or get married (Opie and Tatem, 1989:
virihty was identified vkith the life-force of the 167-9). This is probably an indirect con-
crops; he stressed the importance of the sequence of the old Catholic mle that Fridays
annual cycle of vegetation, and especially cer- are a day for penance. It is still very strong,
eal crops, which he hnked to the
myths of and has some specifically modem develop-
dying-and-rising gods in Near Eastern reli- ments, for instance that Friday is now thought
gions; he distinguished useftilly between 'imi- to be a day on which many road accidents
tative' and 'contagious' occur. Similarly, if a car or machine fre-
*magic; he had much
to say about taboos, tree-worship, human and quently breaks down, it may be said that 'It
animal sacrifice, scapegoats, fire-festivals, and must have been made on a Friday', though
much else. The logical linksbetween these here the impUcation is not always supersti-
many topics are weak, and the accumulated tious; sometimes what is meant is that the
data sometimes hardly relevant to the theories workmen, eager for the weekend, were too
they are meant to support; his speculations slapdash.
regularly go far beyond what the evidence will The night between Friday and Saturday is
bear, and he sometimes adds to the confusion also significant.Dreams that come then are
by allowing incompatible interpretations to trustworthy; a current saying mns:
coexist. But his dramatic ideas and colourful,
Friday's dream on Saturday told
emotive style were most persuasive, and his Is bound to come true, be it never so old.
influence endures; whenever 'fertility cults'
are offered as an explanation of folk custom, In David Copperfield (chapter 1), Dickens says
an echo of Frazer can be heard. that babies bom at *midnight on a Friday

Ackerman, 1987; Dorson, 1968: 283-8. night are fated to be unlucky and will be able
to see *ghosts; according to Ruth *Tongue. they
have even wider p>owers:
Friar Tuck. Companion of *Robin Hood in In the early years of this century, old people in West
some sources from 1475 onwards. Tuck may Somerset still firmly believed that children bom
Friday the thirteenth 136

after midnight on a Friday and before cockcrow organizing the funeral rested with the family,
could see and talk to ghosts and fairies, and come to
apart of course from the service itself By mid-
no harm. They also had power over black witchcraft, Victorian times the middle classes had handed
and could cure aiUng animals and plants I have
over their arrangements to professional
found that the fact that I was myself so bom has
undertakers, but working<lass funerals were
been an Open Sesame to many carefully guarded
still basically personal affairs until the 20th
secrets. (Folklore 69 (1958), 43)
century. Despite local variations, the follow-
See also *friday the thirteenth, *good
ing account in 1914, recaUing childhood
FRIDAY. memories of village Ufe in Derbyshire, can be
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 71, 125, 167-9. taken as typical of 19th-century rural custom:

On the day of burial a table was set outside the cot-

Friday the thirteenth. The widely current
tage door, on which were set a bowl of box and yew
idea that Friday the thirteenth is unlucky is a
sprays, a plateful of bread (each sUce cut in four), half
modem combination of two older beUefs: the a cheese, a plateful of plum cake, a bottle of home-
medieval fear of *Friday, and a comparatively made wine, a large jug of beer, and various glasses
recent dislike of *thirteen. The latter was first and wine-glasses— most of the latter, as well as the
recorded at the end of the 17th century, in the white table-cover, having been lent by my mother.
limited context of people sitting at a meal; it When the ftineral-folk assembled about the door,

became more common in the late 19th cen- having been bidden by the 'lajdng-out woman', the
bowl of box and yew sprays was offered round, and
tury,and especially in the 20th. The two ideas
each person took a piece. Then a tray of funeral cakes
are not found in combination before the
was brought out of the house in packets. Each packet
beginning of the 20th century, but the reputa- contained two cakes wrapped in white paper, on
tion of Friday the thirteenth is now thor- which was printed a suitable verse of poetry. Each
oughly established, and constantly reinforced guest, including also the bearers, was presented with
by the media. a packet.

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 169, where the earliest record of When this part of the ceremony was over, the

the belief is from N&Q.in 1913. table was cleared and the coffin brought out of the
house and laid upon it— open, so that friends might
take the 'last look'. The funeral man (undertaker)
frog showers, see FISH FALLS.
then closed and screwed down the Ud, produced
from a large box a number of 'weepers and scarves'
funerals. A great deal is known about EngUsh with which he decked the relations as mourners, and
funerary customs through the centuries, both arranged the procession to the grave. As a rule there
in their religious and their social aspects. Nat- were two sets of bearers, for the churches were dis-
urally, the picture is fullest for the better-off tant, and all the village folk had to walk. After the
classes, but since Victorian folklorists were service each person stepped to the graveside for a
interested in customs, certain last look (a formal matter not to be omitted), and the
life-cycle
aspects of lower-class funerals which struck sprigs of box and yew were dropped on to the coffin.

them as archaic or quaint are regularly The whole party with the parson (if he was wilUng)
then returned to take tea in the house.
described, especially for rural districts. Their
Whilst they were away all the death-tokens had
descriptions, however, are not total; they are been removed, the windows set open, and the pic-
apt to omit aspects which, being standard pro- tures, looking-glassesand ftimiture stripped of the
cedure in their ovm class too, did not by their white cloths with which they had been covered from
definition count as/oMore, notably the purely the time of the 'laying-out' to the departure of the
religious ritual. Some things often went body. The talk at the tea-table was of the dead and
unmentioned because of their very familiar- others who had predeceased him, and the room was
such as the rule that a corpse must be car- a gossips' rally until the eatables and drinkables
ity,
ried feet whether inside a coffin or not.
were consumed and the company dispersed. In the
first,

In medieval times, each parish had a burial arrangements there were many variations according
to the age, sex, and station of the dead. (N&Q, lls:ll
guild, which supplied bearers to carry the
(1914), 296-7).
corpse; the coffin, however, was parish prop-
erty,and the corpse would be buried in its In this account, the food and drink was dis-
shroud, the coffin being taken back for re-use. played before the coffin left the house, recall-
After 1552, the Book of Common Prayer required ing an older custom common along the Welsh j

the service to take place out in the church- Border, and in the Midlands and northern
yard, leading to the invention of the lych-gate counties (especially Yorkshire), where mourn-
and the portable bier. Responsibility for ers ate around the coffin before setting out for
137 funerals

the church. Sweet biscuits, cakes, bread and has never been explained, was that any path
cheese, wine, and beer were served; a share along which a corpse was carried thereby
was sometimes given to the poor, in the became a pubUc right-of-way. In some local-
house or at the graveside. The custom derives ities, there were traditions that the ftineral
from two preReformation rites: taking procession must approach the church by a
Communion at the Requiem Mass, and giving *rightward circuit, or take one particular road
alms to the poor so that they too would pray rather than another, or pause at specified
for the dead. Its continued symbolic import- spots on the way. Gentle rain was welcome, as
ance among Protestants is well attested; in a token of God's mercy and blessing, but a
1671, for instance, a French visitor described *storm boded ill for the dead man's soul; so did
how at the funeral of a nobleman in Shrews- any untoward accident, for example the coffin
bury relatives and friends assembled in the shpping, or horses finding hard to draw the
it

house to hear a ftineral oration from a cler- hearse.

gjnnan, during which 'there stood upon the During the First World War, pubhc cere-
coffin a large pot of vnne, out of which every- monial at upper- and middle-class ftinerals
one drank to the health of the deceased, hop- was much reduced, and did not reappear
ing he might surmount the difficulties he had thereafter; nevertheless, some close-knit
to encounter in his road to Paradise' (Bume, working-class communities in cities kept up
1883: 309-10). In Derbyshire in the 1890s it lavish Victorian customs, such as the hearse
was said that at a funeral 'every drop you drawn by horses in black canopies, with
drink a sin which the deceased has commit-
is
plumes on the roof Press reports and
ostrich
ted, you thereby take away the dead man's photographs of such ftinerals still occasionally
sins and bear them yourself (Addy, 1895: appear. The use of *flowers has increased,
123-4); in Herefordshire around 1910, a man both as professional viTeaths at the ftineral
was urged, 'But you must drink, sir. It is Uke itself, and as informal tributes at the *grave or
the Sacrament. It is to kill the sins of my sis- roadside *memorial. The post-ftineral buffet
ter' (Leather, 1912: 121). meal is as important as ever, though now
In a simple 'walking ftineral', as described more often held in a hotel or pub than at
above, the bearers were friends and relatives, home.
and chosen, if possible, to reflect the status Cremation has increased sharply since the
of the deceased: older people, especially if 1930s, and is now chosen for about 70 per cent
married, would be carried by married of deaths; in many cases it consists of a service
men; unmarried girls by young women (or in the crematorium chapel rather than in the
young bachelors, if the road to the church deceased's own church (if any). Currently, in
was a long one); babies and little children by reaction against the impersonahty of frad-
older children in white. They were generally itional ftinerals and cremations, a trend
given black gloves, scarves, and hatbands. In towards variation and individuaUty can be
more elaborate fimerals, a pall (hired from seen in, for instance, the choice of music and
the parish or the undertaker) covered both readings, and the display of objects symbol-
coffin and coffin-bearers, its hem being held izing the Ufe of the deceased person. At the
by pall-bearers. Funerals of the wealthy and Anghcan ftineral of a morris dancer, his hat
the nobility were far more lavish; they lay on the coffin, and the men of his side
involved long processions of mourners (at danced in the aisle (Walter, 1990: 16); during
first on foot, later in carriages), increasingly the requiem for a Cathohc nun in 1998, the
elaborate horse-drawn hearses, displays of Latin grammar she had used as a teacher was
black plumes and velvet drapes, richly Uned put on the coffin, alongside her Bible and a
coffins, attendant 'mutes', and so forth. At rose (JS). Other recent developments are the
the opposite end of the scale was the popularity of memorial services some months
'pauper's ftineral'— a cheap coffin pushed on a after the death, tomark the public aspects of a
hand-cart, as remembered in the children's person's career and achievements; funerals
rhyme: for stillborn babies and miscarriages, very dif-
ferent from former attitudes towards the
Rattle hisbones over the stones.
He's only a pauper whom nobody owns. unbaptized (Walter, 1990: 271-80); and new
rituals devisedby *Wiccans and other neo-
(Thomas Noel, "The Pauper's Drive")
pagan groups.
An odd but widespread notion, whose origin See also *bees, *bells, burial, *death.
Furry Dance 138

*FLOWERS, *GRAVES, *MOURNING, *SIN-EATING, There is no single study of folk customs at funerals, but
sections on them appear in most regional books. The
*WAKES
current situation is assessed in Walter, 1990.
There are many books on upper- and middle-class
funerals. They include J. S. Curl, The Victorian Celebration of
Death (1972); Gittings, 1984; Litten, 1991; Puckle. 1926. FuiTy Dance, see *HELSTON FURRY DAY.
Gabriel Hounds, Ratchets. In northern itwas beheved effective against the ague and
counties, the name Gabble or Gabriel Ratchets toothache. The earUest references show that
was appUed to a strange yelping sound heard for the ague, a piece was worn or carried as an
in the sky at night, supposedly a death *omen. amulet, as noted by Sir Thomas Browne in his
The name, first recorded around 1665, impUes Pseudodoxia Epidemica ((1650; 6th edn. 1672),
a Unk with the dogs of the *Wild Hunt, book 5, chapter 23) 'when for amulets against
'ratchet' being an old word for a type of agues we use the chips of gallows and places of
hound. lii Cleveland, the explanation given execution'. From the 19th century on, the
was that 'a gentleman of the olden times was emphasis is on spUnters of the wood being
so strangely fond of hunting that, on his placed in the mouth to cure the toothache.
deathbed, he ordered his hounds all to be Attention also focused on the rope used in the
killed and buried at the same time and in the hanging. Reginald Scot (1584: book 12, chap-
same tomb as himself, and therefore he and ter 14) reports 'A charme for the headach: Tie
they still hunt as ghosts (J. C. Atkinson, The a halter about your head, wherewith one hath
Gentleman's Magazine (1866), part II, 189); in beene hanged', and a century later John
Derbyshire, that a squire persisted in hunting Aubrey (1686/1880: 198) confirms its practice,
on Sundays, and once drove his pack into a commenting that the hangman makes a profit
church, for which sin he is condemned to ride by selling pieces of the rope. This behef had
out on stormy nights for ever (NEKl lls:5 been held in classical times, and continued to
(1912),296-7). Some informants, however, be reported in England well into the 20th cen-
spoke of spectral birds with glowing eyes tury. In addition to being good for headaches,
which showed themselves (singly) to those the rope was held to be generally lucky, espe-
who had a friend or relative close to death, *
cially by card-players. The body of the hanged
shrieking mournfully; others, of ghosts of person was also valuable, the touch of the
*unbaptized babies flitting round their par- corpse's hand was used to cure swellings (see
ents' homes. dead man's hand) and the *hand of glory was
It is generally agreed that the sounds are much prized by burglars. *Mandrakes were
really bird cries: curlews, widgeon, teal, or beheved to grow especially beneath the gal-
'
wild geese. 'Gabble' is a good word for this lows arising from fat or urine that drops
. . .

noise, which would explain the name; how- from the body of the dead' (Browne, 1672:
ever, 'Gabriel' is supported by a Derbyshire book 2 chapter 6).
beUef from the mid-1 9th century that 'the See also *hangman's stone; *skin (human).
angel Gabriel was hunting [the damned]
. . .
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 172, 189.
and that the cries were uttered as the lash of
the angel's whip urged them along' (N&(1 7s
(1886), 206). Gardiner, George Barnet (1852-1910). A
Joseph Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary (1898-1905).
Scot who made an important contribution to
the study of Enghsh folk-song by his enthusi-
astic collecting activities in the early 20th cen-

gallows, gibbets. A number of beliefs and tury. From 1904 to 1909, he spent a great deal
customs clustered around the gallows, the of time in the field, particularly in Hampshire
hangman's rope, and even the body of the (at the suggestion of Lucy *Broadwood)
but
executed person. The wood of the gallows also in Cornwall, Somerset, and Wiltshire.
itself was prized for its curative properties, as Gardiner concentrated on the texts and
Gardiner, Henry Balfour 140

enlisted the help of trained musicians, such as 8; 1989, 35-62). and J. L. Bracelin, Gerald Gardner: Witch

H. Balfour *Gardiner (no relation), H. E. D. (Octagon Press, 1960).

Hammond, Charles GambMn, and C. F. Guyer.

His manuscripts, containing 1,460 songs garlands. Together with similar construc-
tions of flowers and greenery, garlands are
(1,165 with tunes) are lodged in the *Vaughan
Williams Memorial Library. A selection of his common elements of English customs,
whether carried around the village on May
songs appeared in the *JFSS 3 (1909), 249-304,
in his Folk Songs from Hampshire (1909); and in Day, hung up as Christmas decorations or on

James Reeves, The Everlasting Circle (1960). Maypoles, carried at weddings and funerals,
and even worn on the head as at Castleton,
Frank Purslow, FM] 1:3 (1967), 129-57; Stephen Uoyd, H.
Balfour Gardiner (1984), 34-52.
Derbyshire, and although individual customs
may not be very old, garlands in general have
a long history:
Gardiner, Henry Balfour (1877-1950). One
of several young English composers who Three ornaments belong principally to a wife. A ring
caught the craze for folk music in the first on her finger, a brooch at her breast, and a garland
years of the 20th century. Between 1905 and on her head. The ring betokens true love, as I have
1907 he assisted George Bamet *Gardiner (no said, the brooch betokens cleanness in heart and

relation) in collecting forays in Hampshire, as chastity that she ought to have, the garland betokens

the latter lacked the necessary musical skill to gladness and the dignity of the sacrament of wed-
lock. {Dives and Pauper, c.1405-10; spelling
note the tunes. Balfour Gardiner noted over
modernized)
100 items, some of which were published in
Folk Songs fromHampshire (1909), and the manu- Less well-known examples of 19th century

scripts of which are in the *Vaughan WiUiams garlands include prizes at games in Yorkshire,
Memorial Library. and as a fishing industry custom where
Stephen Lloyd, H. Balfour Gardiner (1984), 34-52. returning Whitby whalers fixed 'a garland or
hoop fluttering with ribbons' from the mast-
Gardner, Gerald Brosseau (1884-1964). A head (Gutch, 1901: 57).
See also *abbotsbury garland day,
flamboyant and assertive personahty, he was a
seminal figure in the creation of modem *CASTLETON GARLAND DAY, *CHRISTMAS DECOR-
paganism. He had developed an interest in ATIONS, *FUNERALS, *MAIDENS' GARLANDS, *MAY
anthropology and the occult while working DAY, *MAYPOLES, *RUSHBEARING. *WEDDINGS.
in Malaya as a tea and rubber planter and a Brears, 1989: 178-203.

Customs officer, and on retiring to England in

1936 he made this his prime preoccupation. Garratt Mayor of. Probably the most fam-
In Hampshire in 1939 he joined what he ous of the *mock mayors, even though the last
claimed was a witch coven preserving recognized Mayor died in 1810. Garratt was a
unbroken medieval traditions, and from 1951 small hamlet between Wandsworth and Toot-
onwards he publicly promoted a fertility ing, now in South London but then in the
religion of the type now called *Wicca. He county of Surrey. The election of the Mayor of
recruited members into an organized initi- Garratt always took place at the same time as
atory cult of several grades, for which he com- the real election for ParUament, and its fijnc-
posed rituals and spells under the title A Book tion as parody was always its main raison d'etre.
of Shadows; his system shows similarities to The first recorded election took place in 1747,

Freemasonry, and to ceremonial magic as and local public house landlords supported

practised by the Hermetic Order of the Golden the event for the extra custom it brought.
Dawn, Aleister Crowley, and others in the Within a few short years, thousands were
early 20th century. His Witchcraft Today (1954) flocking to Garratt, from London and else-
is the foundation of Wicca; he also set
up a where, and even fashionable society paid
Museum of Witchcraft at Castletown (Isle of regular Wsits. Samuel Foote wrote a successfiil
Man). He always
insisted that he had learnt play. The Mayor of Garret, in 1763, which helped
about witchcraft through initiation, not from to publicize the event. The candidates were as
books, but both his theories and his rituals are flamboyant as possible, in dress and
clearly influenced by earlier writers, including behaviour, and adopted silly names such as
Margaret *Murray (Hutton, 1999: 225). Lord Twankum, Squire Blow-Me-Down, and
His work has been assessed by Ronald Hutton (1999: 205- speeches and processions were made, as in
52). See also the accounts by Doreen Valiente (1973, 152- Most of the candidates were
real elections.
 Gervase of Tilbury

—
from humble origins watermen, cobblers, the development of Arthurian romances
gravediggers, barbers, sweeps, and so on, but throughout Europe. His Vita Merlini (c.ll50)
some became well-known characters in their was equally important as a source for legends
own right: Sir John Harper, Sir Jeffrey Dun- about *Meriin, and for prophecies attributed
stan, and Harry Dimsdale (not their real
Sir to him. Geoffrey drew on older historians,
names) among them. The event gradually lost notably Bede and Nennius, and may have
the support of both fashionable visitors and known Welsh traditions now lost; however, a
locals, perhaps because the crowds were get- high proportion of what he says, not merely
ting too large or the humour had begun to about Arthur but about many alleged early
wear Dimsdale was the last recognized
thin. kings and heroes of Britain, seems to have no
Mayor and he died in 1810. Sporadic attempts basis outside his own imagination.
to revive the custom failed.

Anthony Shaw, The Mayor ofGarratt (1980); Hone, 1827: ii.

Gervase of Tilbury (c.ll50-c.l220). Bom at
410-33; Gomme, 1883: 208-9. Tilbury in Essex, he was a lawyer and cleric
who lived most of his life abroad in the service
Gawain and the Green Knight. This fine of various rulers and prelates, notably the
poem, written in the West Midlands in the Emperor Otto IV, for whom he wrote, prob-
later 14th century, not only has a plot centred ably about 1211, a compendium of history,
upon a shape-changing giant but is rich in geography, and natural history which he
details of interest to folklorists. The Green called Otia Imperialia ('Imperial Relaxations').

Knight's brusque entry at Arthur's *New Year One section is devoted to 'The Marvels of Each
feast, bearing a *holly branch, is suggestive of Province' of England, 'marvels' (mirabilia)
the masquerades and games common in being defined as natural phenomena that
medieval households at that season; the cannot be explained, as opposed to miracles
beheading challenge he proposes has folktale due to God's intervention. They include items
analogues; his home in a hollow knoll recalls which would now be classed as legend or
legends in which prehistoric barrows are superstition.
linked to giants. His colour and ability to sur- Gervase is thus an important source for
vive decapitation have provoked speculation medieval English folklore. He gives a Glouces-
about seasonal symboUsm and vegetation spir- tershire variant of the tale of the stolen fairy
its. it is impossible to teU how
Unfortunately, goblet (cf *Willy Howe); he describes httle
much of this is due to the EngUsh poet draw- working gobhns in patched clothes, who are
ing on customs and tales from his own cul- generally but also lead travellers
helpful
ture, how much to his immediate source (a astray— clearly akin to *Puck and *pixies; he
French poem now lost), and how much to the teUs of a swineherd who entered the Peak cav-
remote sources of the basic story, which were ern and reached a pleasant Otherworld where
Celtic. harvesting was in progress, though in the
Text ed. J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, Sir Gawain and human world it was winter. He has heard of
the Green Knight (1925; many reprints). Full translation in Arthur's Knights as a ghostly *Wild Hunt, and
J.R. R. Tolkien, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl and of a demonic hound with fiery jaws appearing
Sir Orfeo (1975).
during a thunderstorm in a forest near Pen-
rith. He beUeved that two remarkable events
geese-dancing, see GUISE-DANCING. had occurred within his Ufetime which proved
that 'the sea is higher than the land', indeed
Geoffrey of Monmouth (71100-55). A Bene- that it is 'above our habitation . . . either in or
dictine monk attached to the household of on the medieval theory based on the
air' (a

Robert, Earl of Gloucester; in 1152 he became reference in Genesis 1 to 'waters above the
Bishop of St Asaph. His Historia Regum Britan- firmament'). The first took place outside a
niae, written c.1136, claims to be a history of Gloucestershire church one foggy Sunday,
all the kings of Britain from Brutus, the foun- when people coming out of Mass saw an
der of the realm and great-grandson of Aeneas anchor caught on a tombstone, with its rope
of Troy and Rome, to Cadwallader (d. 689); the stretching up into the sky; a sailor came
*
reign of Arthur is the centrepiece of the work, swarming down it and tried to free the anchor,
and Geoffrey's account, which was accepted as but seemed to choke in human air and soon
historically vaUd by most of his contemporar- died as if by drowning. The church kept
ies and successors, was a major influence on the anchor for all to see. The second event
gestures

concerned a merchant sailing from Bristol to for books and pamphlets on the ghost-lore of
Ireland who accidentally dropped his knife particular towns or districts, which perpetu-
into the sea; it fell straight through the sky- ate older tales and publicize new ones. Monks,
light of his own house, back in Bristol, landing nuns. Roman legionaries, named historical
on the table in front of his wife. personages, and nameless White and Grey
C. C. Oman, Folk-Lore 55 (1944), 2-15. Ladies, abound now in stately homes and old
buildings throughout the land, to the delight
gestures. Excellent examples of folklore. of tourists.
They are learnt informally, by observation and Evidence for beliefs and tales of past centur-
example, there is no official or authoritative ies is patchily distributed, and often transmit-

canon by which they are judged, and they rely ted through educated writers who had some
on a shared and agreed symboUc meaning axe to grind; there are marked differences
between gesturer and recipient. They also vary from one period to another. Among Anglo-
over time, and from place to place, and attract Saxons, violent *burial customs indicate fear
origin theories and stories. of the malevolent *undead. Some remarkable
See *cocKiNG a snook, *crossing fingers. tales written down by a monk in 14th-century

*THUMBS, *TRUCE TERMS, *V-SIGN. Yorkshire 0ames, 1922) concern tormented

Bremmer and Herman Roodenburg, A Cultural History souls who roam about in terrifying shapes-
Jan
of Gesture (1991); Morris, 1979. several appear as grotesque animals (or even 'a
whirUng heap of hay with a fight in the middle
ghosts. English folklore of all periods is full of it'), while others are undead corpses which
of references to ghosts, and there is a wide- must be held down by force. All find peace
spread current belief that the dead can reveal through posthumous absolution of their sins.
their presence to the living, and that some The *Lyke-Wake Dirge, though only recorded
people are better able than others to perceive in the 17th century, also describes purgatorial
them. First-hand experience stories on this punishments.
theme are abundant today, and probably After the Reformation, in order to debunk
always have been. Some describe how the tell- Purgatory, some Protestants redefined all
er felt that someone he/she loved was nearby alleged apparitions of ghosts as devils in dis-
to comfort or advise, though dead; others guise, but others thought this went too far.
describe fears and distress experienced in Much learned writing in the 16th and 17th
some uncanny place, interpreted as due to centuries is focused on this debate, eventually

unpleasant ghosts, whose identity is usually won by thosewho held that ghosts must be
unknown. Folklore collectors have not pub- possible,
—
though rare to deny it was to be a
lished much primary material of this kind, 'Sadducee' (i.e. one who denies the afterUfe),
partly out of respect for their informants' and hence an 'atheist'. Books setting out this
privacy, and partly because it is 'personal', view included Joseph Glanville's Saducismus
not 'communal, traditional' (Bennett, 1987: Triumphatus = 'Sadduceeism Crushed', 1681),
(

17-19); however, newspaper files and books and Richard Baxter's The Ceitainty of the Worlds
on psychic phenomena have numerous of Spirits they include many con-
(1691);
examples. temporary accounts of apparitions seen by
Communal tradition shapes our expect- members of the aristocracy, gentry, and edu-
how ghosts manifest themselves.
ations of cated persons, whose status gave them author-
Hence even a memorate is likely to include ity. *Aubrey collected similar anecdotes,
details highlighted because they fit a stereo- though without polemical purpose. A few of
type (e.g. a drop in temperature, sounds of these ghosts seem motiveless, but most
footsteps, an animal refusing to approach the appear for helpful reasons: to ensure their
eerie place), and these become more numer- debts are paid and wills correctly executed, to
ous as the story spreads into the community as denounce a murderer, to warn a friend that he
rumour. There it may become linked to other will die soon, as *wraiths announcing their
anecdotes about haunting set in the same own deaths. These spectres behave with dig-
house, road, etc., which ultimately may nity, and are not horrific or dangerous. Glan-
coalesce into a *local legend. The latter are ville and Baxter also describe noisy, invisible,
found everywhere, in great numbers; some stone-throwing spirits of the type later called
are purely oral, others pass to and fro between *
poltergeists, but as demons, not ghosts.
orality and print, since there is a keen market Eighteenth-century intellectuals generally
143
giants

mocked belief in ghosts as ignorant shoulders instead of the natural finial. (Latham,
superstition
— 'a received Tradition among the 1878: 19).

Vulgar* and 'Legendary Stories of Nurses and while Victorian folklorists

Paradoxically,
Old Women', as Henry *Boume, a clergyman made no attempt to record personal narratives
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, put it in his Antiqui-
about first-hand ghostly sightings from
tates Vulgares (1725). Drawing on oral rural
working-class informants, psychical
material, he presents ghosts as frightening researchers and spiritualists at the same
and/or grotesque, never as helpful: they wan- period began collecting them in abundance,
der from midnight to *cockcrow, especially in
mostly from middle-class sources, and seeking
and around churchyards; they haunt houses
empirical verification. One result, which has
where they died, often by violence; they may fed back into current popular behef, was a
appear as spectral cows, dogs or horses, and as theory redefining apparitions as not involving
fiery or headless shapes. As good Christians, the actual presence of dead persons, but mere-
people should not beUeve such things, but ly some kind of mental flash-back whereby the
they do, and by talking of them make them percipient 'sees' a past event 'imprinted' on
more persuasive: the surroundings by the emotional energy it
once generated. This period also saw a rising
Nothing is commoner in Country Places, than for a
whole Family in a Winter's Evening, to sit round the fashion for fictional tales of the supernatural,
Fire, and tell Stories of Apparitions and Ghosts. And often with macabre and malevolent ghosts,
no Question of it, but this adds to the natural Fear- which in turn led to the hugely popular horror
fulness of Men, and makes them many Times films of the 20th century, which have raised
imagine they see Things, which really are nothing renewed fear of the occult power of the dead.
but their own Fancy. (Bourne, 1725/1977: 76-7). Current belief takes such varied forms that
it is impossible to generalize about it. A
The regional folklorists whose collections
mourner finding private consolation in feeling
began appearing in Victorian times amply
the presence of a loved one; tourists enjoying a
confirmed that these beliefs were wide-
them with amusement or 'ghost-walk' in an ancient city; a fiightened
spread, recording
amazement as examples of 'superstition' family getting their house exorcized; people
which they themselves definitely did not using an ouija board, seriously or in ftin;
share. They also included lively, dramatic people avoiding a reputedly haunted wood;
*local legends about *laying ghosts, *phantom people talking with affectionate pride of the
'grey lady' sometimes seen in their old house;
coaches, *skulls, *black dogs, *boggarts, bar-
youngsters sharing a culture of 'spooky' hor-
guests, etc. There is often a note of humour
ror tales and personal or family experiences-
in these,and a good deal of storytelling skill,
all are concerned with the dead, but beyond
though how far it derives from the informant
that, have Uttle in common.
and how far from the folklorist's retelling is
See also *laying ghosts, *phantom
hard to guess. A better testimony to the
COACHES, *PHANTOM SHIPS, *ST MARK'S EVE,
strength and seriousness of the underlying
communal tradition is Charlotte Latham's *UNDEAD, *VAMPIRES, *WRAITHS.
account (from Fittleworth, Sussex, in the For the evolution of ideas among the educated, see
Finucane, 1982; Thomas, 1971: 587-606. Brown 1979
1860s) of children spontaneously pouring out discusses folkloric material from the West Country and
their ghost-lore: the impact of the Reformation. Bennett. 1985, 1987, and
1999, describes fieldwork among bereaved women in
A short time ago there was committed to me the 1981. For current teenage ghost lore, see Wilson, 1997.
teaching of a Sunday School class composed princi- Virtuallyall regional folklore collections have a section

pally of tradesmen's children, who, on my asking on ghosts, and there is a glut of books presenting stories
them if they knew what was meant by their about hauntings fh)m a believer's point of view.
'ghostly
enemy', one and all replied, 'Yes, a spirit that comes
giants. The word 'giant' has two senses. In
'
back from the grave; and as they showed an eager-
ness to tell me everything they knew upon the sub- the first, it merely refers to a hiunan being
allowed them to go on. They then spoke all at
considerably larger and stronger than others;
I
ject,
once, and quite overwhelmed me with the stories of in the second, to an alien being who is not
what their fathers, mothers, brothers, or relations,
whom they placed only monstrously large but also (usually)
in implicit trust, had seen. Some
malevolent towards humans, and (often)
spiritswere reported to walk about without their
heads, others carried them under their arms, and remarkably stupid. In the first sense, several
one, haunting a dark lane, had a ball of fire upon its English heroes became 'giants' in local
Gilchrist, Anne Geddes 144

folklore, as when King *Arthur is alleged to thinking the town was still many miles away,
have the capstone of a megalithic tomb
lifted so that he abandoned his plan, dropping the
at Dorstone, and *Robin Hood to have formed earth, which formed the Wrekin hill (Burne,
two hills when he dropped two sacks of earth 1883: 2-4).
he was carrying (both from Hereford-
tales are In medieval, Ehzabethan, and Jacobean
shire). Various local heroes too were said to times, effigies of giants were conspicuous in
have been abnormally large, for example Piers courtly and pageants. The London
civic
Shonks of Brent Pelham and the robber *Jack *Gogmagog and the giants in the Mid-
figures
o' Legs at Weston (both in Hertfordshire), summer civic parades at Chester and Coventry
Little John, and Tom *Hickathrift of Wisbech are well documented; records of Newcastle-
(Cambridgeshire). upon-Tyne show frequent pa5mients from the
The non-human giant has steadily declined 1550s to the 1590s for the upkeep of 'Hogma-
through the centuries from a monster to a fig- gog' and his coat, though it is not said on
ure of fun. In *Beowulf, Grendel and his mother which date this effigy was displayed. At Ches-
are bloodthirsty threats to humanity, ser- ter in 1495, there was a whole family group of

iously presented as such by the poet; in medi- them: giant, giantess, and two daughters. Such
eval romances, however, it has become mere figures were constructed from wood, wicker-
routine for a knight to slay a giant; while in work, and buckram, and lavishly dressed and
local legends it is claimed that the actions painted; they were carried through the sfreets
of long-ago giants created certain types of by a man hidden under their robes. ,The ori-
landscape feature, though their plans were ginal official intention may have been to sym-
generally foiled by their own clumsiness and bolize savage forces tamed by civilization (as
stupidity. They hurled rocks at churches, but in the Gogmagog legend), but in practice these
missed; carried stones for building, but town effigies were regarded with pride,
dropped them; killed one another in stone- amusement, and affection. Only one proces-
throwing battles, or by accident when tossing sional giant survives in England (unlike Bel-
tools across a valley. However, the giant gium and France, where there are many); this
*Wade and his wife did succeed in building is the *Salisbury Giant, now in the museum

'Wade's Causeway' across Wheeldale Moor there (Cawte, 1978: 29-35; Shortt, 1982).
(North Yorkshire); it is in fact a Roman road. Local legends involving giants can be found in many
Legends about giants are particularly common regional collections; in Briggs, 1970-1; and in Westv^^ood
in Cornwall, and have been since medieval 1985. There is a lively round-up of Cornish tales by
* Barbara Spooner, "The Giants of Cornwall', Folklore 76
times; Geoffrey of Monmouth says Corineus,
(1965), 16-32. For hill figures, see Marples, 1949:159-
first human ruler of the region, chose it pre- 212. For civic processional giants, see F. W. Fairholt, Gog
ciselybecause wrestling against giants was his and Magog (1859), 50-63; J. Hemingway, The History of
favourite sport. Giants and giant-killing were a Chester (1831), i. 199-206; J. J. Anderson (ed.). Records of

Early English Drama: Newcastle upon Tyne (1982); Hugh

popular subject for *chapbook tales, the best Shortt, The Giant and Hob-Nob (SaUsbury Museum, 1982);
known being *Jack the Giant-Killer and *Jack Cawte, 1978: 29-35.
and the Beanstalk.
Several of the older *hill figures represented
giants. The *Ceme Abbas Giant and the Long Gilchrist, Anne Geddes (1863-1954). Bom
Man of *Wilmington but one
still exist, in Manchester, she was always interested in

*Gogmagog at Plymouth and another near music and was already knowledgeable on
Cambridge are lost, as is an anonymous figure musical topics when she came across the folk
which Aubrey says was on Shotover Hill, near *song movement, first by reading Sabine
*
Oxford, before the Civil War. On Kingsland Baring-Gould and then by contact with Frank
Common outside Shrewsbury there was a turf- *Kidson. She joined the Editorial Board of the
cut *maze v^dth a giant's face cut in the centre; Folk-Song Society in 1906, and continued to
at theannual Shrewsbury Show in the 18th serve in that capacity for nearly 50 years. Anne
and 19th centuries, one sport (called the Gilchrist was one of the triumvirate of
Shoemakers' Race) was to run the maze and acknowledged experts (the others being Lucy
*
leap on to the giant's eyes (Burne, 1883: 456). Broad wood and Kidson) to which members of
This must surely be linked to the well-known the Society could turn for advice and informa-
local legend of the Welsh giant who set out to tion, and between them they held a vast store
bury Shrewsbury under a huge spadeftil of of historical and comparative knowledge,
earth, but was tricked by a clever cobbler into and Anne in particular was an excellent
145 gnomes
correspondent and unstinting mentor to any- stone shafts in their graveyard, and found a
one who sought her help. She was particularly hollow oak deep in the earth, containing the
expert in early psalm and hymn tunes, and bones of a gigantic and much wounded man,
could often identify a requested tune from and of a woman whose golden hair crumbled
memory alone. Unlike the other two, however, to dust as soon as someone touched it. Fixed to
Gilchrist wrote no books, and her contribu- a stone in the grave was a lead cross saying (in
tions to the subject are all in the form of art- Latin) 'Here lies buried the renowned King
icles and notes appended to songs published in Arthur with Guinevere his second wife, in the
the Society's Journal and in other journals Isle of Avalon'.

including The Choir and *FoIkIore. She was also a The discovery was usefiil to the Abbey, hard
collector,mostiy in her home area, and her pressed for ftinds after a fire in 1184 had des-
collection covered a variety of genres, includ- troyedmany of its buildings and all its reUcs; it
ing singing games, sea shanties, Lancashire may also have had a poUtical aspect, discredit-
rushcart and morris tunes, pace-egging songs, ing the Welsh and Breton tradition that Arthur
ballads, carols, and nursery songs. She was had never died. The bones were laid in a black
awarded an OBE in 1948 for her services to folk marble mausoleum before the high altar,
song and dance scholarship, and her papers where they remained till the Abbey was des-
are now deposited in the *Vaughan Williams troyed at the Reformation. The lead cross sur-
Memorial Library, as described by Margaret vived the destruction; Camden's Britannia
Dean-Smith, JEFDSS 7:4 (1955), 218-27. (1590) includes a sketch of it, with a shorter
Selected articles by Gilchrist include: 'Let Us inscription omitting Guinevere, but the object
Remember', ED&S 6:6 (1942), reprinted in 54:3 itself is thought to have been lost in the late

(1992), 8-9; 'Sacred Parodies of Secular Folk 17th century. A cross found in 1982 at Forty
Songs', JFSS 3 (1937), 157-82; 'Songs and Tunes Hall, Enfield was probably a replica; the finder
from the Clague Collection [Isle of Man]', JESS 7 reftised to reveal where he had rehidden it (The

(1924-6), 117-94, 203-76, 281-347; 'The Folk Times (15 Jan. and 22 Mar. 1983)).
Element in Early Revival Hymns and Tunes', Glastonbury Tor was said in a 16th-century
JFSS 8 (1928), 61-95. Welsh life of St Collen to be a fairy hill, inside
Obituaries: JEFDSS 7:3 (1954), 202; ED&S 19:2 (1954), 68-9. which Uved a sinister lord of the Otherworld
called Gwyn ap Nudd, who also figures in

A relatively recent idea is Welsh Arthurian tales. The Tor is topped by a

glasses, drinking.
that a ringing glass is connected to drowning ruined church, and the terracing along its
sailors. The first documented reference so far slopes might possibly be a *maze. On the
found is in 1909 (N&Q,10s:12 (1909), 310), but it slopes is a *HoIy Thorn, descendant of the ori-
was certainly well known soon after that: ginal one which stood near the Abbey in 1500.
In modem times the reputation of Glaston-
Have you ever noticed the effect upon a dinner-party
bury has grown greatly. Both Roman CathoUcs
should anyone hit a glass and make it ring? Nothing
— and Anglicans hold services and pilgrimages at
less than an interruption in conversation a
the Abbey; the spring near the Tor associated
momentary silence— relieved only when the culprit
with the * Grail legend and used as a spa in the
placed a finger on the rim 'to save a sailor from
drowning'. (Igglesden, c.1932: 26) 18th century is now a centre for pilgrimage
and heahng, tended by the ChaUce Well Trust;
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 173-4.
in the 1930s, the artist Katherine Maltwood
claimed that the landscape of a ten-mile area
Glastonbury. The prestige of Glastonbury
south-east of Glastonbury formed patterns
Abbey is based on medieval legends. The earU-
est, inthe late 10th century, is a claim that the representing the Zodiac. The whole New Age
firstchurch on the site (which actually is no movement of 'alternative' mysticism sees
older than the 7th century) predated the Glastonbury as a major spiritual centre.
arrival of the earhest missionaries. By the 13th Rahtz, 1993; A. Gransden, Journal of Ecclesiastical History

27: 4 (1976), 337-58.

century, it was being said that this had been
built in AD 63 by twelve disciples of Jesus, led
Glastonbury Thorn, see *hoi.y thorn.
by *Joseph of Arimathea. Simultaneously, a
secular legend developed, namely that Glas-
gnomes. This name for dwarfs living under-
tonbury was the mysterious *Avalon to which
*
Arthur was taken. In 1191, at the request of ground is not part of folk tradition; it is a Latin
the monks dug between two word invented by the 16th<entiuy Swiss
Henry II, tall
goats 146

alchemist Paracelsus in a treatise on four spe- Lean quotes three 16th and 17th century lit-

cies of elemental beings: nymphs in water, erary references to this idea.

sylphs in air, salamanders in fire, and pigmaei Opie and Tatem, 1989: 174; N&Q. 3s:9 (1866), 118, 330;
or gnomi in the earth. The first English writer lls:ll (1915), 452, 500-1; 12s:l (1916), 16; 12s:3 (1917),

to adopt it was the poet Pope, in The Rape of the 310; Lean, 1903: ii. 605-6; Hazlitt, 1905: 278.

Lock (1714). Gnomes became more common in

19th- and 20th-century Uterature, especially goblin. A general term for fairy creatures of
where illustrators gave them the
for children, malicious or evil nature, especially if small
standard appearance of dwarfs in Swiss and and ugly; it can also be used for minor
German folklore, including a red cap. They demons. The word is derived from medieval
were often said to be mining for metals and French.

precious stones.
The first gnome figurines for gardens were Godiva, Lady. The wife of Earl Leofric of
small porcelain ones imported from Germany Mercia, and a devout and generous patron of
in the late 1860s by Sir Charles Isham, to dec- churches and abbeys, she was Lady of Coventry
orate a large rockery at Lamport Hall (North- in her own right. She died in 1067 and about a
amptonshire) imitating a mountain land- 100 years after her death, Roger of Wendover,
scape, in which they represented mining a monkof St Alban's, told how this 'saintly
dwarfs. Terracotta gnomes were fashionable countess beloved of God', inspired by the
. . .

in late Victorian times; modem

mass- Trinity and the Blessed Virgin, begged her
produced ones are generally regarded with husband to free Coventry from tax, until,
affectionate mockery. angry at her persistence, he told her that if she
rode naked across the crowded market-place,
goats. It was a long-standing custom, which he would grant her request. She agreed, but let
lasted well into the 20th century and may her hair hang loose, so that 'her whole body
even still be carried out, for farmers to keep was veiled except her fair white legs'. Her hus-
a goat with their cattle. It is usually stated band 'counted this a miracle', and lifted the
that the presence of the goat helps prevent tax. Later versions,beginning in the 16th cen-
abortion in cattle and generally acts as a tury, switch the emphasis from holiness to
calming influence. Some say that the goat cleverness; Godiva, it was now said, asked the
eats certain plants which are harmful to magistrates to make everyone stay indoors
cows and thus protects them, while at least with closed windows as she rode by, which
one Durham farmer maintained that goats they did, so 'her husband's imagination [was]
kill and eat adders. The correspondent to utterly disappointed'. By 1659, a new character
Notes & Queries who reported the latter was had been added to the legend: Peeping Tom,
sceptical until he saw it happen with his own struck blind for trying to see the naked Godiva.
eyes. Several sources state that it is the smell Historians are agreed that Godiva and Leof-
of the goat which is beneficial. Virtually all ric were real people, who may well have
the examples of this practice which can be remitted some unpopular tax, but the tale
geographically located come from the Mid- shows influence both from saints' legends
lands or north of the country, with Glouces- (pious wife contrasted with cruel husband,
tershire being the most southerly example. modesty miraculously protected), and from
This may be an accident of documentation, folklore motifs. There are several other Eng-
or may reflect the true distribution. Its age is lish local traditions in which some grant or
also open to question, as Opie and Tatem privilege is said to have been won for the
give the first known reference as c.1840, but community by a great lady's willingness to
it is Ukely to be much older than that. There undergo a humihating ordeal: to walk bare-
is surprisingly Uttle other English lore con- foot, or ride naked, or crawl on hands and
cerning goats. Hazlitt reported a beUef that knees round a piece of land which she wishes
'they are never to be seen for twenty-four her husband to donate to charity, for example
hours together, and that once in that space at *Tichbome (Hampshire) and *St Briavels
they pay a visit to the devil in order to have (Gloucestershire). These may of course be imi-
their beards combed' which he claimed was tations of the Godiva tale, being recorded far
common in England and Scotland. Another later; however, the motif of a clever woman
tradition that diamonds will be softened by
is who seemingly impossible or intoler-
fialfils

no other substance than goat's blood, and able conditions by a trick is old and inter-
 Gogmagog (or Gog and Magog)
national. So too is the punishment of curiosity example, Thomas Dekker's The Shoemaker's
by bUnding. Holiday (1599). iii. 1). There were a number of
During the Middle Ages Coventry held an local terms for earnest money, including Aries
annual eight-day fair in Corpus Christi week, or Erles in the northern counties and Fasten or
which included miracle plays and a proces- Festing money elsewhere.
sion; after the Reformation, this was replaced Luck money was something different. This
by a civic pageant at Midsummer, which was was a sum of money given back by the seller,
suppressed during the Commonwealth but to the buyer, on the completion of a deal, for
lavishly revived in the reign of Charies II. luck. Hard-fought attempts by farmers and
From 1678, there are records of a 'Lady Godiva' manufacturers to eradicate the practice which
appearing in the pageant; at first the role was are reported throughout the 19th century
taken by a boy, but from 1765 there was a real showed how prevalent and ingrained the cus-
woman (fully dressed) on a white horse. tom was. Numerous reports also indicate that
Meanwhile, a life-size wooden figure of a man it was necessary to *spit on the
money if you
in Tudor armour, the original function of wanted its luck to be effective, and this cus-
which unknown, had become famous as
is tom was still being reported in certain quar-
'Peeping Tom'; it was carried in the annual ters late in the 20th century.
procession, and between whiles displayed in The Customs of Old England (1911), 232-8; N&Ci
F. J. Snell,

various houses and hotels. It is currently in the 5s:7 (1877), 488; 5s:8 (1878), 37-8 376-7; 9s:ll (1903),

Cathedral Lane Shopping Centre. The rowdi- 127, 196, 254, 358; 157 (1929), 454-5; 158 (1930), 31; Opie
and Tatem, 1989: 233-4.
ness and ribald humour of the occasion drew
Victorian disapproval, but parades continued
intermittently until the 1960s, and were Gogmagog (or Gog and Magog). In the
revived in 1996. Middle Ages and in Tudor England, there are
The story of Lady Godiva and Peeping Tom is several allusions to a giant called Gogmagog,
a great favourite, not merely in Coventry but or a pair of giants called Gog and Magog, living
as a part of English popular culture, the com- in Cornwall when Brutus, legendary founder
bination of virtue, sexual titillation, and of Britain, first arrived there. Geoffrey of
earthy humour having proved irresistible. Monmouth, in his Historia Regum Britanniae

Joan Lancaster, Godiva of Coventry (Coventry, 1967); Hilda (1136), spells the giant's name
Goemagot as
R. E. Davidson, FoOdore 80 (1969), 107-21; Palmer, 1976: and says he was defeated in wrestling by
134-9.
Brutus's fiiend Corineus, who threw him off
the cUffs of Plymouth Hoe at a spot called
God's penny, luck money, earnest Goemagot's Leap.
money. Three separate but linked customary These names are bibUcal; in Ezekiel 38-9, it
practices are concerned with the exchange of is prophesied that 'Gog from the land of

money between individuals. At least from the Magog' will invade Israel but be defeated,
medieval period onwards, the handing over of while in Revelations 20 'Gog and Magog' will
'God's penny' (which could be any amount be among the hosts of the Antichrist. It has
above a penny) was one of the ways in which sometimes been suggested that the curious
two traders sealed a bargain, and was thus the spelhng in Geoffrey's text represents some
equivalent to a binding deposit given by the Celtic Cornish name which he misunder-
"*

buyer. The name possibly derives from an earl- stood. It is, however, far more hkely to be due
ier belief that this sum should be given to the to the fact that his book (first written in Latin)
Church as a
voluntary donation. 'Earnest circulated in Norman French for about a cen-

money' was usually a sum given to a new ser- tury before being translated into English; if
vant or farmworker on being hired by a new spoken as four syllables, Go-e-magot is identical
employer. Having accepted the earnest, the in sound with the French form of the bibUcal
employee was bound to turn up for work at names, i.e. Got et Magot (the ts are silent).
the agreed date. The same principle applied to At some unknown date, but before the close
the King's Shilling given to a new recruit to of the 15th century, Plymouth celebrated the
enhst him into the army. However, as the defeat of Gogmagog by cutting a figure of him
name implies, 'earnest money' (i.e. the con- on the slope of the Hoe, and periodically
cept of a promise) could be used to apply to the scraping it clean; town records from 1486
buying of goods or to the securing of staff", so onwards call it 'Gogmagog'. But Carew's Survey
the terminology can be confiising (see, for of Cornwall (1602) speaks of two figures
 148
g old
Lethbridge's reconstruction
of the Cambridge figure(s) is
the other, and
wielding clubs, one bigger than set out in his Gogmagog: The Buried Gods (1957),
but nei-
divides the name as 'Gog Magog'. A few years ther his methods nor his results have won acceptance.
later, however, the smaller figure
was being
caUed 'Corineus'. The site was destroyed when gold. Thought to have healing properties,
the Citadel was built in the reign of Charles II. especially for sore eyes and styes, which
There was another turf-cut giant at Wandle- should be rubbed with a wedding ring (the
in 1605. but how were Ukely to
bury Camp, near Cambridge, only gold object most families
much older it may have been is unknown; the possess). Gold *earrings
were also thought to
surrounding hills were called 'the Gogmagog sailors and
strengthen the eyes, and, among
Hills' by Cambridge students in EUzabethan fishermen, to prevent one from drowning.
of
times, and they may have been the cutters Aubrey says some people of his time tied gold
the figure.It was stHl visible in the 1720s. coins to ulcers and fistulas; he wonders
In Tudor times, a new version of Geoffrey's whether the cure worked because 'gold
tale evolved. Brutus, it was now said, captured attracts mercury' or because older gold
coins
the Cornish Gog and Magog aUve, brought 'were printed with St Michael the Archangel,
them to London, and chained them to the and to be stamped according to some Rule
of giants Simi-
gate of his palace as porters. Effigies Astrological' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 206).
were used on royal occasions; a male and larly, a letter written during the Plague of
female pair greeted Henry V on London Bridge 1665 advises: 'Friend, get a piece of angell
in 1415, while 'Gogmagog and Corineus' gold, if you can of
Eliz. coine (y' is y*^ best) w"" is

welcomed MaryTudor and PhiUp of Spain in and keepe it aUways in

phylosophicall gold,
1554, and EUzabeth in 1559. They regularly yo' mouth when you
walke out or any sicke
and and Tatem, 1989:
appeared in the Lord Mayor's pageants persons come to you' (Opie
Midsummer Shows, and were displayed in 175). In such cases, the power resides both in
defenders of the
the GuildhaU as city, the metal and in the symboUsm of its design.
and the nation. The names alternated be- For good luck at sea, saiUng boats often had
tween 'Gogmagog and Corineus' and 'Gog and a gold sovereign set in the socket under the
Magog', the latter graduaUy ousting the mast; the custom was common till about 1914,
former. and is still sometimes followed. It has prece-
26
NaturaUy, the effigies had to be periodicaUy dents from ancient Rome (Smith, ELS News
renewed, and were not always of the same (1997), p. 12). Lovett found that fishermen
on stilts; in from several towns used to ram a coin into the
type—in 1605 they were stalking
1672 they were fifteen feet tall, seated in char- cork float of a drift-net, to break a run of bad
iots, and 'moving, talking, and taking
tobacco
luck in fishing, and held that 'in the old days'
as they ride along, to the great admiration
and 1925:
it would have been a gold one (Lovett,

delight of all the spectators'. In CromweU's 54-5).

time they were destroyed, but at the accession
of Charles II a fresh pair appeared. These, Goldilocks, see the *three bears.
made from wickerwork, perished in the Great
Fire of London; the next pair had their Gomme, Alice Bertha (1852-1938). Bom
'entrails' eaten up by rats; their fine wooden Alice Merck, she married George
Bertha
to
successors, carved in 1708. were too heavy Laurence *Gomme in 1875 and became Lady
move, and remained in the Guildhall. Chil- Gomme when he was knighted for his work
dren were assured that 'every day. when the with the London County Council in 1911. Alice
strike twelve, they come
giants hear the clock Gomme was a founder-member of the Folk-
down to dinner'. Portable wickerwork figures, lore Society in 1878 and a leading figure
in its
fourteen feet high and copied fi-om the wood- activities for 60 years, serving on
its Council

en ones, were again made for the Lord Mayor's from 1912 to 1938. In retrospect, her contribu-
Show of 1827. The wooden giants of 1708 were tion was often overshadowed by that of
her
destroyed in an air-raid in 1940,
and replaced
husband who held much higher-profile pos-
in 1953 by a fresh pair, which still stand in the itions, produced numerous books
and articles,
Guildhall. and contributed to the major theoretical
debates which shaped the early days of
cols. 609-17; F. W. Fairholt,Gog and Folk-
Hone, 1827: ii,

Robert Withing-
lore Studies. Accounts of Alice Bertha
in the Guildhall (1859); stress
Magog: The Giants
1949:
ton. English Pageantry (1918-20). i. 58-64; Marples, nature and her tact (e.g. Folk-
167-70. T. C. her supportive
204-12; Westwood, 1985: 23-4, 109-12,
 Gomme, George Laurence
Lore 49 (1938), 93-4) and it is true that she suc- Games of England, Scotland and Ireland (2 vols,
cessfully ran a busy household and brought up 1894, 1898); Games for Parlour and Playground
their seven sons, but, in addition to the dec- (1898); Children's Singing Games (2 vols., 1894);
ades of service given to the Folklore Society, (v^dth Laurence Gomme) Old English Singing
Alicemade a number of significant contribu- Games (1900); British Folk-Lore, Folk-songs, and
tions to scholarship, and her interests were Singing Games (1916); (with Cecil Sharp) Child-
wide ranging and her knowledge formidable. ren's Singing Games (5 vols., 1909-12); 'Boer
One of her first forays into the public lime- Folk-Medicine and Some Parallels', Folk-Lore 13
Ught came in October 1891, when she was Sec- (1902). 69-75, 181-2; 'The Green Lady: Folk- A
retary for the Entertainment Committee for tale from Hertfordshire', Folk-Lore 7 (1896),
the prestigious International Folk-Lore Con- 411-14; 'The History of England in a Cooking
gress, held in London, and surviving cor- Pot: Folk Recipes and Kitchen Magic', Morning
respondence shows clearly that she was the Post (4 Mar. 1931).
main organizer of the Conversazione, which Georgina Boyes, Folldore 101:2 (1990), 198-208; M. Gaster,
included a major exhibition of folklore items, 49 (1938), 93-4.
Folk-Lore

an exhibition of local cakes and other food,

performances of children's *singing games, a Gomme, George Laurence (1853-1916).
mumming play, songs, dances, and tales. The Knighted in 1911 for his work on the Metro-
event was a tremendous success, particularly poUtan Board of Works (which he joined in
the games performed by children from her 1873) and the London County Council. He was
local Barnes Village School, and has been extiemely knowledgeable about London, and
hailed as the first act of the folk *revival (see published several works on the history of the
Boyes). Two of the featured items grew into city as well as being instrumental in seminal
major research interests for Alice, children's initiatives such as the Survey of London (1894

games and traditional food. Her two-volume onwards) and the identification and preserva-
work on the Traditional Games of England, Scot- tion of important buildings. He also lectured
land, and Ireland (1894-8), compiled mainly at the London School of Economics on muni-
from correspondence with contributors from cipal organization. Gomme was a key figure in
all over the country, but also from her own the group who founded the Folklore Society in
collecting, presents a wealth of detailed 1878, and was one of its leading members till
information on games of the mid- to late 19th his death, serving in various capacities, includ-

century, which is still used as a source-book ing Secretary, Director, and President (1890-
today. As befits a member of her generation. 4).His interests in folklore were broad, but
Lady Gomme followed the basic *
survivals combined with his interest in history and
theory, although not slavishly, and the com- municipal administration, his key field was
mentary in Traditional Games is somewhat the development of village and community
dated, but the material itself is still as interest- hfe, and the idea that ancient racial divisions

ing as the day it was collected. The books were in the British Isles could be traced in the sur-
planned as the first volumes in an ambitious viving folklore of the people. This *survivals
'Dictionary of Folk-Lore' project, but no other theory formed the basis of several books and
titles in the series ever saw the light of day. important articles, but was challenged at the
She also published several popular-market time by several colleagues, and is now uni-
books of singing games, some in co-operation versally discredited. Nevertheless, his legacy
with Cecil *Sharp. Most of Alice's output was lives on in his organizational work in found-
in the form of notes and short pieces for the ing the Society, the numerous books and
journal Folk-Lore, on a range of subjects includ- journals edited by him (including Antiquary
ing medicine, harvest customs, mumming (1881-8), Camden Library, Archaeological Review
plays, and folktales, but she also contributed (1888-9), and an important series of reprints
widely to newspapers and magazines, and this from the Gentleman's Magazine), and his insist-
material still needs to be identified and gath- ence that folklore be treated as a science and
ered together. She was also active in a number be pursued with scientific rigour. Gomme
of other organizations, including the London married Alice Bertha Merck (see A. B. *Gomme)
Shakespeare League, Folk Cookery Associ- in 1875, who was the leading authority on
*
ation, Folk-Song Society, and the *EngUsh children's games, and their son Allan also
Folk Dance Society, and she lectured v^dely. served as President of the Society.
Alice Gomme's work includes The Traditional Gomme's major books on folklore and
Good Friday 150

ethnology are Primitive Folk-Moots (1880); Folk- many hours, to dry out completely; they never
lore Relics of Early Village Life (1883); The Village went mouldy, but would keep for a year or
Community (1890); Handbook ofFolk-Lore (1890); more, and were grated and used as medicine,
Ethnology in Folk-Lore (1892); Folk-Lore as a Histor- especially for diarrhoea. Also, Hone noted:
ical Science (1908). In the houses of some ignorant people, a Good Friday
Obituaries: by Alfred C. Haddon, Man (June 1916), 84-7; bun is kept 'for luck', and sometimes there
still
by Edward Clodd, FoUc-Lore 27 (1916), 111-12; The Times. hangs from the ceiling a hard biscuit-like cake of
25 Feb. 1916, 5; [Alice B. Gomme], 'Bibliography of the
open cross-work ... to remain there till displaced on
Writings of the Late Sir Laurence Gomme on Anthropol-
the next Good Friday by one of similar make; and of
ogy and Folklore', Folk-Lore 27 (1916), 408-12; Francis A.
de Caro, Journal of the Folklore Institute 19 (1982), 107-17; this the editor . . . has heard affirmed, that it pre-
Richard M. Dorson, The British FoMorists: A History (1968), serves the house from fire. (Hone, 1827: i. 31)

220-9; Sona Rosa Burstein, Folk-Lore 68 (1957), 321-38.

There are occasional Victorian references to
fishermen's wives giving their husbands a bun
Good Friday. It is startling that this, the most to take to sea to avert shipwreck (Henderson,
mournful day in the Christian calendar, is a 1879: 82; Simpson, 1973: 112); the maritime
cheerful Bank Holiday, and a traditional date linkand the custom of permanent display find
for various games such as ^skipping and mar- dramatic expression in the *Widow's Son Bun
bles. Traditionally, it was the day for certain
Ceremony.
tasks in the vegetable garden, notably plant- There are a few records fi:om the 1920s of a
ing potatoes and peas, and sowing parsley; belief that an egg laid on Good Friday will
some thought the Devil had no power to spoil
keep fresh all year, and (from Somerset) that a
crops planted on this holy day, but there was *fire can be extinguished by throwing such an
probably also the practical reason that men egg into it (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 178); there
were free to work for their own benefit. How- are many European parallels to this idea,
ever, this was not true everywhere; in North
showing that it is no mere imitation of the
Yorkshire in the 1860s, 'great care (was) taken bun beUef (Newall, 1971: 232-7).
not to disturb the earth in any way; it were See also *cramp rings, *marbles, *skipping.
impious to use spade, plough or harrow ... a
villager . . . shocked his neighbours by plant-
gooding, see *thomasing.
ing potatoes on Good Friday, but they never
came up' (Henderson, 1866: 61-2).
For women, the main taboo was on washing gooseberry wife. A species of *bogey pecu-
liar to the Isle of Wight, whose function was to
clothes; would bring extreme bad luck, even
it

death, and moreover anything hung out to dry

guard gooseberry bushes from marauding
children, in the form of a large furry cater-
would be spotted with blood— baking, in con-
pillar (Wright, 1913: 198).
trast, was very beneficial. Some said this was
because Jesus, on the way to Calvary, cursed a
woman who threw dirty water at him, but Goosey Goosey Gander. A well-known
blessed one who gave him bread (M. Murtay- nursery rhyme, still in circulation although
Aynsley, Symbolism of East and West, (1900), perhaps losing favour because some of its
162).
imagery is not considered quite right for
Throughout England, special buns, marked today's children. Historically speaking, this
with a cross, were made on Good Friday and rhyme seems to have less textual cohesion
eaten toasted for breakfast; they were referted than most nursery rhymes, and there is evi-
to as 'Cross buns' or 'Good Friday buns'. There dence that this standard modem text is actu-
are references to the custom early in the 19th ally two older rhymes spUced together. The
first four Unes are quoted in 1784, and first
century, so phrased as to imply that it had
been current for several generations (Opie and printed c.1790, while the last four are of simi-
lar age but are often found in a traditional
Tatem, 1989: 177). The modem unvarying
phrase 'hot cross buns' derives from the 18th- rhyme addressed to the cranefly.

century street vendors' cry: Opie and Opie, 1997: 224-6.

Hot Cross Buns! Hot Cross Buns!

Givethem to your daughters, give them to your sons! gorse. Corse bushes can produce one or two
flowers at any time of the year; hence the
One a penny, two a penny. Hot Cross Buns!
common sajdng, 'When the gorse is not in
Some of the loaves and buns were baked for bloom, then kissing's not in fashion'.
 151
Grainger, Percy

Occasionally it is included among the *flowers rehc brought by Joseph, but it was of a differ-
regarded as unlucky and not to be taken ent form: two silver flasks, one
containing
indoors, lest it bring death into the house. On Christ's blood and the other his sweat.
the other hand, in 19th-century Cornwall it Some have argued that *Celtic
scholars
was customary to tie a sprig of gorse to the mj^hs about magic cauldrons underhe the
door of the house early on *May Day morning, medieval texts. There has been much interest
and whoever did so would get a plate of bread in the Grail in the 20th century, mainly as a
and cream and a drink of skimmed milk for mythical and magical, rather than a Christian,
breakfast (Folk-Lore 7 (1886), 225). symbol; it could therefore be said to have
passed from hterature into current Enghsh
Gotham, the Wise Men of. Many Enghsh folklore.A Victorian behef is that it hes in a
villages were mocked for alleged stupidity, but spring of reddish water near Glastonbury Tor.
only Gotham, seven miles from Nottingham, which since 1886 has been called 'Chahce
was famous well beyond its neighbourhood. Weir, though medieval records show the
There is a brief allusion to 'the foles of Gotam' name as ChalceweUe, meaning 'Chalkwell';
in a 15th-century play, and a whole cycle of another theory, knovm since 1907, identifies
jokes about them was printed in a mid-16th- it with a wooden
drinking bowl kept in a pri-
century *chapbook, Merrie Tales of the Mad Men vate house at Nanteos in Wales. Both spring
of Gotham, versions of which continued to and bowl are said to have heahng powers; in
appear up to the early 19th century. the 1750s the spring was a popular spa.
The jokes about Gothamites are drawTi from
the common international stock of tales about Grainger, Percy (1882-1961). Bom in Mel-
*
fools. They tried to fence the * cuckoo in, so bourne, Australia, he was something of a
that summer would never end; when an eel childhood prodigy, giving concerts from the
got into their fishpond, they tried to kill it by age of 12. He came to Enghsh folk *song, after
drowning it; one of them burnt his house hearing a talk by Lucy *Broadwood, with char-
down to get rid of a wasp's nest in the thatch; energy and enthusiasm, noting 435
acteristic
another, riding home with a sack of meal, songs between April 1905 and August 1909.
slung it across his own shoulders to spare the including children's singing games and sea
horse, but did not dismount; after twelve went shanties, most notably in Lincolnshire, but
fishing, one of the group counted to check also in Gloucestershire, London, Worcester-

nobody was missing, but since he forgot to shire, and Warwickshire. He was only one of
count himself he made it eleven, so they were several musicians in the field at the time, but
sure someone must have drowned. However, was unique in the techniques he adopted and
some tellers claim all this fooUshness was in his belief that the collector should note a

deliberately put on, to stop King John from whole tune, as scientifically as p)ossible, to

setting up a hunting lodge in the village— if so, identify all the small nuances of rhythm and
the men of Gotham were wise after all! tone used by the best singers in their perform-
Clouston, 1888; Alfred Stapleton, All About the Merry Tales
ances. For this reason he advocated the use of
ofGotham (1900). Selected texts Jacobs, 1898/1968: 279- the phonograph, and 216 of his wax cyhnders
82; Briggs, 1970-1: A. ii. 349-61. still survive (in the Library of Congress) as a

unique record of traditional singing of the

Grail. There are no old folk traditions about Edwardian period. He even persuaded the
the Holy Grail, though it is prominent in Gramophone Company to issue recordings of
French Arthurian hterature from the late 12th one of his best Lincolnshire singers, Joseph
century onwards, where it is usually, but not Taylor of Brigg. Grainger's advocacy of the
invariably, linked to the Last Supper and Cru- gramophone did not meet with universal
cifixion, the Eucharist, and *Joseph of approval amongst the folk-song estabhsh-
Arimathea. In Enghsh Arthurian romances it ment, although several others did experiment
hes hidden in a mysterious castle somewhere with the new technology, but his detailed and
in Britain, guarded by descendants of
Joseph complex attempts to annotate the tunes on
or of one of his companions; Arthur's knights paper received even less support. In this he
try to obtain but in vain. Although the story
it, was ahead of his time, and his methods later
suited medieval piety. Church vmters never became commonplace in the field of ethno-
adopted it; eventually, late in the 15th cen- musicology. Grainger also collected songs in
tury, *Glastonbury Abbey claimed to possess a Denmark, and from the Maori in New Zealand.
Grasmere rushbearing

Grainger's piano arrangements of traditional ossuary, and the ground reused for fresh
*morris dance tunes such as 'Country Gardens' burials. 'Perpetual graves'became common
and 'Shepherds Hey' made him a household from the 1650s onwards, each with its carved
name. and inscribed stone(s), offering an opportunity
Percy Grainger's work includes 'Collecting for local traditions of fiinerary art to develop,
with the Phonograph' and 'The Impress of and for long, individualistic epitaphs and
Personahty in Traditional Singing', ]FSS 3:3 memorial verses. Elaboration and individual-
(1908), 147-66. Songs collected by Grainger ism were very marked in Victorian cemeteries;
are published in ]FSS 3:3 (1908), 170-242; FM] since the Second World War, however.
2:5 (1974), 335-51 (plus correction in 3:2 Church authorities and town councils have
(1976), 171); FMJ 6:3 (1992), 339-58. curtailed the permitted choices, both in the

Jane O'Brien, The Grainger English Folk Song Collection design of headstones and in the wording of
(1985): Jane O'Brien, ED&S 44:2 (1982), 18-20; Michael epitaphs. The rigidity of their rules may be one
Yates, FMJ 4:3 (1982), 265-75; John Bird, Percy Grainger reason for the curtent liking for intensely per-
(1976); Obituaries: JEPDSS 9:2 (1961), 113-4; Journal of the
sonal *memorials at the scenes of tragic
International Folk Music Council 14 (1962), 147-9.
deaths.
Visiting and tending graves is a custom
Grasmere rushbearing. A *rushbearing cus- which varies greatly from one family to
tom which has survived in symbolic form in another. Some people visit weekly, or even
Grasmere, Cumbria, even though the church daily; a far larger number visit atspecific
was paved in 1840. Token rushes are carried dates, especiaUy in the days leading up to
on a special Unen sheet, held by six girls (the Mothering Sunday, *Easter, and *Christmas,
Rush Maidens), dressed in green, while others bringing cards and seasonal flowers or a holly
are made into elaborate shapes (called rush- wreath. Personal dates (birthdays, wedding
bearings), some as large as four or five feet tall, anniversaries, the anniversary of death) may
and carried in procession to the church. Trad- be similarly observed. In municipal London
itional shapes for the rushbearings include cemeteries, some graves of young children are
harps, crosses, maypoles, and St Oswald's decked at Christmas with floral teddies and
crown and hand. The latter is the patron saint Father Christmases, or with actual toys, and
of the parish church, and he was so good to heUum balloons tied nearby (FLS News 21
the poor in his hfetime that St Aidan blessed However, there are also very
(1995), 9-10).
his hand and prayed that it might never per- who cannot or will not tend
many people
ish. The custom formerly took place in July,
graves.
but was moved in 1885 to bring it in line with The traditional orientation of graves, still
St Oswald's Day (5 August). After the proces- observed in most churchyards though not in
sion round the village, and a church service,
municipal cemeteries, is towards the *east in
the rushes and rushbearings are placed on readiness for *Doomsday. There are generally
shelves in the church, and there they stay for a fewer on the ill-omened *north side of the
few days until collected by their owners. Chil- church. All graves, marked or unmarked,
dren are given pieces of gingerbread stamped must be treated respectfiiUy; to tread on one is
with St Oswald's name. The earliest mention both wrong and unlucky, and also to pick
of a rush custom at Grasmere is a payment of flowers growing on one. A grave prepared for a
Is. in 1680, 'For ale bestowed on those who
Monday fiineral should not be left open on the
brought rushes and repaired the church'. Sunday, for then someone else will shortly die;
Hole, 1975: 86-7; Shuel, 1985: 86-7; E. F. Rawnsley, The boards should be laid across it. When sextons
Rushbearing in Grasmere and Ambleside (1953); Gertrude M. digging new graves unearth bones from older
Simpson, The Rushbearing in Grasmere and Ambleside (1931). some rebury them where they Ue,
burials,
others in the strip of ground right against the
graves. From the Middle Ages through to the church itself, where the soil is too shallow for
mid-1 7th century, most people were buried in normal graves [JS].

simple graves marked (if at all) by a wooden In folk *medicine, contact with death was
*
cross, or under a plain flagstone of the church regarded as curative; teeth from skulls pre
floor; only the elite received inscribed tomb- vented toothache, moss grovkdng on them
stones, effigies, or brass plaques. It was nor- cured plague and headaches, and parts of
*
mal for graves to be reopened after some coffins were good for various iUs. In Cornwall
years, any remaining bones removed to an in the 1850s, dew from 'the grave of the last
 153
Green Children

young man buried in the churchyard' was black' common saying), and that green
is a
gathered at dawn to cure a swollen neck (N&d should never be worn at weddings—
especially
ls:2 (1855), 474-5). The strangest behef. not by the bride. The reason given in some
recorded from Sussex and Lincolnshire in sources is that it symbohzes being forsaken, or
1868 and 1933 respectively, was that if a child
betrayed:
inclined to bed-wetting is made to urinate into
an open grave, or on Those dressed in blue
to the grave of a child of
Have lovers true;
opposite sex, this will stop the habit (Latham,
In green and white.
1878: 49; Folk-Lore 44 (1933), 204).
Forsaken quite.
Graves are sometimes found, singly or in
(Henderson, 1866: 21)
groups, on hilltops, in woods, or by the road-
side. Reasons for such unorthodox locations
vary; some were private burial grounds for
Oh, green is forsaken, and yellow forsworn.
Quakers or Nonconformists, denied access to But blue is the prettiest colour that's worn.
Anglican churchyards, or for aristocratic
landowners and their households; some for (N&Q9s:8 (1901), 193; 9s:9 (1903), 33)

individuals who had personal motives to Yet another rhyme, still known and quoted by
choose a particular spot. Roadside graves, if older people, is:
unmarked, are often said to be those of sui-
Married in green.
cides, or of highwaymen hanged, gibbetted,
Ashamed to be seen.
and eventually buried, at the scene of their
crimes; these traditions may be well founded. This is usually taken to mean that the bride is
Some are kept neat and have flowers regularly pregnant and/or has had other lovers; in Ehz-
laid on them by *Gypsies and others; these abethan slang, 'to give a girl a green gown' was
include a Highwa5mian's Grave near Beck- to seduce her and make love in the fields.

hampton (Wiltshire), the Boy's Grave near There has been much speculation as to why
Newmarket (Suffolk), and Jay's Grave near such a pleasing colour, associated with nature
Haytor (Devon), where a suicidal girl is laid. and living growth, has acquired this reputa-
Legends naturally proliferate; the Betty of tion. One possibihty is that green stands for
Betty's Grave, at a crossroads near Poulton death, because graves lie under grass. The
(Gloucestershire) is variously called a suicide, favourite explanation (originally Scottish) is
a murder victim, a witch, a sheep-stealer, or a that 'green is the *fairies' colour' and they
woman who dropped dead after a mowing punish anyone who wears it— though it has to
competition (Chetwynd-Stapylton, 1968). be said that no traditional legend actually
See also *burials, *funerals, *suicides, recounts this, and that fairies do also often
*UNBAPTIZED INFANTS. wear brown or red. Regardless of whether this
is the true explanation or not, it now very
Great Devon Mystery, see *devil's regularly accompanies the behef
HOOFPRINTS. However, green has more positive associ-
ations too. Greenery and *evergreens are used
green. The idea that green is unlucky has in many seasonal customs as signs of joy and

grown steadily from the late 18th century celebration, and the colour can stand for
(when recorded) to the present day,
it is first youthftil vigour, spring or summer, hope, and
spreading from Scotland and the northern the beneficent aspects of nature. It is also one
counties to the whole of England. Originally it of the two easiest colours to produce from
applied only to clothes, but by the late 19th vegetable dyes (the other is brov^oi), so green
century a Sussex folklorist could write: T have cloth was much used in medieval and Tudor
known several instances of mothers abso- times; it should not be assumed that every
lutely forbidding it ... in the furniture of their personage wearing green in a ballad or folk-
houses' (Latham, 1878: and nowadays tale is necessarily a magical being.
12),
those who fear green generally apply the See also *foliate head, *green man, *jack-
taboo to objects of any kind, for example cur- IN-THE-GREEN, and *WILD MAN.
tains, cars, or bicycles. John Hutchings. Folklore 108 (1997), 55-63.
Two ideas are particularly well documented:
that towear green brings death into one's Green Children, The. According to two
household ('Wear green, and you'll soon wear medieval chroniclers, Ralph of Coggeshall and
Green Gravel 154

William of Newburgh, two children were were preceded by 'whifflers', whose role was
found near a pit at Woolpit (Suffolk) in the to drive back the crowds, and so make space
reign of King Stephen; their skin was greenish, for the main procession to pass. These were
nobody could understand their speech, and costumed as what Elizabethans called Savage
the only food they would eat was beans. One, a Men or *Wild Men, covered in shaggy hair, or
boy, soon died; the other, a girl, was healthier in leaves. The latter type were commonly
and learned to eat other food, thus losing her called Green Men. Thus, at Chester in 1610, a
green colouring. She became a servant in a St George's Day pageant had: 'ii men in greene
knight's household. Having learnt normal leaves set with work upon their other habet
speech, she explained that she and her [garments] vdth black heare & black beards
brother came from an underground world very owgly to behould, and garlands upon
where the sun never shone and everyone was their heads with great clubs in their hands
green. She was baptized, but 'was rather loose v^th fireworks to scatter abroad to maintaine
and wanton in her conduct'. Ralph, a local way for the rest of the show'. Later in the
man, heard the story directly from her same pageant, 'two Disguised, called Greene-
employer; William, Uving in Yorkshire, prob- men, their habit Embroydered and Stitch'd on
ably got his information from Ralph, though with Ivie-leaves [with] huge black shaggie
. . .

he gives further details, for example that the Hayre, Savage-like, with Ivie Garlands upon
children's world was called 'St Martin's Land', their heads, bearing HercuUan clubs in their
and its inhabitants were Christian. hands' fought 'an artificiall Dragon, very lively
Nowadays, many local |)eople have come to to behold' (Harleian MS 2150 fo. 356, quoted
associate this medieval tale Mdth the much by Centerwall, 1997). At the Lord Mayor's
later story of the *Babes in the Wood, and a Show of 1686 there were 'twenty Savages or
village sign was erected in 1977, showing the Green Men, with Squibs and Fire-works, to
Babes. Some writers take it to be fairy lore sweep the Streets, and keep off the Crowd'
(Briggs, 1976: 200-1). (Matthew Taubman, London's Yearly Jubilee,
1686: 12-13; quoted by Centerwall, 1997: 26).
Green Gravel. A children's *singing game, Tudor court masques and entertainments
reported from all over the country whose sometimes included performers dressed in
haunting tune and strange imagery have moss and ivy; the sources call them 'Wild'
intrigued folklorists and children ahke. Men, but from the descriptions they could
Green gravel, green gravel, the grass is so green equally well be called 'Green' (see quotations
The fairest young damsel that ever was seen at *Wild Man, Woman).
Mary, O Mary, your true love is dead Also in the 17th century, the Distillers'
He sent you a letter to turn round your head arms the 'Green
. . .

Company had as its heraldic

This is the earliest known version, collected in Man and Still', in which the supporters were
Manchester in 1835 (Opie and Opie, 1985: naked, club-bearing, shaggy figures. An
240). The players join hands and walk round in undated quotation attributed to John Bagford
a ring, singing the words. At the end of the (1650-1716) says: 'They are called woudmen,
text, the one who is named stays in the ring or wildmen, thou' at thes day we in ye signe
but turns to face outwards. The whole thing [trade] call them Green Men, couered with
begins again and another child is named. Ver- grene boues ... a fit emblem for those that use

sions were still being collected in EngUsh that intosticating licker which berefts them of

playgrounds into the 1980s. their sennes' (quoted by Centerwall, 1997: 27).

Opie and Opie, 1985: 239-42; Gomme 1894: i. 170-83. Aubrey too mentions 'The Wild Man' and 'The
Green Man' interchangeably as 'not uncom-
Green Man. Readers will seek in vain for any mon' names for London inns, with signs show-
mention of 'The Green Man' in pre-war folk- ing 'a kind of Hercules with a green club and
lore collections and studies, for the present- green leaves about his pudenda and head'
day use of the phrase to designate a *foUate (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 134-5, 177). The design
head was only invented in 1939 (see below), was still used on 18th-century pubs, but by the
and the various authentic uses of the term in 19th century its meaning was seemingly for-
English folklore were obscure, and of little gotten, and it had been almost invariably
interest to folklorists at that time. replaced by the more popular figure of Robin
The and most important relates to civic
first Hood or a forester dressed in green (Larwood
pageants in Tudor and Stuart times, which and Hotton. 1866: 221-2). Nowadays, thanks
 gremlins

to the influence of the books discussed below, See also *castleton garland, *foliate
several 'Green Man' pubs have repainted their HEADS, *JACK-IN-THE-GREEN. *ROBIN HOOD,
signs yet again to show either a head peering *WILD MAN.
through leaves, or a *Jack-in-the-Green. Lady Raglan, Folk-Lore 50 (1939), 45-57; Basford, 1978/
In 1939, however, in an article in Folk-Lore, 1996; Roy Judge, in Colour and Appearance in Folklore, ed.

Lady Raglan invented a new use for the John Hutchings and Juliette Wood (1991), 51-5; Brandon
S. Centerwall, Folklore 108 (1997), 25-34.
phrase, applying it to the type of ornamental
church carving previously always called a
*foUate head— a face with leaves growing from gremlins. A subspecies of *goblin which
it, or leafy twigs emerging from mouth. She
its evolved early in the 20th century, probably
explained how a vicar had shown her one and during the First World War; certainly their
had suggested that: 'it was intended to sym- existence was acknowledged (with dismay) by
bohse the spirit of inspiration, but it seemed members of the RAF during the 1920s. They
to me certain that it was a man and not a are reported to be anything from six inches to
spirit, and moreover that it was a "Green two feet in height, greenish or grey, some-
Man". So I named it, and the evidence that 1 times with horns or hairy ears, and wearing a
have collected to support this title is the rea- wide variety of colourful and eccentric cloth-
son for this paper.' ing. Their original speciality was causing
This was pure speculation, unbacked by evi- otherwise inexplicable malfiinctions in the
dence, and it is by no means clear what she engines, electrical circuits, and other opera-
meant by the term, or why she put it in quota- tional parts of aircraft, drinking up petrol, and
tion marks and gave it capitals (she was tampering with landing strips on airfields.
unaware of the Tudor and Stuart references to They have since diversified, and apply their
leaf-clad masqueraders in pageants). She fiir- expertise to virtually any t3q>e of machinery,
ther asserts this to be identical with '. . .
Jack- the more complex the better; one group has
in-the-Green, Robin Hood, the King of the become skilled in producing misprints. They
May, and the [Castleton] Garland the cen- . . . often laugh uproariously at the success of
tral figure in the May-Day celebrations their activities, a trait which may indicate kin-
throughout Northern and Central Europe'. In ship to *Puck and *Robin Goodfellow.
accordance with Frazerian theory, she goes on Accounts of the appearance and behaviour
to speculate that because the * Castleton Gar- of gremlins circulated orally among British
land is drawn up the church tower on a rope, airmen stationed in Malta, the Middle East,
the man wearing it (and consequently all and India during the 1920s and 1930s; the first
'Green Men') would have once been hanged as printed record seems to be a poem in the
a spring sacrifice. Thus items with widely dif- journal Aeroplane on 10 April 1929. They were
ferent functions and histories were conflated much discussed, both orally and in print, in
on the basis of a single visual trait, leafiness. the RAF and the Fleet Air Arm in the Second
Despite the fragility of Lady Raglan's argu- World War. Interest in them spread to the
ment, her term was adopted for foUate heads civiUan press (e.g. Punch (11 Nov. 1942), Specta-
in several books on church art by M. D. Ander- tor (1 Jan. 1943), several issues of N&Q, 1943),
son in the 1940s and 1950s, in the authorita- and reached America (New York Times Magazine
tive series of Buildings of England guides by (11 Apr. 1943), Time (28 Sept. 1943)). In recent
Nikolaus Pevsner, and finally as the title for a years, they have become the subject of cine-
scholarly and influential study of foliate heads matic investigation by Joe Danke which
by Kathleen Basford (1978), which in turn revealed hitherto unknown aspects of their
served as a starting-point for many subsequent biology, metabohsm, and personalities {Grem-
writers and an inspiration to artists. Brandon lins, 1984. and Gremlins II, 1990).

Centerwall has recently argued that the term The origin of the word 'gremhn' itself is
is correct after all, and that the
leafy whifflers obscure. RAF tradition Unks it with Fremlins
of pageantry were meant to represent the foU- beer,though opinions differ as to whether this
ate heads in churches. The aura of mystery in isbecause the first gremhn seen was a gobUn
the name and its harmony with current eco- swimming in a tankard of Fremlins, or
logical concerns have endeared it to many, because it appeared to a group of officers who
and 'the Green Man' will probably prove to be were drinking Fremhns and reading Grimm's
an unshakable element in the popular concept Fairy Tales simultaneously.
of 'folklore'. When speaking or writing about gremlins.
Gretna Green 156

it is essential to present the information with and that when young people are making
as much ingenious detail as possible, and to merry he comes in 'in some feareful shape' to
preserve an attitude of total conviction. scare them away and steal their food. The

John W. Hazen in Funk & WagnaUs Dictionary of FoMore, Yorkshire 'church grim' lurked inside the
Mythology and Legend, ed. Maria Leach (New York, 1949; building, but would 'maraud abroad' in
3rd edn. 1972), 465-6; Gillian Edwards, Hobgoblin and
stormy weather; it might toll the death-knell
Sweet Puck (1974). 209-24; P. Beale, Concise Dictionary of
at midnight, and peer from a window during
Slang and Unconventional English (1989).
funerals, showing by its expression whether
the dead person was saved or damned
Gretna Green. The reputation of this Scottish
(Wright, 1913: 194). It also sometimes showed
village as a place where runaway EngUsh
itself as a death warning, in the form of a
couples could many dates from 1754, when black dog.
clandestine marriages were forbidden
throughout England, only those where banns Grimm, Jacob (1785-1863), and Grimm,
had been pubUshed or a special Ucence Wiiheim (1786-1859). The Brothers Grimm
obtained being valid. The law did not apply to
were figures of major importance for folk-
Scotland, so couples hastened to various vil- lore studies throughout Europe, but it is
lages just across the Border, where they could
only relevant here to speak of their impact
be instantly married by simple declaration in in England. Their famous joint collection
front of witnesses. At Gretna, the best known,
of *fairytales, the Kinder- und Hausmdrchen,
the ceremony took place in the toll-house till
appeared in 1812-14, and was first trans-
1826, and thereafter in the village hall; it
lated into EngUsh in 1823. They are now
could be conducted by anyone— toll-keeper,
thoroughly absorbed into the part-oral, part-
ferryman, innkeeper, blacksmith— butpopular
printed traditions of English children; they
memory remembers the blacksmith alone, include such famous stories as 'The Frog
alleging that the couple had to join hands over Prince','Snow White', 'Rapunzel', 'Little Red
the anvil, while he waved his hammer over
Riding Hood' (also told by *Perrault), 'Hansel
them. In 1856 Scottish law was amended to
and Gretel', and 'Rumpelstiltskin'.
require three weeks' residence from couples The principles set out by the Grimms
seeking marriage, so instant weddings were no
strongly affected the development of folklore
longer possible, but Gretna's well-publicized studies.They urged fidehty to the spoken text,
romantic image still draws many to marry there .
without embellishments, and though it has
been shown that they did not always practise
Grim. Several names of prehistoric landscape what they preached, the ideaUzed 'oraUty' of
features such as earthworks, hill forts, and their style was much closer to reaUty than the
flint mines, include the element 'Grim-'. The literary retelUngs previously thought neces-
name Grimsditch occurs in eleven counties (in sary.They beheved folklore expressed the true
some, more than once); Grimsbuiy twice; spiritual and moral values of a nation, faith-
Grime's Graves, Grimspound, and Grim's Hill fully preserved by the uneducated rural popu-
once each. Presumably this Grim was a super- lation, and that
consisted largely of broken-
it

natural entity— perhaps Woden, since his down fragments of ancient myths and
Scandinavian equivalent, Odin, had 'Grimr' as reUgious behefs. Noticing that the same tale
a secondary name, and since the massive recurs in variants from distant periods and
earthwork Wansdyke (Wiltshire) was places, they argued that this impUes descent
undoubtedly named for him. However, there from a shared prehistoric culture.
is also an Anglo-Saxon noun grima, meaning Another important collection, until recently
'gobhn' or 'spectre', so the situation is not little knovm to Enghsh-speaking scholars,
clear-cut. Jennifer Westwood
suggests that 'it was their Deutsche Sagen (1816-18; 2nd edn.
is a question of scale', awe-inspiring features 1865-6); it covers historical and local legends
being ascribed to the god, small ones to the and those about supernatural beings, which
goblin (Westwood, 1985: 69-72). provide many parallels to English legends
The *chapbook Life of Robin Goodfellow (1628) about fairies, witches, hauntings, treasures,
has among its characters a 'Fairy Grim' who etc.Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie (1835;
boasts that he frightens many people by cry- final edn.1875-8) was an erudite discussion
ing hke a screech-owl at sick men's windows, covering the folklore and medieval writings
that some call him the *Black Dog of Newgate, of all Germanic countries, encouraging
157 Guise Dancing

folklorists to interpret supernatural beings use the shells for building grottos and to illuminate
*
or the *Wild Hunt) as these by means of rush-lights. The children ask
(e.g. water-spirits,
former divinities. passers-by for contributions to the grottos. This is an
annual custom, but it lasts several weeks, to the
There are many translations of Grimms'
Fairy Tales; the
best are Jack Zipes, The Complete Fairy Tales of the Brothers
annoyance of pedestrians. (Quoted by Wright and
Lones, 1940: iii. 40).
Grimm (1987); and David Luke, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm:
Selected Tales (1982). Deutsche Sagen was edited and trans-
The earlier form of grotto was a beehive-
lated by Donald Ward (with excellent notes and assess-
ment) as The German Legends of the Brothers Grimm (2 vols., shaped pile of shells, perhaps two or three feet
1981). Deutsche Mythologie was translated by J. S. Stal- high, with a small opening or tunnel at
lybrass as Teutonic Mythology (3 vols., 1880-3). The only ground level in which was placed the light or
fiill-length biography in English is that by Ruth candle, although at least one description
Michaelis-Jena, The Brothers Grimm (1970).
places the candle on top of the pile. Other
forms comprise a box, or just an area of pave
groaning cake (or cheese). In the northern
counties, women recovering from ^childbirth ment marked out and decorated with flowers,
were given rich fruitcake, gingerbread, or beads, broken glass and china, cut-out pic-
Cheshire cheese, and female neighbours were tures, or anything to make it 'pretty'. The

it, as part of the celebration.

invited in to share accompanying rhyme, by which the children
Several writers from the late 18th to the late hope to gain recompense for their artistic
19th centuries mention a form of *divination, endeavours, varied from place to place:
similar to that done v^dth wedding cake, but Please remember the grotto
more boisterous. Slices of the cake or cheese Me father has run off to sea
would be cut into chunks by the new father, Me mother's gone to fetch 'im back
tossed in the midv^fe's smock, and given to So please give a farthin' to me!
vmmarried girls so that they could put them (Rose Gamble. Chebea Child (1979), 105-9,
under their pillows and dream of their future remembering Chelsea in the 1920s)
husbands (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 183). Some-
Most of the descriptions refer to grottoing as
times, another slice was given to the first a London custom, but other reports from
person of opposite sex met on the road as Essex, Kent, Hampshire, Sussex, and Swansea
the child was taken to its *baptism (Radford,
bear witness to its wider occurrence. The cus-
Radford, and Hole, 1961: 175). tom seems to have been particularly tenacious
In Cambridgeshire, the term was differently
around Mitcham, Surrey. It is possible that
used; it referred to a pain-killing cake which
grottoing still Ungers in the 1990s, perhaps in
included gin and crushed hemp seed (canna-
the privacy of the home, but it has probably
bis)among the ingredients, which midwives gone the way of most children's 'street dis-
gave women in labour (Porter, 1969: 13).
play' customs.

An annual *display custom, which Good illustrations in Illustrated London News (2 Aug. 1851),
grottoes.
137-8; and Merton Library Service, Merton in Pictures Book
lasted well into the 1950s and 1960s, in which
3:Mitcham Fair (1991), 9. Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 40;
children constructed 'grottoes* on the pave- Folklore Society Cuttings Collection.
ment and solicited coins from passers-by.
Some authorities give 25 July (St James's Day), Guise Dancing. A *calendar custom, appar-
while others maintain that early August was ently unique to Cornwall, which took place
the proper time, a probable explanation being during the period between *Christmas and
that St James's Old-Style is 5 August. The
Day Twelfth Night and lasted well into the 20th
grottoes were made
of oyster shells, although century in the Penzance area and possibly
some say they should be scallops. Scallop elsewhere. Descriptions vary considerably, but
shells are the accepted symbol of St James, and the core of the custom was young people from
early August was when the oyster season the villages around to visit the town dressed in
started and millions of oysters were consumed all sorts of strange costume or fancy dress,
in London during the season (at four a penny). v^th *cross-dressing particularly popular, and
An old proverb is often quoted— 'He who eats many with blackened faces. Impromptu
oysters on St James's Day v^dll not want dances and games took place, and, in some
money'. The earliest known reference to grot- descriptions, hard drinking and fighting.
The
toes is in Time's Telescope for 1823 (190-1): custom is variously called 'Goose', 'Geese', or

On St James's day (O.S.) large quantities of oysters are 'Geeze Dancing', and although this has caused
eaten by Londoners, but their children are content to some conftision it is clear that this reflects
guising 158

local pronunciations of 'Guise', a word which was well known to readers of N8(l for her
is used in various parts of the country for cus- hundreds of contributions, spread over 70
toms which involve dressing up or disguising years, under the pseudonym 'St Swithin'. Mrs
(see *guising). In some reports, the Guise Dan- Gutch was one of several Victorian women
cers performed the local *mumniing play, but who made immense contributions to folklore
most likely that this is a combination of
it is and dialect studies but
who, because they did
what in most cases were two distinct customs. not write major articles or books, are largely

Jenkin, 1934: 176-81; Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 56-7; forgotten. She was extremely well read and
Hunt, 1881: 394. her forte was as supplier of information and
source material to those who needed it, such
guising. One of the regularly used local as in the N&Q columns and in the three books
words, in various parts of Britain, for customs which she edited for the Folklore Society's
which involve disguise or dressing up and for County Folklore series which gave her the
the participants in those customs. Thus in opportunity to gather and make available
Staffordshire and northern counties the guis- material from a wide range of sources.
ers performed the local *mumming play, in Mrs Gutch's work includes County Folklore:
Cornwall there was a fancy-dress custom Examples of Printed Foik-Lore Concerning the North
called *Guise Dancing, and in Yorkshire the Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty (1901); Mrs
guisers would force entry to the mell-supper Gutch and Mabel Peacock, County Folklore:
harvest celebrations. Examples of Printed Folklore Concerning Lincolnshire
(1908); Mrs Gutch, County Folklore: Examples of
gurning, girning. The competitive making Printed Folk-lore Concerning the East Riding of
of grotesque faces, usually with the face Yorkshire (1912).
framed by a horse<ollar. It was previously '
But
Obituary in Folk-lore 41 (1930), 301; Eileen Elder, ...

popular at many fairs and other gatherings, Who was Mrs Gutch?', Newsletter of the Society For Lincoln-

but guming's only surviving traditional venue and Archaeology (Jan. 1988), 23-6; Eileen Elder,
shire History
'Two Lincolnshire Folklorists: Mrs Gutch and Miss Mabel
appears to be at *Egremont Crab-Apple Fair, Peacock', Lincolnshire Life (Oct. 1988), 24-5.
where they claim to have the World Cham-
pion Gurning Competition. Wright's English
Dialect Dictionary gives several, clearly related,
Guy Fawlces Night, see *NOVEMBERTHE FIFTH.
meanings for the word, such as 'to show or
gnash the teeth in rage or scorn; to snarl as a
Guy of Warwiclc. Now virtually forgotten. Sir

Guy of Warwick was once famous enough to

dog; to look savage, distort the countenance;
be counted one of the Nine Worthies of the
to speak in a snarling, surly tone; to show the
World; his story first appears as a Norman-
teeth in laughing; to grin; to speak with a
French poem of about 1200, though he is
grimace or chuckle'. The earUest reference
cited is from 1685, and nearly all the other alleged to have lived in the reign of Athelstan.
He fought against Saracens abroad and Danes
pre-1800 quotations are Scottish rather than
at home, killed giants and dragons, married an
Enghsh. Pulling faces has long appealed to
Earl's daughter, and became a hermit who
Enghsh humour, as can easily be seen on gar-
begged, unrecognized, at the doors of his own
goyles, misericords, and other minor items of
castle. Later versions in *chapbooks and street
comic carving in medieval churches.
ballads added his fight against the Dun Cow
N&Q. 176 (1939), 226. 267, 303, 413. and an equally monstrous boar. In the 17th
century visitors to Warwick Castle were
Gutch, Eliza (1840-1931). Bom Eliza Hutch-
shown an arras depicting Guy's exploits, vari-
inson in Lincolnshire, she became Mrs Gutch
ous huge weapons and other items (implying
(as she was widely known) when she married
York solicitor John James Gutch in 1868. Mrs Guy was gigantic), and the grotto where he
lived as a hermit; other sites displayed bones
Gutch was a founder member of the * English
supposedly from the monstrous cow and boar.
Dialect Society (1873) and of the *Folklore
Some of the Castle weapons are still on show,
Society (1878). Indeed, it was her suggestion in and pub names and local place-names still
Notes & Queries (5s:5 (1876), 194) that a new
recall the legend (Palmer, 1976: 130-4).
society be formed that led to the foundation of
R. S. Crane, Publications of the Modem Language Association of
the latter. She contributed large amounts of
America 30 (1915), 125-94. For two texts of the 1790s, see
material on Lincolnshire and Yorkshire to
John Simons (ed.). Guy of Warwick and Other Chapbook

Joseph Wright's *English Dialect Dictionary, and Romances {1998), 51-70.

159 Gypsies

guytrash, gytrash. Afrightening shape- ing ideas of freedom, exotic passion, mystery,
changing apparition, usually in animal form, and a Ufe close to nature. In folk tradition,
in the folklore of northern England. It was however, the stereotyping is negative; G)T)sies
described by Branwell Bronte (d. 1848) in his are seen as dangerous outsiders; they are hke-
unpublished fragment Percy as 'a spectre not at ly to seduce respectable women, for example
allsimilar to the ghosts of those who were in the well-known song about the grand lady
once alive, nor to fairies, nor to demons' who left her husband and child to follow a
which appears mostly as 'a black dog dragging Gypsy (F. J. Child, English and Scottish Ballads, no.
a chain, a dusky calf, nay, even a rolling stone'; 200). They are suspected of cunning and dis-
at the house where his tale is set, the gytrash honesty in their work as horse-traders, scrap
was known as 'an old, dwarfish and hideous merchants, and street sellers, and feared for
*
man, as often without a head as with one, their reputed power to cast spells, curse, and
moving at dark along the naked fields'. Bran- bless— a reputation they themselves fully
well's biographer, Winifred Gerin, confirms exploit.
that this is an authentic tradition linked to Real or pretended Gypsies have long made
Ponden House, and adds that this gytrash their living as *fortime-tellers (Davies, 1999a:
could also take the shape of a 'flaming barrel 258-65). The first law against them in Eng-
bowling across the fields', and appeared as an land, in 1530, condemns their 'greate subtyll
omen of disaster to the family there. and crafty meanes' of deceiving people
In Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre ((1847) chap- through palmistry; in 1620 John *Melton
ter 12), the heroine, hearing a horse approach- noted in his Astrologaster how 'figure-casters'
ing towards dusk, remembers her nurse's tales (i.e. drawers of horoscopes) 'would appear in

about 'a North-of-England spirit, called a the villages in the likeness of Gypsies and . . .

Gytrash, which, in the form of horse, mule or that they might be thought to come of the
large dog, haunted soUtary ways, and some- issue of that sun-burnt generation, they with
times came upon belated travellers, as this herbs and plants (would) discolour their
. . .

horse was coming upon me'. She then sees a faces, and then for bread, beere, bacon,
black-and-white dog, 'a Uon-Uke creature with cheese, but especially for money, would
long hair and a huge head', which also undertake to tell poore maid-servants their
reminds her of a gytrash; in fact, of course, fortunes'. still work as fairground
Gypsies
both dog and horse are perfectly normal ani- fortune-tellers, using palmistry, the crystal
mals belonging to Mr Rochester. ball, or cards; they visit many towns to sell
Another possible form is that of a large cow; 'lucky' white *heather in the streets, where
to see it is an omen of death, for oneself or they offer instant fortune-telUng. The old
another (Wright 1913: 194). request to 'cross the Gypsy's palm with silver'
has now become 'Give us gold, dearie', mean-
Gwerin. Founded in 1956 as a 'half-yearly ing a £1 coin, or even 'Give us paper, dearie'
journal of Folk Life' by its editor lorwerth C. IJS]. The
rumour of a 'Gypsy curse' surfaces
Peate (1901-82), Gwerin was the first periodical occasionally, for instance to explain a football
devoted to the subject of folk life in Britain, club's repeatedly poor results.
*
and paved the way for the Society for Folk Life The other long-estabUshed dread was of
Studies' journal *Folk life which continues to their kidnapping children. Flora Thompson
this day. The word 'gwerin' is Welsh for 'folk', describes in Lark Rise to Candleford ((1945),
but the journal took the whole of the British chapter 2) how it scared her to see any Gyp-
Isles, and beyond, as its brief As befits the sies, 'for there was a tradition that once, years
field which it helped to define, Gwerin pro- before, a child from a neighbouring village
vided a much-needed focus for museum work- had been stolen by them'. This fear seems to
ers and others from related disciplines who have died away, though 'I'll give you to the
were beginning to take a serious interest in Gypsies' was a threat used to naughty children
folk life, to describe and discuss traditional within living memory.
ways of life. The last issue was vol. 3, no. 6 The real lifestyle and customs of Gypsy fam-
(1962). iUes are virtuallyunknown to the English pub-
lic, apart from the lavish *funerals of their
Gypsies. Since the Romantic period, Gypsies most respected members— invariably dubbed
have had a glamorous image for writers 'Gypsy Kings' or 'Queens' by the press. Folklor-
and artists outside their communities, evok- ists are aware that some have kept the art of
Gypsies 160

formal *Storytelling, and fine *fairytales were For the Gypsies' own history and traditions, see J. Okely,

CoUected from them in England early in the ^^ Traveller-Gypsks (1983); D. Mayall, Gypsy-Travellers in
-.rv^i- ^ /T,i--i- -.r.r.'^ ••
20th century (Phlhp. 1992: pp. XVIl-XX), and
.J ISth-Century Society (1988); Angus Fraser, The Gvpsfes (2nd
^^n.. 1995); F. H Groome. iypsy Folk-Tales (1899); The
are still being collected in Scotland. journal of the Gypsy-Lore Society.
Hagmena, see *new year. stitions, cures, tales, popular errors, and *div-
ination. One should be particularly careful in
hag-riding. This term refers to a frightening the disposal of hair after cutting or brushing,
sensation of being held immobile in bed, often as such removable parts of the body can be
by a heavy weight pressing on one's stomach used in *witchcraft against you. Birds must
or chest. It is now recognized medically under also be prevented from using your hair to
the name 'sleep paralysis'; it can be accom- make their nests, as this would mean a head-
panied by the sense of an alien presence, and ache, or if a magpie, death wdthin a year, so
by visual hallucinations. In folklore, it was the only safe method of disposal is to bum it
thought of as a magical attack, though (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 184). Most *regional
whether by demonic incubus, ghost, harmftil folklore collections include examples of the
fairy, or witch varied according to place and divinatory use of hair. When it is thrown on
period. Where the term 'hag-riding' was used the fire, for example, if it bums brightly then a
it usually impUed that a witch was to blame,
long Ufe is to be expected, but smouldering
and in 19th-century Dorset and Somerset sev- means the opposite. A single hair drawn
eral people were prosecuted for physically between the nails of finger and thumb indi-
attacking elderly women who, they alleged, cates the character of its ov^oier.
had 'bagged' or 'hag-ridden' them, in order to A belief reported from the 17th century to
break their power by drawing blood (Davies, the present day is that if a person's hair grows
1997: 37-9). into a low point over the forehead, Uke a peak,
The commonest counter-charm was a * holed she/he will be v^ddowed soon— hence the
stone above the bed; however, one Somerset name 'Widow's peak'. Schoolchildren had a
man in 1862 slept with a nail-studded board particularly useful beUef: if you place a single
tied to his chest, so that if the hag who had hair across the palm of your hand, it will split
plagued him came again, 'she won't sit there the cane with which you are being chastised,
long!' (Davies, 1997: 47). A
Hampshire woman or at least it will considerably lessen the pain
used to hang a scythe over her children's bed felt (Harland and Wilkinson, 1873: 225; N&(1

(N&Q.10s:7 (1907). 157). lls:ll (1915), 277-8). See also *onion for a
When horses were found sweating and similar idea. Also, 'In my childhood I used to
exhausted in the morning, it was thought that be told that if you swallowed a long hair it
witches or fairies had ridden them all night, would twine about your heart and kill you'
and tangled their manes; this too was called {N&(1 8s:10 (1896), 47), an image which is
hag-riding, and could be prevented by hanging surprisingly old, being found in Thomas
a holed stone over their stalls, round their Middleton's play. The Witch (iv. i): let one of
'. . .

necks, or at the stable door. Hooks and shears her long hairs wind about my heart, and be
were effective too (Herrick, Hesperides (1648), the end of me.'
no. 892). Porter (1969: 81-2) gives several recipes for
traditional hair care from Cambridgeshire,
hagstone. A widespread name for a *holed including tobacco and pepper to cure ring-
stone, when used to prevent *hag-riding; the worms, and the use of goose grease or bear's
word is first recorded by Francis Grose (A Pro- grease to keep hair healthy. A Lincolnshire
vincial Glossary, 1787). woman, however, swore by hedgehog fat for
this purpose (Sutton, 1992: 147) and many
hair. This makes many appearances in *super- vkTiters comment that *rosemary leaves make
Hallaton Hare Pie and Bottle-Kicking

an excellent hair tonic or rinse. Since at least speaks of mutton, veal, and bacon. Half of the
the 16th century it was thought essential to pie is distributed to participants at the
comb your hair the right way (Lean, 1903: ii. churchyard gate, while the other half heads a
24), and if you want your hair to grow back procession through the village out to the Hare
thick and luxuriant, it must be cut when the Pie Bank. Also in the procession are three
*moon is waxing. It was considered unlucky to men, each holding aloft a small iron-hooped
cut hair on *Friday, and *Good Friday was the wooden barrel, called the bottles. At the Bank,
worst day of all to do it; a baby's hair should the rest of the pie is broken up and thrown to
never be cut until it is twelve months old (N&(1 the crowd to be *scrambled for. Then the ser-
2s:12 (1861). 500). ious bottle-kicking game commences. Two of
There has been a long-standing prejudice the bottles are filled with ale, the third is not.
against *red hair in Britain since at least Like the street *football games described else-
C.1200. At best, red-haired people were con- where, the bottle-kicking is played between
sidered unreliable and hot-tempered, and two teams, ostensibly people from HaUaton on
archetypal evil people such as *Judas Iscariot one side and from nearby Medboume on the
and Cain were usually depicted with red hair other, but in reality anyone not from Hallaton
and beard. Another explanation sometimes has to play for Medboume—which gives the
given is that the Danish invaders had red latter a tactical advantage. There are virtually
hair, and red-haired children were sometimes no rules, and much of the play involves the
quoted as evidence of their mother's infidelity bottle disappearing in a mass disorganized
(Harland and Wilkinson, 1873: 225; N&Q. 12s:2 scrum, while occasionally a player manages to
(1916), 128,196-7, 239, 379; 12s:5 (1918), 194, break free and run for the goal. The goals are a
218; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 325-6). stream at one end and a hedge at the other,
A regularly reported cure for whooping and a game can last for hours. Once a goal is
cough is to take a hair from the afflicted child, scored, the second bottle is brought into play
place it between two slices of bread, and give and if the score is even the third will be used
them to a dog to eat. The dog will get the as a decider. The origin is, as usual, unknown,
cough and the child will be cured (Porter, although it is known that at some date a plot
1969: 90, and many others). Two widespread of land called Hare Crop Leys was bequeathed
'popular errors' concerning hair are the to the local rector on condition that he use the
beliefs that hair could continue to grow after rent to provide two hare pies, a quantity of ale,
death, and that a person's hair could turn and two dozen penny loaves for the Easter
white overnight through extreme fear or Monday custom.
mental anguish. The latter idea still turns up Kightly, 1986: 56-7; Shuel, 1985: 165-6; Wright and
as a motif in some *contemporary legends. See Lones, 1936: i. 117-18; Hole, 1975: 47; Crawford, 1938:

the correspondence in N&Q, 4s:6 (1870); 4s:7 151-2; Stone, 1906: 43-5.

(1871); 6s:6 (1882); 6s:7 (1883); 6s:8 (1883); 6s:9

(1884); 7s:2 (1886); 7s:3 (1887); 7s:4 (1887); 7s:7 Halliweli-Phillipps, James Orchard (1820-
(1889); 10s:9 (1908); 10s:10 (1908). 89).A proUfic editor of literary-antiquarian
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 184-6, 325-6, 445-6. works, and an avid dealer in rare books and
manuscripts, although for most of his hfe he
was so short of money that he was forced to
Hallaton Hare Pie and Bottle-Kicking. At sell off" his collection on a number of occa-

Hallaton, Leicestershire, they have an *Easter sions, and for a while in 1843-4 he was under
Monday custom involving a hare pie, which is suspicion for handUng manuscripts stolen
not made of hares, and
a bottle-kicking game from Cambridge University Library. Originally
where the objects are not bottles and are not plain 'Halliweir, he added the -Phillipps in
kicked. The pie and the bottle-kicking may 1872. Many of his publications were issued in
have been two customs at one time, but now short print-run pamphlets and are now
they are inextricably linked as two elements extremely hard to locate. From the 1840s
in a day-long village celebration. The day starts onwards, he increasingly concenfrated on
with a church service and blessing of a locally Shakespeare scholarship, and he broke new
made pie, traditionally called the hare pie but ground in the meticulous use of local archives
nowadays made of beef As hares are out of and unpubUshed material, for which he
season at Easter, it is unlikely that it ever did justly renowned to this day.
contain that animal, and an 1892 account HaUiwell did much service to the fledgling
 Halloween

folklore scholarship in his editing of early Scottish folklore use it as a setting for super-
printed materials, chapbooks, and so on, but natural encounters, but there is no evi-
he also compiled several books which are dence that it was connected with the dead in
more directly relevant and still used as pre-Christian times, or that pagan religious
sources. The first was The Nursery Rhymes of Eng- ceremonies were held (Hutton, 1996:
land, Collected Principally from Oral Tradition 360-70).
which he edited for the Percy Society in 1842. Anglo-Saxon texts never mention this date.
This did not contain much in the way of schol- Bede notes that the native name for Novem-
arly apparatus, being mainly a collection of ber had been Elod-monath, 'Blood Month'
texts, but it had an immediate popular sale, (when surplus livestock was slaughtered to
and went through several editions in a very save fodder, and some offered as sacrifices),
short time. For modem-day scholars, it marks but does not pinpoint one day as significant.
the start of the serious study of *children's From the Middle Ages through to the 19th
folkloreand *nursery rhymes. His second book century, there is no sign in England that 31

of this type. Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales October had any meaning except as the eve of
(1849) extended the coverage further into All Saints' Day, when bells might be joyfully
narrative, and included more commentary. mng (as also on Christmas Eve and Easter
Between them, these volumes covered, as Eve). Mournful tolling marked All Souls' Day,
well as nursery rhymes, proverbs, riddles, as a call to prayer for the dead. Reformers
counting-out rhymes, games, tongue-twisters, naturally objected to both, and under Eliza-
songs, and tales such as Jack and the Giants, beth I 'the superstitious ringing of bells at
The Story of Mr. Fox, and Chicken-Licken. Allhallowtide, and at All Souls' Day, with the
Halliwell was well placed to provide excellent two nights before and after' was prohibited
historical analogues for many of the items (Strype's Annals quoted in HazUtt, 1905: 299).
which he included, and this wide reading also But prayer for the dead proved tenacious;
shows in another essential folklore work, there are scattered references from the 16th
sandwiched between his nursery rhyme to the early 19th centuries to people praying
books, the Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial in the open fields at night by the light of
Words, Obsolete Phrases, Proverbs, and Ancient Cus- straw torches or small bonfires, especially in
toms from the Fourteenth Century (1846), which Lancashire and Derbyshire (Wright and
again is still a very useful reference tool for the Lones, 1940: 109; Hutton, 1996: 372-4).
iii.

modem researcher. An example of how the Contrary to popular opinion, the link with
skillsof the literary antiquarian were brought fire is fairly late in England, the first allusion
into the service of folklore is his Rlustrations of being from 1658, though implying a well-
the Fairy Mythology of A Midsummer Night's Dream, estabUshed custom: 'On All-Hallow e'en the
pubhshed by the Shakespeare Society in 1845. master of the family ancientiy used to carry a
DNB; Dorson, 1968: 66-74. bunch of straw, fired, about his com' (Sir Wil-
Uam Dugdale, quoted in Hutton. 1996: 373).
Early folklorists overstressed this aspect, pur-
Halloween (31 October). The eve of a major suing solar symboUsm and a parallel to the
Catholic festival, *A11 Saints (1 November), Beltane fires.

assigned to this date in the 8th century; next Folklore collections of the later 19th and
comes *A11 Souls (2 November), instituted 20th centuries make remarkably littie men-
c.lOOO AD as a
day to pray for the dead. In Eng- tion of Halloween in England (as against Scot-
land since the 19th century, and increasingly land), and what there is comes mainly from
in the 20th century, it has acquired a reputa- northern counties. Most quote Scottish
tion as a night on which ghosts, witches, and sources, especially Robert Bums's poem 'Hal-
fairies are especially active. Why
this should loween', and it may well be that some customs
be is debatable. detailed below were imported from Scotland
Currently, it is widely supposed that it ori- to England through literary influences and
ginated as a pagan Celtic festival of the dead, fashions in Victorian times. Writing in the
related to the Irish and Scottish *Samhain (1 1950s, lona and Peter Opie demonstrated that
November) marking the onset of winter, a Halloween was popular among children hving
theory popularized by *Frazer. Certainly Sam- to the north and west of a boundary mnning
hain was a time for festive gatherings, and roughly south-west from the Humber to the
medieval Irish texts and later Irish, Welsh, and Welsh border and then down the Severn.
Hamer, Frederick 164

while those to the south and east hardly even declined so sharply that this new variant is

noticed it (they celebrated * November the surprising. It is clear from the use of the
Fifth instead). Modem factors have eliminated American term 'Trick or Treat' that it was a
this distinction, but its former presence sup- direct import from America, familiar to chil-
ports the suspicion that Halloween was ori- dren from comics, cinema, and TV; a con-
ginally Scottish. tributory factor was the tendency of schools
The most common 19th-century references and British children's TV, at about the same
are to love *divinations. All over the country, time, to present it as a safer alternative to Guy
young people would lay two nuts (in some Fawkes Night. There have been howls of pro-
areas, two apple pips) side by side in the fire, test in this country against the Americaniza-
named after themselves and their loved ones, tion of British culture, the danger to children
to see whether they exploded or not; in the out at night, and/or the alarm caused to the
south, it was generally held that a loud pop elderly. Most vociferous is the backlash from
was a good sign for the match, but northern- fijndamentalist Christians, and even many
ers regarded this as bad. As on so many other mainstream clergy, arguing that celebrating
nights, girls would put something under their supernatural evil forces is morally dangerous,
*
pillows to dream of husbands: rosemary and and the fact that it is 'fiin' makes it worse.
a crooked sixpence (Addy, 1895: 80), or, in Neo-pagans added ftiel to this fire
by claiming
Herefordshire, a sprig of churchyard *yew Samhain is older than All Saints, and was
4 (1886), 111). An eyewitness
(Folk-Lore Journal hijacked by the Church. At the time of writ-
account from Norfolk describes five men sit- ing, this moral battle still rages, and many
ting all night round a pitchfork on which was schools have opted to ignore Halloween, for
placed a clean white shirt, believing that the the sake of peace.
sweetheart of one of them, 'were she true to See also *all saints, *all souls, *antrobus,
him', would enter and remove it (Major *SOULING.
Charles Lofl^s, My Life 1815-1849 (1877), 302-3;
Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 107-20; Hutton, 1996: 360-
quoted in Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 114-15). 85; Opie and Opie, 1959: 268-76; Roger Homan, British
For other Halloween divinations, see * cabbage, journal of Migioiis Education 14:1 (1991), 9-14.

*dumb,cake, *sage, *three dishes.

Apples and nuts, readily available at this Hamer, Frederick (1909-69). A keen *morris
time, were a traditional Halloween food and country dancer and an active member of
the *English Folk Dance and Song Society and
(hence its other name, 'Nut-Crack Night'), and
the *Morris Ring, from the 1930s, and he made
appear in several old games now revived for
children's parties. Players have to catch in several important contributions on morris
their teeth apples floating in water, or hang- traditionsin Northamptonshire. He later

ing from a string, or balanced on a heap of

came to folk *song collecting and, despite
flour. Whereas Scottish children disguised becoming totally blind in 1952, started tape-
themselves and went house *visiting, English recording singers in Bedfordshire, Lancashire,
ones more commonly attended a fancy dress Shropshire, and elsewhere, and compiled a
valuable collection from areas not well
party indoors; they also traditionally played at
covered by others. Examples of his recordings
scaring people with lanterns of hollowed tur-
nips or swedes, carved into faces and with
were issued on Gamers Gay (EFDSS LP 1006,
lighted candles inside (cf *Punkie Night). In 1971), and The Leaves of Life (Vaughan Williams
*
Yorkshire, they called this Mischief Night and Library Cassette No. VWML 003, 1989). His

played tricks on and sundry.

all tape-recordings are now lodged at the
Halloween is one of the few festivals whose *Vaughan Williams Memorial Library.
popularity has increased, not decUned, in
Hamer's main publications are 'The Hinton
recent years. Since about 1980, the media and Brackley Morris', JEFDSS 7:4 (1955), 205-
have shown growing interest, shops are full 17; 'May Songs of Bedfordshire', JEFDSS 9:2

of scary masks and witches' hats, and chil- (1961), 81-90; 'Thoughts of a Folk Song Col-
dren have taken to roaming the streets in cos- lector', ED&S 31:3 (1969), 88-9; 'A Song Seeker

tume, knocking on doors, saying a rhyme, Found', ED&S 28:1 (1966). 19-24; Gamers Gay:
and expecting money or sweets. They use English Folk Songs Collected hy Fred Hamer (1967);
Green Groves: More English Folk Songs Collected hy
pumpkins, not turnips, as lanterns. A hun-
dred years ago, children's *visiting customs of Fred Hamer (1973).
this type were commonplace, but they have Obituary by Kenneth Loveless: FMJ 2:1 (1970), 71-2.
165 Hangman's Stone

Hammond, Henry Edward Denison (1866- and mare; smoked with herbs and hay for a
1910) and Hammond, Robert Francis Fred- month; hung on an oak tree three nights run-
erick (1868-?). The Hammond Brothers are ning, then laid at a crossroads, then hung on a
remembered for their folk-song collecting church door for one night while the maker
in Dorset, which they undertook at the keeps watch in the porch— 'and if it be that no
suggestion of Lucy *Broadwood. Henry had fear hath driven you forth from the porch . . .

been introduced to folk-song by George B. then the hand be true won, and it be yours'.
*
Gardiner, and he assisted the latter on some The candle is made from animal and human
of his own trips, noting the tunes for which fat, with a wick of threads from a hangman's

Gardiner was not sufficiently well trained. The rope, and only milk or blood can quench it.
Hammonds struck out on their own, and This has continental parallels, notably in a
between 1904 and 1907 they noted 648 songs, French book of spells called le Petit Albert
the manuscripts for which are now in the (1722).
*Vaughan Williams Memorial Library. selec- A An allegedly true story, airrent in the 19th
tion of their songs appeared in the JESS 3 century, tells how a burglar, having tricked his
(1907), 59-139; their own Folk Songs from Dorset way into a house, Ut a hand of glory, sa5dng
(1908), and (texts only) in James Reeves, The 'Let those who are asleep be asleep, and let

Everlasting Circle (1960); also Frank Purslow's those who are awake be awake.' But one ser-
Marrowbones (1965), The Wanton Seed (1968), The vant girl was secretly watching him, while
Constant Lovers (1972), The Foggy Dew (1974). pretending to be asleep, and foiled his plot
Frank Purslow, FMJ 1:4 (1968), 236-64. by dousing the hand in milk (Henderson,
1866: 201-2; Radford, Radford, and Hole,
1961: 179-80; PhUip, 1992: 199-200).
hand of glory. The first mention of a 'hand of
glory' in English (1707) refers to a piece of hands. The idea that your hand itches you
if
mandrake root, kept as a charm to make are about to receive has been around
money
coins multiply; this corresponds to medieval for at least 400 years, and is still current, and is
French maindegloire, a corruption of Latin man- clearly allied to the metaphor of an itchy hand
dragora 'mandrake'. The French word, how- for avarice,which is equally old. Shakespeare
sounds exactly as if it meant 'hand of
ever, provides the earliest known reference {fulius
glory', so it is commonly applied to a magical Caesar (c.l599), iv. ii). Shortly afterwards,
torch made from a dead man's hand to cast Melton (1620: 46) wrote, 'When the palme of
people into deep sleep. This is first described, the right hand itcheth, a shrewd sign he
it is

though not named, in 1440, when a Coroner's shall receive money'. Later references dis-
Court at Maidstone (Kent) was told that a burn- tinguish the two hands— left to receive money,
ing candle held in the hand of 'a dead man that right to pay it out— or give further advice:
has lain in the earth nine days and nine nights'
If your hand itches
will ensure that 'they that sleep shall sleep,
You're going to take riches
and they that wake shall not move, whatever
Rub it on wood. Sure to come to good
thou do' (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 100). Rub it on iron. Sure to come flying
This charm was said to be much used by Rub it on brass. Sure to come to pass
thieves; variations are recorded from *Aubrey Rub it on steel. Sure to come a deal
to the early 20th century— the Ashton-under- Rub it on tin. Sure to come agin
Lyme Reporter of 22 April 1905 says many a (Folk-Lore Record 1 (1878), 240;
from Suffolk)
burglar feels sure 'that if he can possess him-
self of a candle made from the body of a young See also dead man's hand, fingernails;
woman, he will never see the interior of a fingers; gestures; hand of glory,
thumbs.
gaol' (FLS News 17 (1993), 15). An actual hand,
283-4.
reputed to have been used in this way, is in Opie and Tatem. 1989: 186; Lean, 1903: u.

Whitby Museum (Yorkshire), together with 'A

True Receipt for the Pickling and Claiming of a hangman's rope, see cards, playing,
Hand of Glory, and likewise the Making of a gallows.
Glory Candle' from a North Yorkshire manu-
script book of 1823. It must be cut from the Hangman's Stone. There are over a dozen
body of a criminal on the gibbet; pickled in places in England with a large
boulder called
salt and the urine of man, woman, dog, horse, the Hangman's Stone, or a gate called Gallows
Hardy, Thomas

Gate, all explained by the following tale:— a Notable Things (1579); an earher book, Gospelles
sheep-stealer was carrying a live sheep home ofDystaues (1507), warns women against eating
with its legs tied together, when he stopped to hares, for the same reason: 'Ye sholde not gyve
rest against the boulder (or gate); the sheep toyonge maydens to ete the heed of a hare . . .

shpped and struggled, causing the rope to and especyll to them that be wyth chylde for
twist round his neck and throttle him. Thus certaynly the}^- chyldren might haue clouen
fate ensured that he would be hanged for his lyppes.'
crime. However, hares can bring luck or good
The earliest record is in Thomas Westcote's health.Samuel Pepys carried a hare's foot in
A View of Devonshire 1630 (1845), referring to
in his pocket against colics, while others
Combe Martin. Other sites include Boxford thought it prevented cramps and rheuma-
(Berkshire), Beer (Devon), Hampnett (Glouces- tism, or protected against witchcraft (cf *rab-
tershire), Rottingdean (Sussex), Bamburgh bits). Countrj^women often soothed fretful

(Yorkshire),and Allandale (Northvunberland), babies by feeding them hare's brains to eat

where the boulder is called the Wedderstone (N&Q. 6s:l (1880), 34; 6s:4 (1880), 406, 457-8).
(from 'wether' = 'castrated ram'), and there is One man joining the Navy in 1939 took a
a rhyme: hare's foot as mascot (Evans and Thomson,
1972: 234).
When ye lang for a mutton bone
In folklore, witches were commonly said to
Think on the Wedderstone.
turn into hares; there was a widespread anec-
Leslie GrinseU. Folklore 96 (1985), 217-22.
dote about a man who vainly hunted a hare
which escaped into the house of an old
Hardy, Thomas (1840-1928). Bom in Dorset, woman—who was found panting hard. But if
and working first in architecture, Thomas the hare's leg was bitten by the hunter's dog,
Hardy became one of the most popular novel- or broken with a stone, or shot with a silver
ists and poets of his day, and his work is still
bullet, the witch would be found wounded in
highly regarded. Many of his most popular the same way; this, some said, took away her
works were set in a semi-fictional 'Wessex',
power (Brockie, 1886: 2-5). In Yorkshire, the
and included rural dwellers and workers hare was occasionally thought to be a * familiar
which were described with affection and little rather than the witch herself; when it was
condescension. Hardy took a keen and delib-
killed with a * silver bullet, the witch cried
erate interest in local customs and other folk-
out in grief (Henderson, 1866: 166-7; Blake-
lore, and often wove such material into his
borough, 1898: 203). Both belief and story
merely as local colour but
stories; occasionally are inmost regional collections, and persisted
often as essential elements in the story; for
the 1930s (Evans and Thomson, 1972: 164;
till
example, when Eustacia Vye boldly takes a
Simpson, 1973: 69-70).
part in the local *mumming play in The Return were said
In the west of England white hares
of the Native (1878), and the *rough music epi- to be ghosts of forsaken girls, haunting their
sode in The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886). Hardy
seducers; one caused her ex-lover's death by
was himself a fiddle-player and his descrip-
scaring his horse (Hunt, 1881: 377). In one
tions of *dances and dance events are particu- Lincolnshire tale the Devil, in the form of a
larly evocative, and his manuscripts contain
three-legged hare, causes the death of a boy
traditional tunes noted by himself who is playing at hanging himself, by distract-
ing his companions at the crucial moment
Ruth Firor, Folkways in Thomas Hardy (1931).

so that they fail to release him (Gutch and

hares. From the Middle Ages onwards, hares Peacock, 1908: 63).
have been considered unlucky. It is a bad Nowadays, many writers claim that hares
omen if one crosses one's path, especially at were sacred to the Anglo-Saxon goddess
the start of the day's work or of a journey; if Eostre, but there is no shred of evidence for
one runs through a town, a house will bum this; Bede, the only writer to mention Eostre,
down; no dead hare should be taken on board does not link her v^dth any animal. For Celtic
a fishing-boat, nor the word 'hare' spoken at Britons, we have Julius Caesar's authority for
sea. If a*pregnant woman meets a hare, her sa5ang hares were sacred and provided omens
baby will be bom with a 'harehp', unless she for Boudicca before a battle.
immediately tears her petticoat. This is See also *easter, *easter eggs.
recorded first in Thomas Lupton's A Thousand Opie andTatem, 1989: 189-94.
167 harvest customs

Hartland, Edwin Sidney (1848-1927). A wdth the farmer for the job. He usually bore
solicitor in Swansea and later
Gloucester, some honorary title— Lord of the Harvest, for
who served as President of the Folklore Soci- example, and his Deputy was the Lady of the
ety, 1899-1901. His primary folklore interest Harvest. Once a contract covering payment (in
was in the * folktale and he rapidly became one money, food, and drink) had been agreed
the country's leading experts in that field. His between employer and workers, the men were
publications include English Fairy and Other Folk left to get on with the job. The harvesters regu-
Tales (1890), an anthology of texts, and The Sci- lated their work with traditional voluntary
ence of Fairytales: An Enquiry into the Fairy Myth- rules, some serious and some playful or
par-
ology (1891), which attempted a theory of the odic, andalso claimed the right to levy a fine
subject, based firmly in the ruling doctrine of ('largesse') on anyone else who entered the
survivals and the belief that the expert can field, and even on strangers who passed by on

identify and apply the rules governing folk- adjacent paths or roads. On many farms they
lore. Hartland's tour deforce was the influential also exacted monetary contributions from the
three-volume The Legend of Perseus: A Study of main tradespeople who dealt with the farmer.
Tradition in Story, Custom and Belief (1894-6). In The Lord would normally lead the mowing,
this he followed the conviction that tales dictate the pace of the work, and decide when
encapsulate custom and belief of the past, and breaks were to be taken.
by tracing a particular story and its analogues On many farms there were ways of marking
across the world and across time, the folklorist the approaching end of the harvest, and the
can seek to understand the primitive mind of consequent release from the hard work and
our ancestors. As his researches into folklore tension involved. Some customs focused on
and anthropology deepened, Hartland moved the last sheaf or last patch of crops still stand-
away from a primarily narrative base to a ing,and the cutting of this was made into a
more ethnological concern with primitive game, or was accompanied vnth a degree of
societies and the origins of religion, although ceremony. 'Crying the Mare' in Herefordshire
he always used evidence from myths and is an example of a game, in which the last

legends in his argument. Further books patch of standing com was tied up and the
include: Primitive Paternity: The Myth of Super- men tried to cut it by throwing their sickles
natural Birth in Relation to the History of the Family from a distance (Leather, 1912: 104-5). In
(2 vols., 1909), Ritual and Belief Studies in the His- other areas the 'mare' was fashioned into a
tory of Religion (1914), and Primitive Society: The rough figure and sent to taunt a neighbouring
Beginnings of the Family and the Reckoning of Des- farmer who had not yet finished his harvest-
cent (1921).As did others of his generation, ing. 'Crying the Neck' is the generic term for
Hartland clashed pubUcly Mdth Andrew *Lang customs in which the last sheaf is greeted
in the journal Folk-Lore in 1898 and 1899. with a triumphant shout (The Times (28 Sept.
Another title. County FoMore: Gloucestershire 1934), 10).
(1892), although simply a sUm gathering of There are a widespread references to images
previously printed material, is a source-book or figures being made and paraded around,
still useftil today. although this was far from universal and again
Obituaries by A. C. Haddon (including bibliography). Folk- the examples vary considerably from place to
lore 37 (1926), 178-92, and by R. R. Marett, Folk-Lore 38 place. It was called the Harvest Queen, Kern
(1927), 83-5; Dorson, 1968. Doll, Kern Baby, Ivy Queen, and so on. 'Their
last load of com they crown with flowers, hav-
harvest customs. Numerous customs and ing besides an image richly dressed .'
(Paul
. .

around harvest time, the

traditions clustered Hentzer, 1598; quoted in Hutton, 1996: 333-4).
vitalclimax of the agricultural year in arable The figures could be small crafted shapes, or
areas. Many were extremely localized, and semi-human effigies, paraded around the field
much could depend on the character of the or placed on the waggon with the last load.
farmer, the type of crop, and other individual Sometimes, the figure was hung up in bam or
circumstances, but some broad patterns can farmhouse till next year. These figures were
be discerned. While some farmers kept per- often not made from 'the last sheaf, as many
sonal control of the work, on many farms the writers assume, as they were manufactured in
harvest was supervised by an experienced time to accompany the cutting of the last sheaf
worker (often the farm foreman) who was Modem *com doUies are a revival and exten-
elected by his fellow workers and 'contracted' sion of these figures.
harvest festivals 168

A major focus of attention was the triumph- women and children were permitted to go
ant bringing in of the last load from the fields, gleaning, or collecting whatever leftover crops
called by a local name such as Hotkey Load or they could find in the fields. This was an
Hock Cart. The waggon and horses were usu- extremely important economic customary
ally highly decorated, children would ride on right, with strict local control over who was
top, the farmworkers would accompany the allowed to glean, and for how long, and in
load with much shouting and cheering. A many areas a church bell was tolled (the
recurrent feature was the use of water- 'gleaning bell') to signal the start, or the farm
thrown over the cart and workers by others bailiffstood by the field gate, watch in hand,
waiting in hiding, or from the upstairs win- to announce the time and ensure nobody got
dows of cottages as they passed through the an unfair start on the others.
village (N&Q_ 4s:10 (1872), 286-7, 359, 524). Numerous descriptions of harvest customs
The most important post-harvest event was exist, but the material is piecemeal, and still

the Harvest Supper, variously called the Har- awaits detailed attention from competent
vest Home, Mell Supper, Horkey Supper, and scholars. The harvest effigies, for example,
so on.The farmer would provide a feast for the were made and treated in very different ways
workers— and usually for their families as in different areas, and 'crying the mare' could
well— in celebration of their achievement. mean cutting the last sheaf or sending a
The feast was an integral part of the package horse to mock your neighbours. For nearly a
of remuneration expected by the workers. The century, the study of harvest customs has
exact nature of the event would vary from been stultified by the tacit acceptance of J. G.

place to place, with one key variable being *Frazer's theories about 'com spirits'. Few
whether the farmer and family stayed for the folklorists have bothered to analyse this ma-
whole evening or left after the meal, and in terial as they all assume that the origin and

many cases local dignitaries would also be background has already been demonstrated.
invited. Writers from Victorian times onwards Frazer's ideas have long been discredited
have tended to romanticize the Harvest Home, (see Hutton, 1996: 335-6), but we still need to
stressing the egalitarian nature of employer move on to a post-Frazer era.
and worker sitting down together with no Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 182-90; Hutton, 1996: 332-47;

class distinction, but this

only partly accur-
is Evans, 1956: 85-96; Evans, 1969: 69-70, 80-2, 124-5;
ate, as the rigid social hierarchy of farm- Jenkin, 1934: 149-64; Bushaw^ay, 1982: 107-66.

work could not be laid aside so easily. Arthur

Beckett {Spirit of the Downs (1909)) summed it harvest festivals. The modem Harvest Fes-

up as an '. . . event, celebrated for heavy feed- tival, so well known churchgoers and
to

ing, curious songs, and big drinking feats'. The schoolchildren, where the church or school

Supper had its traditional songs and games, stage is piled high with produce and thanks
such as that addressed to the farmer are given in prayer, sermon, and hymns, is
often thought to be ancient but owes its
Here's a health unto our master
origin to Victorian reforming zeal. Revd R. S.
The founder of this feast . .

Hawker, vicar of Morwenstow in Cornwall,

.

which in many versions neatly combines invented it in 1843, and as the idea was just
sycophancy with calls for more drink, while right for the mood of the times. Festivals spread
others were the type of song/game which gets rapidly throughout the country. The custom
ftmnier as participants get more drunk (e.g. obviously has intrinsic values of its own which
Sussex Archaeological Collections 14 (1862), 186- commended it to other congregations, but
there were some ministers who also saw in the
8). There were numerous other local vari-

ations, such as a visit from the *guisers— men new Harvest Festival a way of replacing the
in heavily disguised costumes who would turn older farm-based *Harvest Supper celebrations

up and gatecrash the *mell suppers in the which were sometimes an excuse for excessive
north of England. At a Lincolnshire farm in drinking, eating, and dancing.
the early 19th century, the 'Old Sow' would Hole. 1975: 89-91.

pay a visit. This was two men dressed in sacks,

but the sow's head would be filled with ftirze Hatherleigh Tar Barrels. Hatherleigh,
cuttingswhich would prick the people it Devon, has a regular carnival and ftinfair
approached (N&Q. 8s:9 (1896), 128). which has grown out of an older village * revel,
One last activity in the field remained, as but on the same day it has a spectacular *tar-
 Haxey Hood
barrel custom. The night before the first burned in the wheatfield in a straw fire, to
Wednesday after 5 November, participants protect the fixture crop from evil spirits,
drag two sledges, each with three barrels on, witches, and the disease called 'smut'. Then a
to the top of the town, accompanied by sup- new 'bush' would be made, and singed on the
porters and the Hatherleigh Jazz Band in fancy embers of the old one (Leather, 1912: 92).
dress. The barrels have already been prepared, Another farming custom based on the protect-
with sufficient tar and other flammable ive power of hawthorn is that of hanging a
materials to make a good blaze. At dawn on cow's or mare's *placenta on a thombush. This
the Wednesday, one sledge is set alight and was seen in Hampshire in 1939, with the
dragged at speed round the streets of the vil- explanation that it would prevent fever in the
lage. At 8.30 p.m., after the normal events of cow (Vickery, 1995: 170); and again in Bilsdale
the day, the second sledge is similarly raced (Yorkshire) in 1998, to bring luck to the new-
around the streets and finally on to a bonfire. bom foal (Jan Ekermann, ELS News 28 (1998),
Shuel, 1985: 188-9; Sykes, 1977: 138-41. 8).
On the other hand, hawthorn blossom is the
most widely dreaded of all unlucky *flowers;
hawthorn. Traditional behefs concerning the over 500 contributors to a survey on flower-
hawthorn are contradictory. One particular lore in the 1980s reported that bringing it
tree, the *Holy Thorn of Glastonbury, was indoors would cause a death, a major illness or
regarded as sacred since it blossomed at accident, or some form of serious ill luck. In
Christmas; its real or reputed descendants are many cases they themselves had been rebuked
pointed out with respect. A few others had for doing this. This taboo is sometimes linked
individual names or tales: one, called Beggar's to the idea that hawthorn blossom stinks of
Bush, used to stand on the boundary between death or of the *plague, first mentioned by
Sutton Coldfield and Birmingham, and was Francis Bacon in 1627 (Sylva Sylvarum, § 912)
said to mark the spot where a beggar was and still common among countrymen in the
found dead, lying partly in one parish and 19th century. This has a scientific basis; one
partly in the other, and so was buried where species, Crataegus monogyna, has a chemical in
he lay. Doble's Thorn, at St Giles-in-the-Heath its blossoms identical to one in decaying meat,

(Cornwall), is said to be where a treasure was and so smells of corpses.

found by a man led by a dream, hke the Opie and Tatem, 1989: 242-5; Vickery, 1995: 166-72.
*Swaffham Pedlar; Cornishmen thought that
whenever people buried treasure they planted
a thorn over it.
Haxey Hood. Unique among England's
Under its alternative name of 'may', haw- calendar customs is the Haxey Hood game in
thorn was frequently mentioned as one of the Lincolnshire, played every year on 6 January,
trees from which branches were taken to dec- although it bears some relationship to the
orate houses on *May Day. Early texts can be ^footballgames played elsewhere. The game is
ambiguous, since any tree used for this pur- organized by thirteen officials, called Boggins,
pose might be called a 'may-bush', whatever including a Fool. From New Year's Eve, the
its species; Aubrey, however, is quite clear: 'At Boggins have been round the neighbourhood
Woodstock in Oxen, they every May-eve goe pubs, singing, collecting money to defray
into y* Parke, and fetch away a number of costs,and announcing the forthcoming game.
Hawthome-trees, w^*" they sett before their At two o'clock on the 6th, they gather at the
dores, pity that they make such destruc-
'tis church gate. The Fool tries to run away and is
tion of so fine a tree' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: caught and brought back. He makes a speech,
118n.). Related to this was a Suffolk custom, standing on a convenient stone, and he is
mentioned in 1830 as old but disused, that any 'smoked' with the aid of burning straw placed
farm servant bringing hawthorn in fiill bloom behind him. They then troop off to the field,
into the house on May Day would get a dish of which is halfway between the two com-
cream for breakfast. munities of Haxey and Westwoodside. Here,
In Herefordshire farms it was customary on the preUminary games are played. The Bog-
*New Year's Day to bum a hawthorn 'bush', gins have twelve 'hoods', rolls of sacking,
i.e. a branch whose
twigs had been forcibly which are thrown up one by one and the play-
bent into a thorny globe, which had hung in ers have to get hold of them and carry them
the kitchen for a year as a luck-bringer. It was off the field, past the Boggins who are placed
hazel 170

round the edge. Once this has been achieved There ample evidence that Germanic and
is

the main hood is brought out, this one made Celtic peoples used heads as sacrifices and
of heavy rope, covered in leather and about beheved they had magical powers, which may
eighteen inches long. This is thrown up and mean that English head customs are pagan
immediately disappears into the 'sway', a survivals. Yet one can also argue that the

huge mass of men which moves slowly, almost intrinsic quaUties of a head make it a natural
of its own accord, towards one of the two pubs symbol knowledge, vigilance, power, hon-
(of
which are the 'goals'. There is no running, our, not tied to any specific reUgious sys-
etc.),

throwing, or kicking, just this huge scrum. tem. Similar ambiguity attends images of
Hours later, when it reaches a pub, and the heads or faces on buildings, armour, pottery,
landlord touches the hood, the game is over. etc. Many cultures have considered them
The pub keeps the hood till next year. magical protections, but they also make
The locals have a well-developed legend to effective ornamental motifs. So were the

explain the game's origin. One day. Lady de monster-heads, gargoyles, and grimacing faces
Mowbray was out for a ride on 6 January and on medieval churches just amusing decor-
the wind caught her scarlet hood and whisked ation? Or were they aggressive guardians,
it away. Thirteen local labourers saw the keeping demons away?
Lady's distress and each tried to catch the The problem recurs in modem contexts. In
hood and return it to her. Their antics so West Yorkshire and Derbyshire, cmdely
amused her that she granted half an acre's carved stone heads and faces can be seen on
land to each of the men on condition that they capstones of bridges and arched gateways;
re-enacted the scene every year. None of this is over doors and windows and on gables of
likely to be historically accurate, but at least it farmhouses; on the surrounds of springs and
makes more sense than the theories of pagan wells; or set in drystone fieldwalls. The main
sacrifices invented by recent 'authorities'. The period of production seems to have been the
Mowbray incident is said to have taken place 17th century, but local stonemasons in the
hundreds of years ago, but the earliest 19th and early 20th centuries made many too.
description of the game so far found only From verses left by one carver in 1828, it
dates from 1815. appears they were called 'the old man's face';
Jeremy J. Cooper, A Fool's Game: The Ancient Tradition of
sometimes they were regarded as protective
Haxey Hood (1993); Shuel, 1985: 166-7; Venetia Newall, and luck-bringing, sometimes just made for
Folk Life 18 (1980), 7-23; Mabel Peacock, Folk-Lore 7 (1896), ftin. They are still being made. In 1971, the
330-49; Ethel H. Rudkin, Lincolnshire Folklore (1936), 90-7.
landlord of the Sun Inn at Haworth (Yorkshire)
had one put over the main door to end a
hazel. In England, there is no lore about the a local trad-
haunting, explaining: 'There is
hazel as a tree, though its twigs were said to were put on buildings when a
ition that these
make good dowsing rods. The *nuts are used in workman had been killed on the site before
*love divinations, and 'going nutting' or 'gath- the work was completed, and they are sup-
ering nuts' are euphemisms for lovemaking. posed to ward off evil spirits. 1 feel now that I
have quashed any ideas of ghosts for good'
heads. These make fine trophies; they are (Yorl<shire Evening Post (21 Oct. 1971)). Recent
easy to preserve and mount, and convey well writers often explain this tradition by the
the characteristics of the living animal. A *
importance of severed heads in Celtic beUef; a
skull, especially of a homed or antlered beast, few go further, claiming some extant heads
isequally impressive. Finest of all is the head are prehistoric artefacts reused in modem
or skull of a human enemy, killed in battle or contexts. Current interest in them is reflected
executed, and publicly displayed. From the in anecdotes which have sprung up over the
antlers on the gables of Heorot in Beowulf to last 30 years or so, often strongly believed, of
the fox-mask in a huntsman's study, from the ill luck and menacing presences dogging those

head paraded in As You Like It to the rein-

stag's who remove one from its proper place; even
deer skulls of *Abbots Bromley, from the when the supposedly evil head turns out to be
heads of traitors on Tower Bridge to human modem, as happened in at least two cases, the
*skuUs preserved in old houses, from *horse story persists.
skulls under buildings to those used for See also *skulls.
*hobby horses, English traditions are fiiU of The major discussion of the Celtic head<ult is in Anne
heads. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain (1967), 94-171; briefer accounts
171 Hell

appear in most subsequent books on Celtic religion. For ietyis deliberately grown for sale on Burns
the stone heads, see Brears, 1989: 32-44; Sidney Jackson,
Night in January, and *Gypsies sell both real
Celtic and Other Stone Heads (1973); John Billingsley, Stony
heather and substitutes in the streets of many
Gaze (1998).
English towns in summer (Vickery, 1995:
396-7).
healers, see *charmers, *cunning men,
seventh son, daughter.
he (children's game), see *tig.

healing, see *charms (verbal), *medicine. hedgehogs. It was widely believed that

hedgehogs sucked cows' udders; old church-

hearts and pins. Sticking *pins into an ani- wardens' accounts record payments of a few
mal's heart is a symbolic aggressive action, pence per head for killing them. There was
much used in *counterspells throughout Eng- vigorous debate between those who called this
land. If farm animals were dying and witch- 'a venerable superstition', possibly caused by
craft was suspected, one should cut out a
seeing hedgehogs curled up alongside sleep-
heart, stick it with pins, nails, or thorns, and ing cows for warmth, and those who thought
boil or roast it, or hang it in the chimney. This it true (NEKl 6s:8 (1883), 32-3, 117-18, 217;
should be done just before midnight, in com- 12s:4 (1918), 140; 12s:5 (1919), 105, 160-1,
plete silence, with doors and windows barred; 304). It was also thought that hedgehogs
some accounts add that a verse from the Bible sucked birds' eggs, and would carry off fallen
was read, but do not say which. The ritual ftniit on their bristles, or even climb trees to
would cause intense pain to the witch, who getit; also, that they would block up any open-

could only get reUef by lifting her own spell. ing of their burrows on the side from which
Witchcraft against humans could be similarly the wind would next blow. In Yorkshire
broken by the use of a hen's, pigeon's, hare's, hedgehogs were sometimes said to be famil-
or toad's heart; these were also used aggres- iars, or witches in animal form; such a hedge-
sively in love magic, to force a reluctant lover hog would run as fast as a hare, and could
into marriage, or to take revenge on an never be caught or shot (Blakeborough, 1898:
North Yorkshire, the heart
unfaithftil one. In
198).
was sometimes buried in a churchyard, not A sa5dng, 'Off we go again, as the Hedgehog
burnt (Blakeborough, 1898: 151). There are said to the Devil', is explained by the following
detailed accounts from 19th-century York- fable: a hedgehog once wagered he could out-
shire and Durham (Henderson, 1879: 181-8, run the Devil in racing up and down a ditch at
summarized in Opie and Tatem 1989: 195-6; night. He curled himself up at one end, while
a
also Brockie, 1886: 11-15, 26-8); one instance second hedgehog did likewise at the other; the
was recorded in London about 1902 (Lovett, Devil rushed to and fro, but at either end of
1925: 67). Some pigs' hearts stuck with pins, the ditch he always found a hedgehog there,
found in the chimneys of old Somerset saying 'Off we go again!' Eventually, the Devil
cottages, were given to Taunton Museum dropped dead with exhaustion (Leather, 1912:
(Elworthy, 1895: 53-5). 357).
There have been modem instances of the
procedure, which is fairly widely known from Hediey Kow. A very mischievous, but not
books and the media. Sheep's hearts pierced dangerous, shape-changing *boggart which
with thorns were found nailed to church walls used to plague the villagers of Hediey (North-
in several Norfolk villages in the winter of umberland) by his many tricks (Henderson,
1963/4, together with human images and 1866: 270-1). A farmer mistook him for his
magic symbols (Valiente, 1973: 193-4); a own horse, a milkmaid for her favourite cow.
'cow's heart impaled with nails' was sent an old woman for a bundle of straw; in each
through the post during a campaign of magic- case he caused unexpected trouble, and then
al harassment in Lewes (Sussex) in 1997 (Forte- vanished with a loud guffaw. He could even
an Times 102 (Sept. 1997), 38-41). turn into the likeness of a girl, to trick her
sweetheart into following him till he ended up
heather. The idea that white heather is lucky knee-deep in a bog.
reached England as part of a Victorian
enthusiasm for Scottish traditions, and is now Hell. There is no particular 'entrance to Hell'
known everywhere. A winter-flowering var- in English topographical lore, only a general.
Helm, Alex 172

and sometimes humorous, assumption that by showing that a great deal of information
*
Hell lies
underground. Bottomless pools still remained to be discovered. His contention

allegedly go right down to Hell. At Tunstall that the customs were best studied as cere-
(Norfolk) there is a boggy pool called HeU monies or rituals (rather than, for example, by
Hole, which often has bubbles rising in it; it is the Uterary approach adopted by E. K. Cham-
said that after Tunstall church burned down, bers) became widely adopted and is still
the vicar and churchwardens quarrelled over influential today, although it in turn has come
who would have the bells, so the Devil carried under criticism ft-om later writers.
them down to Hell, and the bubbles show they Helm's early death prevented him from
are still sinking. Near Darhngton (County writing the projected works which would syn-
Durham) are three 'bottomless' pits called, thesize this wealth of material, although some
since the 16th century, the Hell Kettles or of his writings have been published post-
Devil's Kettles, supposedly filled with scald- humously. His papers are held by University
ing water to boil the souls of sinners. Legend College London. Much of Helm's published
claims the owner of the field where they lie output was thus in the form of articles, but he
was once carting hay on St Bamabas's Day (11 also produced a number of invaluable book-
June), and when someone rebuked him for letswhich made texts and descriptions avail-
impiety he retorted: able to potential practitioners and folklore
students aUke, including: Five Mumming Plays
Bamaby yea, Bamaby nay!
A cartload of hay, whether God will or nay! for Schools (1965); Six Mummers' Acts (with E. C.
Cawte) (1967); Cheshire Folk Drama (1968); The
At blasphemy, 'instantiy he, his carts and
this
Chapbook Mummers' Plays (1969); Eight Mummers'
his horses, were all swallowed up in the pools,
Plays (1971); Stajfordshire Folk Drama (1984).
where they may still be seen, on a fine day and Additional selected publications include
clear water, many fathoms deep!' {Denham 'The Cheshire Soul-Caking Play', JEFDSS 6:2
Trans, 1892: i.
79). (1950), 45-50; 'The Rushcart and the North-
western Morris'. JEFDSS 7:3 (1954), 172-9; 'The
Helm, Alex (1920-70). One of the most Mummers' Play', Theatre Notebook 18 (Winter
*
important figures in the study of calendar 1963/4); E. C. Cawte, Alex Helm, and N. Pea-
custom and dance in post-war England. He cock, English Ritual Drama: A Geographical Index
served as a major in the Ordnance Corps, and (1967); The English Mummers' Play (1980).
spent the rest of his working life as a teacher. Obituaries: Margaret Dean-Smith, Folklore 81 (1970),
At the suggestion of Margaret *Dean-Smith, 63-4; E. C. Cawte, FMJ 2:1 (1970), 72-3.
Helm edited the papers of T. F. *Ordish, the
19th-century collector of *mummers plays, Helston Furry Day. A town-wide celebration
which revealed the wealth of untouched such as Furry Day at Helston, Cornwall, is
material on traditional drama, and, with char- made up of many parts, but the core of the
acteristic energy and scholarship, he launched public day is organized by a special Committee
into compiling a comprehensive index of and consists of a series of processional dances
material, with colleagues Dr E. C. Cawte and through the streets of the town and some-
—
Dr Norman Peacock, and the work on this times through the shops and houses lining the
index consumed his spare time for the rest of streets— led by the Town Band plajdng the
Some of the ftnits
his tragically shortened Ufe. Furry Dance tune. At seven o'clock in the morn-
of the work were presented in: E. C. Cawte, ing on 8 May there is a relatively informally
Alex Helm, R. J. Marriott, and Norman Pea- dressed dance, previously called the Servants'
cock, 'A Geographical Index of the Ceremonial Dance, in which those who will be busy work-
Dance in Great Britain', JEFDSS 9:1 (1960), ing for the rest of the day join in. Later in the
Drama (1967). E. C. Cawte,
1-41; English Ritual morning is the Children's Dance (introduced
RitualAnimal Disguise (1978), and many later in 1922) with local schoolchildren dressed in
writers have also been indebted to the gather- white but with coloured headbands for the
ing and indexing work of Helm and his col- girlsand school ties for the boys. The Twelve
leagues. Helm's work had enormous influence o'clock Dance is the best known, with women
on the next generation of custom researchers in colourful summer dresses and big hats and
in England, by demonstrating that the their partners in grey top-hats and black
*mummers' play was worth taking seriously, morning<oats, and all with a hly-of-the-valley
by advocating the geographical approach, and buttonhole. This dance is led by the Mayor or
173 herbs

other local dignitary and participation is only church is dedicated to St Michael, and 8 May
by invitation of the Committee. An elegant being St Michael's Day argues for furry day as
ball is held in the evening. meaning httle more than the fair day, com-
Other aspects of the custom include the Hal monly held throughout England on the day of
an Tow, and trips to the local countryside to the local patron saint. The word flora or floral,
gather greenery to decorate the town. The Hal- used by locals and visitors aUke, may have
an-Tow has a less than respectable past. This been introduced by early 'authorities' who
was a none-too-sober perambulation of the liked to hnk our customs with Roman festi-
town, singing a song in which the words of the vals, but the word so well sums up the spring
verses are sufficiently obscure to have excited greenery and flowers which decorate the
the vivid imaginations of amateur folklorists town, and its inhabitants, that its aptness
for decades— concerning as they do Robin probably guarantees its continuance.
Hood, the Spaniards, Saint George, and Aunt Jill Newton, Helston Flora Day (1978); Wright and Lones,
Mary Moses— but whose chorus is pretty clear, 1938: 247-51; H. Spencer Toy, The History of Helston
ii.

given the time of year: (1936), 368-79; Stone, 1906: 56-8.

For we were up as soon as any day, O seed divination. One of the most-
hemp
And for to fetch the summer home often quoted * love-divination procedures, first
The summer and the May,
described in Mother Bunch's Qoset (1685):
For summer is a come, O
And winter is a gone, O. Carry the seed in your apron, and with your right
hand throw it over your left shoulder, sajdng thus—
This part of the proceedings had been dropped 'Hemp-seed I sow, hemp-seed I sow. And he that
in the 19th century, but was deliberately must be my true love. Come after me and mow'. And
reintroduced, in suitably cleaned-up form, in at the ninth time expect to see the figure of him you
1930 at the instigation of the Helston Old are to wed, or else hear a bell.

Cornwall Society, and is now acted out in the The process varies little from one accoimt to
street in costume.
another, although some say you will see a cof-
The earUest known reference to Helston's fin rather than hear a bell, and it either means
custom is in the Gentleman's Magazine (60:1
'you won't many' or 'you will die'. Some ver-
(1790) 520), which identifies nearly all the sions prescribe ''Midsummer's Eve as the
essential elements which have survived to the
proper time to do it, while others say Christ-
present day, in particular the day-long event, mas, *St Mark's Eve, *Halloween, or any night
bringing in the greenery, the Hal an Tow song at midnight.
and procession, dancing in the streets and
Aubrey (1686: 95); Folk-Lore Record 1 (1878), 33; Hender-
houses, and, most importantly, the juxta- son, 1879: 104-5; Denham Trans. 1895: ii. 278; Folk-Lore 34
position, if not actual combination, of the (1923), 324.

rougher working-class elements and those of

the more elegant and refined gentry. Without herbs. Plants grown, or collected from the
this latter description it would have been easy wild, to be used medicinally or as flavourings;
to dismiss the 'elegance' of the cus-modem herb gardens were a feature of medieval mon-
tom as a prime example of Victorian prettifi- asteries,and of country households for several
cation of the customary calendar. centuries. Wild plants have presumably
The custom has had ups and dovms and
its always been gathered, as was still being done
at certain points in the 19th century almost well into the 20th century by many country
disappeared. It is certain that its continued people, some of whom were locally famous for
existence owes a lot to key individuals (such as home-made remedies with which they treated
those who formed the Old Cornwall Society) their neighbours. In Mary Barton ((1848), chap-
who regarded such customs as essential to the ter Mrs Gaskell describes a Manchester
2),
area's identity and who lent their vocal sup- woman who would walk far to the fields to
port at opportune moments. Certainly, since gather 'all manner of hedgerow, ditch and
the turn of the 20th century, the custom has field plants, which we are accustomed to call

gone from strength to strength. There has valueless, but which have a powerful effect
been much argument about the derivation of either for good or for evil [abortion?], and con-
the name— or rather names—given to the sequently are much used among the poor';
custom. Itseems clear that the word furry is a these she hung up to dry in her hovel.
dialect term related to 'fair'. The local parish Several Anglo-Saxon manuscripts give
Heria 174

instructions on the medical uses of herbs, the Hell-bound 'troops of Herlewin'. Although
sometimes with accompanying verbal hunting is not involved, these spectral hosts
*charms, prayers, and ritual actions; they were are medieval forerunners of the *Wild Hunt.
presumably used by monks. For the early V^estwood, 1985: 156-7, 251-3.
modem period, there is relevant material in
botanical and medical books such as John Ger- Heme the Hunter. In Shakespeare's The
rard's The Herball (1597) and Nicholas Merry Wives of Windsor (1597), two women
Culpeper's The Physical Direaory (1649) and The decide to make a fool of Falstaff by getting him
English Physician (1652), though much of it to disguise himself as a ghost at midnight in
came from continental sources. John Wesley's Windsor Park, where:
an Easy and Natural Method of
Primitive Physic or
There is an old tale goes, that Heme the hunter.
Curing Most Diseases (1747) gives many herbal Sometime a keeper here in Windsor Forest,
cures, and was frequently reprinted in the Doth all the winter time, at still midnight.
18th and 19th centuries. But the great bulk of Walk round about an oak, with great ragg'd horns;
herbal knowledge must always have been And there he blasts the trees, and takes the cattle.
passed on orally, and in home-made 'recipe' And makes milch kine yield blood, and shakes a
books Usting ointments, poultices, infusions, chain

distillations, fumigations, and oils for use on

In a most hideous and dreadful manner.
humans or animals. (iv. iv)

For early herb-lore, see Bonser, 1963; Hunt, 1990. For a An inferior text of 1604 has different lines
detailed modem regional study, see Hatfield, 1994. See
here (unlikely to be by Shakespeare), includ-
also Vickeiy, 1995; Barbara Griggs, Green Pharmacy: A His-
tory of Herbal Medicine (1981); Chamberlain, 1981; Agnes ing the idea that the ghost is used as a *bogey:
Arber, Herbah (1912; 3rd edn., 1986). Most local folklore
Oft have you heard since Home the hunter dyed.
collections and many books on country life include some
That women, to affright their little children.
information on the topic.
Says that he walkes in shape of a great stagge.

Herla. Around 1190, Walter *Map included a Shakespeare was probably referring to
taleabout an otherwise unknown King Herla, authentic legends which the local audience
allegedly 'one of the most ancient British would have known; a tree in Windsor Park
kings', in his De Nugis Curialum. Herla entered a was pointed out as 'FalstaflPs Oak' or 'Heme's
palace inside a hill at the invitation of a red- Oak' till it was cut down in 1796. A replace
bearded, goat-footed, hairy dwarf; he thought ment was planted in 1906.
he spent a mere three days there, but was There is no other early information about
away 200 years. Returning to the human Heme/Home, but in 1792 Samuel Ireland
world, he and his men found that they crum- added that he had been a gamekeeper who
bled to dust if they touched the ground, so hanged himself on the oak; this would be a
they dared not dismount, and 'this King Herla good reason for him to haunt it, and the rat-
and his band still hold on their mad course, tling chain is a standard feature too. Other
wandering eternally without stop or stay' — details are unusual; Heme's powers of blasting
until they plunged into the Wye in the first trees, 'taking' (i.e. bewitching) cattle, and
year of Henry II's reign, and never appeared making cows' milk bloody is more like

again. witches or malevolent fairies than ghosts. Nor

Map goes on to describe 'nocturnal com- do ghosts usually appear as semi-stags, even in
panies and squadrons engaged in endless
. . . forest areas. Shakespeare could have invented
wandering in an aimless round', silent, and the antlers just to make Falstaff look ridicu-
including people known to be dead; they had lous; planning to cuckold others, he is tricked
even been seen by day, but when pursued and into wearing * horns himself
challenged 'rose up into the air and vanished Attempts have been made to hnk Heme
suddenly'. This sinister company was known with other folkloric figures. Jacob *Grimm
as 'the household of Herlethingus'— probably suggested he was a leader of the *Wild Hunt,
an Anglo-Saxon phrase meaning 'the troops of an interpretation followed by many; however,
Herla'. Other medieval writers knew variants the essence of the Wild Hunt is that it mshes
of this beUef, and of this word. One tells of a wildly from one place to another, often in mid-
great crowd of the tortured ghosts of sinners, air, which does not match Shakespeare's
some on foot and some on horseback, the account. Others have associated Heme's ant-
'household of Herlechinus'; another talks of lers with those carried by dancers at Abbots
 175
Hickathrift, Tom
Bromley, speculating that he was a character of the components of the rhyme, however,
in some midwinter custom involving animal appeared much earUer, such as 'a new dance
disguise. Others have connected his name called hey-diddle' mentioned in 1569 and a
with the ancient Celtic homed god Cemun- poem by Alexander Montgomerie ('The Cherry
nos, even though it is a quite common medi- and the Slae', 1597) which includes a cow, a
eval surname. Shakespeare's text gives no fiddle,and the moon, but which cannot be
warrant for any of these ideas. shown to be the nursery rhyme's precursor.
In the 20th century, a tradition has grown The Opies also Ust most of the origin theories
up that Heme is seen before national disasters which have been mooted, none of which has
or the deaths of kings, and a fair number of an5^hing to offer beyond speculation. At pres-
people have reported personal experiences ent we must be content with the fact that the
of hearing his horn or hounds (Harte, 1996: verse is a very effective nonsense rhyme.
31-2). Opie and Opie, 1997: 240-1.
Westwood, 1985: 72-6; Petiy, 1972; Jeremy Harte, At The
Edge 3 (1996), 27-33.
hiccoughs. Four remedies for hiccups are
Herrick, Robert (1591-1674). Robert Herrick generally quoted. One is to breathe into a

was granted the living of Dean Prior in Devon paper bag (in and out, as long as it takes),
in 1629, a move which he regarded as a form another is to hold one's breath. The third is to
drink a cup of water backwards, that is out of
of exile, 'in this dull Devon-shire' he wrote. He
was removed from the the opposite side of the cup than normal,
living in 1648 by the
which can be done by bending over and tilting
incoming Puritans, and lived in London for a
the cup slightly away from you (with your chin
while, only to be reinstalled in Devon in 1662
at the restoration of the monarchy. Herrick
inside the cup). The fourth is to be startled out
of them by someone making you jump. EarUer
published one great collection of poems in his
remedies tend to be more complex. 'Take a
lifetime, entitled Hesperides (1648), and many
of his poems include everyday folkloric refer- cup of water, and say: Hiccups, Jiccups, Rise up
ences which are valuable evidence of custom Jacob. Seven guUups in the cup. Cure Hiccups'
and behef in his day. In some cases, such as The (Jones-Baker, 1977: 99). A correspondent in
Hock Cart and The Country Life, the whole poem NSjCi (5s:3 (1865), 465) writes that you must
describes an event or a season, but in others it cross the front of the left shoe with the fore-

is the occasional Une which sheds finger of the right hand, while you repeat the
hght on an
otherwise obscure topic. Lord's Prayer backwards. In the 1820s, Edward
Moor recommended holding the breath and
In the morning when ye rise
saying, three times, 'Hiccup— sniccup— look
Wash your hands, and cleanse your eyes.
Next be sure ye have a care. up— right up—three drops in a cup— is good for
the hiccup' (Moor, 1823: 167); long before
To disperse the water farre.
For as farre as that doth light. that, in 1584. Reginald *Scot commented,
So farre keepes the evill spright. 'Some will hold fast their left thombe in their
right hand when they hickot; or else will hold
(Another [Charme/)
their chinne with their right hand whiles a
Several of his poems are concerned with is
gospell soong.'
fairies, but in this area he was clearly drawing
Opie andTatem, 1989: 198-9.
on the hterary tradition of Spenser and Shake-
speare rather than the folk traditions of his
Devonshire parishioners. Hickathrift, Tom. A local hero in the Wis-
bech area of Cambridgeshire and Norfolk,
W. Carew Hazlitt (ed.), Hesperides: The Poems and Other
Remains of Robert Herrick Now First Collected (1869); L. C. amazingly strong, and almost a giant in size.
Martin (ed.). The Poems of Robert Herrick (1965). As a lad, he had seemed lazy and stupid, but
his huge strength enabled him to walk off"
Hey Diddle Diddle. The popular *nursery with two whole waggonloads of straw on his
rhyme, of which the Opies v\n:ote 'Probably the back, win a wager by draining a hogshead of
best-known nonsense verse in the language, a beer at one gulp, and kill a giant with the axle-
considerable amount of nonsense has been tree of his cart.A stone in Tilney churchyard
written about it'. The earUest known text dates (Norfolk) supposed to mark his grave (it is
is

from C.1765, and it has been regularly printed almost eight feet long); he threw it from a spot
with httle textual variation ever since. Some three miles away, demanding to be buried
Hickory Dickery Dock 176

where it fell. Two tall stones in Tilney, origin- counting, and these have become proverbial
ally the uprights of old crosses, are called his in their own right. What appear to be the
'candlesticks'; one has grooves across the top, earliest documentary references to the game
said to be the mark of his fingers. Tom's chief are in fact allusions to these sayings, and can-
exploits were printed in a *chapbook in the not therefore be counted as definite. Never-
18th century, and were well known in oral theless, if these prove to be true indications,
tradition too. He was also, until recent times, the game hasa long history, as Biron says in
used as a *bogeyman to frighten children into Shakespeare's love's Labours lost [N. iii) 'All hid,
good behaviour (Porter, 1969: 188-92; 1974: allhid— an old infant play' and Dekker 'Our
96-101). unhansomefac'd poet does play bo-peepes
with your Grace, and cryes all-hidde as boyes
doe' [Satiro-ma^ix (1602), v. iii).
Hickory Dickery Dock. One of our best-
known Gomme, 1894: 211-14; Opie and Opie, 1969: 151-75.
*nursery rhymes, but in former times
i.

it was used more as a *counting-out rhyme.

First printed about 1744, and reported regu-

Highgate horns. A custom which used to
larly in children's rhyme books and folklore
take place at Highgate, north London, was the
collections ever since, the rhjmie appears to
have been particularly popular in Scotland, 'swearing on the horns'. Anyone passing
and the Opies demonstrate the through the village for the first time was
similarity of
the with the old *'shepherds' count-
first line
requested to submit to a ceremony in one of
the local public houses conducted by the land-
ing' method, particularly popular in the
lord. By the time detailed accounts are avail-
northern counties, which includes the
able, the ceremony was highly facetious, and
numerals Hevera (8), Devera (9), Dick (10).
carried out with an eye to the tourist trade.
Opie and Opie, 1997: 244. The description in Hone's Every-Day Book is the
fullest. All nineteen pubs in the village offered
hide and seek. The most basic of children's the ceremony, and all had a similar outline in
games where somebody or something is hid- which the publican claims the newcomers as
den and then sought, hide and seek exists in a sons or daughters and insists they caU him
multitude of versions of which there are two father. He lays down various rules, such as:
basic forms. In the first form, an item is hid- 'you must not kiss the maid while you can kiss
den and the seeker has to find it, while the the mistress, except you like the maid the
other players indicate how far he/she is from best, but sooner than lose a good chance you
the item by shouting 'warm' (for close), 'cold' may kiss them both', and 'if at any time you
(for far away), and so on. This version is nor- are going through Highgate and want to rest
mally named after the item being sought— yourself, and you see a pig lying in a ditch you
Hunt the Thimble, for example. Nowadays have liberty to kick her out and take her place;
played almost exclusively by small children, but if you see three lying together you must
or by adults with smaU children to amuse, it only kick out the middle one and lie between
was one of the most popular Victorian parlour the other two'. At the end of the ceremony,
games, especially at *Christmas time. the newcomers have to kiss the horns.
The second basic form is where all the play- Swearing on the Highgate horns was knovm
ers except one (the seeker) go and hide. After far and wide, and people came specially to the
an agreed —
interval enforcedby the seeker village to be sworn, often in convivial parties.
counting to a hundred, or something The earUest known reference is to 1737
similar— he/she has to find the others, and the (quoted by Thome), but it was clearly in ftill
first one found becomes the new seeker and swing already at that date, and other 18th-
the last found is the winner. Again, in this century references abound. By the mid-1 9th
simple form Hide and Seek is mainly played by century, however, the custom was virtually
small children, but played outdoors with add- defimct. It is not known whether the custom
itions, such as allowing the players to change had always been jocular, or had previously
their hiding places, it is still the basis for many been serious. However, Wright's English Dialect
popular games. A number of characteristic Dictionary (iii. 159) glosses 'He has been sworn
calls have developed, such as 'All hid! All hid!' in at Highgate' as meaning 'he is very sharp or
when the players are ready, or 'Ready or not, clever'.
here I come!' when the seeker has finished Several theories of origin have been put
177
hiring fairs

forward. The simplest is that Highgate was was often undertaken communally, and
part of the manor of Homsey. The most logical accompanied by festivity.
is that Highgate was formerly one of the most The oldest are the White Horse of *Uffing-
important routes into London for cattle ton, the *Ceme Abbas Giant, and the Long Man
drovers, and the custom arose as some sort of of *Wilmington, the first being definitely pre-
occupational initiation ceremony. Hone also Christian, and the others arguably so (see
prints an anecdote about a horn custom for individual entries). From the later medieval,
new waggoners in
Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire. Tudor, and Stuart periods there are references
Compare also other *initiation ceremonies to four more giants, now lost (see *Gogmagog);
such as at *Hungerford Hocktide and *Stur- a medieval date is also possible for the lost Red
bridge Fair, and other symbolism under Horse of Tysoe (Warwickshire) and a cross at
*homs. Whiteleaf (Buckinghamshire). In the 18th and
Hone. 1827: ii. 40-4, 188-9; W. Carew Hazlitt, English 19th centuries new figures were cut on the
Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases (1905), 184; James Thome, orders of landovmers and clergy, intent on
Handbook to the Environs of London (1876; 1983 edn.), 346-7.
embellishing the landscape, or as pranks by
young men of the same class; the majority
highwaymen. Presumably at the time they were horses, of which sixteen survived when
were active, highwaymen were as much Morris Marples wrote in 1949, and the rest
dreaded and loathed by potential victims as crosses. Twentieth-century designs are varied:
street muggers are now, but time has softened there are regimental badges in Wiltshire dat-
and glamorized their image. The fame of Dick ing from the First World War; a crown was cut
Turpin did not wholly eclipse various local near Wye in Kent in 1902, and an aeroplane
figures, especially since the nature of their near Dover in 1909, to mark Bleriot's cross-
crime ensured that if caught they would be Channel flight.
hanged at the roadside, not in a prison, and See *UFFINGTON, *CERNE ABBAS, WILMING-
usually gibbetted, so their skeletons remained TON, *GOGMAGOG.
on view for many years. Various nameless For descriptions and documentary evidence, see Mar-
roadside *graves are said to be those of high-
ples, 1949, though its archaeology needs updating. Paul
waymen, buried beside the *gallows. Newman's Lost Gods of Albion (1997), has up-to-date
archaeology, but includes far-fetched theories, and
inaccurate assertions about mythology and folklore.
High Wycombe mayor-making. A unique
*civic custom, of unknov^oi origin, which is
recorded only from Victorian times in late hiring fairs. Also called statute, or mop fairs,
May. The incoming Mayor of High Wycombe, the ultimate origin of the hiring fair dates
Buckinghamshire, is weighed, in front of the from the time of Edward III, v^dth his attempt
Town Hall,on peculiar-looking scales which to regulate the labour market at a time of
have a seat suspended from a tall metal tripod. acute national shortage. Successive legislation
The new Mayor's weight is announced and (in particular the Statute of Apprentices of
recorded. The outgoing Mayor is then weighed 1563) provided for a particular day when the
and his/her weight compared to last year's. If high constables of the shire would proclaim
the Mayor has lost weight it is counted as a the stipulated rates of pay and conditions of
sign that he or she has been busy and worked emplo5mient for the coming year. As so many
hard, but if the weight has increased then he/ people, employers and employees alike, gath-
she is accused of attending too many civic ered at this event, it quickly turned into the
luncheons. The Deputy Mayors, Mayoresses, major place for matching workers and bosses.
and chief officers are also weighed if they Even when rates and conditions were no long-
wish. er officially set, the hiring fair was too usefiil

Rightly, 1986: 230-31; Sykes, 1977: 82-3; Shuel, 1985:

an institution to be allowed to lapse, especially
104. as much employment in rural areas was by the

year. Prospective employees would gather

in
hill figures. Certain steep chalk hills in the street or square, often with some sort of
southern England carry figures made by cut- badge or tool to denote their speciaUty— and
ting away turf and topsoil, visible for miles. employers would look them over and, if all
They can be either outUne drawings, or figures was well, strike a bargain for the coming year,
soUdly blocked out; they need regular main- handing over a shiUing (variously called earn-
tenance to prevent the return of grass, which estmoney, fest, *God's penny, arles) to seal it.
hob 178

Obviously, such gatherings attracted all the caution researchers to be careful in interpret-
other trappings and attractions of a real fair, ation of early records. He opts for an ultimate
and they turned into major festivals in their derivation from Scandinavian or Germanic
own right, and also attracted condemnation sources, although by an odd accident two of
for the dnmkenness and immorahty involved. the eariiest references are in a 14th-century
In some places, a few weeks after the hiring Welsh poem by Gruffud Gryg, and in the
fair, there would be a smaller gathering or Cornish play Beunas Meriasek (1504). In both
'runaway mop' to sort out any anomalies. Hir- cases, however, the actual term is in Enghsh.
ing fairs continued in some places well into The earliest reference to England comes
the 20th century, and even up to the Second between these two in time, in the church-
World War (Murfin, 1990: 47-8). wardens' accounts for St Andrew Hubbard, in
Hone, 1827: 86-9, 102; Stone, 1906: 10-11. London, for 1460/1: 'To Mayers child for dawn-
syng wt ye hobye hors'.
hob. In the north of England and some Mid- There are several types of hobby horse, with
lands counties, hob was the most common differences in construction, use, and historical
name for rough, hairy creatures of the development. Tourney Horses: the 'rider'
brownie type, whose work brought prosper- wears a roughly oval-shaped wooden or bas-
ity to farms; hke brownies, they might become
ketwork frame around his waist or chest, usu-
mischievous nuisances if annoyed, and would ally suspended by straps from his shoulders.
leave for ever if given new clothes. On the The frame has some sort of horse's head at one
other hand, it might prove impossible to get end and a tail at the other, and a piece of cloth
rid of a troublesome hob {Henderson, 1866: is fixed all the
way round, hanging like a skirt
228; Atkinson, 1891: 54-5). There were also to the ground and hiding the legs of the rider.
outdoor hobs, notably one living in a cave Stuffed dummy legs can be attached to the
called the Hobhole in Runswick Bay, supposed side to look like the rider's legs, but this seems
able to cure whooping cough (Wright, 1913: to be a much later embelUshment. Mast
202).
Horses: a horse's head (made either of wood or
There is no special significance to the name; from a real horse skull) is fixed to a p>ole about
a common medieval four or five feet tall. The bearer bends over and
it is shortening of
'Robert' or 'Robin', often implying 'country grasps the pole in front of him with two
bumpkin, stupid peasant'. The first record hands, and a cloth or sack is attached to the
of it being used of a supernatural being is pole and completely covers and hides the
from 1460; the compounds *hobgobMn and bearer. Sieve Horses: the bearer stands inside a
*hobthrush appear in the following century. large circular wooden frame (such as a farm
For discussion of this and related words, see Briggs, 1976: sieve) hung from his shoulders. A cloth hangs
222-3; and Gillian Edwards, Hobgoblin and Sweet Puck all the way round to hide him, with a horse's
(1974), 123-42. head and tail an imita-
attached. Stick horses:
tion horse's head is which
attached to a stick,
hobbit. This name, made famous by J. R. R. the rider bestrides and pretends to ride. The
Tolkien, does occur once, but only once, in latter has been famiUar as a children's toy for
traditional lore. *Denham compiled a list of centuries, but as far as is known does not play
202 fairies and spectres with which at one any part in traditional customs. It is worth
time 'the whole earth was so overrun that . . .
noting that with the stick horse, the person
there was not a village in England that had not rides the horse. With the mast and sieve
its own peculiar ghost'— or bogle, or fairy. horses, the person is the horse. In the case of
About three-quarters of the way through the tourney, the person both rides and is the
come: redmen, portunes, giants,
'. . . hobbits, horse, but the effect is predominantly the
hobgobUns, brown-men, cowies . . .'
(Denham former.
Tracts, 1895: ii. 77-80). Historical records concerning hobby horses
are almost exclusively concerned with tour-
hobby horses. The literature on the hobby ney horses; although many of the early
horse has been expertly collected and ana- records do not stipulate the type of horse con-
lysed by Dr E. C. Cawte, and this entry relies cerned, the cumulative evidence is over-
heavily on his findings. Cawte discusses the whelmingly in the tourney horse's favour. In
various meanings of the term 'hobby horse', itslong history, the tourney horse turns up in
which need not concern us here but which a number of different contexts: ecclesiastical.
179
hobby horses
municipal, court, theatrical, and with the onwards. Cawte suggests that this type of
morris dance. hobby horse is either a modified tourney
In addition to the 1460 London reference, horse or, conceivably, vice versa.
records show that the hobby horse was one of The mast horses, although apparently much
the major ways of raising money for the rougher and cruder than the tourney horses,
church in several parishes— either for special appear much later in the historical record,
purposes, such as candles, or for general from the mid-1 9th century onwards. In many
upkeep— from 1529 until well into the 17th cases they appear on their own, as a *visiting
century. Accounts include numerous entries custom, but they are more likely to be found
formoney collected, and also for expenditiu-e as part of or accompanying, other groups
on making and repairing the horse, for paint- such as *mummers, *wassailers, and so on. In
ing and decorating it, and for people to take the category of mast horse, it is convenient to
the hobby horse role, and show that the per- include other animals constructed on the
formances took place mainly in the *New Year. same lines. Examples of the genre are *01d
Municipal horses were more often summer Tup, *01d Horse, the Broad, the Wild Horse,
*
beasts, appearing in Midsummer Watch and Old Ball, and *Hooden Horse. Even if the very
other *civic processions, often in conjunction important custom of the Mari Lwyd, found
with *giants and other processional figures, only in South Wales, is included, the earliest
while in civic pageants there could be troupes record is still only 1798 (see Cawte, 1978: 94-
of horses and mock jousts. Another context 109). The two unique horses, from *Padstow
for hobby horse performance was at the court, (Cornwall) and *Minehead (Somerset), are also
where they are mentioned on several occa- described under their own headings. The Pad-
sions between 1551 and 1575, often as an stow horse in particular has the feeling of an
element in the Christmas/New Year celebra- archaic custom, but even this is only recorded
tions organized by the official Lord of Misrule. from 1803, and Minehead from about 1830.
In addition to church, town, and court horses, The idea, proposed by Violet *Alford and
there are also a few references in this period to others, that these hobby-horse customs are a
traveUing players and/or entertainments at direct survival of primitive humans' ritual
the homes of the well-off" or in the presence of behaviour is not borne out by the available
local dignitaries, such as the two records of evidence. Certainly the early Church fathers
performances 'before the mayor' at Newcastle fulminate against people dressing in animal
and August 1600.
in June 1567 skins, but, as has been shown, the hobby
From the end of the 16th century, hterary horses and other animals of the 15th to 17th
sources and, particularly, theatrical produc- centuries are a very far cry from these skin-
tions, includenumerous references to hobby clad characters. Our hobby horses are suf-
horses and indeed regularly introduce them ficiently respectable to be not merely toler-
on to the stage. Cawte (1978: 48-53) provides a ated but actually organized and owned by
hst of plays in which hobby horses are men- church, guild, and corporation. Admittedly,
tioned or appear, commencing with Paris and the Puritans of the 17th century argued
Vienna,performed at court in 1572, and includ- against these horses, but then they forbade
ing pieces by Shakespeare, Dekker, Jonson, virtually everything which was fiin, and their
and Beaumont. In the playwright's mind, the displeasure can hardly be used as evidence of
hobby horse is inextricably bound up with the realpagan origins.
*morris dance, and the horse is rarely men- The more rough and ready mast horses,
tioned on its own. Descriptions in the plays which are apparently more akin to what
and pictorial illustrations of the period (e.g. primitives might be expected to construct, are
the anonymous painting The Thames at Rich- nearly all reported from the 19th century
mond, C.1620) confirm that the horse here was onwards, and so there is the paradox that the
a tourney horse. Apart from various revival apparently rough and primitive comes after
morris teams, the only surviving traditional the relatively respectable. As is so often the
tourney horses are those which accompany case with English seasonal customs, writers
the *Abbots Bromley Horn Dancers, and Chris- have recourse to foreign analogues to attempt
topher the *Sahsbury Giant. to bridge the historical lacunae, and in this
The sieve horse only appears in Lincoln- case there are unusually close analogues
shire, as part of the local *mumming or woo- which can perhaps be taken into account. The
ing plays, which are recorded from the 1820s most important foreign evidence is found in
hobgoblin

Scandinavia, in the form of the Julebukk or hobhurst, hobthrust, hobthrush. A variant

Julegeit, 'Christmas goaf, although
appears it name for a *hob, whether in his capacity as
under various other names as well. This goat domestic helper or out-of-doors trickster,
was widespread across Norway, Sweden, and found in Yorkshire, Westmorland, and Lanca-
Denmark, up to the 19th century, as a visiting shire. It is uncertain whether the second
custom across the whole midwinter period, syUable comes from Old English thurs, 'giant,
sometimes on its own and sometimes with demon', or Middle English hurst, 'grove, clump
other semi-dramatic customs and/or songs of trees'.
detailing its exploits and death. The goat's A note in The Lonsdale Magazine or Kendal
construction almost exactly the same as our
is Repository for the Year 1822 (ui. 254) defines him
mast horse, except that the animal's species weU:
gave the opportunity for fearsome horns, and Hobthrust, or as he was more generally called,
the bearer was more Ukely to be covered in Throb-Thrush, was a being distinct from fairies. He
furs than in the EngUsh examples. Its was a solitary being who resided in Millom and had
behaviour was also very similar. The earUest his regular range of farm houses. He seems to have
references predate our mast horses by a con- been a kind spirit, and willing to do anything he was

siderable margin, although not that of the required to do. His only reward was a quart of milk
porridge, in a snipped (chipped) pot. The servant
EngUsh tourney horses. The earliest Danish
record occurs in 1543, when farmers were girls would regularly put the cream in the chum, and
say, 'Iwish Throb would chum that', and they regu-
warned against 'all-night drinking and unsuit- found it done He left the country at last,
larly
able night-time entertainments' such as the
through the kindness of a tailor, who made him a
Hvegehors ('Rocking-horse') and Julebuk, but coat and a hood to keep him warm during the win-
the first definite description of the goat dates ter. He was heard singing at night in his favourite
from 1646. The origin and development of this haimts,
goat figure open to debate, but should
is still
'Throb-Thmsh has got a new coat and a new hood.
be closely monitored by EngUsh researchers, And he'll never do more good.'
and ftirther comparative research into animal
disguise in Germanic countries should also be Hocktide. The second Monday and Tuesday
encouraged. There are glimpses of more after * Easter
were termed Hocktide. In the
primitive behaviour, even in England, as in Middle Ages these were days marked with fes-
this fi:om Northumberland: tivitiesand rejoicing, although the only place
that remembers them now is *Hungerford in
New Year's Day— On day of festivity mirth is
this
Berkshire. The most widespread custom was
excited by a rustic masquerading and playing tricks
in disguise; the hide of the ox slain for the winter for the women of the village to capture any
cheer is often put on, and the person thus attired men they met, bind them with ropes, and ref-
attempts to show the character of the Devil by every use to set them free until they had paid a small
horrible device in his power. (W. Hutchinson, A View ransom. This happened on one of the Hock
of Northumberland (1778), ii. Appendix 19; quoted by days, while on the other it was the men who
Balfour, 1904: 63).
captured the women. It appears that originaUy
Cawte, 1978; Alford, 1978; Violet Alford, JEfDSS 3:4 the participants kept the money collected
(1939), 221-40; Terry Gunnell, The Orisim of Drama in
themselves, but later it went to the church,
Scandinavia (1995), 107-28.
and is therefore often recorded in the
churchwardens' account books in the 15th
hobgoblin. This common Elizabethan vari- and 16th centuries. It is noticeable that the
name *hob could be used for help-
ant on the women gathered far more money than the
ful household fairies, as when Robert Burton men:
writes of 'Hobgoblins and Robin Goodfellows
that would, in these superstitious times,
1499 It. rec. of hok money gaderyd of women 20s
It. rec. of hok money gaderyd of men 4s
grinde come for a mess of milk, cut wood, or
(St Leonard's church, Reading)
do any maner of drudgery work' (Anatomy of
Melancholy (1621), part 1, section 2, subsection Other account books show that the collectors
2). However, 'gobUn' on its own generally expected a feast for their troubles. The earliest
implies a frightening or even demonic crea- references are to attempts to tame or suppress
ture, and 'hobgobUn' sometimes shared these the custom, in London in 1406 and 1409. In
associations. In more modem use, 'hobgobUn' many places, the binding with ropes was
often carries humorous overtones. replaced by a rope stretched across the road.
181 Hole, Christina

but as late as 1540 a writer could still refer to the same sort of people who served as
the binding: churchwardens— and that some places had
several groups, organized on guild Unes.
Women for the noble acte that they did in the
distmction of the Danes, whych so cruelly reigned in Other references indicate the men going
this realme have a dale of memorye therof called hoghng at Christmas, while the women went

hoptide, wherin it is them to take men,

leaful for at Easter. As further references come to
light,
bjnide, wasshe them, they will give them nothing
if the exact nature of hogling will, it is hoped, be-
to bankett .
(Quoted in Journal of the Warburg and
. .
come clearer. What needs to be investigated,
Courtauld Institutes 20 (1957), 178)
however, is why hoglers are mentioned in cer-
This account also contains the popular tain southern counties— Somerset, Devon,

explanation for the custom, that it com- Sussex, Surrey, Kent, Gloucestershire— but
memorates a time when a group of Saxon not in the Midlands or north of England. The
women outwitted and captured some invad- name also opens up areas of investigation.
ing Danes.
What is the relationship between hoglers and
It is clear that there is a connection between Hogmanay, the name for New Year in Scotland
Hocktide capturing customs and the Easter and the north of England? The first reference
custom of *Lifting, or Heaving, which took to the latter only dates from c.1680 (OED), 200

place on the Monday and Tuesday foUov^ng years after the first southern occurrence. Der-
Easter, with the same sex division on the ivations of 'Hogmanay' usually cite the medi-
two days. The distribution map presented by eval French word aguillanneuf (meaning
Hutton shows that the two customs were 'New Year' or 'New Year's Gift') as possible
found in different areas of the country, with source. A
cognate (and perhaps earlier) term
in the south of England would help explain
hardly any overlap. Lifting was confined to
western counties (but not the south-west) and the connection, but more work needs to be
north Wales, whereas the Hocktide captiu-e done.
was found in a strip up the central south of James Stokes, "The Hoglers: Evidences of an Entertain-
ment Tradition in Eleven Somerset Parishes, Somerset
England and to the east (but not East Anglia).
N&Q. 32 (1990). 807-17; Uvedale Lambert, 'Hognel Money
They would seem, therefore, to be regional and Hogglers', Surrey Archaeolo^cal Collections 30 (1917),
same custom.
variations of the 54-60; Hutton, 1996: 12-13.
The *mock mayor ceremony at *Randv^ck,
Gloucestershire, also took place at Hocktide.
Hole, Christina (1896-1985). Her books were
Wright and Lones, 1936: 1. 124-9; Hutton, 1996: 206-13;

N&Q. 10s:ll (1909), 488; 10s:12 (1909), 71-3, 139, 214,

vmtten for a 'general pubUc' assumed to have
253-4, 514-15. no prior expertise, but without ever stooping
to sensationalism or inaccuracy. Her first book
hoglers. A puzzle for scholars for years, and on folklore, Traditions and Customs of Cheshire
their exact nature and role is only now (1937), drew on close personal knowledge of
becoming clear. In many surviving parish that area; her later ones ranged further, but
records, particularly churchwardens' she always tried to observe as many festivals
accounts, from the 15th, to early 17th centur- and seasonal customs as possible at first hand.
ies, hoglers (sometimes hogglers, hognelers, She was always more concerned to describe
or hoggeners) are hsted as contributing sub- clearly what was currently done than to specu-
stantial amounts to parish coffers, on a regu- late on remote origins and lost meanings; her
lar basis,year after year. By comparing all books therefore remain reUable introductions
these entries it has become clear that these to this aspect of folklore, the most important
people would go round the parish collecting being English Ctistom and Usage (1941-2), English
money (and/or com) for the church, at a Traditional Customs (1975), and British Folk Cus-
period before organized church rates existed toms (1976). She also wrote introductory sur-
(compare also *church ales). In most cases, veys of ghost-lore in Haunted England (1940)
their activities were concentrated in the and of witch behefs in Witchcraft In England
*Christmas-*New Year period, and there are (1945; more accurately renamed Witchcraft in
hints that they went in procession and some Britain in the 1977 edition), good for their time
of them at least entertained potential donors but now outdated. The full Ust of her publica-
with songs. The records indicate that the tions is considerable.
hoglers were usually drawn from the ranks of From 1956 to 1978 she devoted much time
the respectable and respected parishioners— and care to editing Folklore, thus contributing
holed stones 182

to the post-war revival of the Folklore Society Later Cornish writers add ftirther details
as a focus for scholarship. current in their own times, e.g. that the stone
For tributes, bibliography, and obituaries, see Folklore 90 cured and a crick in the neck or back
scroftila
(1979), 665-6: 97 (1986). 109-10; The Times (29 Nov. 1985); (and hence was called the Crick Stone), that
Jacqueline Simpson, 'Christina Hole', in Women and Trad- those using it must pass through it three or
ition, ed. Hilda Davidson and Carmen Blacker
nine times, that the children must be naked.
(forthcoming).
Such beUefs were more often linked to nat-
holed stones. One of the most widespread ural features, there being no other megahths
with suitable holes in:
magic devices to protect both man and beast
was a pebble with a natural hole in it, also called In various parts of (Cornwall) there are, amongst the
'hagstone', 'witch-stone', or (in the north-east) granitic masses, rocks which have fallen across each
'adder-stones'. They were beUeved to repel other, leaving small openings, or there are holes, low
witchcraft, and consequently any disease and narrow, extending under a pile of rocks. In near-
caused by spells or the *evil eye; in particular, ly every case of this kind we find it popularly stated,
* that anyone suffering from rheumatism or lumbago
they prevented hag-riding. The earliest allu-
sion is in a 15th-century charm against *night- would be cured if he crawled through the openings.
mares (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 199, 378-9). (Hunt, 1865: 177)

Small ones could be carried in the pocket or This phrasing opens the possibility that, at
hung up over the bed; larger ones were used in any rate in some cases and from some
stables, as described by Aubrey: 'in the West of
speakers, the statement was a poker-faced
England (& 1 beleeve, almost everywhere in joke— for is it not plain that anybody who
this nation), the Carters, & Groomes, & Host-
managed to crawl through such a hole could
lers doe hang a flint (that has a hole in it) over not possibly be suffering from lumbago?
Horses that are hagge-ridden for a Preservative
against it' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 28). A variation,
still known in the niid-20th century, was to holly. Without doubt the most popular plant
for *Christmas decorations, the holly has sev-
hang the stone on the stable door; usually the
eral associated traditions, most of which are
doorkey or a bit of old chain would be
attached to its power with that
sometimes stated, however, that
p)ositive. It is
it, reinforcing
of *iron. The cowshed could be protected in it isunlucky to bring holly into the house at
the same way. A correspondent to N&Q^in July times other than Christmas, and Vickery
1894 said that in Whitby (Yorkshire) small reports some households which will not allow
stones were tied to front-door keys 'to ensure the plant indoors at any time. Nevertheless, in
Worcestershire and Herefordshire, a small
prosperity to the house and its inmates', and
in August another said boatmen in Weymouth piece of holly which had adorned a church at
fastened them to the bows as charms to keep Christmas time was regarded as very lucky to
their boats safe. Small fossil sponges of the hang up in your house, even though the
domestic decorations had to be burnt as usual
species Porosphaera are commonly found with
natural holes in them; in Victorian times, (Nad 5s:ll(1879), 206). The two types-
necklaces of them were sold 'for luck' in pricklyand smooth— have been the focus for a
much worn by minor domestic battle of the sexes— if the
Brighton (Sussex), and were
women of fishing families. prickly holly was brought in first, the man
One megalithic monument, Men-an-Tol at would rule, but if smooth holly preceded it,
Madron in Cornwall, consists of a disk-Uke the wife would be master (N&(1 lls:6 (1912),
holed stone about four feet in diameter, set up 486, also lls:4 (1911), 526).
on edge between two standing stones, which Holly trees were beUeved to be generally
has long been credited with heahng powers. and other evils, and
protective against witches
W. C. Borlase wrote:
were thus planted near churches and houses,
as noticed by John Aubrey (1686: 189). In par-
When was last at this Monument,
I in the year 1749,
ticular they were a good place to shelter in a
a very intelligent farmer of the neighbourhood
storm because they were never struck by
assur'd me, that he had known many persons who
had crept through this holed Stone for pains in their lightning. It is still considered unlucky by
back and limbs, and that fanciful parents, at certain many to cut down a holly bush or tree, a belief
times of the year, do customarily draw their young which dates back at least to the 15th century.
Children thro', in order to cure them of the Rickets. A good crop of berries on the holly is still said
(Borlase, 1754: 178-9) to betoken a hard winter on the way. Because
 Holy Thorn

of its connection with Christmas, 'green holly' which never bears leaves before St Bamabas's
has long been the emblem of mirth and jollity Day (11 June),but then suddenly becomes
for poets and playwrights (see N8(i 12s:5 fully leaved. The other is a group of three haw-
(1919), 319; 12s:6 (1920), 21-2, 52 for thorns growing *in Werrall' which produce
examples). A practical use for holly, so far buds and green leaves at Christmas 'as firesh as
recorded only in the 19th and 20th centuries, others in May'.
is for curing chilblains by thrashing them with 'Werrair is a hill south of the town, now
the spiked leaves or, in some cases, rubbing called Weary-All Hill; the poem says nothing
them with powdered holly berries or their about how the trees came to be there. By the
ashes. Holly could also be used in *love time of Elizabeth 1 there was apparently only
divination. one, but it had two trunks. Its Christmas blos-

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 199-201; Vickeiy, 1995: 179-82;

soms were treasured as holy; it is said that an
Henderson, 1879: 99-100. Elizabethan Puritan took offence at this and
chopped one trunk down, but was miracu-
Holy Innocents' Day (28 December). This lously punished when he cut his own leg, and
feast honours the babies massacred at Bethle- a chip from the tree blinded him in one eye. In
hem on Herod's orders (Matthew 2: 1-18); also 1639 Peter Mundy found it 'standing Neg-
formerly called Childermas. Although falling lected by the highe waies side. Now ready to
within the joyful Christmas season, it was Fall downe for age'; he was willing to beUeve
thought an extremely unlucky day on which that it bloomed
at midwinter, 'Butt that, as
one must avoid beginning any important some say, should have No appearance off
it

work. It was particularly feared by *fishermen, anything att all on Christmas Eave and thatt
and by Cornish housewives, who would not on Christmas day in the Morning itt shall bee
wash clothes or do any scrubbing and clean- Full off leaves and blossomes requires to bee

ing. Numerous communities marked the day prooved' {Traveb, iv, p. xxxi).
with muffled peals on the church bells. The ill A Roundhead destroyed what was left of this
luck was often felt to extend all through the tree, but many cuttings had been taken; in
year to whichever day of the week the feast 1645 people were still visiting a Glastonbury
had fallen on (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 70). Thorn and taking twigs as souvenirs, believing
The only lighter side of the day was the that it was from a tree of this type that Christ's
notion that children should be indulged more crown of thorns was made— or even that this
than usual. In the early years of the 19th cen- particular tree had grown from a single thorn
tury, for instance, children were allowed to from Christ's crown, planted by *Joseph of
play in the church at Exton (Rutland) on Inno- Arimathea.
cents' Day (LeicestershireN&Q, 1: 293; quoted in What is now the best-known legend first

Billson, 1895: 96), and William Henderson appeared in 1722; it had been recently col-

reports it an appropriate day for children's lected orally from a Glastonbury innkeeper.
treats and parties (Henderson, 1879: 72). In He used to tell how Joseph and his travelUng
places where there was a *boy bishop in pre- companions halted on the hill. 'Friends, we
Reformation times, this date marked the cU- are weary all!' cried Joseph, driving his staff
max and conclusion of his term of office by a into the ground, where it took root and
procession and a church service at which he became the first Holy Thorn. Thus the hill got
preached. its name, in a clever but rather frivolous pun,

typical of *placename legends. Other

versions

Holy Rood, Cross Day (14 September). This say Joseph's staff blossomed in answer to
medieval feast, celebrating the supposed dis- prayer, as a miracle to convert local heathens.
covery of Christ's cross by St Helena, remained On Christmas Eve in 1752 hundreds of
day on which to abandon one's
traditionally a people gathered at Glastonbury, and in other
normal work and go *nutting. places where descendants of the original
thorn were growing, to see if they would
*
Holy Thorn. There is a variety of hawthorn bloom as usual; they did not, but on the night
which blooms twice a year, at midwinter as of 5/6 January 1753 they did. This was held to
well as in May. A poem about the miracles of 1752 was
prove that the calendar change of
Glastonbury, written in 1502, mentions two invahd. and 25 December no longer the 'real'
'great marvels' to be seen there. One is a wal- Christmas Day (The Gentleman's Magazine
nut tree near * Arthur's grave in the cemetery. (1753), 49, 578-9).
Holy Thursday 184

Every Christmas sprigs from a holy thorn in very much in demand today. Other books
the churchyard of St John's Church, Glaston- written by Hone of particular interest to folk-
bury, are sent to the Queen and the Queen lorists are Ancient Mysteries Described (1823),
Mother; this custom began in 1929, when the which was an examination of the Coventry
then vicar sent one to Queen Mary. He was *mystery plays; and an edition of "^Strutt's
recalling an incident in Stuart times, when the Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (1830).
Bishop of Bath and Wells sent twigs from both DNB; Dorson, 1968: 35-43.
the walnut and the hawthorn to Queen Anne,
wife of James 1.
honeysuckle. The strong scent of honey-
Vickery, 1995: 182-7. suckle and the
way it twines round the stems
of other plants are the likely reasons why it
Holy Thursday. Formerly, a name for *Ascen- symbolizes erotic love. When it coils tightly
sion Day; not to be confused with *Maundy round a grovdng plant, the latter develops
Thursday. spiralling grooves and swellings; hazel rods
distorted in this way were prized for walking
sticks, called 'honeysuckle sticks' or 'twisty
holy wells, see *wells. sticks'. In Sussex, these were thought to bring
luck, especially to young men who were
Hone, William (1780-1842), Best remem- courting.
bered by historians as an energetic and
enthusiastic champion of Uberty and equality Honiton Fair. Honiton's charter fair, dating
and a trenchant critic of the political estab- from 1221, lasts for three days, and is one of
Ushment of the day. As journalist, printer, the few which preserve the ancient 'Glove is
publisher, book, and print-seller, he was up' custom. In former times, while a fair was
involved in numerous campaigns, and was in progress special rules applied as regards
well knov^^ for his pamphlets and political
who was allowed to trade in the town and
squibs. Folklorists, however, remember him what rights and privileges they had. It was
for his later works, the four thick volumes of
thus important that it was clear to all when
miscellaneous material, commencing v^dth The the fair officially started and finished, and the
Every-Day Book. This was a weekly miscellany, normal way to do this was to exhibit a large
launched in January 1825 and continuing to hand or glove. At Honiton in Devon, the Town
December 1827, which was then bound up Crier appears at midday on the first Tuesday
into a two-volume set. It included a wide range
after 19 July, St Margaret's Eve, canying a
of material, some of it linked to the calendar twelve-foot pole, covered with flowers, and on
but much of it apparently stuck in where
top a gilded leather glove. He calls out:
there was room, and it included a great deal of
folklore in the form of calendar customs, Oyez, Oyez, Oyez
The glove is up
saints' legends, superstitions, and general folk
The Fair has begun
life. The serial publication allowed readers to
No man shall be arrested until the glove is taken
become contributors, and Hone repeatedly down
urged his readers to collect information and God save the Queen
send it in. Many of the most useful pieces are
All the children in the audience echo his words
eyewitness accounts of local customs which
would not otherwise have seen the light of as he speaks. Next, hot coppers are thrown
from an upstairs window of the Angel Hotel,
day, and they save the books from being mere
to be * scrambled for. The whole process is
regurgitations of previous writers' material.
Hone also had relatively high editorial stand- repeated outside the King's Arms, and later in
ards for his time and insisted that his contri- the week at the White Lion. The glove is taken
butors give proper bibliographic references. down to signify the official end to the fair.
The Every-Day Book became sufficiently popular Rightly, 1986: 123-4; Hogg, 1971: 36-7; Sykes. 1977: 109.
for Hone to publish two sequels— The Table
Book (1827) and The Year Book (1831-2). Again, Hood, Robin see *robin hood.
the excellent engravings added to their charm.
Hone's works thus joined those of *Brand and Hooden Horse. One of a range of animal-
*Strutt as essential reading for the 19th- disguise customs, Hoodening can be regarded
century antiquarian-folklorist, and are still as a regional variant of the *hobby horse.
 hop-picking customs

being recorded in about 30 places in east Kent ming test, but there is no evidence to support
and nowhere else. The custom took place at this.

Christmas, and the team of between four to His reputation was maintained in popular
eight farmworkers visited the neighbourhood memory. In the 1930s, Gerald *Gardner was
houses and pubs performing, singing, and col- given a rod topped with a cross, carved with
lecting money. The central character was the the name 'Matthew Hopkins', and labelled
horse which was made up of a wooden head 'Matthew Hopkins's sceptre or tutti-stick, used
on a pole, carried by a man who was bent by him in his fravels in the South of England
double, leaning on the pole, under a dark finding and exposing witches. Circa 1790'.
cloth covering. The head was decorated with Likewise, a box containing various dried
horse brasses, rosettes, ribbons, and so on, and leaves, twigs, scraps of skin and bone with
had snapping jaws operated by a string from magical signs on, a doll's head pierced with a
inside. The horse had a Groom (or Waggoner pin, a human finger bone, a lead six-pointed
or Driver) who led him around and who car- star, and a parchment reading: 'Matthew
ried a whip. There was also a Jockey, who tried Hopkins's tahsman against alle witches craft.'
to ride the horse, a man-woman (MoUie), and A label on the box itself reads: 'This talisman,
musicians. The earliest mention is in 1736, made and sold by Matthew Hopkins about
which refers to 'Hooding' and is so brief as to 1790, was given to me by my father, Joseph
be inconclusive, and a better description Carter, of Home Farm, Hill Top, near Marlbor-
appeared in the European Magazine in May ough, and contains the finger etc. of Maiy
1807. The custom seems to have died out Holt, a notorious Wiltshire witch. Signed S.
about 1908. Various suggestions have been Carter' (G. B. Gardner, Folk-Lore 50 (1939), 188-
made regarding the name of the custom. The 90, with illustrations). The date is obviously
most convincing are that 'hooden' may be wrong; perhaps these objects were bought in
from 'wooden' or perhaps 'hooded'. 1790 from a Wiltshire *cunning man, who was
Percy Maylam, The Hooden Horse: An East Kent Christmas claiming either to have inherited them from
Custom (1909); Cawte, 1978: 85-93. Hopkins or to be following a Hopkins recipe.
There are references to Hopkins in all books on English
Hopkins, Matthew (d. 1647). Notorious for witchcraft, the fullest analysis being in Sharpe, 1996:
128-47; see also Deacon, 1976.
having instigated England's only large-scale
witch-hunt, in East Anglia in 1645/6, in which
nearly 250 people were tried or investigated; hop-picking customs. The customs and
court records being incomplete, the actual beUefs of the hop field have not received much
number executed is unknown, but 100 seems attention, but it is clear that there were a
a reasonable minimum. Hopkins belonged to number of traditional practices associated
the minor Puritan gentry, being the son of a with the hop farm. In premechanical days,
Suffolk minister and himself a lawyer; he hops were harvested by groups of visiting
called himself the 'Witch-Finder General', and workers who descended on the hop farm for
at first was well supported by the local com- the brief intensive effort needed to harvest the
munities. He and his associate John Steame crop. In addition to local workers, there were
claimed expertise in identifying witches; sus- strong traditions of urban working<lass
pects were stripped and their bodies examined women and children using the hop fields as a
for marks where *familiars sucked, and then paid holiday, and the hop fields of Kent and
kept awake, still naked and tied in uncomfort- Sussex were thus picked by Londoners, while
able positions, till they confessed. This came the Hereford and Worcester farms were visit-
close to torture, which was illegal; when cir- ed by families from the industrial Black Coun-
cuit judges from London next visited Essex, try. Two customs reported by Leather
the activities of Hopkins and Steame were (1912:105-6) both have close analogies in the
terminated. After a bUstering attack from a grain *harvest field. It was customary for any
clergyman, John Gaule, both men wrote book- stranger who entered the hop field to be
lets defending their work: Hopkins, The Dis- 'cribbed', that is, seized by the pickers and
covery of Witches (1647), and Steame, A Confirm- thrown into one of the cribs into which the
ation and Discovery of Witchcraft (1648). Hopkins hops are gathered, and 'one or two of the old-
died in 1647, probably of tuberculosis; legend estand fattest women would be thrown in too'
alleged that he had himself been suspected of whom he had to kiss before he was released
to avoid this
witchcraft and made to undergo the swim- (Leather, 1912: 105). The only way
Hopscotch 186

treatment was for the stranger to pay his 'foot- beds, as the earhest form, which was
ing' (compare *ocaipational customs) by giv- developed in two main ways. One was to add a
ing money to the pickers. At the end of the semicircular bed at the top (usually used for
picking season, the pickers chose a King and turning round and/or resting in), the other was
Queen from among their own number, who to divide alternate beds in half This provides
were dressed up in flowers and ribbons, and for the basic movement of hop (into a whole
these two led the procession, which included bed), spUt (one foot in each half-bed), hop,
hoi>-poles also decorated with ribbons, to a and so on. A further variation is to divide
spht,
nearby bam, where they spent the evening in some beds with diagonal hues, thus quarter-
merrymaking. A feature which distinguishes ing them. Other major variants are Spiral
this from usual harvest custom is that the man Hopscotch, and ball Hopscotch.
dressed as the Queen and the woman as the
Opie and Opie, 1997: 95-109; Gomme, 1894: i. 223-7.
King.
There were variations, however, in both
Horn Fair, see *charlton horn fair, *eber-
these practices.The Heme Bay Gazette (13 Dec. NOE HORN FAIR.
1985), for example, shows a Hop Queen of the
1960s who was a real woman, and an engrav-
horns. In popular culture for centuries past,
ing in the Penny Magazine of 21 November 1835
the phrase 'he wears the horns' was used to
shows that this was not a recent alteration. In
the version of 'cribbing' described by Faulkn- designate a cuckold, and rather than bringing
forth sympathy it has been treated as a joke of
er, it was the foreman or overseer who was
thrown in the crib, when the end of the season which people never seem to tire. The meta-
approached.
phor of the horns was so well understood that
it could be referred to obhquely by writers—
Leather also reports a superstition of the
Herefordshire hoppers that they believed it
'Let him dub her husband knight of the forked
order' (1592) and also in Shakespeare's Titus
was lucky to bum old boots before starting a
Andronicus ((1594) ii. iii). An appropriate ges-
journey, and they would do this before going
home. ture, with index and little finger extended,
thumb and other fingers curled into the palm,
Leather, 1912: 105-6, 258; Christine Faulkner, Folk Life
30 (1991/2), 7-16; Richard Fihner, Hops and Hop Picking
was available for insulting people: one story
(1982).
which attempts to account for this explains
that the knights who were away on the Cru-
sades used the symbol of the horn as a device
Hopscotch. The well-known children's game
which involves a pattern of squares (beds) on their shields, and a horn therefore came to
marked on the ground, into which players mean someone who had been away from his
wife for a long time. See also *Charlton Horn
throw a stone and travel across them in a ser-
Fair for another alleged cuckoldry connection.
ies of hops and jumps, sometimes kicking the
stone as they go. The pattern varies consider-
A different kind of symbolism is sketched
out by William Andrews (Old Church Lore
ably within the basic oblong shape, as do the
instructions as to which squares need to be (1891), 65-79) in the form of 'charter horns'.
He identifies several existing horns which are
avoided, the sequence of hops, and so on. As
taken as evidence of ancient land grants or
with all children's games, the terminology
also varies. The general name 'Hopscotch' charters, and Unks these with customs which
or,
almost as frequent in earUer times, 'Scotch-
still have homblowing elements such as
*Hungerford Hocktide, and the *Ripon
hoppers', refers to hopping over the scotches,
or marks scored in the ground, rather than
homblower.
See also: *abbots bromley horn dance;
containing any reference to Scotland. The
earliest definite illustration of the game is
*charlton fair; *ebernoe horn fair;
found in Jacques Stella, Les]eux etplaisirs de I'en- *highgate horns; *ripon hornblower;
*BAINBRIDGE HORNBLOWER; HUNGERFORD
fance (1657), although it is usually presumed to
be much older. It is not mentioned in English HOCKTIDE, *WEYHILL FAIR.
until WiUiam King, Useful Transactions in Phil- Hazlitt, 1905: 327-8.

osophy (1709), but there are numerous refer-

ences from that time onwards. horse brasses. Brass plaques as omaments
The Opies identify the basic 'ladder' shape, were first made
for the harness of cart-horses
with a number of equal-sized and same-shaped in the late 18th century; they became very
187 horseman's word

popular in the 1850s, replacing an older style 'mysterious', and usually couched in terms of
of adornment with ribbons, woollen fringes, traditional tales rather than hard evidence.
and tooled leather. In some were
areas brasses George Ewart Evans's work sheds the most
still in normal use in the 1920s, and can still on the
light subject. He maintains the horse-
be seen at horse-shows and parades (Brears, man's power was based on a knowledge of
real
1981). certain preparations of herbs and oils which
The oldest examples are also the simplest, acted powerfiiUy on the horse's sense of smell.
and seem to be rural imitations of the silver His informants, however, beheved that the
heraldic badges worn by the carriagehorses of power came with possession of a particular
the gentry. A
wide range of designs soon toad or frog's bone, gathered in a certain way,
appeared, some figurative and some geo- and then treated in a special secret manner,
metric; they included crescents and suns, which gave the name 'Toadmen' to the indi-
which might be interpreted as lucky sjonbols, viduals with the power.
and the *horseshoe, an undoubted *charm. It is A particular breed of *toad was sought (the
doubtful whether there was deliberate magic- natterjack, or hufo calamita, according to one of
al intent, since there was apparently no previ- Evans's informants). It was killed and hung on
ous Enghsh tradition of metal charms on a whitethorn bush for 24 hours to dry, and
horses. In a general sense, however, anything then buried for a month in an ant-hill to
shiny and eye-catching can protect against the remove the flesh. At the next fiill moon, the
*evil eye and *witchcraft. Popular writers have skeleton was placed in a running stream,
latchedon to this possibihty, creating a feed- where one particular bone should float
back which confuses the issue. Nowadays, upstream. The participant must watch it care-
some country people say horse brasses are fully,and ignore the terrible noises which will
merely ornaments, while others say: 'The rea- —
occur just behind him on no account must
son that metal was put onto the horse's straps he look round or he will lose to the power. The
was to protect the horse from bad influences; special bone is taken home, treated with par-
iron was thought to be a good metal for the ticular oils, baked, and powdered, and this
job'; or. 'you put the head piece to protect
. . .
gives the bearer power over horses (and, in
their head and the breast piece to keep away some versions, pigs and women). Evans also
evil spirits from their heart'; or, 'horses wore describes an alternative preparation based on
metal on their head and heart to stop witches the 'milt',which is an oval-shaped lump of
putting a spell on them' (Sutton, 1997: 36). fibrous matter found in a foal's mouth
inunediately after it is bom. The ritual con-
horseman's word. In the days when experi- vinced the horsemen, and was used by them to
enced horsemen were skilled and valued agri- impress others, that they were dealing with
cultural workers, many beheved in their abil- evil powers or the Devil himself, and thus the

ity to controlhorses in mysterious and magic- power they gained was both mysterious and
al ways, reputedly by whispering a secret word dangerous, and their own reputation as horse
into the animal's ear. In particular, they handlers was enhanced.
claimed they could handle any horse and Evans's theories on the horseman's word as
make it come to them ('drawing' the horse) or a reUc of an ancient horse fertihty cult are
more spectacularly could reduce a horse to unconvincing, partly because the sources he
immobihty ('jading' it)which no power on quotes such as Margaret *Murray and Robert
earth could shift until the horseman himself Graves are themselves highly suspect, but
released it. In Scotland, there is evidence of there is httle doubt that the horse knowledge
these horseworkers being inducted into a sort concerned dates back a long way. It is possible
of secret society, but although there is similar to separate the outward form (the business
evidence of the belief in individuals possess- with the toad) from the essence (the use of
ing such powers in England, right into the herbs and oils to gain power over horses), and,
20th century, they were apparently less for- paradoxically, we know much more about the
mally organised than their Scottish brethren former than the latter. The use of *toads and
(Hutton, 1999: 61-4). Descriptions of the *frogs in ways similar to those described here
horseman's powers are particularly prevalent are found in other old cures, and indeed its
in East Angha, although there are scattered essence is parallelled in a passage in Pliny
(Natural History (ad 77), xxxii. xviii) who
references to other parts of the country, but writes
the material is often dehberately vague and of a particular frog's bone which cools boiling
horses

water and another which makes oil appear to between two courses of brick of a 16th-century
boil and is effective, amongst other things, in cottage in Histon, and a leg-bone under the
keeping dogs at bay. Reginald Scot (1584) foundations of stables of a 16th-century inn in
shows that the idea of a bone with special Cambridge (Porter, 1969: 180-1).
powers, and its connection with water, was The Norfolk writer W. H. Barrett remem-
known in England at that time. Nevertheless, bered seeing a skull laid down in 1897, when
the earliest notices of horsemen possessing he was six. He and his brother were sent to a
such powers are given by Davidson— in 1648 knacker's yard to buy a horse's head for their
in Sussex and in Renfrewshire in 1664. It is uncle, who was building a Methodist chapel in
clear that stiU further work needs to be done Littleport:
on this subject.
When the tw^o boys returned with it they watched
Evans, 1960: 238-71; Evans, 1966: 204-39; Evans, 1979: theworkmen dig the trench for the foundations and
passim; Thomas Davidson, Gwerin 1:2 (1956), 67-74; G. W. then saw their uncle carefully mark the centre of the
Pattison, Folk-lore 64 (1953), 424-6; Charles Thomas, Folk-
lore 65 (1954), 54; Peter Bayliss, Fortean Times 83 (1995),
site by driving into the ground a wooden stake. The
39-40; Porter, 1969: 55-9 (Hutton, 1999: 61-4).
men gathered round while the uncle uncorked a bot-
tle of beer, then the horse's head was placed in the

bottom of the trench, the first glass of liquor from

horses. In folk tradition, horses were the bottle was thrown on it, and, when the rest of the
beer had been drunk, the men shovelled bricks and
regarded as very vulnerable to supernatural
mortar on top of the head. It was explained to W. H.
attack; in particular, their night sweats and
Barrett that this was an old heathen custom to drive
exhaustion were interpreted as due to hag-
evil and witchcraft away. (Porter, 1969: 181).
riding by witches or fairies, from whom they
must be protected by *holed stones. Their ten- See also *hair (animal), *hobby horse,
dency to shy or refuse to move on, for no vis- *HORSE BRASSES, *HORSESHOES.
ible reason, was (and still often is) attributed Opie and Tatem, 1989: 201-2, 305-6; Radford, Radford,
to a psychic awareness of the presence of evil, and Hole, 1961:193-8.
for example in haunted spots and those where
blood has been shed. It was also thought that horseshoes. Nowadays the horseshoe is a
they could be immobilized, tamed, or ren- generalized symbol of good luck, used, for
dered restive by people with magical power; instance, on greeting cards and wedding
one of the recurrent tales about *witches and cakes; already in the late 14th century it was
cunning men was that they would keep a believed that to find a horseshoe by chance is a
horse spellbound by a word. In some regions, lucky thing. Later references are numerous,
notably East Anglia, men particularly skilled and give more details: one should pick it up,
in working farm horses had secret ways of spit on it, andtoss it over the left shoulder,

controlling them, apparently by a mixture of making a wish. The luck is increased if some
magical ritual and material means such as nails are still in it.

substances whose smell attracted or repelled Earlier, horseshoes specifically counter-

them (see *Horseman's word, and *toadmen). acted witchcraft. They were set at the door 'so
"*

Horse *skulls are occasionally found under that no witch shall have power to enter' (Scot,
floorboards in old buildings, for instance at 1584: book 12, chapter 18), and 'to afflict the
Thrimby Hall (Bedfordshire) in 1860, and in Witch, causing the evil to return back upon
Bungay (Suffolk) in 1933. It is tempting to see them' (J. Blagrave, Astrological Practice (1671)
*
this as magical house protection, but the 138). The early references (16th to mid-1 9th
explanation given by the householders was centuries) usually talk of horseshoes nailed to
that they improved the acoustics for home the * threshold or the steps leading to the door;
music-making, and this is supported by Irish this arrangement can still occasionally be
and Scandinavian instances where the reson- seen, for instance atan old smithy at Burpham
ance of a horse skull was thought desirable in (Sussex), where several are set into a concrete
churches and threshing bams (Merrifield, threshold. It was also common to nail them
1987: 123-6). On the other hand, the purpose behind the door, as hidden protectors; now-
of a horse skull with two boar's tusks embed- adays, it is more usual to display them openly,
ded in its jaw, found in the wall of an 18th- on or above the door. Horseshoes were also
century house at Ballaugh (Isle of Man) can much used on ships, being nailed to the main
only have been protective (Folklore 100 (1989), mast and elsewhere.
105-9). Several horse bones were found In Lincolnshire in the 1850s, some people
189 houses

would nail them to abed to prevent ague and robustly there than in the Victorian drawing-
alcoholic deliriunn; one woman, reportedly, room. Certainly, in mixed company, it allowed
tapped them with a hammer, sa5dng: some mild flirtation. The game can claim
some considerable antiquity, being referred to
Father, Son and Holy Ghost.
Nail the devil to this post. by name as early as 1549 and 1590, and an
With this mell 1 thrice do knock. illustration from a 14th-century manuscript,
One for God, and one for Wod, and one for Lok. printed by Strutt, appears to take the game
back even ftirther in time.
The clergyman recording this assumed it
Gomme, 1894: i. 229-31; Opie and Opie. 1969: 292-4;
referred to the Germanic gods Woden and
Strutt, 1801/1876: 501-2.
Loki, and capitalized accordingly, but he may
have misheard some phrase ending in the hot cross buns, see *good Friday and
more commonplace 'one for luck' (Heanley, widow's son.
Folk-Lore 9 (1898), 186).
In London in the early 20th century, a
houses. The most substantial body of folk
horseshoe wrapped in *red flannel was hung and belief concerning houses focuses
practice
over the bed to prevent *nightmares. As
on protecting them from *witchcraft, evil spir-
storms, diseases, and nightmares were often
its, *fire, *thunder, and lightning; this involved
blamed on witches, the underlying idea is still
placing protective objects, generally near a
that of protection from evil magic. In Somer-
*
point of possible entry— door, hearth and
set, they were used in stables to stop pixies
chimney, window. There are ample records
'riding' the horses. In Yorkshire belief, if a
showing that certain items (e.g. *holed stones,
maiden found three horseshoes in one year,
horseshoes, *houseleeks, *rowans, thunder-
threw each over her left shoulder, walked * *
stones, witch posts, a piece of Yule Log) were
three times round it, and kept it, she and all
believed to ward off danger; in other cases this
her children (though not her possessions)
interpretation is more conjectural, though
would be immune to witchcraft (Blake-
plausible (e.g. putting dried *cats, *horse
borough, 1898: 158-9). bones, and *shoes inside walls, and stone
Using astrological shorthand, *Aubrey *heads on the facade). It has recently been
comments that 'Mars/iron is hostile to Saturn/
suggested (Lloyd, 1999) that certain patterns
lead, and therefore to witches', meaning that cut into timbers of East AngUan houses were
it is *iron which gives horseshoes their
power protective. Some of these features, such as
(Aubrey, 1686/1880: 27). As regards position- witch posts, must be the work of the builders,
ing, many accounts from the 16th century till
presumably by agreement with the owners;
now agree that a horseshoe fixed vertically others could be added by anyone at any time.
should have its 'heel', i.e. the points, pointing It is not always clear where magic ends and
upwards to catch and hold the good luck, decoration begins; traditional features such as
though this rule was not always followed— the finials on tiled roofs and plaited bird fig-
blacksmiths themselves often preferred them ures on thatches were probably regarded as
to be pointing down. According to Aubrey,
lucky by some craftsmen and some customers,
horseshoes laid flat on a threshold had 'the but as simply ornamental by others. Some
hollow' pointing into the house.
trees and shrubs also protected against fire,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 202-4. witchcraft, or both; these include *bay, *elder,
*holly, and *rowan.
Hot Cockles. An extremely popular game at The only belief about houses themselves
Victorian *Christmas parties. One player sits appears to be one mentioned by Charles Dick-
down, another player is blindfolded, kneels, ens in Dombey and Son ((1848) chapter 51): 'Mr
and places his/her head in the sitter's lap. The TowUnson . . .
frequently begs to know
kneeler places an open hand on his/her back, whether he didn't say that no good would
with palm uppermost, which other players come of living in a comer house'. This preju-
take it in turns to strike, and the kneeler must dice was 'common in Herefordshire' (N&Q.5s:4
guess who has struck the blow. Hot Cockles (1875), 216),and Opie and Tatem give a ftirther
was thus one of several traditional games in reference from 1947.
which someone has to guess who has hit or Also from the mid-1 9th century, and more
a
touched them, and it also existed as a street regularly reported, is the idea that to enter
and playground game, no doubt played more house with a spade (or axe, mattock, etc.) on
houseleek

your shoulder presages death, because these Hungerford Hocktide. Hungerford, Berk-
tools are used to dig graves. Standard collec- shire, preserves a complex of *civic/*manorial
tions mention this for several regions, includ- customs at *Hocktide, the second Tuesday
ing Shropshire, Herefordshire, and Dorset after Easter, which were concerned with the
(Bume, 1883: 280; Leather, 1912: 119; Udal, administration of the town's common land
1922: 286); the first known reference is in N&Ci and local fishing rights, but which previously
ls:12 (1855), 488. The somewhat similar taboo had much more serious duties. Hock Tuesday
on opening an *umbrella indoors is less easily in Hungerford starts with three blasts of a
expUcable. horn fi-om the Town Hall window, which
See also *building trade, *foundation summons all 'commoners' (residents of par-
SACRIFICES. For beliefs about house furnish- town to which grazing
ticular properties in the

ings, see *BEDS, *FIRES, *MIRRORS, etC. and fishing rights are attached) to attend a
Opie and Tatem. 1989: 97, 331, 367. meeting of the Court. The town bellman also
walks the streets crying a summons, and he
houseleek. HerbaUsts of the 16th and 17th can still exact a penny fine from any non-
centuries claimed that no *thunderstorm could attenders. At the Court are elected a Constable,

harm a house where this plant grows, and the Portreeve, Bailiff, Water BaiUff, Ale tasters.

belief persisted among country people in many Commons overseers. Keeper of the Keys, and
the four Tithingmen or Tutti Men. The latter
parts of England, especially as regards house-
leeks which had seeded themselves on the roof previously had duties of keeping watch, and
To remove these was very unlucky, and people could therefore expect a penny payment from
would transplant them if moving to a new every household. By long tradition, however,
house (Latham, 1878: 13; Porter, 1969: 69). they claim a penny from the men and a kiss
from the women, and they carry a ladder to
ensure that they can reach any window to
howling, see *wassailing.
exact appropriate payment. They also carry, as
staffs of office, Tutti poles which are of wood
Humpty Dumpty. One of the best-known
and adorned with ribbons a-topped with a posy |

nursery rhymes in English tradition, which of flowers and an orange. They are accom- ^

has excited much misguided speculation and

panied by an Orange Man who carries a bag of
theory. What has been obscured by centuries
oranges and gives one to each child in the
of illustrated children's books is that the
*
house, and one to each female in return for the
rhyme is simply a riddle, and the hearer has kiss. A civic luncheon is held, usually at the
to guess the answer as 'egg', but nowadays we
Three Swans Hotel. Outside, the Tutti Men and
all know the answer before we say the rhyme.
Orange Man throw oranges to the waiting
The first known text only dates from 1797,
children, to be *scrambled for, while inside
although the term 'Humpty Dumpty' (mean- the ceremony of 'shoeing the colt' takes place.
ing an ale-and-brandy drink) is recorded about
Any newcomer or visitor is Uable to undergo
a century before. Numerous close analogues
this ordeal. The newcomer is lifted bodily from
from continental Europe do not help to date man in a blacksmith's apron
the floor and a
the rhyme, as they are all from 19th-century
pretends to hammer nails into the sole of his/
sources.
her shoe, until he/she cries 'punch' and there-
Opie and Opie, 1997: 252-5. by agrees to buy a round of drinks. The new
officers, who are now merely ceremonial, are
hunchback. For the first half of the 20th cen- sworn in later in the week. According to local
tury, at least, it was considered lucky to touch tradition, the Hungerford rights go back to the
the hump of a humpbacked person. The first time of John of Gaunt (1340-99).
known reference is in The People (11 June 1899, 1977: 47-9: Kightly, 1986: 139-40; Shuel,
Sykes,
quoted in N&Q, 9s:3 (1899), 486), but here it is 1985:113-14; Hole, 1975: 52-4; Stone, 1906: 94-6.
impUed that the belief is much older. Two
other- 20th-century references in Opie and Hunting the Earl of Rone. This *Ascension
Tatem make it clear that people disabled in Day custom which formerly took place at
thisway could play on the superstition by Combe Martin in Devon, appears to be unique,
charging money for the service at race- although it includes echoes of other customs
meetings and the hke. such as the *mummers play and the * hobby
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 206. horse. The performers are: The Earl of Rone
191 hytersprites

(wearing mask, frock smock padded with collectively known as The Huriers; a tale first
straw, string of twelve hard sea-biscuits round alluded to in WilUam Camden's Britannia
his neck). The Fool (gaudily dressed, carrying (1586) claims they were once men, trans-
besom), a gaily painted Hobby Horse with formed as punishment for 'profaning the
openable jaws (called the Mapper), a real don- Lord's Day with huriing'— *hurling being one
key decorated with flowers and more sea- of the most popular sports in Cornwall. In
biscuits,and some Grenadiers (coloured paper 1675 Dr James Yonge of Plymouth recorded a
hats with ribbons, carrying guns). At 3 p.m. on fiirther tradition about them: 'They are now
Ascension Day the Grenadiers march to easily numbered, but the people have a story
nearby Lady's Wood to search for, and find, the that they never could, till a man took many
Earl who has hidden there. They fire a volley, penny and laying one upon each
loaffes,
set him on the donkey, facing its tail, and hurler, did compute by the remainder what
return to the village, accompanied by Fool, number they were' (Westwood, 1985: 22).
Hobby Horse, and crowd of spectators. En route,
the Grenadiers fire off other volleys and each hurling. Once popular throughout Cornwall,
time the Earl falls as if wounded. The Fool and hurUng now survives traditionally in only two
Horse exhibit signs of grief, and revive him places— St Columb Major and St Ives. It is a
each time. They visit pubUc houses on the way, street ball game, similar to the mass *football
and try to solicit contributions from the crowd. customs described elsewhere, but in hurling
The performances ceased about 1837, but were the ball is thrown or carried, but never kicked.
revived in the village in 1970 and have con- The ball is also smaller, about the size of a
tinued since. The local legend cited as the basis cricket ball, and although made of wood is
for the custom explains that a real Earl of coated with silver. At St Columb, the game is
Tyrone had, in Queen EUzabeth I's time, taken still played in the streets, between two sides—

refuge in the wood, with only a few ship's bis- the 'town' and the 'country', with the latter
cuits to keep him alive and he was captured by coming from the outlying districts. The ball is
soldiers. thrown up in the Market Square and the idea
is to get the ball back to your side's base,
Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 144-5; E. L. Radford, 'A Quaint

Ascension-Day Festival', Trans. Of the Devonshire Assoc. 49 which is about a mile away. This takes place
(1917), 71-5; Tom Brown, The Hunting of the Earl of Rone on "^Shrove Tuesday and again on the second
(rev. edn., 1997).
Saturday following. The game at St Ives has
been tamed somewhat and takes place on the
Hunt the Slipper. A very popular parlour first Monday after 3 February (Quinquagesima
game, at Victorian family
particularly
Sunday), and play takes place mainly on the
*Christmas parties. Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of beach. References to hurling in Cornwall date
Wakefield ((1766), chapter 11) provides a lively back at least to 1602, when Richard Carew
description: wrote of it in some detail. He described two
the company at this play plant themselves in a ring versions of the game, one relatively polite and
upon the ground, all except one, whose business it is controlled by strict rules, and the other the
to catch a shoe, which the company shove about mass sport which took place 'over hills, dales,
under their hams from one to another, something
hedges, ditches, yea, and through bushes,
like a weaver's shuttle. As impossible, in this briars, mires, plashes, and rivers Daniel
it is . . . '.

case, for the lady who is up to face all the company at

Defoe called it 'rude violent play', and 'brutish
once, the great beauty of the play lies in hitting her a
and ftirious', but virtually the same thing was
thump with the heel of the shoe on that side least
said about all the mass sports.
capable of making a defence.
Carew, 1602/1953 edn.: 147-50; Daniel Defoe, A Tour
Versions included in Gomme,
played by Through the whole Island of Great Britain (1724-6; Everyman
children, involve some play-acting by the seat- edn., 257); A. Ivan Rabey, Hurling at St Cdumb and in

ed cobblers pretending to mend shoes and a Cornwall (1972).

dialogue between them and the chaser, includ-

ing a rhyme on the lines of: 'Cobbler, cobbler, Husset, see wooset.
mend my shoe, Get it done by half-past two'.
Gomme, 1894: i. 241-2; Strutt, 1801/1876: 387. hytersprites. These Norfolk *fairies
are
called 'highty or 'hikey
sprites'
(also
Huriers, The. A group of three stone circles sprites'), first recorded
in print in 1872 and
on the moors near Likinhome (Cornwall) is still remembered in a few areas of the county
hytersprites 192

in the 1980s. The eariiest source calls them silently in the waiting to snatch
twilight,
'rather beneficient than otherwise', but in away disobedient another had
children';
most accounts they are used to scare chil- heard birdlike twitterings in the dusk, which
dren: 'If you go out in the dark on your own, she thought fun; a third said, 'They are the
the h5^ersprites will get you', 'If you hain't malign spirits who enter a house if the
quiet, I'll hull you to the hytersprites', etc. Christmas decorations are left up after
They were supposed to be active in the Twelfth Night, to cause destructive mischief
woods at dusk. One informant said that as and general ill-luck about the house for the
children she and her friends had imagined rest of the year'.
them as man-sized black bats 'hovering Daniel Rabuzzi, FoMore 95 (
1 984), 74-89.
Ickwell May Day. A *May celebration which ture of 'pitch, beeswax, hog's lard, bullock's
has survived, probably because it has been blood, and a small portion of fat from a bul-
adapted by successive generations to fit the lock's heart'; this was heated over a fire of
current ideas of what May is all about. Local wickenwood = * rowan) at midnight, and a
(

churchwardens' records show that celebra- pin driven into its eye. Next morning, the sus-
tions at Ickwell Green, Bedfordshire, go back pect was blind in one eye (Blakeborough,
at least to 1561, when food, drink, minstrels, 1898: 199-200).
and morris dancers are specifically men- In the 1960s, two of Ruth Tongue's Somerset
tioned. In 1872, the village acquired a per- informants told her:
manent maypole, donated by local squire John
There was a bad woman in our village — a witch who
Audley. Also in Victorian times, villagers went could do things. She didn't like my mother, so she
gathering may blossom and left garlands on made a wax doll and stuck thorns into its legs, and
people's doorsteps early in the morning. There my mother had the screws (rheumatism) in her legs
was a procession of mayers through the vil- ever since.
by a Lord and Lady
lage, carrying *garlands, led
I know a woman who lives near me, and she said: 'I
and including two Moggies (two men v^th don't like that there Mrs so I be going back
,

blackened faces, one dressed as a woman), home to make mommet of she and
a stick pins in it.'

who would sing a song at people's doors. Now- 1 never dared ask if she did, but the woman was took
adays, there are all the elements one would ill after that. (Folklore 74 (1963), 323)
expect to find at a May Day fete, including a
*May Queen, *morris dancers, *maypole dan- infection. Anxiety about Aids has generated a
cing, and the Moggies themselves have also spate of rumours, gruesome jokes, and a con-
been revived. temporary legend based on the notion that
Shuel, 1985: 32-3; Sykes, 1977: 80-1. those infected deliberately infect others, in
revenge or despair. The story has often
appeared in press reports in the USA, Britain,
image magic. In magic, injuring a model and Europe. One version, which was 'all over
injures the person it represents, especially if it the city' of Sheffield in February 1987, told
incorporates his hair or fingernails, or is given how a young man picked up an unknown girl
his *name. In 963 a woman was executed by at a nightclub and took her home for sex;
drowning for driving *nails into an effigy; in when he woke she had left, after vmting in
1578 a plot against the Queen was feared lipstick on the bathroom mirror, 'Welcome to
when three wax figures were found in a dung- the world of Aids!' (Bennett and Smith, 1990:
hill, transfixed with pig's bristles, one with 113). In other variants the victim is a girl who,
'EUzabeth' written on the forehead. Clay retiUTiing from a holiday abroad, unwraps a
images could be burnt, or laid in water to dis- 'parting gift' from a casual partner, and finds a
integrate. Alternatively, images could be buried miniature coffin with the same message. Cur-
or hidden, causing lingering sickness to the rently (1998), there is a third version:
victim; this may be the purpose of the 18th-
Worthing nightclubbers are being asked to be on
century doll hidden in a house in Hereford, their guard against sick pranksters who fool them
with a written *curse pinned to its skirt.
into thinking they have contracted the deadly HIV
A Yorkshire farmer in the 1850s, suspecting virus. Rumours have been spreading throughout
that a certain man vnth the *evil eye had Worthing that groups of people have been stabbing
bewitched him, made an image from a mix- late-night revellers with needles containing blood
initiation 194

contaminated with the Small notes are then

virus. and Canada, see *national centre for
left handbags with the
in the revellers' coats or ENGLISH cultural TRADITION.
sick message, 'Welcome to the Aids club.' . . .

[Police commented]: "There is no evidence what- Institute of Dialect and Folklife Studies.
soever to suggest this is really happening ... if
This first sustained
attempt to provide
people do find one of these notes it is Likely to be
no more than a very sick joke.' (Worthing Herald (5 university-level teaching of folklore in Eng-
Feb. 1998), 25) land grew out of the *English Dialect Survey,
on foundations laid by Harold Orton (1898-
Despite the rational police warning, six 1975), and benefited from the expansion in
months later another local paper reported as
higher education occurring in Britain at the
factual a 'cruel and vicious attack' on a girl in a time. It opened at Leeds University in October
nightclub, who allegedly felt a sharp jab in the 1964 under the directorship of Stewart Sand-
back, and found a card in her pocket with the who remained
erson, in charge until he
usual message. Neither the girl's name nor
retired in 1984. For twenty years, the Institute
that of the 'family friend' who told the press is
provided folklorists and dialectologists with
given (Worthing Guardian (17 Sept. 1998), 1). an opportunity to undertake serious research
In an article on this story-type, Paul Smith
and study, and many of the current leading
pointed to a precedent in Daniel Defoe's Jour- scholars in the field owe their initial training
nal of the Plague Year (1722):
to its existence. The Institute closed in 1984, a
A poor, unhappy gentlewoman, a substantial cit- victim of the major cuts in higher education
izen's wife, was (if the story be true) murdered by funding of that decade, leaving the *Centre for
one of these creatures [plague victims] in Aldergate English Cultural Tradition and Language, at
Street, or that way. He was going along the street, Sheffield University, as the only place in Eng-
raving mad to be sure, and singing and meeting
. . .

land with a commitment to the study of the

this gentlewoman, he would kiss her [He] mas-
tered her, and kissed her; and, which was worst of
subject at post-graduate level.

all, when he had done, told her he had the plague, Craig Fees, The Imperilled Inheritance: Didect and FoMife
Studies at the University of Leeds 1946-1962, part 1 (1991).
and why should not she have it as well as he? (Defoe,
1722; Penguin edn., 1986: 173)
Irish charms. In north-eastern coimties, it
Similarly, Pepys's Diary for 12 February 1666 was thought that stones or sticks brought over
records that his son's lutemaster had just told from Ireland would cure snake-bites and bee-
him how 'in spite to well people [those already stings, provided they had never been allowed
sick] would breathe (out of their windows) to touch English soil; such a stick was still
into the faces of well people going by'.
kept, and occasionally used, in Famdale (York-
There was an old principle that one could
shire) in 1970. The belief is obviously based on
cure oneself of a disease by dehberately trans- the well-known story of St Patrick driving all
ferring it to another, which survives in *wart snakes out of Ireland; it was already known to
cures and the casual expression about 'giving'
Bede, who noted that almost anything coming
someone one's cold. To rid a child of whoop- from Ireland was reckoned effiective against
ing cough or fever, according to various 19th- snakebites, and that he himself had seen
century sources, one should wrap a few of his people drinking water into which scrapings
hairs in bread and butter and throw it to a dog, from Irish manuscripts had been dropped,
which would eat it and die, and the child with good results (Davies, 1998: 48-9).
recover (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 63). The most
cruel application concerned venereal diseases;
iron. The power of iron to repel evil is very
it is discreetly mentioned by Mabel Peacock well attested in English folklore, and through-
(Folk-Lore 7 (1896), 272), when
she says it is out Europe— all sorts of domestic objects, and
widely thought by 'the ignorant and debased' even lumps of scrap iron, were placed in
that 'certain cures are only to be effected by
homes, stables, and cowsheds as defences
doing violence to a girl yet in her childhood'. against *witchcraft and harmftil *fairies, or
Paul Smith, in Bennett and Smith, 1990: 113-41. used in counterspells. Sharp ones were even
more effective, and *Herrick mentions 'hooks
initiation, see *occupational lore, print- and shears' in stables, and knives in babies'
ing TRADE. cradles (Hesperides (1648), nos. 890, 892). Red-
hot iron was a potent *counterspell when
Institute for Foliciore Studies in Britain *milk was bewitched.
195
ivy

Touching iron, or merely saying Touch Holly stond in the hall, fayre to behold;
iron!' or 'Cold iron!', cancels the bad luck of Ivy stond without the dore, she ys fill sore a-cold.

breaking a *taboo or seeing something ill- Holly and hys mery men, they dawnsyn and they
omened; it is not as widespread as touching syng;
Ivy and hur maydenys, they wepen and they v^oyng.
wood, but some groups, such as *fishermen,
practise it keenly. That ivy is 'female* is also impUed by the
A picturesque 19th-centtiry theory was that custom of the *Holly Boy and Ivy Girl. Victori-
iron was first reputed magical in prehistoric ans saw it as an emblem of the ever-faithful,
times, because men using bronze or stone but dependent, love of wife for the husband to
weapons feared those using iron swords; whom she clings as the ivy to the oak.
obviously, this is flimsy guesswork, there However, ivy also has gloomy associations
being no possible evidence for or against the with graveyards and old ruins; some people
idea. think it unlucky to have it indoors at any time
other than Christmas. Its leaves were used in a
itching, see *ears, *elbows, *feet, *hands, *divination on ^Twelfth Night (in Cornwall in
*KNEES, *MOUTHS, *NOSES; and Lean, 1903: ii. the 1880s) or *Halloween (in Herefordshire
283-8; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 479. around 1910); they were left overnight in
water, and if next morning black spots or
*
ivy. Used in Christmas decorations, though coffin-shaped markings had appeared, some-
apparently considered inferior to holly, judg- one in the household would die that year
ing by a rather obscure 15th-century carol: (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 214; Leather, 1912: 65).
Jack. In Britain, and also in Canada, the USA, mimes. The phrase 'Jack and Jill' is older than
and Australia, 'Jack' is the name routinely the rhjrme, meaning simply 'boy and girl' or
used in *faiiytales for a resourceful, lucky 'lad and lass', as in Shakespeare's 'Jack shall
hero, who may also sometimes be have Jill, Nought shall go ill' (Midsummer Night's
unscrupulous or a trickster. Henry Mayhew in Dream, in. ii).
his London Labour and the London Poor ((1861),
Opie and Opie, 1997: 265-7.
iii. 189-90) describes how a 16-year-old boy in
a London workhouse told him a story he called
Jack and the Beanstalk. In this simple but
'Clever Jack', about the exploits of a daring
ever popular tale, the hero Jack, a poor
and witty young robber who outwitted various
widow's feckless son, sells their cow for five
rich gentlemen and a parson. The boy said
men in the casual ward of the workhouse magic beans, which his mother angrily throws
sometimes took turns telMng stories: 'roman- away. By next day, their stems reach up to the
tic tales, some; others blackguard kind of sky; climbing up. Jack finds the castle of a

tales, about thieving and roguery; not so much

man-eating giant, whose wife befriends and
hides him. Three times he steals magic golden
about what they'd done themselves, as about
treasures; the third time he is discovered and
some big thief that was very clever at steaUng,
the giant chases him, but he chops down the
and could trick anybody. Not stories such as
beanstalk and the giant dies.
Dick Turpin or Jack Sheppard or things that's
There are allusions showing the story was
in history, but inventions.' The boy added that
well known by the early 18th century, but the
'the best man in the story is always called
firstsurviving texts are in two *chapbooks,
Jack'.
one in verse and one in prose, both pubUshed
The name has long been used with the
in 1807; they differ in several details. The for-
implication 'typical (young) man', from
mer is summarized and the latter reprinted in
nursery-rhyme characters to 'Jack Tar' for a
sailor, and modem slang phrases like 'I'm all
Opie and Opie, 1974: 162-74. In 1890 Joseph
and The murderer *Jacobs printed a far Uveher version based on
right. Jack' 'Jack-the-lad'.
who called himself 'Jack the Ripper' had a sin- the way his nurse used to tell it to him as a
child in Australia around 1860 (Jacobs, 1890:
ister sense of humour.
57-67; also in Briggs, 1970-1: A. i. 316-21;
Several English tales with a 'Jack' as hero were collected
in the 19th century, and others in the 20th century from Philip, 1992: 1-10).

Gypsies (Briggs, 1970-1: A. i. 322-5; Philip, 1992: 18-42.

54, 127-32). For Canadian examples, derived from Brit-
ish and Irish tradition, see Herbert Halpert and
Jack-in-the-Green. An urban street *calendar
J. D. A.
Widdowson, The FoMales of Newfoundland (1996). custom enacted on May Day by chimney-
sweeps. The sweeps dressed up in their finery,
if they had any, with added ribbons; one
Jack and Jill. One of the many popular *nur- dressed as the Lord, another as a Lady, and one
seiy rhymes which have suffered the indignity or two as clowns. They had musicians and car-
of being subjected to implausible origin theor- ried a brush and shovel which they clashed
ies.The earhest known text dates from c.1765, together rhythmically, and a regular feature
starting life as 'Jack and Gill', two boys, and was a donkey for one of them to ride. The
only one verse long until added to in the early character that really got the audience's atten-
19th century. The rhyme was popular on tion was the Jack-in-the-Green, a man inside a
*chapbooks and also as the theme for panto- wood or basketwork frame, from well above
197 Jack o' Legs

his head to his ankles, on which was fixed an common international tales appear here, for
abundance of greenery and flowers. The visual example the mowing contest won by cheating,
effect was a conical-shaped bush on feet, and the trick 'sharing' in which the dupe gets
which danced. In the earUer period, the only sttaw when he chooses 'bottoms' of a
sweeps would be accompanied by their boys, wheat crop, and only leaves when he chooses
whose capering and antics were popular with 'tops' of turnips. Jack is also said to have
the crowds, but the boys disappeared from the hurled various standing stones in the Wye
scene after public opinion turned against the Valley, and kicked a cleft in the side of the
use of children in the trade. References Skirrid mountain; he credited with magical
is
become fewer and fewer after the 1850s, and powers of flight, and over animals. He sold his
descriptions tend to stress the drunkenness, soul to the Devil 'whether he was buried
tawdriness, and vulgarity of the proceedings inside or outside the church', but cheated him
rather than its quaintness. The Victorian drive by having his tomb set in the thickness of the
towards the invented *Merrie England May church wall.
Day was in ftill swing, and, as with so many These tales were collected in the 19th cen-
other customs, the real Jack-in-the-Green had tury, but an allusion in a play of 1597 shows
to be abohshed before it could be reinvented, Jack o' Kent was already famous then. Various
cleaned up, and made safe, to take its place in historical identifications have been proposed,
the pageants of the late Victorians and the likeliest being John Kent, vicar of Kent-
Edwardians, and the fetes, fa5a-es, and proces- church in the early 15th century, who was a
sions of the 20th century. poet and theological writer.
Even in heyday, the Jack was far from
its
Leather, 1912: 163-6; B. A. Wherry, Folk-Lore 15 (1904),
being a national phenomenon. Roy Judge's 75-86; and R. T. Davies, Folk-Lore 48 (1937), 41-59. Lea-
distribution map shows a highly regionaHzed ther's tales are reprinted in Briggs, 1970-1: B. i. 106-8,
145; and in Philip, 1992: 288-92. See also J. W. Ashton,
custom, including only 81 places, and some of
Journal of American Folklore 47 (1934), 362-8.
these are of dubious traditional standing.
Sightings cluster most thickly in London, A
Jack o' Lantern. local name for a *Will-o'-
Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire. The earli-
the-Wisp, mainly in East Anglia and in south-
est references to the Jack are from the late
west England; also spelled Jack-a-Lantem and
18th century, but this has not prevented
Jacky Lantern, according to the whim of the
writers extrapolating backwards and claiming
collectors. T. Quiller Couch found that around
him as a true survivor of a wood-spirit, nature
Polperro (Cornwall) was regarded as a pixy,
it
worshipper, *Robin Hood, medieval *Wild and was invoked in the rhyme:
Man, Gawain and the Green Knight, and so
forth, for which there is no evidence but Jack o' the lantern! Joan the wad.
Who tickled the maid and made her mad!
plenty of wishful thinking. Perhaps the most
Light me home, the weather's bad.
audacious argument-without-evidence was
the confident identification of the Jack-in-the- In the 1970s, Uttle figures representing
Green with the so-called 'Green Man' (see these two were being sold in ComwaU as lucky
foliate heads) to be foimd on many churches. charms, for 5s. each, and proved very popular.
This was a mere speculation by Lady Raglan in In the south-west, the name is also used
1939, which has since been quoted as fact for the turnip lanterns children carry at
countless times. Halloween.
Judge, 1979/2000; Judge, 1987; Hone, 1827: i. 292-6;
George L. Phillips, May-Day Sweeps' Day', Folk-Lore 60
is Jack o' Legs. This Jack was a legendary rob-
(1949). 217-27; Charles Phythian-Adams, 'Milk and Soot: ber near Weston (Hertfordshire); he was tall
The Changing Vocabulary of a Popular Ritual in Stuart
enough to look in at the upstairs windows of
and Hanoverian London', in D. Fraser and A. Sutcliffe,
The Pursuit of Urban History (1983), 83-104. large houses. Like *Robin Hood, he robbed the
rich but fed the poor; according to the earUest
account, in Nathaniel Salmon's History of Hert-
Jack o' Kent. A legendary *wizard, hero of a fordshire (1728), certain bakers, ftirious
that he
cycle of humorous anecdotes in Herefordshire had stolen their bread, caught him unawares,
and Gwent. Some concern the rivalry between blinded him. and hanged him. Again like
Jack and the Devil, each trying to outwit the Robin Hood, his last request was to be handed
other or to set the other a task he could not his bow and buried wherever the arrow fell;
perform; Jack is invariably the winner. Many two stones in Weston churchyard, fourteen
Jack o' Lent 198

and a half feet apart, are said to mark the well-known custom of 'Cloutie's Crofl:', the .

grave in which he hes— doubled up! name given to a portion of the best land of a
A massive thighbone used to be displayed as farm which is always left untilled and
his, but was bought from the parish clerk by uncultivated as it belongs to the Devil. In
the 17th-century antiquary John Tradescant. It many areas of England, similar patches of •

passed to the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, untouched land were found, although the
where in the early 19th century it was still dedication to the Devil was rarely so explicit
labelled 'Thigh-bone of a Giant', until identi- or clear-cut, and they bore local ndmes such as
fied asan elephant's leg-bone and discarded. A 'Jack's Land' or 'No Man's Land'. In addition to
signboard recently erected in the village illus- being uncultivated, this land usually had some
trates Jack's story (Hertfordshire Countryside sort of sinister reputation, or at least was
(June 1998), 28). beUeved to be unusually infertile (see a Devon
Jones-Baker, 1977: 47-9; E. P. EmsUe, FoJk-Lore 26 (1915), example in Henderson, 1879: 278). References
156; V^estwood, 1985: 139-40. in N8rCl attest to the Scottish custom and a
similar one in Ireland, and mention another
Jack o' Lent. In Tudor and Jacobean London, sinister piece of land at Hickling, Not-
thiswas the name for gaunt puppets made of tinghamshire, known as 'Jack Craft'. There is a
straw, rags, and herring skins, personifying
—
tendency nowadays well known to local his-
the Lenten fast, which boys set up on Ash torians,but usually totally unfounded— for
Wednesday and pelted with heavy sticks, and people to explain any patch of apparently
finally burnt before Easter. He could also be unused land, in urban as well as rural areas, as :

old 'plague-pits'.
impersonated by living actors; a London
pageant just before Easter 1553 showed a rich- Evans, 1966: 136-7; N&Q.ls:3 (1851), 477; 8s:10 (1896), 74,
219, 324; 9s:4 (1899), 68, 118.
ly dressed Lord of Misrule, symbol of the com-
ing feast, contrasted with Jack on his death-
bed, with a 'priest' shriving him and a 'wife'
Jacks (game), see *fivestones.

begging doctors to save his life for £1,000.

In Oxfordshire in the 17th century, school- Jack the Giant-Kilier. This story— or rather,
children breaking up for the Easter holidays this string of episodes attached to one hero —
is known to have existed in a *chapbook of
went from house to house rattling wooden
1711, now lost, and is mentioned by several
clappers and singing:
18th-century writers as having pleased them
Harings harings white and red greatly when young; the earUest surviving
Ten a penny Lent's dead
text, entitled The History ofJack and the Giants, is
Rise dame and give an egg
from the 1750s or 1760s. Several of the giants
Or else a piece of bacon
One for Peter two for Paul Jack kills are localized in Cornwall. He defeats
Three for Jack a Lents all
them by he lures one into
traditional tricks—

Away Lent away a pit and beheads him; foils an ogre's murder-
ous plan by substituting a log for himself in
Ifthey got none, they would 'commonly cut bed, thus seeming invulnerable; and con-
the latch of y* door, or stop the keyhole w"' vinces the ogre that he has just slit his own
dirt, or leave some more nasty token of dis-
stomach open, so that the latter kills himself
pleasure' (White Kennett's note in Aubrey, in trying to do the same. He gains various
1686/1880: 161-2). treasures and rewards, and rescues princesses.
Effigies were made, paraded, and burnt at The cenfral section has a more sustained
Polperro (Cornwall) early in the 19th century; plot, in which Jack becomes servant to King
the image was called 'Jack-o-Lent', but popu- Arthur's son and breaks the spell on a princess
larlysupposed to represent *Judas. So was the whom Arthur's son wants to marry. The final
effigywhich used to be set up at Boston (Lin- sections are again episodic, and mainly
colnshire) in the 1920s, and pelted with muck humorous, though one ogre does utter the
from Ash Wednesday till the end of Lent (Sut- famous rhyme known already in Shake-
ton, 1997: 55). In some country districts, a
speare's time (see King Lear, in. iv):
jackalent is a scarecrow.
Fee, fau, ftim,
VS^right and Lones, 1936: i. 39-40; Hutton, 1996: 172-3.
I smell the blood of an English man.
Be he alive, or be he dead,
Jack's Land. In Scotland, there is a relatively I'll grind his bones to make my bread.
199 Jews

The popularity of these chapbooks is shown Ginny) Greenteeth would catch

spirit Jenny (or
by frequent casual allusions in 18th- and 19th- them; some said she also lurked in the tree-
century Uterature. They formed the basis for tops, where she could be heard moaning at
many retellings, the first
being in J. O. Hal- night (Wright, 1913: 198-9). According to
liwell. PopularRhymes and Nursery Tales of Eng- Charlotte Bume, this *bogey was 'an old
land (1849); the ftiU chapbook text is in Opie woman who lurks beneath the green weeds
and Opie, 1974: 47-65, and a summary will be that cover stagnant ponds; EUesmere children
found in Briggs, 1970-1: A. i. 329-31. An oral were warned that if they venture too near
version was collected in Herefordshire in 1909 such places, she v^all stretch out her long arms
(Leather. 1912: 174-6; Philip, 1992: 11-17). and drag them to her' (Bume 1883: 79). A Lan-
cashire contributor to N&Q^ recalled: 'Further, I
Jacobs, Joseph (1854-1916). Bom in Aus- have often been told by my mother and nurse
tralia of Jewish parents, Jacobs wrote chiefly that if 1 did not keep my teeth clean 1 should
on Jewish history and culture, but between some day be dragged into one of these ponds
1889 and 1900 he was actively involved on the by Jenny Greenteeth, and I have met many
Council of the Folklore Society. At his sugges- elderly people who have had the same threat
tion, the Society renamed its journal Folk-lore applied to them' (]V&Q,10s:2 (1904), 365).
in 1890; he was its first Editor under the new As recently as 1980 a Merseyside woman
title(1890-3), and remained on the editorial aged 68 recalled what she had heard about her
board till 1900. He studied narrative genres, as a child: 'pale green skin, green teeth, very
especially those involving both oral and writ- long green locks of hair, long green fingers
ten transmission, such as *fables. As regards with long nails, and she was very thin with a
folklore theory, he held that when similar pointed chin and very big eyes.' Another
items are found in separate cultures they have informant, however, said Ginny 'had no
spread from a single place and time of origin, known form, due to the fact that she never
by contact between social groups (diffusion- appeared above the surface of the pond.' She
ism), rather than developing independently was especially associated with stagnant water
(polygenesis); also, that folklore items such as deceptively covered with thick algae or duck-
tales or proverbs are created by a single weed; in fact, to some, 'Jenny Greenteeth' was
'author', not by a whole community. simply a name for duckweed itself, and the
Jacobs produced several collections of fairy- horror consisted in the way this weed would
tales for young readers; they include English close over anything that fell in.
and More English
Fairy Tales (1890, revised 1898) Roy Vickery, Folklore 94 (1983), 247-50; Vickery, 1995:
which did much to spread
Fairy Tales (1894), 113-14.
awareness of our own oral tradition. Two,
*'Jack and the Beanstalk' and 'Henny-Penny', Jews. England shared the assumption (gen-
are personal memories of tales told him in eral until the later 20th century) that Jews lost
childhood; the rest are texts previously col- their homeland as punishment for murdering
lected and published by others, some being Jesus,and have ever since been accursed.
modified for easier reading. But the lengthy SymboUcally, this was expressed through the
notes accompanying these popularized tales medieval legend of the Wandering Jew,
are thoroughly scholarly. doomed to roam the earth till Christ's Second
Other important works are his editions of Coming because he had shouted at him to
The Fables of Aesop as First Printed hy Wtlltom Cax- move faster on the way to Calvary. The story
ton (1889), of The Most Dekaable History of Rey- firstappeared in Matthew Paris's Chronicle of
nard the Fox (1895), and of Barlam andjosaphat the Abbey of St Albans (begun in 1235), which
(1896), and his substantial introduction to E. declares that an Armenian Bishop who visited
W. Lane's translation of The One Thousand and the Abbey in 1228 had often seen this Jew,
One Nights (1895). now a devoutly penitent Christian hoping for
forgiveness on Doomsday. It remained popu-
Obituary: Folk-lore 65 (1954), 126-7. Gary Alan Fine, Folk-
lore 98 (1987), 183-93. lar all over Europe till19th century,
late in the

publicized through ballads and *chapbooks,

Jenny Greenteeth. In Lancashire, Cheshire, many of which claimed the wanderer had
and Shropshire, from the 19th century to actually been sighted in one town or another.
within living memory, children were threat- There is a circumstantial English accoimt of
ened that if they went near pools the water- his passing through Stamford on Whitsimday
Joan the Wad 200

1658. and curing a consumptive by advising containing the blood and the sweat of Jesus,
him to drink daily a brew of 'two
leaves of red which were buried in his grave. This seems to

sage and one of bloodwort:e'. A related notion be a religious adaptation of a theme long
is that of Jews present during the Crucifixion popular in romances of knightly adventure,
whose punishment is to become restless night where Joseph is regarded as the first custodian
*
birds, the Seven Whistlers, ormine-haunting of the *Grail. The flasks and drops of blood
knockers. were shown on the Abbey arms.
Another impori:ant medieval theme was the Traditions about Joseph continued to grow
accusation that Jews kidnapped Christian after the Reformation, presumably because
children and crucified them on Good Friday or the idea of a mission to Britain predating that
Easter Sunday; two child saints, Wilham of of Augustine suited Protestants. The story that
Norwich and Hugh of Lincoln, are alleged to the *Holy Thorn sprang from Joseph's staff was
have been 'martyred' in this way, and to have first printed in 1722, from a local innkeeper's

miraculously revealed the whereabouts of account (Vickery, 1995: 182-7). Currently,

their corpses by singing prayers after death. there is a legend that Joseph was a tin mer-
Hugh's story was told in ballads, and also by chant and the great-uncle of Jesus, and that he
Chaucer as 'The Prioress's Tale'. brought Jesus to Cornwall and/or to Somerset
Jewish reUgion was assumed to consist of in the course of a trading journey. How old
sorcery and devil-worship, leading Christians this legend is is disputed; those who believe it
to apply the terms 'synagogue' and 'sabbath' assume it to be medieval, but it is nowhere
to gatherings of *witches. Yet, paradoxically, mentioned before the 1890s, unless William
Hebrew was seen as the most sacred of all lan- Blake is alluding to it in his poem of 1804

guages, outranking even Latin and Greek; beginning, 'And did those feet in ancient
hence the widespread use of Hebrew words, times / Walk upon England's mountains
letters, and symbols in ritual *magic, and in green?' However, these lines could be merely
healing *charms. symbolical. The story appeared in Sabine
Venetia Newall, in The Witch Figure, ed. V. Newall (1973), Baring-Gould's Book of Cornwall (1899) and
95-124; George K. Anderson, The Legend of the Wandering subsequent guidebooks, and was widely pub-
Jew (1967); S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages Ucized by three vicars in the 1920s and
(1877), 1-31.
1930s— the Revd L S. Lewis of St John's,
Glastonbury, the Revd H. A. Lewis of Talland
Joan the Wad. A Cornish name for a *Will-o'-
(ComwaU), and the Revd C. C. Dobson of St
the-Wisp, originally limited to the area round
Mary's, Hastings (Sussex).
Polperro, where it was noted by Jonathan
R. F. Trehame, The Glastonbury Legends (1967) E. M. R. Dit-
Crouch in his history of the town; 'wad' is a A W. Smith, Folklore
mas. Traditions of Glastonbury (1983)
dialect word for a torch. Besides leading too (1989), 63-83; Rahtz, 1993.
people astray with her Ught, she sometimes
tickled and pinched them, so Crouch classified Journal of the English Folk Dance and
her as a *pLxy. A rhyme invoked her aid:
Song Society. Launched in 1932, when the
Jack o' the lantern! Joan the wad. English Folk Dance and Song Society was
Who tickled the maid and made her mad! formed, by the amalgamation of the Folk-
Light me home, the weather's bad. song Society and the *English Folk Dance
Society, and thus replacing the journals of
Joseph of Arimathea. A minor figure in the these two societies. It ran until December

Gospels, who entered folklore when Glaston- 1964 (vol. 9 no. 5), when it in turn was
bury claimed he founded a church there tn ad replaced by the *Folk Music foumal. Its content
63; this story first appears in 1247, as a forged was mainly descriptive, comparative, and his-
chapter inserted into WiUiam of Malmes- torical, rather than theoretical, but many of its
articles are required reading. Editors:
bury's treatise On The Antiquity of Glastonbury
still

Qiurch (written c.1130). Such an early founder Frank Howes (1932-45), Margaret *Dean-Smith
conferred great prestige; in the 14th and 15th (1946-51), Sara Jackson (1952-60), Russell
centuries the Abbots of Glastonbury began Wortley (1961-4).
calling Joseph 'Saint', dedicating a chapel to
him, and claiming miracles. At first, no relics Journal of the English Folk Dance Society.
were mentioned, but in the late 15th century Although the *EngUsh Folk Dance Society
came the story that he had brought two flasks existed from 1911 to 1932, it only published a
201 Judas

handful of issues of its journal. Volume 1 The eariiest surviving fragment of an Eng-
(parts 1and 2, 1914-15) was hit by the First hsh ballad concerns Judas (F. J. Child, English
World War, and the second series achieved and Scottish Ballads, no. 23). Jesus sends
Judas
four annual numbers (1927-32) before the into Jerusalem with 30 pieces of silver to buy
Society amalgamated with the *Folk-Song food; there he meets his sister 'the treacher-
Society. Nevertheless, in its short existence, it ous woman', who tells him he deserves to be
included a number of important pieces on the stoned for believing a false prophet; he warns
morris, *sword, and country *dance, mum- her to be silent, for Jesus would take revenge if
ming plays, and other matters. The first series he knew what she had said. At this point the
was edited by Perceval Lucas, but the editorials poem becomes confused, but it seems likely
in the second series are unsigned. It was that (with typical medieval chauvinism) a
replaced in 1932 by the *]oumal of the English woman will be blamed for a man's crime.
Folk Dance and Song Society. Some Lenten customs were vaUdated as
being aimed against Judas. The Jack-o'-Lent
Journal of the Folk-Song Society. effigy burnt on the beach at Polperro (Corn-
Launched in 1899, the JFSS served as the pri- wall) in the early 19th century was explained
mary medium for the publication of accurate thus, aswas a more recent Ash Wednesday
folk *song material for members of the Folk- custom from Lincolnshire:
song Society, running until 1931 (vol. 8, part
when the Society amalgamated with the
35),
When was about 15 years old, 70 years ago
I

= make an effigy of Judas from

1920s), they used to
EngUsh Folk Dance Society to form the Eng- (

straw and hang it up on Boston market place near

lish Folk Dance and Song Society, and it was
the old stocks. The idea was for folks to throw a clod
thus replaced by the latter's Journal. Although
of muck at it for betraying Jesus. If any of it was left
the JESS included some important articles, the
at the end of Lent it was torn down or set fire to; that
bulk of its content comprised songs collected was to make sure it got finished properly. (Sutton,
by members and submitted for publication, 1997: 55)
with annotations provided by members of the
journal's Board, including such experts as In Brighton (Sussex), where fishermen and
Cecil Sharp, Lucy Broadwood, Frank Kidson, their families enjoyed long-rope skipping in
and Anne Gilchrist, but there was little sus- the fish-market on Good Fridays earher in the
tained argument or overall analysis. The tunes 20th century, it was sometimes said to be
of the songs are printed 'as collected', but instituted in memory of the rope with which
often in the earlier volumes only sample Judas hanged himself (Simpson, 1973: 111).
were given. The bulk of the
verses of the texts Devon people thought it lucky to break a piece
songs pubUshed were EngUsh, but important of crockery on Good Friday, as its sharp edges
contributions on Irish, Manx, and Scottish would pierce the body of Judas (Wright and
songs also appeared. Lones, 1936: i. 81-2); no explanation is

E. A.White, An Index ofEn^ish Smgs Contributed to the JFSS reported, but it may not be coincidental that
(1951); Frederick Keel, JEEDSS 5:3 (1948), 111-26. in EUzabethan times the corpses of suicides
were pelted with pottery shards.
Judas. In folk rehgion, Judas the traitor and The most recent and dramatic Judas custom
suicide is the ultimate hate-figure, and various was peculiar to the south end of Liverpool
supposedly evil or unlucky things are Docks in the 1950s. At daybreak on Good Fri-
explained by reference to him: he was red- day crowds of children congregated rovmd
haired, he spilt the salt at the Last Supper, he dummies made from old clothes, paper, straw,
was the thirteenth person present there and and a comic mask; the leader of each group
the first to leave the table, he hanged himself hoisted this 'Judas' on a pole, and they went
on an elder tree. In the north of England, from house to house knocking against bed-
C.1850, it was said that anyone with black hair room windows and shouting, 'Judas is a penny
and a red beard was 'false by nature', for that short of his breakfast' till a few coins were
had been Judas's colouring (Denham Tracts, thrown down. By mid-moming the collecting
1895: ii.
24). In such cases, the beUefs are gen- ended, and bonfires were built in the streets to
erally on record ear her than their 'explan- bum the Judases before 11 a.m., but police
ations' and/or often to be found without them; would often scatter the fires and carry off^ the
the appeal to (pseudo-) Scriptural authority Judases. to desttoy them at the poUce
seems Ukely to be a post facto rationalization. station—at which the pursuing children
judgements and Providence 202

would yell 'Judas!' at the police themselves. In *Long Meg, *Semerwater, *Stanton Drew), in
any case, the fun had to be over by noon some accounts of *monstrous births, in beUefs
(Frank Turner, Folk-Lore 65 (1954), 47). about *Gabriel Ratchets and the *Wild Hunt, in
*
Liverpool people believed their custom cautionary pamphlets about the Black Dog of
*
arose from watching what was done on Span- Bungay or the Mowing Devil, and even in the
ish ships docking there in Holy Week (Opie tale of the *Lambton Worm. The role of the
and Opie, 1959: 259-60). Certainly it is very Devil in many such tales corresponds to an old
similar to customs common in Spain, Portu- behef that he was the agent for God's judge-
gal, and Latin America. An illustration in the ments. The sins thus punished include
*
Graphic (15 Apr. 1876), 36),shows Portuguese Sabbath-breaking, blasphemy, rash mention
sailors 'flogging Judas in London
Iscariot' of the Devil, lack of charity, theft, murder, and
Docks on Good Friday, and the Opies give injustice towards a labourer. According to a
other references to the overseas custom being plaque on the market cross at Devizes (Devon),
observed on foreign ships in Enghsh docks. in 1753 a woman who said 'she wished she
The Guardian (18 Sept. 1996), 17, gives further might drop down dead' if she had cheated on a
foreign examples of Judas customs. However, purchase, 'instantly fell down and expired,
now that the Polperro record has been having the money in her hand'.
reinforced by one from Lincolnshire, there is a Providential deliverances and blessings did
case for thinking English precedents contrib- not stimulate popular imagination so much.
uted something to the Liverpool effigies. However, Providence may be implied by the
astonishing good fortune of Dick *Whit-
judgements and Providence. Behef in tington and the Pedlar of *Swaflfham; it under-
God's 'judgements'— dramatic calamities sent hes the widespread tale of a lost traveller
to punish sinful individuals or communities, saved by a curfew bell, who then donates land
and to warn others—which was prominent for its upkeep. It is also manifestly the point of
from medieval till Victorian times, has shaped the * Angels of Mons rumour.
much folklore (Thomas, 1971: 79-112, 472-3).
It is obvious in many landscape legends (e.g. jump rope, see '"skipping.
Karpeles, Maud Pauline (1885-1976). (1971), An Introduction to English Folk Song (1973);
Together with her sister Helen (who late mar- and the major ones edited from Sharp's MSS
ried Douglas *Kennedy) Maud Karpeles met are: English Folk Songs from the Southern
Cecil *Sharp in 1911 and fell under the spell of Appalachians (2 vols., 1932), and Cecil Sharp's Col-
his enthusiasm for English folk *dance and lection of English Folk Son^ (2 vols., 1974).
*song. The Karpeles sisters were soon included Obituaries and tributes: ED&S 28:2 (1966), 44-5; 39:1
in Sharp's demonstration teams and were (1977), 30; FMJ 3:3 (1977) 292-4; Yearbook of the Inter-
nationa] Folk Music Council 8 (1977), 9-11; The Times (2 Oct.
closely involved with the *EngUsh Folk Dance
Society (EFDS) formed later that year. When 1976).

Sharp developed neuritis, Maud became his

amanuensis and thus became directly Kennedy, Douglas Neil (1893-1988). By pro-
involved in the collecting, lecturing, and pub- fession a biologist, but his life's work turned
Ushing with which Sharp was busy spreading out to be the * revival and encouragement of
the gospel. She accompanied him on his sem- folk *dance through the auspices of the *Eng-
inal song-collecting trips to the Appalachians Ush Folk Dance Society (EFDS) and its succes-
from 1916 to 1918. When Sharp died in 1924 sor *EngUsh Folk Dance and Song Society
Karpeles dedicated herself to continuing his (EFDSS). Kennedy was introduced to dancing
work, through the editing of his collections by his sister in 1911, just at the moment when
for pubhcation, and also through the EFDS Cecil *Sharp was planning to found the EFDS,
and successor the *Enghsh Folk Dance and
its and was immediately brought under the spell
Song Society. One major contribution of her of Sharp's enthusiasm and sense of mission.
own was greatly to increase the Societies' He became a regular in Sharp's demonstration
overseas contacts, and the successful inter- team which he used to illustrate his lectures
change of dance teams from Britain and and spread the gospel, and as one of the few of
Europe before the Second World War was Sharp's young men to survive the First World
largely due to her enthusiasm and organiza- War (he was awarded an MBE for his service),
tional abihties. After the war, she almost Kennedy (and his wife Helen, sister of Maud
single-handedly formed the International Folk Karpeles) became leading Ughts in the bur-
Music Council in 1947. She also undertook her geoning revival of interest in both country and
own collecting projects— dances in northern morris dancing. On Sharp's death in 1924,
England and songs in Newfoundland in 1929 Kennedy became Organizing Director of the
and 1930. After the war, as the folk-song and EFDS and remained Director of the EFDSS
dance revival underwent rapid change and a until 1961. In that time he was the major
series of reassessments, some felt that Karpe- organizing force in the dance revival and
les perhaps stuck too rigidly to her role as guided the Societies through many crises
guardian of Sharp's work and vision. Never- brought about by changing circumstances and
theless, her first-hand knowledge of the trad- attitudes, in particular over 'standards' of per-
ition, and her long experience of the revival formance and the scrapping of Society exam-
movement gave her opinions weight and inations, broadening the repertoire of social
ensured that she remained an important pres- dance from an over-reUance on the courtly
Playford dances to more vigorous
ence throughout her Ufe. She was awarded an traditional
OBE in 1961. dances being collected in Enghsh villages and
Her own books include Cecil Sharp: His Life later to include American square dancing, and
and Work (1967), Folk Songs from Newfoundland the need for such a society to adapt, or die. He
keys

taught, demonstrated, edited, lectured, organ- formation of the Society in 1898, and the
ized festivals, led delegations abroad, and widespread increase in interest in the subject
remained the official public face of folk dance in the early 20th century. Kidson's first book
for decades.Kennedy was awarded an OBE in was Old English Country Dances (1890) which
1952. When he died, in 1988, the last direct made available dance-tunes of previous eras,
Unk with Sharp was severed, and it is probably but his second work. Traditional Tunes (1891),
true to say that, after Sharp, Douglas Kennedy had much more effect, despite being pub-
was the most influential person in the 20th- lished in a hmited edition. On the formation
century folk dance revival movement. of the Society, Kidson was immediately elect-
Kennedy also served as President of the ed to its Executive Committee, and he
Folklore Society 1964-7, and his three Presi- remained supportive of the Society's work all
dential Addresses are concerned with the his life. Kidson became the acknowledged suc-

concept of 'Human Ecology' and show his con- cessor to William *Chappell as the leading
tinued interest, as a biologist, in the physical musical antiquary of his generation, and he
world of dance and song, and on the expres- built up both a remarkable collection of early
sion of 'feehng' in traditional cultural activ- printed and manuscript material, and also an
76 (1965), 81-9; 77 (1966), 81-90;
ities (Folklore unrivalled knowledge of the history of popu-
78 (1966) 81-9. His only major book was Eng- lar song and music. His enthusiasm for folk-
land's Dances: Folk Dancing To-Day and Yesterday song, experience of the oral tradition, and his
(1949), revised as English Folk Dancing Today and interest in and knowledge of ^broadside and

Yesterday (1964). *chapbook material were elements which

Roy Judge and Derek Schofield, 'A Tribute to Douglas Chappell lacked. Many tributes from other
Kennedy'. FMJ 5:4 (1988), 520-36; Obituary ED&S 50:1 folk-song collectors, writers, and editors,
(1988), 2-4; Douglas Kennedy, 'Folk Dance Revival', FMJ remark how this tremendous knowledge
(1971), 80-90.
was always readily available to others, and
Kidson served the *]oumal of the Folk-Song Soci-

keys. According to a character in Thomas ety for many years as advisor, selector, and
*Hardy's novel Far From the Madding Crowd annotator.
(1874, chapter 33), breaking a key was a bad Among Kidson's other publications were his
sign: '1 went to unlock the door and dropped seminal reference work, British Music Publishers,
the key, and it fell upon the stone floor and Printers and Engravers: Provincial, Scottish and
broke into two pieces. Breaking a key is a Elizabeth's Reign to George the
Irish, from Queen
dreadful bodement.' Keys were also used for Fourth's (1900), The Beggars Opera, and over 400
divination, in conjunction with a *Bible, and entries for the Grove Dictionary of Music and
are still commonly recommended to stop a Musicians. His only other book of folk songs
*nosebleed (put the key down the sufferer's was A Garland of English Folk-Songs (1926), but
back). A report from Norfolk, in the 1890s, after his death, his niece, Ethel Kidson, edited
described how seamen's wives and girlfriends and pubhshed some of the songs from his col-
would gather on the quay, watching for the lection, as Folk Songs of the North Countrie (1927)
arrival or departure of a ship, each carrying in and English Peasant Songs (1929).
her hand a key— presumably their house door-
John Graham and R. Vaughan Williams, ]EFDS 2s: 1
key—turning it in the direction of a departing (1927), 48-51; 'Frank Kidson 1855-1927 by Some of His
or expected ship (Folk-lore 4 (1893), 391-2). Friends', JEFDSS 5:3 (1948), 127-35; Roy Palmer, FMJ 5:2
(1986). 150-75; Ray Cowell, FMJ 5:4 (1988), 482-8.

Kidson, Frank (1855-1926). Bom and living

for most of his life in Leeds, he was proud of kingfisher. A piece of erroneous 'natural his-
his home town and Yorkshire roots, and made tory' once common was that if a dried king-
a modest Uving as a joumahst and author. fisheris hung up indoors, it swings round till

Along with Lucy *Broadwood and Sabine the beak points towards the quarter from
*Baring-Gould he formed part of an important which the wind is blowing. 'The belief still
generation of pre-*Folk Song Society *song survives among the credulous,' remarked one
enthusiasts whose early collecting activities observer (N&Q, 7s:12 (1891), 218), and Edward
were undertaken more or less in isolation but Lovett saw one in use in Arundel (Sussex) in
whose individual efforts, and first pubUca- the 1920s which supposedly turned one way in
tions, became both standard works and cata- fine weather, and the other way during rain
lysts for the movement which included the (Lovett, 1928: 26).
205 knockers

King of the Bean, see *twelfth night. get rid of him. Common at least up to the
19th century was the beUef that when a
king's evil. An old term for scrofula. Kings of knife has caused a wound, the knife is treat-
England and France claimed to heal it by their ed with the same ointment as the wound, to
touch— a gift conferred by God through the oil ensure effective healing (N&il 9s:10 (1902),
used at their coronation. The first EngUsh 509). This cure was apparently taken ser-
was Edward the
ruler to 'touch for the evil' iously by many in the 17th century, with Sir
Confessor; several Plantagenets did so, and Kenelm Digby advertising his special
especially the Tudors and Stuarts, including 'weapon salve' which included as an ingredi-
the Queens Regnant— Mary, EUzabeth, and ent moss from the skull of an unburied man
Anne. In a religious ceremony devised by (Picard, 1997: 78, 288), but declared magical
Heniy VII, the sovereign would stroke the suf- and thus unlawful by William Foster in 1631
ferer's neck, first with the hand and then with (HazUtt. 1905: 621). Alternatively, the
a gold coin; this coin was to be worn as a pen- weapon should simply be kept clean and
dant till the cure was complete. To prevent brightly pohshed, as any speck of rust would
abuse, those asking to be healed had to bring betoken death for the wounded person (Folk-
certificates from their parishes that they really lore Record 1 (1878), 43-4). Others advise
were sick and had not been previously against stirring anything with a knife: stir
touched by the monarch. with a knife, stir up strife. A knife and fork
The Stuarts regarded the power as intrinsic or two knives laid across each other on the
to their sacred kingship; Charles II is known to plate is unlucky or will cause a quarrel in the
have touched 90,798 sufferers. The Hanoveri- house (see also *spoon), which was still
*
ans reftised to do any touching, but the ritual reported in our Superstitions Survey 1998/9.
remained in the Book of Common Prayer till Some try to avoid allowing a knife to spin
1744; the exiled Stuarts continued to do so on while on the table, while others deliberately
the Continent. Until late in the 18th century do so in *love divination.
scroftilaics visited the bloodstained shirt worn

by Charles I on the scaffold and preserved at knockers. Cornish tin-miners believed there
Ashbumham (Sussex), hope of a cure.
in were helpfiil spirits in the mines, who could
Alternative popular cures were the touch of be heard hammering at places where there
a *seventh son or a *blacksmith, or a *toad's leg was a good lode of ore; they might also knock
in a silk bag round one's neck. Reginald Scot as a warning of danger, for instance before a
said one might also touch the place with the rock-fall. There were several names for them,
hand of someone that died an untimely death, the two most usual being 'knockers' and 'buc-
or get a naked virgin to lay her hand on it, cas' (the latter is a common Celtic term for

fasting, and spit on it three times ((1584): book various *fairies and *goblins). Certain *taboos
12, chapter 14).
had to be obeyed so as not to annoy them:
Thomas, 1971: 192-8; Raymond Crawfurd, The there must be no *whisthng and swearing, nor
King's Evil
(1911); Marcel Bloch, Les Rots Thaumaturges (1925),
should anything be marked with a *cross.
reprinted 1961. Workers eating underground should leave a
few crumbs for them, for luck. An old man
knives. The most commonly known and told Bottrell that he had once seen three, 'no
practised belief about knives is that giving bigger than a good sixpenny doll, yet in their
any sharp instrument as a present will 'cut faces, dress and movements, they had the look
the friendship' unless a smaU coin is given in of hearty old tinners'. One was sitting at a lit-
return. Opie and Tatem record examples of tle anvil, 'no more than an inch square',
the fear that the knife severs love from 1507 sharpening tools for the others.
onwards, although the earliest reference to Knockers were sometimes thought of as
mention the pa5mient to avoid it appears in fairies, but more often as ghosts of *Jews who
Grose's Provincial Glossary (1787) (but see also could never rest because they were guilty of
scissors). Correspondence in NEKl in 1912 Christ's death. It was said Jews had worked in
(lls:5 (1912), 91, 157) shows that even sharp the tin-mines, either as slaves in Roman times,
objects such as brooch pins could be suscep- or as serfs of an Earl of Cornwall; neither
tible to this beUef, and that lasses had been account seems to have any factual basis.
known to give an unwanted beau a knife, Among Shropshire lead miners, similar beliefs
and refiise to accept anything in return, to were held; there, the helpftil spirits were
knots 206

simply called 'the Old Men', and sometimes knit.To know the thing, 1 know not yet. That 1

identified with Wild *Edric's followers (Briggs, may see. The man (woman that shall my hus-
)

1976: 254-6). band (wife) be. How he goes. And what he

wears. And what he does, all days, and years'
knots. Have long figured in *magic. It was (Aubrey, 1696: 131-2). Knotted threads were
widely held that by tying *three (or *nine) also used as cures for whooping cough,
knots on a lace or thread, witches could ren- sprains, *nosebleed, and *warts; in the first
der a man impotent; according to the astrol- three cases they were worn by the patient, but
oger Simon Forman early in the 17th century, for the last they were touched to each wart
this was done during the wedding ceremony and then thrown away to decay (Opie and
itself, with the words 'Whom God hath joined Tatem, 1989: 221-4).
together let the Devil separate; sara till these
knots be undone'. Similarly, as told in the *bal- Knutsford Royal May Day Festival. The
lad 'Willie's Lady', a witch might prevent a annual *May celebrations in Knutsford,
woman in labour from giving birth by secretly Cheshire, on the first Saturday in May com-
knotting her hair ribbons (Opie and Tatem, prise a spectacular procession led by the Town
1989: 220-1; F. J. Child, The English and Scottish Crier and including bands, the May Queen
Popular Ballads, no. 6). It was beUeved witches and her attendants, *mortis dancers, *Jack-in-
would the wind' to sailors in a cord with
'sell
the-Green, entertainers, and hundreds of local
three knots; untying the first would bring a
people in costume. They parade fi:om the old
fine breeze, the second a high wind, the third Town Hall out to Knutsford Heath, where the
a destructive storm; this is usually told of Queen is crowned and the rest of the day is
witches abroad—in Scandinavia, Scotland, the
spent with dancing and displays. The custom
Isle of Man, or Ireland— rather than in home
began in 1864, although it is said that this was
ports (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 446-7). a revival rather than an inauguration. A ftir-
Knotting one's garter was a relatively simple ther aspect to the May Day celebrations is the
form of *divination, which unlike most could decoration of pavements (especially outside
be practised on any night of the year, to reveal the May Queen's house) with coloured sand
one's destined partner in a dream. *Aubrey's
(see *sanding).
recipe is to tie one's left garter to one's right Revd W. Dailow, 'May Queens', Strand Magazine (May
stocking and recite the following verses, mak- 1892), 484-8; Shuel, 1985: 34-9; Roy Kerridge, Bizarre
ing a ftirther knot at each comma: 'This knot 1 Britain (1985), 60-6.
ladder. The idea that it is unlucky to walk If it be tomorrow day.

under a ladder is one of the most widely Take your wings and fly away.
known and practised *superstitions of modem This can also be a divination, as in 19th-
times, being by far the most often mentioned
century Shropshire:
in rephes to our 1998/9 *Superstitions Survey.
Lady-cow, lady-cow, flee!
In most cases now it is simply said to be fly away,
Tell me which way my wedding's to be.
'unlucky', but in previous times to walk under
Uphill, or downhill, or towards the brown Clee!
a ladder might result in you never marrying,
or dying on the gallows. The first known ref- (Bume, 1883: 237)
erence to this beUef is Uttle more than 200 A ladybird affected the whole course of
years old, in Grose's Provincial Glossary (1787: modem Enghsh folklore studies by settling on
63). For those unfortunate enough to have Peter *Opie's finger one day in 1944, causing
walked under a ladder, a number of trad- him to quote this rhyme and rouse his -wife
itional remedies are prescribed— spit through lona's curiosity; within a few days they had
the ladder, spit over your left shoulder, or started the exploration of nursery-lore and
keep your fingers crossed till you see a dog, do child-lore which became their life's work.
not speak till you see a four-legged animal,
Opie and Opie, 1951: 263-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 326.
make the sign of the cross, and so on. There
have also been a number of attempts to Lady Godiva, see "^Godiva.
explain the behef: the Devil lurked under the
ladder at the Crucifixion, the ladder/wall/floor Lambton Worm, the. Lambton Castle (Co.
make a triangle which is symboUcal of the Durham) is the setting for a lively tale of
Trinity,and the ladder stands for the gallows. dragon-slaying which exists in two main
Needless to say, none of these has a shred of forms: in a jocular folk-song probably dating
evidence to support them. Unlike many super- fi-om the 19th century, and in a pamphlet of
however, this one does have a prag-
stitions, about 1875 which gives a more detailed but
matic element, and many argue that their heavily moraUzed account. How much older
avoidance is ruled merely by considerations of the legend itself may be is impossible to tell.
safety and common sense. Both versions agree that at some vaguely
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 225-6; N&QISS (1928), 172, 209- medieval period the Lord of Lambton's young
10, 247; 156 (1929), 177; Harland and Wilkinson, 1882: heir was fishing in the river Weir on a Sunday,
229.
and caught a strange, ugly, worm-hke fish
which in disgust he tossed into a nearby
ladybird. This bright httle insect (also called well, remarking, T think I've catched the
lady-cow or Bishop Bamaby) is said to bring Devil'. Soon after this, he went abroad to the
luck if it alights on someone, and should never Crusades. Meanwhile, the worm grew to a ftill-
be harmed. Children encourage it to fly away sized *dragon; it was impossible to kill it, for if
with some variant of the rhyme: cut to pieces it merely reunited its body.
At length. Young Lambton returned home.
Ladybird, ladybird, fly away home.
Your house is on fire, and your children all gone. On the advice of a local witch, he studded his
armour with spear-blades and stood on a rock
in the middle of the river; thus, when the

Bishy-bishy-bamabee, dragon coiled round him, it impaled

itself
Tell me when your wedding be: itself on the blades, and when he cut it in two
Lancashire Dialect Society

the strong current swept the pieces away, pre- moors', Bristol & Avon Archaeology 4 (1985),
venting them from rejoining. 13-20).
The witch had demanded as her reward the At Wishford (Wiltshire) on Rogation Mon-
life of whoever first came from the Castle to day, the 'foreshare' or summer grazing on two
greet Young Lambton. He had planned to trick water meadows is auctioned in the church-
her by arranging that his favourite hound yard. At five minutes to sunset, the Parish
would be loosed first, but it was his father Clerk starts pacing up and down between
who appeared. Rather than murder his own church porch and gate, and the people start
father, he defied the witch; consequently, she bidding. As soon as the sun dips beneath the
cursed the family, declaring that for nine gen- horizon he strikes the church key against the
erations no Lord Lambton would ever die in gate and the bidding stops (Rightly, 1986: 66).
his bed. At Bourne, Surrey, 'White Bread Meadow*
In the folk-song, the story is simpler; there used to be let by special auction. At each bid, a
is no studded armour, no witch, and no boy was sent to run to a particular point and
curse— merely cheerfiil praise: back, and any bid unchallenged when the last

Of bold Sir John and what he done boy returned was accepted (Surrey Magazine 4
Wi* the awful Lambton Worm. (1902), 150, reprinting from the Daily Mail). At
Yamton, Oxfordshire, on the first Monday fol-
Anon, The Wonderful Legend of the Lambton Worm (c.l875);
lowing St Peter's Day, a comphcated process is
Simpson, 1980: 124-9.
undergone to determine the rights to the ten-
ancy to Yamton West Mead. Several local
Lancashire Dialect Society. Founded in
farmers have common ownership of this
January 1951 by George Brook, Professor of meadow, and mowing and grazing rights are
English Language at Manchester University, auctioned in lots. As each 'lot' is actually spUt
the Lancashire Dialect Society was one of sev-
up over different sections of the meadow, a
eral societies dedicated to the study and use of
further process of drawing lots (using special
local dialect (see also *Yorkshire Dialect Soci-
balls of cherrywood) has to take place, under
It held meetings, lectures, and other
ety). the auspices of the Meadsman, who organizes
events, and published an annual Journal, the whole affair (Sykes, 1977: 104-7).
which included dialect poems and prose in
Porter, 1969: 348-59.
addition to articles on local terminology and
grammar. The Society was dissolved in 1992,
and the last issue of the Journal was no. 41,
Lang. Andrew (1844-1912). Bom in Scotland,
August 1992 (see the 'Valediction' in that
and passionately interested in Scottish topics
issue, pp. 2-5).
all his Ufe, Lang also had an immense impact

on the development of general British folklore

Land lease and tenure auctions. There are studies in the late 19th century. His publica-
anumber of surviving customs pertaining to tions range very widely, but his interest in
the letting of land, each designed to maximize folklore was inspired by *Tylor's anthropo-
fairness within the constraints of local condi- logical writings
—
particularly Primitive Culture
tions, but each has accrued its own methods (1871).Lang sprang into the pubhc limelight
and traditions which seem quaint and odd to with what proved to be the first of many pubhc
modem eyes. The most common is by *candle controversies in which he engaged, when an
auction, but the following are examples of the Fortnightly Review (May 1873) took
article in
other methods. At Congresbury (Somerset), on Max Miiller and the other leading figures of
after four acres were let 'by inch of candle' on the 'philological school' of solar m5^hologists,
the Saturday before Old Midsummer Day, two who beheved that the study of language was
pieces of common land, called East and West the primary key to the understanding of
Dolemoors, were divided into acres and each myths. Lang propounded instead a compara-
one was marked with a spade in a distinctive tive anthropological approach which brought

way. A number of apples were marked in a in evidence from 'savage' cultures on a world-
similar way, placed in a bag, and pulled out to wide basis rather than the relatively narrow
decide which commoner received which acre Indo-European base of Miiller. Lang's timing
for the coming year (CoUinson, History of the was excellent, as the philologists' arguments
County of Somerset (1791); Keith Gardner, were already somewhat outmoded, and he not
'Apples in the Landscape: The Puxton Dol- only won the day but gave a popular face to the
209 laying ghosts

new folklore, and himself, at a stroke. He con- world of folklore's serious scientific creden-
tinued to develop his comparative method, tials and to distance themselves from the
and he joined the * Folklore Society on its for- immensely popular spiritualism and occult-
mation in 1878, serving as its President in ism. There were many times when the poet
1889-91. Lang described his comparative and romantic in Lang overcame the scholar.
method in several of his books, such as: Other books by Lang include Cock Lane and
Common-Sense (1894); The Book of Dreams and
Our method, then, is to compare the seemingly
Ghosts (1897); The Making of Religion (1898);
meaningless customs or manners of civilised races
with the similar customs and manners which exist Magic and See also the long-
Religion (1901).

among the uncivihsed and still retain their meaning. running column 'At the Sign of the Ship' in
It isnot necessary for comparison of this sort that Longman's Magazine (1885-1905).
the uncivilised and the civilised race should be of the Obituaries in Folk-lore 23 (1912), 358-75; Roger Lancelyn
same stock, nor need we prove that they were ever in Green, Andrew Lang (1946); Dorson, 1968: 206-20.
contact with each other. Similar conditions of mind
produce similar practices, apart from identity of race lantern man. An East Anghan name for a
or borrowing of ideas and manners. (Custom and
fierce *Will-o'-the-Wisp. One must never
Ma^c, new edn., 1904: 21-2)
*whistle at night, or he will come; the only
This *survivals theory is predicated on the protection then is to he flat with one's face
behef that all human cultures or civilizations buried in the mud, so that he passes over one's
pass through the same evolutionary stages, body.
but that at any given time some are more
advanced than others. Unfortunately, this Latham, Charlotte.The first issue of Folk-lore
—
willingness even eagerness on Lang's part
— Record (1878) contains an article entitled 'Some
to pile example upon example from different West Sussex Superstitions Lingering in 1868'
periods and different places was precisely the (1-67). Unfortunately, nothing is known about
element of 'folklore method' which got the the author, Mrs Charlotte Latham, except that
disciphne such a bad name in academic circles her husband had been rector of the village of
from the early 20th century onwards. Fittleworth, but her paper is a model of its
One of Lang's most popular projects— for kind, and her methods exemplary; she used to
which he is still remembered—was a series of write down 'the scraps of homely conversa-
twelve annual volumes of fairytale books, which she got her information, so that
tion' in

starting with the Blue Fairy Book (1889) and the others could 'form a truer judgement than
Red Fairy Book (1890). For these, Lang and his they could otherwise arrive at of the degree of
wife (and other helpers) drew on a wide range faith existing in the original narrator'. She
of sources, including the Arabian Nights and writes with clarity and immediacy, giving
various mythologies, and retold them in a short but vivid sketches of the circumstances
style suitable for Victorian children. They are of her fieldwork, for example how she once
thus of little use to the scholar, but they were allowed a Sunday School class to 'quite over-
tremendously popular and introduced several whelm' her with 'a torrent of narrative' about
generations to myths and folktales. 'The their relatives' encounters with *ghosts and
readers who looked to Andrew Lang for enter- the Devil (19); she also draws on her own
tainment outnumbered those who sought
far childhood memories; she even dares (after due
instructionfrom him' (obituary, 359). apology to readers) to include two traditional
Apart from the tendency to speak his mind, cures for bed-wetting.
another reason for Lang's often strained rela-
tionships with his fellow folklorists was that laying ghosts. Many traditions about haimt-
he clearly believed in some psychic phenom- ings imply that there is nothing the living can
ena such as ghosts and even fairies, and was do to lay the *ghost to rest. Others, however,
involved also in the Society for Psychical describe ghosts which depart once whatever is
Research, which he joined in 1904 and later troubhng them has been dealt with; it may be
served as their President. He called for a that their bones need burial, or that some
'scientific approach to the supernatural', and unfiilfiUed duty has to be carried out on their
coined the term 'psycho-folklorist', but his behalf, or some message delivered.. There is a
evident behef and 'open-mindedness' on such third group of traditions from Oxfordshire,
topics was hardly calculated to appeal to those south-west England and Enghsh counties bor-
who were working so hard to convince the dering on Wales, where ghost-laying is a con-
Lazy Lawrence 210

flict of wills between an exorcist and a stub- ing curses and astrological s5mibols were still
bom, malevolent spectre. being made in the 16th and 17th centuries;
These stories are set in the 18th or early one was found buried in Lincoln's Inn, two
19th century; the ghosts are of local evil-doers more in a barrow on the Yorkshire moors, and
(often gentry) and have been disturbing the one in a cupboard at Wilton Place near
whole community, until a parson, or more Dymock (Gloucestershire). They express the
often a group of seven or twelve parsons, suc- wish that the victim should be ruined and/or
ceeds in la5dng them by fierce and unceasing forced to leave the district (Hole, 1973: 92-3).
prayer. The ghost-layers usually hold hghted
*candles, and occasionally bring a newly bap- leap year. The dominant beUef about leap
tized baby with them. In many of the stories, yearis that it is the only time that a woman

the ghost, having first appeared as a threaten- may propose marriage to a man, rather than
ing monster, is 'read down' into smaller and what was considered to be the natural order of
smaller forms; eventually it is imprisoned in a things: the other way round. This was often
bottle, box, snufif-box, or boot, which is then called 'The Ladies' Privilege'. At the time of
thrown into a pool or river, or buried, prefer- writing, it is probably true to say that yoimger

ably under a heavy stone (Bume, 1883: 107- English people would not be aware of the
11, 122-8; Leather, 1912: 29-35; Briggs, 1974: beUef if the media did not run features on the
143-5; Simpson, 1976: 90-6). Alternatively, it subject every fourth February. In previous
may be set endless tasks, for example making times, when relationships between the sexes
ropes of sand, or banished to the Red Sea for a were more rigid and formal, there were a
set term of years. number of subsidiary beUefs surrounding the
Brown, 1979. Ladies' Privilege. Some said that it was only on

Leap Year day, that is 29 February, that it was

valid,while others believed that a man pro-
Lazy Lawrence. This imaginary personage is
posed to in this way could not reftise, except
a symbol of laziness in various proverbial say-
—
on substantial payment a silk gown, or £100,
ings. He is also the hero of a humorous chap-
and so on. Indeed, it was widely reported
book entitled The History of Lawrence Lazy, pos-
(erroneously) that there had been a Scottish
sibly first printed in 1670. He has a magic ring
Act of Parliament in the 13th century making
which can send everyone around him to sleep;
this legally binding (see N&Q, 7s:10 (1890), 188),
this enables him to play various tricks on
or that it had passed into English Common
people, for which he is eventually put on trial.
Law (Courtship, Love and Matrimony (1606).
He is acquitted, after earnest pleading from
quoted in N&(1 4s:8 (1871), 505). One story
apprentices, who say that if it were not for
about the origin of the Ladies' Privilege is set
him they would be worked to death. The story
in Ireland: St Bridget met St Patrick one day
was very popular in the 18th century, and
and complained that women did not have the
related colloquial sayings ('to have a touch of
the Lawrence', 'as lazy as Lawrence', 'as lazy as right to propose. He offered the opportunity
once in every seven years, but she bargained
Lawrence's dog', 'Lazy Lawrence, let me go',
him down to one in four (quoted in Word-Lore
etc.) were still in use in the 19th and early 20th
3 (1928), 51-2).
centuries.
107 (1996), 101-5.
Leather, Ella Mary (1876-1928). Bom in
J. B. Smith, Folklore

Herefordshire as Ella Mary Smith, Mrs Leather

lead. This has many sinister associations. was a prime example of what have been
Heavy and dull in colour, it was linked with termed the 'County who were
Collectors',
Saturn, most ill-omened of the planets; until active in late Victorian and Edwardian times
recent times, it often lined the coffins of the conducting fieldwork in their native area
rich, keep them watertight. Being soft
to which they knew well, and whose collections
enough to write on, it was widely used by the have added greatly to our store of folklore
Romans for inscribing * curses, which would knowledge, but who did not otherwise play a
then be placed in a temple or cemetery (Mer- large part in the greater world of folklore stud-
rifield, 1987: 137-42). ies. Mrs Leather's first foray in folklore was a

Lead continued to be seen as sinister or chapter published in Memorials of Old Hereford-

'impure' in the learned systems of alchemy, shire (1904),which stimulated her to more
astrology, and 'high' magic. Lead tablets bear- collecting work resulting in one of our best
211 leftward movement
books based on personal fieldwork. The Folk- roots. Opie and Tatem quote a description
lore of Herefordshire (1912). Leather was an from 1507.
indefatigable worker and her informants
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 230.
included local Gypsies, hop-pickers, and
workhouse residents. She became particularly
well-known for the Carols she discovered, a
left. Contempt for the left hand as compared
with the *right found in most cultures, past
is
number of which were published in their raw
state in Folk-lore of Herefordshire and the JFSS,
and present, and may have arisen simply
because most people let its strength and skill
and tidied up and arranged in Twelve Trad-
remain relatively undeveloped; the Enghsh
itional Carols from Herefordshire, while *Vaughan

Williams used several in his compositions and

word comes from a root whose primary mean-
carol books. Leather continued to contribute ing 'weak, worthless'. To this basic concept
is

notes to Folk-Lore on a wide variety of items

fiirther meanings were added; already in the
classical world the left was unlucky, ominous,
collected in Herefordshire and neighbouring
counties. After the First World War, in which
and honourable than the right, while
less

Christianity associated it with moral evil

she lost her eldest son, her folklore output
almost ceased, although she remained active through its description of a Last Judgement
in her local community in various spheres.
where the danmed ('goats') are sent to the left,
Mrs H. Leather, 'Folk-Lore of the Shire', in
F.
and the saved ('sheep') to the right (Matthew
25: 33).
Compton Reade (ed.). Memorials of Old Hereford-
shire (1904), 148-66; Ella M. Leather, The Folk-
English traditions reflect all these ideas. It is

Lore of Herefordshire (1912); Ella M. Leather, presumably because girls are weaker than
'Carols from Herefordshire'. JFSS 4:14 (1910), boys and (formerly) less valued in a family that
3-51; Twelve Traditional Carols from Herefordshire, pseudo-medical lore about *conception and
collected and arranged by E. M. Leather and R. ^pregnancy links female foetuses to the left
side of the mother's body. Though it is not said
Vaughan WiUiams (1920); Notes in Folk-Lore 23
here that the left hand is 'unclean' (as it is in
(1912) to 27 (1916) inclusive, and 37 (1926).
Lavender Jones, A Nest of Singing Birds: The Life and Work of
many non-European cultures), nevertheless it

isnever used in situations involving honour

EOa Mary leather (1976); Uvender M. Jones, ED&S 27:1
(Dec. 1964), 4-6; 27:2 (Feb. 1965), 38-40; Dorson, 1968:
and respect, for example shaking hands, salut-
ing, taking an oath, etc.
The connection with bad luck is found, for
leaves. A number instance, in the behef that a baby who grips
of beUefs centre on plant
with the left hand before the right will grow
leaves. The simplest, which is still practised, is

that it is lucky to catch a falling leaf before it

up unlucky; that if the first *cuckoo calls on
one's ominous; that *first footing is
left this is
reaches the ground. The first known mention
is from Sussex— 'If you catch a only effective done with the right foot; and
if
falling leaf, you
will have twelve months of continued happi- many others. The association of left-handed
ness' (Folk-Lore Record 1 (1878), gestures with black magic is found in some
9), although
witchcraft trials, and more consistently
others say a happy day or month for each leaf
caught. More serious forms of divination
among learned occultists of the 19th and 20th
involve particular types of leaf For example, centuries, who commonly speak of 'the left-
hand path* to mean the use of magic for evil
leaves of *holly are stipulated for a form of
purposes; it is now well known through popu-
divination reported from Northumberland:
lar writers and film-makers.
She-holly leaves must be picked, in absolute
There is one very striking
nevertheless
silence, late on a Friday and collected in a
three-cornered handkerchief Nine leaves exception to this trend: upon the left hand
it is

that, in Britain, engagement and wedding

should be tied into the handkerchief vdth
nine knots, and placed under the pillow, and rings must be worn.

any dreams will come true (Henderson, 1866:

79). A somewhat method is recom-
diffierent leftward movement.
Since *rightward
mended by Flora Thompson (Over to Candleford movement regarded in all Europ>ean trad-
is

(1941), chapter 23) using an *ash leaf with nine itions as corresponding to that of the sun, and
leaflets. Another place to put a leaf was in the hence beneficial and joyous, circhng to the left
shoe, after scratching the proposed lover's is necessarily 'backwards', reversing the
name or initials on it. and this has much older norm. Folklore links leftward *circling with
legends

bad luck, *cursing, *witchcraft, and raising the known, while others relate to people only
*Devil. Until the 19th century, this was purely important in local history.
a Scottish and Irish belief, though one which *Local legends are found throughout Eng-
intrigued Enghsh observers, as shown by land, and are extremely varied, the one
quotations in the OED (under 'sunways' and common factor being their association with
'withershins') and in Opie and Tatem (1989: landmarks or buildings in the locaUty; yet, far
383-6). The few English references in Victo- from being unique to one place, they generally
rian times concerned the bad luck involved if fit story-patterns known elsewhere in England

a funeral or bridal procession moved anti- or abroad, thus being *migratory as well as
clockwise. Nowadays, popular writers have local. As regards claims to credibility, they
built up a conventional picture of black magic range from amusing fantasies, through stories
rituals, in which turning withershins causes such as those about *treasures and *tunnels
evil, and the belief has become more which may (or may not) contain the proverbial
widespread. 'grain of truth', to religious and supernatural
tales embodying firm beliefs and moral prin-

legends. In folklore theory, a 'legend' is a ciples. Where the beUef is actively held, per-
short traditional oral narrative about a person, sonal experience stories (*memorates) often
place, or object that really exists, existed, or is develop alongside the supernatural legend,
believed to have existed; even when it and reinforce it; in present-day England this

recounts a supernatural or highly unusual often occurs as regards haunted sites.

event, this is claimed to have occurred in real Another major category is the contempor-
hfe. Unhke a *fairytale or joke, it is presented ary legend; this type is notorious for its rapid
(and generally accepted) as true; it offers international diffusion, yet each individual
information, moral judgements, or warnings teUing presents itself as a local story; some
which reflect the preoccupations of the hear- must be hoaxing their hear-
tellers, obviously,
ers. In practice, the status of legends is more ers, while others are saying what they hon-
complex, both as regards orality and perceived estly beUeve.
truthfulness. Many which were once purely Westwood 1985 contain numerous
Briggs 1970-1 B, and
oral have repeatedly appeared in books, local examples.
newspapers, and TV, from where they feed
back into oral tellings; some are commercially
exploited (e.g. by *tourist guides) but not Lent. In the Christian calendar, this is a 40-
believed; in some cases, the truth of the trad- day period of penitence and self-discipline
itionis a matter for heated dispute (e.g. *Robin beginning on *Ash Wednesday and ending
Hood, Lady *Godiva), while in others what was with the service on Holy Saturday which
once regarded as true and important is now marks the start of * Easter. Sundays falling
mere entertainment. within this period are not counted as part of
Legends are extremely common in English Lent but as days of normality, or even celebra-
folklore,and indeed throughout Europe. Vari- tion, notably *Mothering Sunday. In medieval
ous classifications have been proposed, some times, the rules of fasting were severe: on
based on content, some on function, and some weekdays, meat, milk products, and eggs were
on range of dissemination. Legends about past all forbidden, and only one meal a day could

heroes were the first type to be identified. be eaten; marriages could not be celebrated,
Many, such as those about King Alfred burning and couples were expected to refrain from
the cakes and King Canute defying the tide, intercourse; dancing and entertainment were
are plausible, and very wddely known; others forbidden too.
have supernatural content, but are told of real After the Reformation observing Lent
people, such as *St Dunstan or *Drake; in as a matter of personal piety persisted, in
others, the historical identity of the hero has milder forms, in the High Church sections of
vanished under legendary motifs, and Anglicanism. The Victorian growth of Anglo-
rediscovering it becomes a contentious issue, CathoUcism, and the influx of Irish immi-
as with attempts to identify the 'real' Arthur grants, made the concept very familiar; most
or Robin Hood. The categories of 'historical' people now are aware that 'giving something
and 'local' legend are not mutually exclusive, up for Lent' is appropriate, even if they do not
since there are tales about national figures do it themselves.
such as *Cromwell which are only locally See also *shrove Tuesday, *jack o' lent.
 Lichfield Court of Array

Lent crocking, see *shrovetide. shire, preserves several unique customs which
are now The Court of Array is a genu-
linked.
lettuce. English lore seems a little confused ine survival of a previous serious and practical
about the lettuce. On the one hand we are event: by the Assize of Arms, an Act passed in
assured that lettuce brings about sterihty in 1176 and restated in 1285 (Statute of Win-
men (Dodoens, Herball (1578), and Folkard, chester) every freeman aged between 15 and
Plant Lore (1884), both quoted in Opie and 60 was required to keep arms and armour and
Tatem), or that 'o'ermuch lettuce in the gar- be able to handle them properly in times of
den will stop a young wife's bearing' (N&Qls:? military need. The Court of Array was set up to
(1853), 152). On the other hand, the Radfords enforce these regulations, and to inspect the
and Hole assure us that lettuces 'were also said said arms and armour on a regular basis, and
to promote child-bearing if eaten in salads by although the Acts were repealed in the reign
young women, or taken in the form of decoc- of James I, Lichfield still keeps its Court in
tions made from the juice or seeds'. They operation, and part of the custom is to inspect
quote a letter from a woman published in the some medieval suits of armour which the city
Daily Mirror (26 July 1951) saying she was possesses.
advised by a specialist to eat lettuce to help The Commissioners of Array, or 'dozeners'
remedy her childlessness, and that the remedy are appointed at the Court Leet, held every St
worked. George's Day. This Court's officers also include
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 232; Radford, Radford, and Hole,
an ale tester, constables, pinlock keepers, and
1961: 217. pinners and is nowadays conducted in good
humour rather than in solemn dignity.
Lewes (East Sussex) Bonfire Night. Lewes One other *civic survival in Lichfield which
isthe last place in England to celebrate is treated with more respect is the Sherriffs
November the Fifth (Guy Fawkes or Bonfire Ride in early September. By a charter of
mass public way,
Night) in the old spectacular Queen Mary (1552), confirmed by Charles II
and although surrounding towns and villages (1664) and apparently still in force, the Bail-
hold smaller events, Lewes's Fifth is acknow- iffsand Brethren of the city were obUged to
ledged as the climax of the season. There are elect a Sherriff, one of whose duties was to
the town, and
five separate bonfire societies in perambulate the city boundaries once a year.
each holds its ovm procession, bonfire, and And so he stiU does, on horseback, accom-
firework displays, but they come together for panied nowadays by anything up to 200 other
a Grand United Procession, over a mile long, riders.

through Lewes High Street with bands, ban- Lichfield's other claim to folkloric fame

ners, effigies, tableaux, flaming torches, and comes in the shape of its Greenhiil Bower,
over 2000 participants in fancy dress. There which also takes place on Spring Bank HoUday
are also huge effigies of unpopular national but was previously a *Whit Monday custom.
figures which are filled vdth fireworks and The custom is nowadays a carnival with lorries
exploded to much cheering and jubilation. carrying tableaux, decorated carts, and bands,
Each of the societies also throws a blazing tar but previously it was the day when the City
barrel into the river Ouse, and visits the Guilds used to meet at Greenhiil, where a
town's war memorial. It remains a mystery temporary bower had been erected, carrying
why Lewes has retained so many of the fea- emblems of their trades along with flower gar-
tures of past celebrations. Admittedly, seven- lands. Celia Fiennes recorded in her diary in
teen Protestant martyrs died in Lewes in the the late 18th century the ceremony of dressing
reign of Queen Mary (1553-8), but other places up 'baby's with garlands of flowers' and carry-
could say the same. Although the 'no popery' ing through the streets before proceeding to
it

theme, so strong in the past, is nowadays the and the large bower made with
hill

played down, some costumes still ridicule 'greens' in which they have their feast. A con-
popes and priests. tributor to Hone's Every-Day Book in 1826
describes the mechanics of the town carrying
Jim Etherington, Lewes Bonfire Night (1993); Jim Ethering-
ton. Bonfire: The lewesBonfire Societies in Photographs (1997); smaU working models symbolizing their
Shuel, 1985: 186-7. trade, fixed on top of six-foot poles, again dec-
orated Vkdth flowers and greenery, but even at
Lichfield Court of Array, Sherriff's Ride, that time the Greenhiil was 'nearly sur-
and Greenhiil Bower. Lichfield, Stafford- rounded by houses'.
life-cycle customs

Stone, 1906: 39-42; HlustraUd London News (25 May 1850), a beUef expressed by a servant-girl in Tobias
364; Crawford, 1938: 54-5; Hone, 1827: ii. 334; Wright
Smollett's novel Humphry Qinker (1771):
and Lones, 1936: i. 166-7; Shuel, 1985: 111-12.
Last week I went with mistress to the Tower, to see
customs. Customs which take the crowns and wild beastis; and there was a mon-
life-cycle
stracious lion, with teeth half a quarter long; and a
place at key points in an individual's life are
termed life-cycle customs, or rites of passage, gentleman bid me not go near him, if I wasn't a
maid; being as how he would roar, and tear, and play
and can thus be distinguished from *calendar
the dickens. (Smollett, Penguin edn., 140)
customs which take place at set points in the
* There was a 19th-century belief that lions in
year. Examples are childbirth, coming of
age, leaving school, quahfication at work, zoos and circuses only bred once in seven
marriage (see *weddings), retirement, and years, and that when this 'Lion Year' came
*death. round, if either a lioness or a cub died, many
women would die in * childbirth. Correspond-
ents in N&Q,in 1890 and 1895 reported it from
Lifting (or Heaving). An *Easter *calendar
custom found all over the Midlands and the Yorkshire, Cheshire, Sussex, Surrey, Newcas-
North, but not reported further south than tle, and Derbyshire, and it was known in Som-
Worcestershire. The custom involved men, on erset too; in some cases, deaths of piglets were
Easter Monday, claiming the privilege of phys- similarly explained (N&Q,7s:9 (1890), 385-6; 7s;
the ground any females they 10 (1890), 13; 8s:7 (1895), 366; Elworthy, 1895:
ically Ufting off
and on Easter Tuesday the 76; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 232). In Cheshire,
might meet,
females lifting the men, and only by payment the same belief applied to the she-bears of
of a fine, or in some cases a kiss, could one travelling showmen. It is now rare, but not
some extinct; it was mentioned in Sussex in 1940
escape. In places a chair decorated with
ribbons was carried about for the purpose. (JS), and in Northamptonshire in 1985 (Opie
Published descriptions vary from the deferen- and Tatem. 1989: 232).
tial and good-humoured to the rough-and-
ready horseplay of labouring men and women, Little Bo-Peep. The first verse of Little Bo-
and the latter caused the custom to be viewed Peep is still a well-known *nursery rhyme,
with disfavour by magistrates and other local although the Opies print a text with five. The
dignitaries. The earliest known reference is in first known texts date only from the early

Gentleman's Magazine (1784, part I: 96) but the years of the 19th century, but a version of the
custom does not seem to have survived past song 'Yankee Doodle', printed in 1777, has a
the middle of the 19th century. Most writers close analogy commencing 'Our Jemima's lost
assert that the lifting represents the resurrec- her mare', and the term 'Bo-Peep' (usually
tion of Jesus Christ, but apart from the time of referring to a nursery game) is considerably
year there seems to be no reason to believe older. As for the nursery rh5rme, however,
this. Illustrations of the custom appear in nothing more can be said about its origins or
Hone, 1827: i. 212 and L&L 3:2B (1980) 81; W. early development, until further evidence is
Crooke, 'The Ufting of the Bride', Folk-Lore 13 discovered.
(1902), 226-51, describes this and other Ufting, Opie and Opie, 1997: 107-8.
carrying, bumping customs.
Little Jack Horner. A
popular *nursery
lilac. is one of the flowers reputed to
This still 200 years. The
in circulation after
rhyme,
'bring death into the house' if cut and brought first known printing dates from 1725, but the
indoors. A Norfolk informant believed lilac
rhyme was taken up by the *chapbook pub-
'was used for lining either coffins or graves' lishers and incorporated into a much longer
(Vickeiy, 1995: 220), though as its flowering rhyming tale entitled 'The History of Jack
season is short this cannot have been a fre- Homer' printed a number of times later in the
quent occurrence. 18th century. A 19th-century explanation of
the story claims that it celebrates one Tom
lions. It was thought in medieval times that Homer who was steward to Richard Whiting,
the Uon, as king of the beasts, was not only Abbot of Glastonbury, at the time of the Dis-
noble and virtuous himself but could recog- solution. Whiting entmsted Homer with a pie
nize these qualities in others. It is presumably in which title deeds had been secreted to be
by extension of this idea that there arose delivered to Henry VIII. As in the rhyme.
215 local legends

Homer opened the pie and thus became a the first real attempt at an overall synthesis

major landowner. The story has httle to con- of traditional song since Cecil *Sharp*s English
nect it to the rhyme beyond the surname Folk Song: Some Conclusions (1907), and far sur-
Homer, and is unlikely to be worth passed that work in its historical and social
pursuing. perspective. Coupled with Lloyd's numerous
Opie and Opie, 1997: 275-9. articles,lectures, programmes, song per-
formances, recordings, and the sleeve notes
which he wrote for Topic Records (for whom
Little John. In most versions of the *Robin
he was Artistic Director for many years), these
Hood story, a leading part is allotted to his fol-
books were a major inspiration for the new
lower 'LittleJohn', so called because he was a
generation of song researchers and academics
huge man; he is first mentioned in 1420. In
which emerged in the 1960s. He also under-
the 17th century it was claimed that he had
took major fieldwork expeditions to Eastern
lived in Hathersage (Derbyshire), where his
Europe, where his poUtical behefs and gener-
alleged grave, over four metres long, is still
ally acknowledged skill with languages made
shown in the churchyard; a 30-inch thigh-
him ideally suited for the task, and he
bone is said to have been unearthed there in
became an internationally known expert in
1784.A longbow marked with the name 'Nay-
this field.
lor'used to hang in the church, which some
work has many of the
In retrospect, Lloyd's
claimed had been his.
faults of the pioneer, and his work is now
treated with caution by most serious
Lloyd, Albert Lancaster (1908-82). Orph- researchers. His early editorialmethods were
aned in his teens, he emigrated to Australia often unscholarly, as the poet and singer in
and spent nine years working on farms and his nature often overshadowed the scholar,
outback sheep stations. By the mid-1 930s he and his view of history proved essentially
was back in England, and after spending some romantic. Most authorities comment on how
months on a whaling factory ship, settled his undoubted talents and the many roles he
down to making a living as a joumahst, tried to play, were often incompatible —
scriptwriter, broadcaster, and, later, folklorist journalist, communist party activist, scholar-
and folk-singer. He worked for the influential foLklorist, singer/entertainer, teacher, and
Piaure Post ft-om 1940 to 1950, and for BBC poet—but there is little doubt that the post-
radio and television ft-om 1938 till just before war revival could hardly have managed with-
his death, specializing in drama-documentary out him. Nevertheless, it could be argued
programmes. Lloyd was a confirmed Marxist, that his most important and longest-lasting
and this is strongly in evidence in all his work, contribution to folklore was his work in the
which did not endear him to the broadcasting Balkans, and he was working on a study of
estabUshment of the day, but he was well Albanian instmments at the time of his
known and respected in left-wing intellectual death.
circles. Ian Russell, Singer, Song and Scholar (1986) (includes bibli-
Lloyd had encountered traditional songs in ography): obituary by Dave Arthur, FMJ 4:4 (1983), 436-9;
his travels, particularly in Australia, and even Michael Grosvenor Myer. Folk Review (Sept. 1974). 4-6.

before the Second World War he had begun to

research into the history and morphology of local legends. The most common folk narra-
the genre. Each of his four major books in the England (apart from jokes) are stories
tives in
field was extremely influential in setting the about remarkable events in the history of a
agenda for the post-war folk-song *revival in particular locahty, the supposed origins of its
which he and others like Ewan *MacColl landmarks and placenames, curious features
played a cmcial founding role. The Singing Eng- of its buildings, etc. Their contents range
lishman (1944) was a much-needed introduc- across the whole spectrum of traditional
tion to the genre; Come Ml Ye Bold Miners (1952; themes, from the realistic, through the
revised edn. 1978) was the first to recognize amazing-but-not-impossible (e.g. the 'Hang-
the existence and importance of industrial man's Stone), to supernatural beliefs now
songs; The Penguin Book of English Folk Songs outmoded (the *DeviI, *fairies), or still current
(ghosts, *curses). Some are so plausible
(1959, with Ralph *Vaughan WiUiams) became that
as
the staple songbook for the new folk club only experience can show whether they are,
movement; and Folk Song in England (1967) was the tellers assert, memories of a real event, or
London Bridge 216

whether they follow a standard folktale pat- convince even the usually-sceptic lona and
tern. In general, tellers take for granted that Peter Opie that this is one of the few nursery
the story is unique to their own district, and rhymes which may have a genuine antique
factually reliable, unless its content is bla- ritual basis.

tantly fentastic, in which case it is told 'for Opie and Opie, 1997: 318-25; Opie. and Opie, 1985: 61-8:
fun*. However, even where marvels are Gomme, 1894: L 333-50.

involved, some will claim there is 'a grain of

truth in it'— for instance, that killing a Lon€k>n Lore. London Lore was a newsletter
*dragon is 'realty* about sinking a Viking ship pubUshed by the London Folklore Group, edit-
or killin g a wicked nobleman (JS). ed by Monica and Roy Vickery. It ran for ten
Many such stories have featured repeatedty issues. fix)m March 1978 to October 1983, and
in folklore collections and popular books; included numerous notes and short articles on
however, there are plenty more that are customs and other lore of London, past and
known only in a restricted area. Moreover, present
local legends do not have just one 'correct'
form; there are always slight differences of Long Man of Wilmington, see ^Wilmington.
detail from one teller to the next. Cvurent oral
versions are well worth seeking out. Long Meg. A large *stone drde near Hun-
Printed soinces include not onty books all sonby (Cumberland/Cumbria) was variously
explicitly dealing with regional folklore, but known in the 17th century as 'Long Meg
also references in guidebooks, local papers, and her Daughters' or 'Great Meg and her
local histories, etc. A
generous selection is in Sisters'; Meg, twelve foot high, stands outside

Briggs, 1970-1: B; a smaller sample, with very the ring formed by the rest— 77 of them.
informative commentary, in Westwood, 1985. according to one source of that period, 66 or
For discussion of the genre, see Simpson, 67 according to Victorian sightseers, 59 by a
1983. 1985, 1987, 1991. modem coimL Tradition says that when
counting the stones it is impossible to reach
London Bridge. 'London Bridge is falling the same total twice, and that men who once
down' or 'broken down' is one of the widest- tried to uproot them were scared off by a
known songs in the English-
children's fierce storm. They are said to be women

speaking world and has existed both as a *mu-- turned to stone for witchcraft, or because
sery rhyme and as a *singing game for a very Meg's sisters 'soUdted her to an unlawful
long time. As a singing game, it exists in a love'. A treasure is buried imder Meg, and she
wider range of forms than is usual in the is said to bleed if a piece is chipped off her. The

genre
—the most common is that two players name is vinlikely to refer to a particular indi-
make an arch while the others file through in vidual, 'Long Meg' was a proverbial
since
single file; lowered at a certain
the arch is nickname for any tall, thin woman (West-
point to 'catch' a player. As is usual for such wood, 1985: 310-11).
rhymes, the earliest known text dates from
the 18th century (Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Lore and Language. Laimched in July 1969
Book C.1744) although there are some indica- as the journal of the *Survey of Language and
it may have existed in Britain in the
tions that Folklore at the University of Sheffield
17th century. Nevertheless, there are many (renamed the *Centre for English Cultural
close continental parallels which are much Tradition and Language (CECTAL) in 1976).
older, with the game or rhyme being reported Lore and Language is still published, edited
fix)m France, Germany, Denmark, Itaty, Him- throughout its time by Professor J. D. A. Wid-
gary, Holland, and many more coimtries. dowson. As befits its genesis in the Depart-
Some English versions agree with the Euro- ment of English at SheflBeld, the journal has
pean ones that the onty way to ensure the suc- always had a strong interest in linguistics, as
cess of the bridge is to set a Vatchman' to look seen in numerous artides on dialect studies
after it and it has been argued that this refers and verbal genres such as proverbs, jokes, and
to well-attested long-standing traditions about riddles. Its volumes thus represent a particu-
new bridges needing to have a himian being larty important contribution in these areas as
immured in their foimdations to counter evil well as more general folklore topics including
influences.The wide geographical and tem- custom, narrative, belief The earty volumes
poral spread for the rhyme was sufl&dent to were heavity influenced by the Survey ideal.
217 love divination

the urgently felt need to collect material . . .', or the ubiquitous Tinker, tailor, soldier,
which had been previously neglected, and the sailor . .'. The first recorded version of this
.

articles closely mirror the of the stu-

activities type of procedure only dates fi-om the 1820s.
dents and volunteers involved. This must be but it is commonly reported from then on.
counted as a major strength, as its pages pres- A Uttle more complex are those which use
ent a wealth of raw data which would other- everyday objects:
wise haveremained unavailable to later
To meet your future wife or husband count seven
scholarship, and the collectors also helped to stars in the sky on seven successive nights, and on
break down the idea that folklore was solely the eighth day thefirst person with whom you shake
concerned with the past and the rural. This hands will be your wife or husband. (Addy, 1895: 76)
collecting zeal gradually fedes after the first
To whether your husband will have Ught or
find out
volume, to be replaced by more poUshed
dark with a white haft and
hair, take a table-knife
pieces, although the Centre's students have
spin it round on a table. If it stops with the blade
continued to contribute a high proportion of towards you your husband will be a dark-haired
the articles. man; if with the haft, he will be a light-haired man.
(Addy, 1895: 82)
love divination. Of all the varieties of *divin-
More compUcated:
ation in Enghsh folklore, by far the most
common is concerned with love, courtship, If a girl wishes to dream of her future husband let
and marriage, and most * regional collections her go upstairs backwards on a Tuesday or a Friday
include several examples. Love divinations night with a garter in her hands, saying these words
take a wide variety of forms but the basic prin- as she ties it:

ciples are clear enough, and the underlying I tie my garter in two knots
premiss is as follows: If you (1) do something That I my beloved may see
(2) in a certain way (3) at a certain time (4) you Not in his best apparel
will discover or influence the future of your But in the clothes he wears every day
love-life.For any particular instance of divin- (Addy, 1895: 78)
ation, the instructions for elements 1-3 can be
The following charm is practised on Midsummer
plotted on a continuum from simple to com-
Day—A bucket of spring-water is set in the middle of
plex ingredients and actions, and these correl- a yard at midnight. If a girl looks therein at the hoiu'
ate closely with a scale from easy to do to dif- of twelve she will see the face of the yoimg man
ficult to do. More striking, however, is the whom she is to marry. If she does not see it she will
scale subsumed in element 4— ranging from die an old maid. (Addy, 1895: 78)
information to compulsion. The desired result can Ifyou eat an apple at midnight on All Halloween,
at the simplest end be to find out something
and, without looking behind you, gaze into a mirror,
about one's future spouse (the first letter of his you will see the face of your future husband or wife.
name, his occupation, etc.), while at the other (Addy. 1895: 84)
end the actions can be designed to force the
Those designed to conjure the man's wraith or
man of yovu- choice to take notice of you,
which is where divination shades off into spirit are vmderstandably more compUcated
still:
*magic. At a pKJuit between these extremes are
actions designed to make him appear to you— The following charm is to be practised at midnight
either safely in a dream or less safely in a mir- on St Anne's Eve (July 26). A stool is set in the middle
ror or even as a sort of spirit or * wraith who is of a room and a bowl of water put thereon. A string
drav^m to your presence. or piece of rope then hung across the room. Seven
is

In older records, love divinations cluster unmarried who must

not speak till the cere-
girls,

mony over, is in. and each hangs a smock on

come
around certain days of the year (*HaUoween,
the line. Then each of the girls in tium drops a bay-
Midsummer, *St Agnes's Eve, St *Valentine's leaf into the bowl of water, and sits down immedi-
Day, NewYear), and the symboUc power of smock which she has hung up.
ately opposite to the
the particular date is thus added to the Soon afterwards a young man will enter the room,
potency of the time of day (usually midnight), take a bay-leaf from the bowl, and sprinkle the
as weU as the prescribed ingredients and smock of the girl whom he intends to many. He will
actions. marry her that year. (Addy, 1895: 78)
At the simplest end of the spectrum are the On AIl-HaUoween or New Year's Eve a Border maiden
cherry-stones, buttons, petals on a daisy, and may wash her sark. and hang it over a chair to dry,
so on, chanting 'He loves me, loves me not taldng care to tell no one what she is about. If she he
luck 218

awake long enough, she will see the form of her your pillow to dream of your future spouse,
future spouse enter the room and turn the sark. We but several demand the use of a wedding ring
are told of one young girl who, after fulfilling this
(Addy. 1895: 78).
rite, looked out of bed and saw a coffin behind the Amidst the wide variety of items used and
sark; it remained visible for some time and then dis-
actions prescribed, recurrent motifs can be
appeared. The girl rose up in agony and told her
fam-
discerned. Doing things *baclcwards, staying
ily what had occurred,
and the next morning she
heard of her lover's death. (Henderson. 1866: 79)
silent, washing things, placing items under
the pillow, the rhyme commencing 'It is not
Alternatively, the procedure could be this 1 mean
to hurt', or the promise that
designed to compel the man in real life. These 'The first person you meet .', are all regular
. .

are often told in narrative form, as they had

ingredients, as are pails of water. *pins, apples
happened to someone, and invariably with an and apple pips, seeds and *leaves of various
unhappy ending as a warning: sorts, and, common enough to warrant their

In another instance related in East Yorkshire the girl own entries, *dumb cake, and *dragon's blood.
took a live frog, stuck it all over with pins, put it in a In sum. most of the recipes combine everyday
box, kept shut up for a week, after which she
it objects in unusual ways or places. Those
looked in and found that the frog was dead. She kept which are not designed to conjure the form of
it imtil it was consumed away to bones. Then she the man, usually result in s5mibols which need
took out of the frog a small key-shaped bone, got into to be interpreted— shapes of molten *lead (or
the company of the young man she wanted, fastened
*tea leaves) to denote a trade, a letter of the
the bone to his coat, and said:
alphabet to indicate his name, and so on.
I do not want to hurt this frog
Young women have certainly not stopped
But my true lover's heart to turn
wanting to learn about their ftiture love-hfe,
Wishing that he no rest may find but the complex and frightening procedures
Till he come to me and speak his mind.
detailed above are no longer reported,
After this he had a week's torture, as the frog had, although some may be practised in private.
and then he went to her and said he had had a queer What does exist is a series of formulas by
sensation for a week, but he didn't know what it
which schoolgirls use numbers and letters of
meant. 'However', he said, T will marry thee, but I the alphabet to compare boys' and girls'
know we shall never be happy'. They were married names to calculate their chances with each
and lived very uncomfortably together'. (Addy, 1895:
other, and diagrams on which answers to
79)
questions are plotted and their ftiture
(Compare this ft-og-bone procedure with that revealed, and these are regularly printed in
listed under *horseman's word). on
girls' magazines, as well as being passed
Worst of all, the divinatory actions of the informally at schools (see Folklore Society Child-

girl might cause rather than predict a real-Ufe ren's Folklore Newsletter 2 (1988), 17; 3 (1989).

tragedy. Henderson (1866: 79-81) gives an 10-12; 4 (1990), 20-2). Younger girls also have
example from the Scottish borders which a range of * skipping rhymes which appear to
describes a complex procedure involving be divinatory. It is difficult for the outsider to
holly leaves and three pails of water, designed know where the Une between game and ser-
to summon up the future husband. In one iousness hes in these matters, but it is ever the
reported case, however, the lover who had privilege of the young both to believe and not
thus been summoned 'let fall a rope with a beUeve at the same time.
noose at the end, which the young woman
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 472-3.
took up the next morning and laid in her
press'. They were soon married, but within a
fortnight the husband hung himself with the luck. Whether good or bad, 'luck' is an idea
rope she had hidden away. Henderson gives basic to folk beUef, ancient, and vddespread; it
one or two similar tales from European is best understood by contrast with other
sources. abstract concepts which purport to explain
Weddings are an obvious time for love div- Ufe's events. Unlike mere chance or acci-
ination, but the ones that cluster around this dent, it is thought to work through regular

event have less of the complicated rigmarole cause-and-eflfect— all *horseshoes are lucky,
and few of the frightening elements. The sim- all *Fridays unlucky, and their influence is

plest is the throwing of the bouquet or stock- exerted automatically. Yet. unUke fate, luck
ing, or putting a piece of wedding cake under can change; sometimes it 'turns' spon-
219 Lyke-Wake Dirge

taneously, sometimes it can be manipulated other 19th-century references to the bone are
(you can attract good luck by carrying a mas- from the northern counties, although else-
cot, cancel an unlucky action by turning where a pig's bone seems to have had a similar
round *three times, etc.). Unlike providence use. Letters in N&(i(3s:9 (1866), 59, 146) men-
and *judgements, it has no connection with tion a pig's head bone carried as a charm in
benevolence, wisdom, or justice, no purpose- Cornwall, and a newspaper advertisement
ful plan; there is no meaning behind it. from a quack doctor in July 1764: '1 do give
It is usually futile to enquire why a particu- twopence for the little round bone in a pig's
lar object or action isthought to be lucky or skull; hes inside between the eye and ear'.
it

unlucky. 'Pagan survival' is a popular sugges- The sheep bone's shape has led some folklor-
tion, but few of the symbols, animals, plants, ists to speculate that its similarity to the cross

etc., sacred in Celtic, Germanic, or Roman its presumed efficacy.

explains
religion are identical with those now con- Compare *bones, *cramp.
sidered lucky or unlucky. A handful of items
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 234.
can be explained as Christian; a good many
are based on symbolism, being akin to lullabies. England does not have a large stock
*magic rituals, or *omens. But the majority of traditional lullabies, or at least they have
resist any logical explanation, and seem triv- not been documented as such. It has probably
ial and meaningless. Serious or semi-serious always been the case that many parents sim-
beUef in luck is still vigorous in modem ply use any sufficiently soothing tune which
society. they happen to know. Nevertheless, two
See also *superstitions. which are still generally known are 'Hush-a-
bye baby' (or 'Rock-a-bye baby') and 'Cry Baby
luck money, see *god's penny. Bunting', both of which first appear in print in
the late 18th century. Two less well-known lul-
labies are:
lucky beans. A number of types of beans and
large seeds are regularly washed up on the Sleep like a lady (or gentleman)
western shores of Britain, having been carried You shall have milk
When the cows come home
by the Gulf Stream from the Caribbean or
Father is the butcher
South America, and there is a long tradition of
Mother cooks the meat
these being found and treasured as amulets,
under a variety of names Lucky beans, — Johnnie rocks the cradle
While baby goes to sleep '

Molucca beans. Sea beans. Virgin Mary's nuts,

and so on. The tradition seems to have been (Newmarket. Cambridgeshire;
Folk-Lore 25 (1914), 364).
particularly strong in Western Scotland,
although the first known reference is in Sleep bonnie baimie, behind the castle
Richard Carew's Survey of Cornwall (1602), 27, By! By! By! By!
Thou Shalt have a golden apple
who mentions their use 'for women travaill-
By! By! By! By!
ing in child-birth'. These beans were often
worn on a (Newcastle; JFSS 5 (1915), 121)
string around the neck to avert
witchcraft and the *evil eye. Their use as The nurse who sang the latter 'used to sing the
commercial generic 'lucky charms' has per- By! By! With the greatest energy, accenting
sisted into the present day, and Vickery gives each By! By clapping her hand vigorously on
several instances of them being offered for her knee and beating her foot on the floor, in a
sale at seaside resorts and elsewhere. way that any one but an infant would have
Vickery, 1995: 337-40; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 258. considered the reverse of soothing'. See Opie
for a general discussion of lullabies and some

bit, see *tongue. further variants.

lucky
Opie and Opie, 1997: 17-18, 69-73; Evelyn Carrington,
'Folk Lullabies', Fraser's Magazine 103 (1881). 87-99; Leslie
lucky bone. This a T-shaped bone found in a Daiken, The Lullaby Book (1959); 'Three Northern Lulla-
sheep's head which was worn round the neck bies'.JFSS 5 (1915), 117-21.
or carried in a pocket to bring luck, or as a
protection against witches. First mentioned lying tales, see *tall stories.
under that name in Northamptonshire in
1851 (Sternberg, 1851: 154), nearly all the Lyke-Wake Dirge, The. This song is quoted
Lyke-Wake Dirge

by *Aubrey (1686/1880: 31-2) as having been soul'sjourney to Purgatory across Whinney-

sung at *wakes in Yorkshire up to 1616, by moor, a heath covered in gorse, and the Bridge
women who came specially for the purpose. It of Dread. Only those who in Ufe have given
isboth a prayer for the dead, with the refrain shoes or drink to the poor can pass through
'Christ receive thy soul' and an account of the
, unhurt.
Mab, Queen. Several Elizabethan and Jaco- his expertise in dramatic production never left
bean poets name 'Mab' or 'Queen Mab' as a him and imbued much of his subsequent
mischievous *fairy. Shakespeare describes her work. In the early 1950s, at the suggestion of
as tiny, but he also says she can bUster wom- American folklorist and collector Alan Lomax,
en's faces and tangle horses' manes {Romeo and MacCoU teamed up with A. L. *Lloyd and
Juliet, I. iv). Ben Jonson says she can help or others to found the new British folk-song
spoil the churning, steals babies, and makes revival movement. The timing was perfect. By
midwives lose their way and fall in ponds and means of the Ballads and Blues club (which
ditches by night. According to John Brand later became the Singers' Club), radio pro-

(Brand, 1849: iii. 397), to be 'Mab-led' was a grammes for the BBC (including drama-
Warwickshire term for being led astray by a documentaries in which MacCoU's theatrical
Will-o'-the-wisp. Robert *Herrick warns slov- experience was evident), articles, innumerable
enly housewives that Mab will pinch them concerts, talks, LP records, appearances at
(Hesperides (1648), no. 557). Trade Union meetings, clubs, and other
venues, they laid the foundations for a highly
Macbeth. Nowadays it is often said that successful national movement. MacCoU's hard-
Shakespeare's Macbeth brings bad luck and line poUtical agenda had its devotees but also
must never be named, nor should one quote aUenated many in the new movement, and his
ft-om it; one should call it 'the Scottish play' subsequent actions brought equal amounts of
and refer to its main characters as 'M' and praise and vehement criticism. MacCoU's part-
'Lady M'— except, of course, when actually nership with his third wife, American-bom
rehearsing and performing. It is also said to Peggy Seeger, added an expert musical dimen-
cause accidents to the cast, because the song sion to his career. In addition to researching
of the Three Witches is an authentic evil spell, British folk traditions, with particular
especially when sung to Matthew Locke's set- emphasis on the songs and language of indus-
ting. However, the belief itself seems rela- trialand urban workers, MacColl also wrote
tively recent; the first reference is from 1910 hundreds of songs— political and otherwise-
and alludes to 'old' actors, implying currency including one, 'The First Time Ever I saw Your
in the later 19th century (Opie and Tatem, Face', which was recorded by various pop
1989: 396). singers including Elvis Presley and Roberta
Flack, who topped the US charts with it in 1972.
MacColl, Ewan (1915-89). Bom
as Jimmy One particular triumph was the series of
Miller in Salford, of Scottish parents, Ewan *Radio BaUads (1958-64) programmes made
MacColl was one of the key architects of the with Seeger and Charles Parker, which broke
post-war folk-song *revival, and a dominant new ground by their use of tape-recordings of
but controversial figure in its development for ordinary people talking about their lives in a
decades. A Ufelong communist, his initial pas- range of topics, including coal-mining, boxing,
sion was workers' theatre, and in a series of Gypsies, teenagers, and herring fishing. Mac-
influential groups throughout the 1930s and CoU's entire career can be explained in terms of
1940s, culminating with the Theatre Work- his fascination with language and attempts to
shop, he became weU known in left-wing understand, record, repUcate, and utiUze it.
drama circles as actor, producer, writer, and Main folklore pubUcations: Scotland Sings: A
propagandist. MacColl moved away from the Collection of Folk Songs and Ballads (1953); The
theatre after the Second World War, although Shuttle and the Cage: Industrial Folk-Ballads (1954).
Magdalen College May Day singing 222

The following with Peggy Seeger: The Singing *dandehons really are diuretic, but not
Island (1960); Travellers' Songs from England and because their flowers are yellow hke urine.
Scotland (1977); Till Doomsday in the Afiemoon: Magic assumes there are non-material con-
The FoMore of a Family of Scots Travellers, the Stew- nections between material objects; *Frazer
arts ofBlairgovme (1986). usefiilly divided it into 'sympathetic' or 'imita-
Ewan MacCoU, Journeyman: An Autobiography (1990); Ewan tive' magic, where the action performed or
MacColl, in Raphael Samuel et al. (eds.). Theatres of the Left object used resembles the result desired ('hke
1880-1935 (1985), 205-55; Karl Dallas, ED&S 51:4 (1989), causes hke'), and 'contagious' magic, where
11-14; Obituary by Pat Mackenzie and Jim Carroll, FM]
6:1 (1990), 121-4; Interviews
by Fred Woods, Folk Review
something once in contact with a person pro-
(May 1973), 4-7; (June 1973), 4-7; (July 1973), 4-8; (Aug.
vides a link through which he or she can be
1973), 6-8. helped or harmed. It can also be divided into
'low' and 'high' magic, according to the degree
of sophistication in the procedures involved.
Magdalen College May Day singing. At six
on May Day morning, the choir of
o'clock
The most elaborate and intellectual system,
also called 'ritual' or 'ceremonial' magic, flour-
Magdalen College. Oxford, ascend to the top of
ished in late medieval and Renaissance times,
the College tower and there sing a Latin hymn,
'Te Deum patrem colimus'. Meanwhile, in the
and was revived by occultists at the close of
the 19th century. Its aim was to summon and
streets below, thousands of onlookers have
control angels or demons, by incantations and
gathered for the event, including, nowadays,
teams of *morris dancers, jugglers, and other *pentacles; the practitioner needed special
robes, perfiimes, and other equipment. It was
entertainers, and once the singing is over the
far too expensive and time-consuming ever to
church bells are rung, and a general street
be part of folk practice, but some of the sim-
party ensues. The singing is documented since
the late 18th century, but the other events pler aspects could be adapted for popular use
have gradually developed since the 1920s. (see *astrology, *pentacles).

There are two main theories on the origin of The difference between 'black' and 'white'

the singing— one that it commemorates the magic depends on morality, not techniques: is
the magic being used for a good purpose or a
building of the College tower (completed in
harmfiil one? This of course depends on the
1509), the other that the custom started as an
obit, or requiem mass for Henry VII (died 21 point of view of the observer; aggressive
*counterspells against witches are meant to
Apr. 1509).
but since the witch is seen as evil,
inflict pain,
Roy Judge, Folklore 97:1 (1986), 15-40; Shuel, 1985: 30-1.
the counterspell is 'white' magic.
SeealsO*CUNNINGMEN,*CHARMS,*COUNTER-
magic. This can be defined as the use of sym- SPELLS, *DIVINATIONS, *IMAGE MAGIC, and
boUc actions, words, or objects to produce witchcraft.
results in the real world, either mechanically The best descriptions of English popular magic are in
through their intrinsic nature (e.g. displaying Thomas, 1971, especially pp. 177-252, and Davies, 1999a.
horseshoes, *touching wood for luck), or by Studies of vdtchcraft also contain relevant material, e.g.

the personal willpower of the user, or because Thomas, 1971: 435-69, and Sharpe, 1996. Almost all
regional collections contain examples of charms, the
he or she has authority over supernatural best of which are conveniently brought together in Opie
beings. But formulas which rely on help from and Tatem, 1989. For the early phase of 'ritual' or 'high'
God, saints, or angels (e.g. many heahng magic, see Richard Kiekhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages
(1989) and Forbidden Rites (1997).
*charms) should not be classified as magic but
as folk Christianity. This distinction, theor-

etically clear, becomes blurred in practice, magpies. A rhyme about magpies is well
where magical actions are often accompanied known all over the country, although presum-
by religious words such as 'in the name of the ably not believed. The divination depends on
Father, Son and Holy Ghost'. The boundary the number of birds seen; there are naturally
between magic and science is also blurred, numerous variations, although nearly all agree
because an apparently non-rational procedure that one magpie is bad, but tv^o are good. The
may simply reflect mistaken ideas about earliest record, c.1780, from Lincolnshire, runs:
the natural properties of some object, so that
One for sorrow.
the person performing it never thinks of
Two for mirth,
it and sym-
as 'magic'. Indeed, scientific fact Three for a wedding.
boUc appropriateness sometimes coincide— And four for a death.
223 Maidens' Garlands

Common variations are 'Four for a birth', and: Maid Marian. From about 1500, Marian

One for sorrow.

appears among *Robin Hood's companions;
she is said to be his sweetheart who joins
Two for joy,
Three for a girl.
him in outlawry. She is chiefly important in
And four for a boy. *May Day celebrations, court entertainments,
and stage and literary tradition; the ballads
There are many variations for the higher
rarely mention her. She may have been
numbers. The grimmest, first noted from
imported from French literature, where
Northumberland (Denham TraUs, 1895: ii. 20- 'Robin et Marion' had been stock names for
2), runs:
country lovers since the 13th century. But
Five for silver, six for gold. there was also an English 'Marian', a comic
Seven for a secret not to be told. figure played by a man in drag, who accom-
Eight for heaven, nine for hell. panied Elizabethan morris dancers; he is
And ten is for the Devil's own sel'.
usually linked to the Fool who, according to
Other possibilities are:
a tract of 1589, 'dances round him in a cot-
ton coat, to court him with a leathern pud-
Five for rich, six for poor.
ding' (i.e. a mock sausage, no doubt bawdily
Seven for a vdtch, I can tell you no more. It is unclear which type of Marian
used).
Five for rich, six for poor. came first, and whether either influenced the
Seven for a bitch, eight for a whore. other.
Nine for a burying, ten for a dance. See also *friar tuck, *abbots bromley.
Eleven for England, twelve for France.

Denham says the bad luck of a single bird Maidens' Garlands (Virgins' Garlands,
can be averted by drawing a cross on the Virgins' Crowns). These were formerly con-
structed to mark the death of a local person,
ground or by saying:
usually but not exclusively female, who had
Magpie, magpie, chatter and flee. led an imblemished life and had died
Turn up thy tail and good luck fall me.
unmarried. The *garland was carried over the
Other ways of averting the evil are to take coffin at the funeral and then hung in the

off one's hat on seeing the bird, bow, wish it church, where it stayed until it rotted away.
'Good day', or blow a kiss to it; or spit over the Methods of construction and exact details of
left shoulder; or turn round three times; or
the custom varied from place to place, but
cross one's fingers and the following description is a reasonable
say:
synopsis:
I cross the magpie.
The magpie crosses me; They are made of variegated coloured paper, repre-
Bad luck to the magpie. senting flowers, fastened to small sticks crossing
And good luck to me. each other at the top, and fixed at the bottom by a
circular hoop. From the centre is suspended the form
Though the magpie rh5nne has not been of a woman's glove cut in white paper, on which the
traced earlier than c.1780, magpie omens go name and age of the deceased are sometimes writ-
back to medieval times. Sometimes they are ten. (Brockett, 1825: 225)

favourable, for example that the chattering Earlier references mention fresh flowers
means that guests or strangers are coming and real gloves, but in later examples paper
(1159 and onwards); more often not: whan '. . .
rosettes and glove shapes were more common.
pyes chatter vpon a house it is a sygne of The custom was clearly very widespread in
ryghte euyll tydynges' (1507). This is especially England, but changing fashions in religion
so if the bird is flying around, or perching on, a and local church hfe gradually wiped it out.
house where someone is ill. In Sheffield, it was Old garlands were often swept away when a
disUked because it refiised to enter Noah's ark, local church was rebuilt or 'renovated'.
preferring to sit on its roof 'and jabber over Examples can still be seen in churches and
the drowning world' (N&Q, 4s:7 (1871), 299); in museums (Usted by Spriggs), and the chvu-ch of
Sussex, because 'it was a bad bird, and knew St Mary the Virgin, Abbotts Ann, Hampshire,
more than should do, and was always look-
it
isthe one parish which still continues the
ing about and prjdng into other people's custom.
affairs' (Latham, 1878: 9).
Aubrey, 1686: 109; Gareth M. Spriggs, Folk Life 21 (1982/3)
\ainson, 1885: 76-81; Opie andTatem, 1989: 235-6. 21-35; Chambers, 1878: i. 271-4; Brears, 1989: 178-203;
mandrake

N&Q.172 (1937), 30, 156, 231, 302-3; 181 (1941), 91, 123- in the Moon, who carries a bundle of thorn-
4. 148. 166, 223, 277.
twigs and is accompanied by a dog; legend

says he was set there as punishment for steal-

mandrake. The true mandrake is a poisonous ing the sticks, or for gathering them on a Sun-
plant with a forked root, related to nightshade; day, or for strewing thorny branches on a
classical writers and the Bible mention it as an church path. He is also mentioned in nursery
aphrodisiac and as making barren women fer- rhymes and shown on inn signs.
tile, while in medieval times it was used as a
powerful soporific and pain-killer. However, as manorial customs. In folklore writing, the
it does not grow easily in Britain, dried roots of
term 'manorial custom' is used to refer to cus-
white or black bryony were sold as 'man-
toms which originated, or are thought to have
drakes'; sUced or grated, they were used medi-
originated, in the practices of the medieval
cinallyon horses and humans. In Sussex in the manor or manor courts. The origins of the sys-
1920s mandrake was being sold by a village in England are unclear, but
tem of manors
herbalist as 'the finest cure in all the world for
they were firmly estabUshed by the time of the
indigestion and malaria . . . rheumatism, pains
Domesday Survey in 1086, and it is difficult to
in the chest, headaches and so on' (Sussex them were
generalize as differences between
County Magazine 1 (1927), 453). Bryony roots and much depended on local practice.
legion,
were classed males or females; in Lincoln-
as
The manor involved a hierarchy of loyalty and
shire, 'mandrakes' would be used on women
duty which each level owed to those above,
and mares, and 'womandrakes' on men and
sometimes payable in services, sometimes in
staUions (Rudkin, 1936: 28-9).
money, and also a complex of economically
However, the reputation of the mandrake is
important rights enjoyed by tenants and other
due to sinister legends from medieval Europe, wood firom the
occupants, such as taking
which reached England in Tudor times. It was for or
Lord's forest, grazing-rights cattle,
said to grow under *gallows and gibbets,
acorns for pigs. Over the years numerous local
springing from the sperm ejaculated by
customary practices evolved, a handfiil of
hanged men; it shrieked so horribly when which survived in isolation after the manorial
uprooted that anyone hearing it would go
system became replaced by other forms of
mad, so a dog would be tricked into pulUng it local organization. The day-to-day business of
from the ground. According to the manuals of
the manor was ruled by courts— court leet and
*magic, anyone who keeps a mandrake
court baron—which also developed their own
wrapped in silk in a small chest will never lack
ways of proceeding, and again some of these
money, for if one coin is laid beside it at night, lived on into modem times, particularly
there will be two by morning.
where administration of common land was
The making of mandrake puppets is
necessary. Examples of customs which have,
described by several Elizabethan and Jacobean
or probably have, manorial connections are:
writers; the bryony roots were trimmed to
Hungerford Hocktide; *Wroth Silver; *Wish-
look as human as possible, and given hair and
ford Magna; Whitby *Penny Hedge.
a beard by pricking small holes into them and
David Hey, The Oxford Companion to Local and Family History
inserting sprouting millet or barley seeds. The
(1996), 118-19, 296-7; William Figg, 'Manorial Customs
craft was still practised in East Anglia early in of Southese-with-Heighton, Near Lewes', Sussex Archaeo- _.
the 20th centuiy, but partly in ftin; country- logical Collections 3 (1850), 249-52;
Harland and Wilkin- i

'

men would display mandrakes in the

'female' son, 1882: 277-302.

pub, and the most realistically carved would

win a prize— after which the figures would be Map, Walter (c.ll40-c.l209). A clerk in the
hung in a sow's sty to make her prohfic, or put household of Henry II, who made him an
among money under the mattress (Porter, itinerant judge; he also had a good career in
1969: 46-7). In London street-markets in the the Church, rising to be Archdeacon of;;
1920s the mannikins were sold to be fixed to Oxford. Around 1190 he wrote a ligh^hearted^
the bedhead 'for good luck' (Lovett, 1925: 74). miscellany called De Nugis Curialium ('Court-"
iers' Trifles') including various tales of marvels
Vickery, 1995: 393-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 237-8; H. F.

Clark, Folklore 73 (1962), 257-69. he had heard, for example the story of *Herla
and the dwarf, that of Edric the Wild and his
Man in the Moon. Several medieval and fairy wife, and two accounts of the laying
of
EUzabethan writers refer jokingly to the Man dangerous *undead.
 Mary Had a Little Lamb
marbles. The early history of marbles is still play text is a fairly typical Gloucestershire
obscure. Certainly, in the ancient world chil- Hero-Combat version. The Marshfield costume
dren played games roUing nuts, and coloured follows the general southern pattern of strips
clay balls have been found in Egyptian tombs, sewn on to everyday clothes, covering the
but it is not known for sure what they were whole head and body, but the use of news-
used for. It seems unlikely that such a simple papers instead of wallpaper or rag is unusual.
and obvious game did not occur to people The team comes out every Boxing Day, with
before the first definite references (as performances taking place outdoors at set
tribekugeln) in13th century Germany, and in points around the village.
Bruegel's picture of children's games in 1560. Simon Lichman, 'The Gardener's Story and What Came
The first mention in Enghsh calls the game Next' (Ph.D. thesis. University of Pennsylvania, 1981),
and Folklore 93:1 (1982), 105-11.
'bowUng-stones', but this is a translation by
Charles Hoole of Comenius's Orbis Pictus
(1659). There are numerous variants of mar- Martinmas, Martlemas. This date, 11
bles play,and usually a local specialist ter- November, is the feast of St Martin of Tours. In
minology to go with each. medieval and Elizabethan times it was an
The marbles available in England in the late occasion for an ample feast of meat, because
17th century were probably made of actual hvestock which could not be fed through the
marble, or at least alabaster, but later winter was being slaughtered. Other joints
materials include earthenware, painted por- were hung in the chimney to dry, like bacon,
celain (imported from Germany), stone, and and were called Martlemas beef (or mutton). It
clay. The modem glass marbles, with the
was regarded as the end of the farming year,
intriguing coloured swirl in the middle, and in many places hiring fairs were held for
emerged in the 1840s, made possible by farm-workers who wished to change jobs.
In some areas, it was said that the weather
developments in glass manufacture. Once
these appeared they rapidly became more on this date foretold that of the coming win-
ter. In others, this could be deduced from
prized than the drab clay marbles prevalent at
the time, and gradually superseded them as markings on the breast-bone of a goose eaten
mass production (latterly usually abroad) on Matinmas Eve; white marks meant snow
brought the price down. Some players used and dark ones hard frost, while the front part
metal ball-bearings, but others refused to play of the bone meant before Christmas and the
with anyone using such things as they could back part afterwards.
too easily destroy the glass or clay marbles. M. Walsh, 'Medieval English Martinmesse', FoMore 111
Another source of supply was the round stop- (2000), 231-54.

per used in early fizzy-drink bottles. Local

names include: Taws, Alleys (Blood-alleys had martins. It is very lucky to have a martin's
a streak of red through them). Cat's eyes, and nest on a house; to destroy it or take the eggs
Marvels. brings disaster, that one's cows will give
Marbles has been a children's game for a bloody milk, for example (Opie and Tatem,
very long time, but there are a few instances 1989: 386-8). Cf *swallows.
of its survival in the adult sphere, particu-
larly in Sussex, where a weU-known annual Martlemas, see *martinmas.
Good Friday championship match takes place
at Tinsley Green, and another is held at Battle.
Mary Had a Little Lamb. There have been
Opie and Opie, 1997: 17-55; Gomme, 1894: i. 364 (and many claimants to the authorship of what has
other pages); Wales, 1990: 52-3. been claimed to be the best-known four lines
of verse in the English language, and also a
Marshfield Paper Boys. The Paper Boys of number of pretenders to the honour of being
Marshfield (Gloucestershire) are one of the the original Mary. One Mary Hughes, of Wor-
few extant *mumming play teams which can thing, Sussex, even has a tombstone pro-
be regarded as traditional, although they can- nouncing her fame, but unfortunately in error
not claim an unbroken tradition. The play was {FLS News 19 (June 1994), 13). The facts, as laid
revived in 1932 at the instigation of folklorist out by lona and Peter Opie, are that the ori-
Violet *Alford, but with the active participa- ginal four-verse poem was written by Mrs
tion of men who had taken part in the custom Sarah Josepha Hale (1788-1879), of Boston, in
in their youth in the 1880s. The Marshfield and first published in September
early 1830,
mascot 226

of that year in the Juvenile MisceUany. The penny that had closed the eye of a corpse' (Bal-

p>oem's other claim to fame, however, is that it leine, 1939: 6-7).

is probably the most parodied of verses in the See also *coins, *lucky bean, *lucky bone.
EngUsh tradition. As soon as children get too
old and wise to appreciate the real thing, they Maundy Thursday. The ceremonial custom
get devilish delight in debunking it, and as of Royal Maundy, on the Thursday before
they grow older the parodies get ruder or clev- Easter, is the last secular example of a once
erer, and adults are not above using them in widespread ritual whereby figures of authority
comedy routines and satire. All that is needed washed the feet of the poor and gave alms, in
'
is the formula 'Mary had a httle and the . . .
memory of Christ's actions before the Last
audience understands perfectly what is going Supper.
on.

Opie and Opie, 1997: 353-5. May Day, Bringing in the May. Many of
the earUest references to May Day are
ambiguous, but those which give any detail
mascot. The word 'mascot' often impUes a
nearly always refer to the practice of going out
strong personal link between the luck- into the countryside to gather flowers and
bringing object (which may be quite insignifi- greenery— 'going a-maying' or 'bringing in the
cant in itself) and its owner. Edward Lovett
may'. This greenery was used to decorate
noted mascots carried by soldiers in the First houses and public buildings to welcome the
World War: 'left-handed' whelk shells; wool season, and for the early p>eriod this was the
gollywogs; a carved amber bead; a farthing archetypal activity of the day (but see also
with a hole in it, sewn to one's left brace over
*May Dew and *Maypoles). Robert Grosseteste,
one's heart; a little gold Oriental figure; a Chi-
Bishop of Lincoln, provides one of the first
nese coin; a metal button; a domino vdth ten written references to May Day customs by
dots; a comehan pendant. Mascots from the
complaining, c.1240, about priests joining in
same war in the Homiman Museum (London)
'games which they call the bringing-in of May'
and the Imperial War Museum include figures
(Hutton: 226). Although this early reference is
of *pigs, *cats, and monkeys, *holed stones, a an grumble, medieval May cele-
ecclesiastical
mandrake, and an amber heart. Strong brations were often officially sponsored and
trust was placed in these objects (Lovett, 1925:
both churchwardens' and municipal account
10-15. 18, 30, 34, 41-3, 70-2; Ettlinger, 1939: books regularly include money paid out to
152-62).
support the custom. Similarly, the gatherings
Mass-produced lucky charms are hung on could include all levels of society including
cars or worn as jewellery. Some draw on for-
nobility and even royalty.
eign traditions, such as the New Zealand tikis
and greenstone brooches, Italian horns and Against May, Whitsonday, or other time, all the yung
men and maides, olde men and wives, run gadding
hunchbacks, and African copper bangles
overnight to the woods, groves, hils and mountains,
already being used in London in 1908, along-
where they spend all the night in pleasant pastimes;
side British symbols such as miniature horse-
and in the morning, they return, bringing with them
shoes and pigs, and natural objects such as birch and branches of trees, to deck their assemblies
and sheep's or rabbit's bones (Folk-
coal, fossils, withaU . . .
(Stubbes, 1583: 149).
lore 19 (1908), 288-303). In 1939, a London
Stubbes was campaigning against the May
clergyman noted sadly that a 'almost every'
woman at a church Mothers' Tea had a charm gathering, but the same custom could be used
in her handbag, among them 'a tiny green pig, by writers on the other side as an archetypal
a black cat, a black metal boot, a silver sUpper, joyous community event and a ready-made
several hideous imps and idols, and the pent- metaphor for the innocent rural idyll:
acle of the medieval sorcerers . . . one had pre- And flirth goth all the Court, both most and lest
served a bag-wash ticket, because it had on it To feche the floures fressh, and braunch and blome
the number 666!' He had also read in the press And namely, hawthorn brought both page and
that actors, boxers, airmen, jockeys, and grome
others had mascots, which included 'an ivory With fressh garlandes, partie blewe and whyte .

hunchback, a hare's foot, an uncut amethyst, (The Court of Love, first printed 1561,
a coffin nail, a double walnut, a small jade pig, previously attributed to Chaucer) ,

a meteorite, the knuckle-bone of a pig, a

The bringing in of the May remained
227 May Day
staple of the traditional calendar throughout May Day, children's garlands and cus-
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, but toms. The most widespread and best known
voices of opposition began to be raised from May Day activity in the 19th and early 20th
reforming Protestant quarters from the time centuries was the children's *garland custom.
of Edward VI (1547-1553) onwards, gathering In essence, this involved groups of children
pace almost year by year. The assault on May visiting houses in their community showing a
Day took many forms, religious, moral, and garland, singing a song, and collecting money.
legal (public order), but the focus of disap- The custom appears to have grown directly
proval of the Bringing-in custom was primar- from the earUer adultactivities of 'bringing in

ily the concern about what unchaperoned the May' (see *May, bringing in), and to have
young people would be doing in the woods. proliferated during the 19th century. Child-
Stubbes' reformist zeal may have lead ren's garlanding was exactly right for the new
him to overstate his case on the moral dangers romantic rural consciousness which was a
of May Day: growing force in the nation's literary circles,
and was just the sort of thing the early folklor-
I have heard it credibly reported (and that viva voce)
ists Uked to find. However, the practice was
by men of great gravitie and reputation, that of for-
tie, threescore, or a hundred maides going to the
not found all over the country, being strongest
wood over night, there have scarecely the thirde in the south and Midlands and parts of the
parte of them returned home againe undefiled west country and almost completely absent in
(Stubbes, 1583: 149). the north and most of East Anglia— a distribu-
tionwhich is puzzling.
Robert *Herrick, supporter of rural sports and
Within the same time-frame there was a
customs, was happy to admit the amorous
steady move away from self-organization
possilities involved in 'going a-maying':
amongst the children towards increased adult
And some have wept, and woo'd, and plighted troth involvement in planning and organization.
And chose their priest, ere we can cast off sloth Adult intervention brought a trend away from
Many a green-gown has been given small bands of children towards larger, better
Many a kisse, both odde and even
organized and controlled groups. Nearly all
Many a glance too has been sent
From out the the *regional folklore collections in the right
eye, loves firmament . . .

areas include examples of children's May gar-

('Corinna's Going A-Maying', Hesperides, 1648).
land customs, but Flora Thompson's fictional-
The 'green gown' was a well-known metaphor ized autobiography Lark Rise (1939: chapter 13)
for what girls received from lying on the grass is often singled out as the archetypal evoca-

with their lovers. tion of the custom. Garlands could be large or

Bringing in the May was banned, along with small, but always designed to be portable and
most other traditional customs, in the Com- relatively robust. Naturally, the larger groups
monwealth period, but returned after the Res- tended to present larger more intricate struc-
toration and survived, in gradually dwindling tures. Many were spherical or bell-shaped,
form, until the early 19th century: with wooden or wire hoops forming the basic
structure which was covered in flowers,
May-day is still observed at Great Gransden [Cam-
bridgeshire], where the young men, farmers' ser-
greenery, ribbons, coloured paper, and so on.
vants, on their return from going a-Maying. leave a These would normally be carried on a pole,
hawthorn branch at every house in the village, sing- between two people. Hand-held garlands
ing what they call the Night song. On the evenings of tended to be more like decorated poles, and
May-day and the 2nd of May, they go round to every were obviously less elaborate (N&Q, 6s:3 (1881),
house where they had left a branch and sing the May
386). Even without overt adult organizational
Song . . .

interference, the children usually had set roles

1816 p. 130,
{Time's Telescope for to play in the garlanding party—the Queen
quoted by Wright and Lones) or self-appointed) being the most
(elected
lived on in the children's May garland-
Its spirit important, sometimes a King, sometimes
ing customs of the nineteenth and twentieth maids of honour, footmen, coat-holder, and so
centuries. on. In almost all recorded cases, the mayers
See also *may: children's garlands and had a traditional song to sing or at least a
CUSTOMS, *MAY DEW, *MAYPOLES. rhyme to recite. A number of these rhymes fit
into the general pattern of visiting custom
Hazlitt, 1905: 397-9; Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 200-7,
Button, 1996: 226-43. songs, having direct parallels in *mumming.
May Day Horse Parades 228

*souling, *wassailing, and so on. The songs what 1 had been seeking. From a patch of waste

were often collected and published independ- ground came the sound of young laughter and the
ently, and many early folk song collections
wheezing of a mouth-organ. A dozen small children
were moving solemnly in a circle, each grasping in a
include them. See Ruddock, Gerish, and
Hamer for a number of versions from grubby hand a piece of string about four feet long,
the other end of which was tied to the top of a
Leicestershire/Rutland, Hertfordshire, and
broomstick, the latter embedded a few inches in the
Bedfordshire respectively. Judge for an overall earth.The broomstick was crowned with a piece of
systematic analysis. faded ribbon. 1
approached the children, asked them
A regular, but not ubiquitous, feature was to what they were doing. They stared at me in silence
place a dressed and decorated doll (sometimes for a moment, then one little girl, pointing to the

more than one) in the centre of the garland, or broomstick, said 'Why, this is our ma3T)ole. It's May
She was usually called something
in ft-ont of it. Day today. Didn't you know?'.
like Her Lady, or The Queen, and treated with
In the 1950s, collecting material for their
great respect. Commentators assume she rep-
lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959: 255-
resented the Virgin Mary. In some places, it
62),lona and Peter Opie discovered a number
was the doll which was given precedence,
of May Day customs still current, such as gar-
rather than the garland, transported in a dec-
orated box or basket: landing in isolated villages, including Bamp-
ton, Wheatley, and Lower Heyford in Oxford-
May Day 1881: ... at Teignmouth, in Devon, the May shire, and *Abbotsbury in Dorset, home-made
babies came round as usual. Parties of girls and chil-
maypoles in Shrewsbury (a pram wheel, set oi
dren go from house to house, each party carrying a a pole, covered with crepe paper
dressed doll laid in a box, and decked with flowers.
streamers), and even, at Blackburn, the boys'
They cry 'Will you look at my May baby?' and of
course they expect you to pay for that privilege . . .
dancing-bear as described above. They al
(N&Q. 6s:3 (1881), 386)
reported the *May dew belief (and practic
still current in many parts.
The doll was often covered by a cloth or veil, See also *may, bringing in, *maypoles,
which could be dramatically drawn aside to *ABBOTSBURY GARLAND DAY, "^GARLANDS,
'show' the splendours within, or could be left *CASTLETON GARLAND DAY, *MAIDENS'
in place if the visited householder refiised to GARLANDS.
offer a contribution.
Flora Thompson, Lark Rise (1939). chapter 13; Wright and
Garlands and dolls were not the only May Lones. 1938: ii. 200-45; Anne Elizabeth Baker, Glossary <

Day activity for children, and there are several Northamptonshire Words and Phrases (1854): ii. 421-9; Ellas
customs which appear to be unique to particu- abeth Ruddock, 'May Day Songs and Celebrations
Leicestershire and Rutland', Trans, of the Leicestershire
lar areas. In Burnley in the 1920s and 1930s,
Archaeological & Historical Society (1964/5), 69-84; W. B.
40
for example, the boys and girls had different Gerish, 'The Mayers and Their Song", Trans, of the East
things to do. The girls went round v^th their Hertfordshire Archaeological Society 2 (1904). 214-28; F. B.
Hamer. 'May Songs of Bedfordshire". JEFDSS 9
'maypole*, a garland made from two hoops (1961).
81-90.
nailed to a broom handle to form a bell shape,
covered in crepe paper and with long ribbons
attached for the girls to hold as they danced
May Day Horse Parades. A regular May Day
round. The boys would enact a performance of
tradition, in country was for
town as well as
a dancing-bear. One would put a sack over his
farm-workers, waggoners, and anyone work-
head, tied at the comers to make ears, and
ing with horses to decorate them profusely on
Mdth eye and mouth holes cut out, to be the
May Day with rosettes, ribbons, flowers, braid,
bear. The other would lead him on a rope,
and shining brass. On a grander scale, manj
carrying a broom handle for a pole, and recit- towns held formal May Day horse parades, and
ing traditional gibberish on the lines of 'addy
companies which had large numbers of horses
addy ompompay' in imitation of the real bear-
might have their own annual procession. In
minders (Burnley Express and News (6 May 1922,
each case the horses would be groomed to per-
1 Feb. 1980, 1 Feb. 1983).
fection and decorated to the hilt. These pro-
A journalistic piece in the Evening Standard (1 cessions were common in the north of Eng-
May 1928) details the writer's unsuccessftil land from the mid-1 9th century, spreading
search for the 'spirit of May Day' in the Lon-
southwards from the 1880s onwards, and last-
don of the time until he finally found it:
ing well into the 20th century.
wandering gloomily through Bermondsey, I found Judge, 1987.
229 maypoles

May dew. There is a widespread belief, in paraded them in triumph, and they are still
Britain and abroad, that dew gathered on May carried before the annually elected Mayor on
Day morning is particularly good for the com- the Saturday nearest 19 June. The Mayor is
plexion, and countless people have acted on always a member of the Abingdon Morris
this knowledge over the last 500 years. Samuel Men, and is elected by the inhabitants of the
Pepys's wife Elizabeth clearly believed that street and the Morris Men. He is then borne

any time in May would do, as he records her aloft, in a chair decorated with flowers, by his

going out on 28May 1667, and 10 May 1669. In fellow dancers, bearing his ceremonial sword,
some areas there were extra stipulations: dew bowl, and sash.
gathered under oak trees or off hawthorn Keith Chandler, "The Abingdon Morris and the Election
bushes being specially good. May dew was also of the Mayor of Ock Street', in Buckland and Wood, 1993:
believed to be particularly effective for certain 119-36; Kightly, 1986: 166-7; Shuel, 1985: 43-4.

complaints, first mentioned in 1602 for sore

eyes and in Launceston, 'poor people say that a maypoles. For many people the maypole is

swelling in the neck may be cured by the the very s5mabol of the traditional May Day,
patient, if awoman, going before sunrise on but its history is not a simple one. The earUest
the of May, to the grave of the young man
first references to maypoles are Uterary; a mid-14th
last buried in the churchyard, collecting century Welsh poem and a late 14th-century
therefrom the dew by passing the hand three poem Chance of the Dice (Hammond, 1925: 6)
times from the head to the foot of the grave, which refers to 'the grete shafte of Comeylle',
and applying the dew to the part affected. If in London. Two earher references which had
the patient be a man, the grave chosen must often been quoted have now been brought
be that of the last young woman buried in the under suspicion as probably referring to pools
churchyard' (N&(1 ls:2 (1850), 474-5). Other or even maples rather than maypoles. How-
ailments such as consumption and weak joints ever, there is no reason to believe that the

and muscles could also be treated with May maypole was a new thing in the 14th century,
dew, or even with May rain. but neither is there any evidence to show that
See also *may, bringing in. it existed much before then. Certainly, the

205-7; Opie and Tatem, 1989: limited distribution of poles in Wales and
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii.

245-6. Scotland, and the paucity of references there,

argue strongly against the existence of may-
May goslings. In Cumberland, Westmor- poles before the Anglo-Saxon settlement of
land, and the northern parts of Lancashire and England.
Yorkshire, 'May Goslings' are the equivalent of From the 15th century onwards, references
to maypoles prohferate, sometimes in muni-
April Fools elsewhere, the day for the hoaxing
being 1 May. The custom, first reported in cipal or parish accounts, and often in the writ-
1791. was still flourishing in the 1950s. The ings of thenew morahsts who were keen to
tricks must stop by midday; anyone forgetting reform the ungodly celebrations surrounding
this is taunted: such traditional events as May Day and
Christmas. The finding, decorating, and erect-
May Gosling's dead and gone, ing of the maypole emerges as an important
You're the fool for thinking on
part of community life, becoming the focal
(Opie and Opie, 1959: 256-7) point for dancing and other celebrations of
the season (see also *May, bringing in). Some
Mayor of Ock Street. One of the few remain- places had permanent ma5^oles, such as

ing *mock mayor ceremonies in the country, probably the best known in the country at
the Ock Street Mayor is said to date from ComhiU (as referred to by the Chance poet) in
about 1700, although this is probably wishfiil London, which was reputedly taller than the
thinking, as the first recorded reference only church to which it gave its name. St Andrew
occurs in the 1860s (see Chandler, 1993). Undershaft. while others started from scratch
Legend says that in 1700 the men of Ock every year. It is clear that maypoles were as

Street, Oxfordshire, fought a

Abingdon, popular in urban as in rural communities.
pitched battle against the men from the Vine- If the maypole was the clear symbol of trad-

yards, for possession of the horns of an ox itional May merrymaking, it was equally the
which had been roasted at the tovm's fair. clear target for those opposed to the festivities.
Having won the horns, the Ock Street men John Stow (1598) relates how the ComhiU pole
May Queens 230

was taken down after 'evil May Day' (1517) bons as in the modem revival. In the earlie
when rioting apprentices had to be sup- form, they either held hands in a ring, dance
pressed by the authorities. The pole was laid solo in the circle, or wove in and out of each
on iron brackets above the doors of the other round the circle, and there are reports of
houses in Shaft Alley, and stayed there for people kissing each other as they met. The
another 32 years. However, in 1549, a reform- introduction and spread of the plaited may-
ing curate of St Katherine's took strong excep- pole in England is detailed by Roy Judge (1987:
tion to this 'idol' and caused it to be chopped 175-94). The earliest examples, from the
up and the wood shared among the inhabit- 1830s, are included in stage performances, but
ants. As is often the case for this period, oiu- the really influential development came when
most detailed descriptions are provided by successive dancing-masters and choreograph-
thosewho opposed the traditions, and PhiUp ers deUberately introduced the form into
Stubbes's Anatomie of Abuses (1583) is a case in other revived or invented customs such as
point: *well-dressing, usuallyperformed by young
girls
—
and boys but usuaUy girls dressed in —
But their cheefest jewell they bring home from white. By the late 19th century, the plaited;,
thence [the woods] is their Male poole, whiche they
maypole had become accepted as the 'trad
bring home with greate veneration .this Male
. .

itional'English form; a clear example of th<

poole (this stjmckyng idoU rather) which is covered
*Merrie England process at work.
all over with flowers and hearbes, bounde rounde

aboute with stringes, from the top to the bottome, A few places, such as *Padstow (Cornwall), .

and sometyme painted with variable colours . . .

and *Barwick in Elmet (West Yorkshire) stil
have the older style ribbonless pole. Som<
Nevertheless, maypoles had their supn children's customs had hand-held 'maypoles*
porters. They were specifically mentioned in which may be a remnant of, or at least a refe
KingJamesrs*BookofSports(1618),reissuedby ence to, the full-size ones (see *May, children'!
Charles I (1633), as a lawfiil pastime for the garlands and customs).
people on Sundays, after evening service, and See also *merrie England, *church ales
poets and pla5?wrights used the pole as a *WHITSUN ALES.
metaphorical rallying point for the old toler- Hutton, 1996: 233-7, 301-2; Hutton, 1994: 30, 56-7, 114
ant days of England. All over the country, 16, 223-6; Judge, 1987; Roy Judge, 'Tradition and thi
Plaited Maypole", Traditional Dance 2 (1983), 1-21; Wrigh
however, maypoles were being suppressed or
and Lones, 1938: ii. 217-28; Hazlitt, 1905: 402-6; Eleana
obstructed by a combination of local justices
Prescott Hammond, 'The Chance of the Dice'. En^ish
and clergy, and they were one of the first Studien 59 (1925), 1-16.
things to be banned once the Puritans gained
control in the 1640s. After the Restoration, in
1660, maypoles rapidly came back into favour, May Queens. An accepted part of the model
again as the symbol of the return to the good May celebrations in many towns and village
old days. And so they continued to stand, the usual pattern being a procession, cro\
taken for granted as a local landmark, but ing ceremony, and some sort of parade, as or
entering a slow but definite decUne from constituent part of the sports, displays,
around the turn of the 19th century, suffering stalls of a local fete. While not entirel
this time from neglect rather than opposition. invented from scratch, the modem Maj
By the time the Victorians began reinventing Queen is an example of the Victorian *Merri€
May Day there were few old maj^joles left, England style of reinvented tradition which
leaving the field conveniently clear for their completely transformed the custom wt
reintroduction in modified form. keeping only a tenuous link with previot
Leaving aside the theories of maypoles as practice. Many earUer customs had had a mai
remnants of tree-worship, phallic symbols, and woman who, with their entourage o
and the like, for which there is no evidence, officers, were elected to preside over the celc
the pole seems to have had two essential brations, and were treated with some degree
qualities— first, it was a focal point for the of respect, although often in a jocular way:^
celebrations, and second, it was a usefiil place The more common title for this couple was
to hang garlands and greenery. This greenery, 'Lord and Lady', although occasionally they^
flowers, flags, and gay striped paint are often are reported as 'King and Queen'. They appea
mentioned as the main feature of the pole. regularly at *Whitsun ales and in children':
People danced round it, but not plaiting rib- garlanding customs (see *May Day, children*:
 medicine

garlanding). In earlier versions of the latter, mazes. The mazes of folk tradition are not
the Lord and Lady were chosen by the children intended as puzzles; they are single-track coil-
themselves, but as the school and vicarage ing patterns cut in turf and used for com-
took over control of the custom, the choice munal sport, the point being to mn round
also passed increasingly into adult hands. In them without stumbUng or touching the
the new May Day constructed by Victorian banks even at the sharp bends. Having
reformers, the figure of the May Queen was reached the centre, the mnner retraces his
given more prominence, and finally raised to steps along the same path to emerge. *Aubrey
be the central character. The process was noted that one in Dorset had been 'much used
i
helped by Tennyson's immensely popular by the young people on Holydaies and by ye
poem 'The May Queen', pubUshed in 1832, School-boies', and that 'There is a Maze at this
which, although it gave no details of the cus- day in Tuthill fields, Westminster, & much
tom, focused attention on the female char- frequented in summer-time on fair after-
acter, and by the 1870s and 1880s new May noons' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 71).
Queen festivals were becoming well estab- Eight such labyrinths survive, including
Ushed and being described as the 'old trad- those at Alkborough (Humberside), Saffron
itional' way of celebrating May. Well-knov^m Walden and Winchester (Hampshire).
(Essex),
examples were at Knutsford (Cheshire) and, At least a hundred more have disappeared for
following the ideas of John Ruskin, at White- lack of maintenance. On the island of St Agnes
lands College, Chelsea. in the Scillies there is one marked out with
See also *may day, children's garlanding. small boulders; it was clumsily 'restored' in

Roy Judge, 'Fact and Fanq^ in Tennyson's "May Queen" 1989, so now neither the site nor the design is
and in Flora Thompson's "May Day", in Buckland and accurate.
Wood, 1993: 167-83; Judge, 1987; Malcolm Cole. White- Several EngUsh mazes are named 'Troy
lands College May Queen Festival (1981); Revd W. Dallow,
Town' or 'Walls of Troy', terms probably
'May Queens', Strand Magazine (May 1892), 484-8.
derived from a passage in Virgil (Aeneid, v.
545-603) describing the 'Troy Game', a test of
May (the month). Oddly, though the literary skill in which young riders manoeuvered
associations of this month are v^th blossom-
along a mazy track. Since medieval and Eliza-
ing love, and customs are all joyous, several
its
bethan Enghsh beUeved themselves to be des-
widespread superstitions count it unlucky. cended from the Trojans, the appeal is
"^Cats bom in May are useless and should be
obvious.
drowned at birth; 'May-babies, Uke May kit-
There is no way of dating these mazes, nor
tens, are said to be weakly and unlikely to are they Ukely to be all equally old; a range of
thrive' (Folk-Lore 68 (1957), 413; cf N&(1 ls:7 dates from the late Middle Ages to the 18th
^ (1853) 152); the *broom brings death; boys
century is plausible. On the Continent, mazes
bom in May are particularly cruel to animals can symbolize penance or pilgrimage, and
(N&Q,12s:4 (1918) 133, 172, 257-8). some scholars have proposed this interpret-
Most often mentioned is the idea that May ation for English ones too. However, surviving
marriages will prove vmhappy. The beUef is
English ttaditions are non-religious: the Win-
undoubtedly ancient, as Ovid mentions it
chester maze is said to have been cut by a
V v.487-90);
ii. its first known airing in schoolboy, that on the Scillies by a Ughthouse
{Fasti:

English, in Poor Robin's Mmanack for 1675,

keeper, a lost one at Shrewsbury was called
treats it as already proverbial. Yet, however
'The Shoemaker's Race' and was maintained
well-known, it does not seem to have been
throughout the 17th century by the city's
translated into action; George Monger's shoemakers' guild for their annual Whitsun
research (Folklore 105 (1994), 104-8) presents feast.
figures shoving that despite fluctuations at to that
Pennick, 1990. Matthews, 1922, is accurate up
different periods May has never been the least
date, but more mazes have since been discovered.
popular month for weddings, and sometimes
was one of the most favoured. medicine. 'Folk' medicine is an accumulation
See also *May Day, *May Dew. of very diverse techniques and beliefs, on
Opie andTatem. 1989: 240-6; Lean, 1902-1904; N&Q.ls:3 which many layers of cultural history have left
(1851)20; ls:7 (1853) 152. a mark; it could never have been known in its
entirety to any one community, let alone one
may (the plant), see *hawthorn. individual. The two primary aspects, predating
megaliths 232

any written records, are a practical knowledge how they began, is beyond conjecture; one
of the effects of *herbs and plants, and the must simply accept that traditional medicine
*
principles of magic by contact or similarity. ranges from sound pragmatic advice, through
An important principle was that disease could symbolism, to downright silliness.

be transferred from one person to another, or See also herbs and charms (verbal).
to an animal or object. This is obvious in *wart For an assessment of the effectiveness of herbal treat-
cures, and in the notion that *onions 'draw' ments, see Hatfield, 1994. Books on regional folklore
almost always include cures, and there is a good selec-
infection; it is probably one factor in more
tion from all over England in Wright, 1913: 239-56.
complex rituals such as passing a child with
hernia through a split *ash. Perhaps the wide-
megaliths, see standing stones.
spread belief in the curative touch of a *dead
hand implied that the ailment would go with
the dead man to his grave; however, contact mell supper. 'Mell' was the dialect word for

with death seems to have been effective in the last sheaf cut in the harvest field across
the northern counties of England, and the
itself, judging by the healing power attributed
to *skulls, *coffin nails, *churchyard earth, Mell Supper was the Harvest Home gathering
and similar grim objects. to celebrate. In addition to the general feast-

Christianity had a strong impact on folk ing and dancing, there was a tradition in some
medicine. From Anglo-Saxon times onwards, areas for certain 'acts' to be performed— one
instructions for gathering or administering given in full by Gutch comprises a sung dia-
medicinal herbs routinely involved making logue between Polly and, in succession, an old
the sign of the cross, and repeating formulas man, an old lady, and a squire, and the latter
of prayer. Many traditional verbal charms, she decides to many. Another feature was a
such as those for *toothache, ^nightmare, and visit from the Guisers, and it was customary

*bums, invoke the power of Jesus, or of saints to make a show of resistance to their entry

and angels. The medicinal efficacy of *cramp (Blakeborough, 1898: 85-6).

rings, *Good Friday buns, rain falhng on Wright, EDD. 1903: iv. 82-3; Gutch, 1901: 257-66
Ascension Day, and much else, rested ultim-
ately on religious associations. Melton, John (d. 1640). Author and polit-
Other traditional cures seem arbitrary: keep John Melton is of particular interest
ician. Sir
a potato in your pocket against rheumatism; to folklorists because of his work, Astrologaster,.
give a child cooked *mice for bed-wetting or or, The Figure-Caster, published in London in
*
whooping cough; eat a live spider for ague; 1620. John Melton lived at a time when
take powdered cockroaches, or woodlice in judicial or prognostic astrology played a high-
wine, for dropsy— and very many more. It profile political role, with warring factions
would be wrong to call such things 'magic', for regularly using predictions against each other,
there was nothing supernatural about them; while Puritans raged against its ungodUness
they were taken for granted as natural proper- and sceptics such as Melton poured scorn on
ties of everyday items. people's gullibility and the crooks and swind-
When the sickness was itself attributed to lers who profited by it. Lower down the social
witchcraft, magical *counterspells would be scale, therewas widespread faith in for-
set in motion, often under the guidance of a tune-telling of all kinds, and thus numerous
cunning man or woman. Others gifted with professional fortune-tellers, a trade which is
* *
healing powers were charmers, seventh sons also satirized in Ben Jonson's The Alchemist
or daughters, and (in the case of *king's evil) (1610). The Astrologaster is a highly readable
the anointed monarch. Certain personal pecu- attack on these fortune-tellers, prognostica-
liarities also made one a healer for certain and purveyors of omens, and
tors, astrologers,
ailments; thus, a 'left twin' (survivor of a pair Melton's description provides a wealth of
where the other had died) could cure thrush detail about their methods. But the most

by blowing three times in the sufferer's mouth important section for our present purposes is
(Latham, 1878: 38); bread and butter made by a his Ust of 33 superstitions, which is one of the

couple named Joseph and Mary would cure earhest attempt at a systematic hsting. He
whooping cough (Hole, 1937: 10-11); so blames the cunning-men and figure<asters for
would anything recommended by any man their invention and dissemination. He also
riding a piebald horse (Opie and Tatem, 1989: includes the detail that some of these fortune
305-6). How long such ideas have existed, or tellers pretended to be Gypsies to further
233 menstruation

impress the country-folk. The list is reprinted private tribute to the victim. A photograph
in FLS News 32 (2000). may be added, and the memorials may be
DNB: Facsimile reprint of Astrologaster, introduced by tended for months or years. Less conspicuous
Hugh G. Dick, Augustan Reprint Society (William forerunners of this custom in the late 19th and
Andrews Clark Memorial Library, Los Angeles), 1975.
early 20th centuries were crosses scraped on
the dust at the roadside, cut into turf, or
memorates. A technical term for narratives painted on a wall to mark the scene of a fatal-

describing how the

speaker personally ity, and maintained over a period of time.
encountered a supernatural being or experi-
Vickery, 1995: 146-7; FLS News 19-21 (1994-5); Tony Wal-
enced a paranormal event, which he/she ter, FoMore 107 (1996), 106-7; George Monger, Folklore

interpreted in terms of traditional beliefs. 108 (1997), 113-14. For the older customs, see Barbara
Freire-Marreco, Folk-lore 21 (1910), 387-8; Barbara
Some scholars, but not all, extend the term to
Aitken, Folk-lore 37 (1926), 80; The Antiquary 32 (1896), 94-
cover those where it is a close relative or 5.
friend of the speaker who had the experience.
Such accounts are excellent evidence for the
currency of a belief and its emotional and menstruation. The Bible taught (Leviticus
social implications, but they have been less 15: 19-24) that a menstruating woman was
collected than *legends. not only 'unclean' in herself but polluted
For discussion of English examples see Bennett, 1985: others. The scientific authority of Pliny's Nat-
87-97; 1989: 167-83; 1987. ural History (ad 77), and many later medical
writers, added that she could shrivel plants,
memorials at death sites. During the late kiU bees, taint food, and cloud mirrors by her
1980s and 1990s, it became increasingly touch, her glance, her breath, or her mere
common to lay flowers at the scene of a mur- presence— let alone her actual blood. Though
der or some dramatic accident, for instance a many folklore collections avoid this topic,
train derailment or the crash of a coach carry- those that do mention it record beliefs and
ing children; other tokens, such as toys or taboos which seem similar everywhere, some
football club scarves, are added if appropriate, of which were still current in the mid-20th
and the chosen not be the actual
site may century. During her period, a woman must not
scene of death but some other relevant place handle raw meat or go near ham that is being
accessible to the pubUc, for example at the cured, for she will taint it; she must not enter
gates of a school or club. These signs of com- the dairy, or milk will sour and butter-making
munal grief can be on a very large scale; it is wiU fail.

said that more than a million people visited Theologians disagreed on how rigorously to
Hillsborough football stadium in one week in apply to women the Leviticus rule that anyone
1989 to leave flowers and scarves in honour of 'unclean' must not approach 'the tabernacle
those who died there. An early instance of this or any holy thing'; some said they must not
form of mourning was at Aberfan in 1966, even enter a church, but in 579 Pope *Gregory
when a landsUde from a coal-tip destroyed a instructed missionaries working in England to
school, and wreaths sent from all over the let them do so, and even receive Communion,
world were laid out in a cross a himdred feet sincewhat was natural was not sinful (Bede,
long (Vickery, 1995: 146). book I, chapter 27). In the
Ecclesiastical History,
A highly dramatic development occurred 20th century, the debate was stiU not over;
after the death of Diana Princess of Wales on among Primitive Methodists, no menstruating
31 August 1997. Bouquets bearing personal woman could attend a church service (Porter,
messages were laid in huge numbers not only 1969: 22), and some CathoUc girls thought
in London but in virtually every town and vil- (wrongly) that to take Communion then was a
lage in Britain— on the steps of churches and sin QS].
town halls, at war memorials, at market Other folkloric warnings, current until
crosses, in parks, or atany other central site. recently, protected the woman herself from
Photographs, candles, balloons, and teddy supposed risks. The best known was never to
bears were added; the tributes were left in wash your hair or put your feet in cold water, or
place for about two weeks. 'the blood will fly to your head and send you
It is becoming popular for small groups
also daft'; thisechoes an outdated medical theory
of ftiends and family to lay or hang flowers at about misdirected menstrual blood reaching
the site of fatal road accidents and suicides as a the brain and causing melancholia. It was also
Merlin 234

bad to have a bath or go swimming, either Folk tradition stressed MerMn's prophecies.
because 'the water will get inside' or because Geoffrey had previously composed the Proph-
'the water will turn black'. More unusual was ecia Merlini, a series of obscure symboUc utter-

the Lincolnshire rule, 'Don't walk in long grass, ances, some alluding to poUtical events of his
the snakes will smell you' (Sutton, 1992: 31). own times,which he incorporated into his
The sudden surge of oestrogen which sig- History; they were so vague that later gener-
nals the onset of menstruation affects the ations easily found new applications for
sebacious glands, *hair greasy, lanky,
making them. A later anonymous text in the same
and unmanageable. Hairdressers avoid styl- style. The Last Kings of the En^ish, was also
ing or tinting a woman's hair at this time, alleged to be Merlin's prophecy. Both were
since the results will probably be poor. The widely known, adapted, and used as propa-
current phrase 'a bad hair day' for a day when ganda in many medieval wars and rebelMons,
everything goes wrong may be based on and in Reformation controversies (Thomas,
the experience that pre-menstrual irritabihty, 1971: 389-422). Compilers of almanacs, astro-
clumsiness, and greasy hair coincide [JS]. logers, and pamphleteers continued to
Sexual intercourse during menstruation exploit Merlin's name till the end of the 18th
was taboo; according to the Bible, it was a century.
crime incurring the death penalty for both Surprisingly, Merlin rarely features in Eng-
parties (Leviticus 20: 18), though secular law lish local lore, apart from his link with
has never enforced this. Scripture also warned *Stonehenge. The town of Marlborough (Wilt-
that 'menstruous women bring forth mon- shire) claims that its name means 'Merlin's
sters' (11 Esdras 5: 8), and medical writers Barrow' and that he rests under a mound in
agreed; a popular handbook, Aristotle's Master- the grounds of the public school there; James I
piece (1684,but often reprinted up to 1890), granted the town the motto Ubi nunc sapientis
taught that it would probably result in ossa Merlini.
abnormahties such as hairy infants or those
with extra hmbs (book 1, chapter 5). Now- mermaids. To judge from parallel beliefs
adays, it is occasionally said babies so con- elsewhere in northern Europe, the sea-
ceived are *red-haired. dwellers of English folklore were probably
Porter, 1969: 21-3; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 247; Sutton, originally tailless, but the concept of the fish-
1992: 16-32; Patricia Crawford, Post and Present 91 (May tailed mermaid (and merman), long estab-
1981), 47-73. Ushed in Mediterranean lands as a develop-
ment from the classical siren, arrived here
Merlin. A figure from Welsh legend, who early in the Middle Ages. The mermaid was
*
entered Enghsh literature via Geoffrey of regarded as a natural if freakish creature, not a
Monmouth's History of the Kings ofBritain (1 136). supernatural being; according to classical
There, he is a 'fatherless' youth, conceived by writers, she luUed sailors to sleep by her sing-
an incubus and gifted with prophecy, who ing and then drowned them or ate them. She
becomes counsellor first to the British king made an excellent moral symbol for
Aurelius (for whom he transports and builds preachers, who identified her with the fatal

*Stonehenge) and later to Aurelius 's brother attractions of wealth, sex, drink, etc. For this
Uther Pendragon, whom he magically helps in reason, mermaids are common in minor
an illicit love-affair which results in the birth church sculpture; it is presumably as symbols
of *Arthur. In Geoffrey's History he plays no of vanity that they acquired their comb and
fiirther part, but a Burgundian poem c.1200 mirror, not known in classical art. The belief
has him continue young Arthur's protector
as that they really existed persisted for centuries,
and adviser, a role later made familiar by reinforced by travellers' tales of sightings and
Malory. Another strand of tradition, Welsh captures,and also by fakes made up from
and Scottish rather than English but reflected monkeys and fish, which were common from
in Geoffrey's poem The Life of Merlin (c.1150), the 16th to the 19th centuries.
shows Merhn as a tragic figure unconnected Legends about mermaids are found in
with Arthur, a crazed forest-dwelling recluse Cornwall and along the Welsh Border. At Zen-
uttering mysterious verses and foretelling his nor, a mermaid fell in love with a lad and
own death. Medieval, Ehzabethan, Victorian, lured him into the sea. Near the Lizard, a man
and modem writers ftirther elaborate Merlin's named Lutey helped a stranded mermaid back
story. into the water; she gave him her comb, and

I
235 Merrie England

said he and his descendants would be able to Merrie Englandism is essentially nostalgic.
break witches' spells and control demons, but It takes it as given that however much society
nine years later she came for him and drew has progressed materially it has lost some-
him under the waves. In the 1840s the foUdor- thing important on the way, and this loss is
ist Robert Hunt was told that several Cornish primarily in terms of 'community'. In Merrie
famiUes claimed to have uncanny powers England the social classes were held together
because of being descended from a mermaid in an interlocking web of duties and obliga-
or merman. On the other hand, a mermaid tions. The peasants were poor but honest,
ruined Padstow harbour with sandbars, strong, and happy, their children were well
because someone there had shot at her. fed and also happy, and the squire or lord of
The mermaids of the Welsh Border area do the manor cared for his people as a father
not live in the sea but in lakes and rivers. At would family, while a benign parson
his
Marden (Herefordshire) a church bell once fell looked after their spiritual needs. At certain
into a deep pool in the river, where a mermaid points in the year, the people sang, danced,
seized it 1912: 168-9). At Child's
(Leather, and made merry— in spring, summer, and
Ercall (Shropshire) a mermaid from a pool was autumn on the village green or in the fields,
about to give some men 'a lump of gold, big as while at Christmas the squire threw open his
a man's head, very near', but one swore in hall, as dictated by his 'old English hospital-
amazement, and she shrieked and vanished ity'.The adherents of the Merrie England
(Bume, 1883: 78). school sought to recreate this golden age, and
Benwell and Waugh, 1961: 140-50. one of their key tools was to reform the pas-
times of the poor which had, quite clearly in
mermen. Far rarer than * mermaids in English their eyes, lost both their innocence and their
traditional values.
tradition, but the Suffolk chronicler Ralph of
Coggeshall, about c.1210, tells how some fish- I value every custom that tends to infuse poetical
ermen netted a naked, bearded, hairy-chested feeling into the common people, and to sweeten an3
'wild man' who looked human 'in all his soften the rudeness of rustic manners, without des-
parts'— i.e. he had no tail. He could not speak; troying their simplicity . . .
(Washington Irving,
he ate most things, but Uked raw fish best. He Bracebridge Hall (\S22))

.escaped into the sea once, but returned of his

This was the problem. Before customs could
own accord; later he escaped again, this time
be reinvented, they had to be shorn of the
for good. Ralph comments: 'Whether he was a
undesirable features which they had gathered
mortal man, or a kind offish bearing a resem-
from being in the hands of the working classes
blance to humanity, or an evil spirit lurking in
for too long. Sometimes it could be blamed on
the body of a drowned man ... it is difficult to
urban influences:
decide.'

The people of this neighbourhood are much

Merrie England. The phrase is used to attached to the celebration of wakes; and on the
describe a particular arcadian attitude to the annual return of these festivals, the cousins
assemble fi-om all quarters, fill the church on Sun-
past, prevalent in Victorian and Edwardian
day, and celebrate Monday with feasting, with
times but with roots stretching back to the
musick, and with dancing. The spirit of old English
turn of the 19th century and with continuing
hospitality is conspicuous among the farmers on
power to the present day. As such it is an these occasions; but with the lower sort of people,
imprecise and unscientific concept, but is especially in the manufactviring villages, the return
none the less useftil for describing certain his- of the wake never fails to produce a week, at least, of
and processes which consti-
torical attitudes idleness, intoxication and riot (Revd A. Macaulay,
. . .

tuted an important part of the Victorian The History ofaaybrook [Leicestershire], (1791); quoted
world-view, and had a profound effect on in Golby and Purdue, 1984: 17).

many traditional festivals and customs. It was

The transformation of both the m5^h and
particularly popular with writers Uke Walter
the reahty of the major festivals was only pos-
Scott who speciahzed in conjuring a past
sible because of other changes brought about
which was contrasted to the present:
by a sustained attack on traditional working-
England was merry England, when class merrymaking and leisure pursuits. Cus-
Old Christmas brought his sports again toms involving animals, such as *bull-running,
(Walter Scott, Marmion (1808), introd. Canto VI) bull-baiting, *cock-fighting. throwing at *cocks
Merry Maidens 236

of outdoor the fostering of local pageants and

(but not grouse-shooting or fox-hunting), all life,

came under pressure by the mid-1 9th century, festivities, and the preservation of desirable old cus-

and were suppressed. Violent sports like street toms (Kentish Mercury (9 May 1913), 3, quoted by
football and potentially dangerous crowd- Judge, 1987: 411)

based celebrations such as *November the One remarkable thing about the whole pro-
Fifth were similarly suppressed or brought cess was the fact that these new features could
under increased control, and customs where be presented as 'traditional' and immediately
people got drunk or where the sexes met in accepted as being the real thing. Thus, ballet-
unsupervised merrymaking were reformed or masters who had devised a dance for represen-
removed. tation on stage, or for a pageant, could quite
Some of this reform took place as a result of seriously bill their creations as 'the age-old
national campaigns by such bodies as the morris dance', or an 'Elizabethan May Day'.
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Not only did they invent new forms of festival
Animals, and various Temperance Societies, but they invented a history to legitimate
but in most cases pressure was brought to bear them, based loosely on the early antiquaries
at local level. The combined power of the such as *Strutt and *Brand but vdth a great
squire, magistrate, parson, schoolteacher, deal of embroidering and imagination.
doctor, sohcitor, and the respectable trade and
business people of the area was increasingly By mid-Victorian times, the past invoked by the
demure revivals of maypoles and rush-bearing was
focused on the recreations of the people, in a
too vague to be capable of any precise chronological
combination of outright opposition, accom- location. But the attributes of Merry England were
modation, and diversion of energies. Thus, the constant: a contented. reveUing peasantry and a
mob could be prosecuted under new by-laws hierarchical order in which each one happily
against lighting bonfires and fireworks in the accepted his place and where the feast in the baron-
street, but would be encouraged to attend a ial hall sjonbohsed the ideal social relationship

communal bonfire in a field provided by a (Keith Thomas, The Perception of the Past in Early Modem
local farmer or the towoi council. May Day England (1983). 22)
could be shorn of its hard-drinking and fight- The features of many of the festivals which we
ing *morris dancers, while the schoolteacher now take for granted, and which we beheve to
devised a 'morris dance' for children. be 'old', have been shaped by the Merrie Eng-
Merrie Englandism generally came after land process.
these battles had been won, and its ways were
Roy Judge, 'Merrie England and the Morris", Folklore 104
more subtle. Countless novelists, magazine (1993), 124-43; Roy Judge, 'May Day and Merrie England',
journalists, poets, and pageant-masters Folklore 102 (1931), 131-48; Judge, 1979: 58-65; Malcolm-
J. M. Golby and
A. W. Purdue, The Civilisation of
extolled the virtues of past May Days, and old- son, 1973;
the Crowd (1984).
time Christmases. Rural Ufe portrayed on the
stage could be counted on for a maypole or
invented morris dance, the newly transformed Merry Maidens, see *nine maidens.

village fete could be specially designed and,

later on, historical pageants could lend the mice. Used in folk *medicine for a wide range
final gloss of 'historical accuracy'. The two of ailments— most commonly for bed-wetting,
main focuses for Merrie Englandism were but also for * whooping cough, sore throats,
Christmas and *May Day, and both these fes- and various fevers. They might be boiled,
tivalswere completely transformed, in their roasted, fried, or reduced to powder and 'given
own way, during the 19th century, but other in some pleasant or delightsome drinke', as
customs, such as *well-dressing and *rushbear- Edward Topsell advised (The Historic of Foure-
ing, received similar treatment on a smaller Footed Beastes (1607), 515), or mixed with jam
scale. and served as a sandwich. Cures of this kind
The process was still in full force up to the were still occasionally used in rural areas in
FirstWorld War. The Merrie England Society, the 1930s.
for example, founded by Joseph Deedy in In some places where belief in *v^dtchcraft
1911, and still in operation, included in its persisted into the 20th century, it was thought
objects: that the witch's *familiars were white mice,
which she would keep in a box; she could not
The propagation of May festivals, the encourage- die she passed them on to a relative. Stories
till

ment of national songs and dances, the brightening about this were well remembered in Canew-
237 midnight

don (Essex) in 1960, with reference to women midday. Theoretically, midday should be as
*
who had hved there around 1900 (Maple, important as midnight in the daily cycle of
1960: 246-7); the beUef is also recorded in Sus- *time, but this is not so in Enghsh lore—
sex in the 1930s (Simpson, 1973: 76). probably because the noonday sun is very
Mice are considered an *omen of bad luck, rarely uncomfortable, let alone dangerous, in
sickness, or death if they arrive in large num- the Enghsh cUmate. Interestingly, one of the
bers in a house previously free of them, enter few magical rituals prescribed for noon was
a bedroom, gnaw someone's clothes, or run done on * Midsummer Day; this coinciding of
across someone's body. To get rid of them, one the midpoint of the summer and the daylight
should speak to them poUtely, explaining that hours presumably redoubled its efficacity. It is
their presenceis inconvenient, and suggesting only in childlore that midday is regularly sig-
some other house they might prefer. nificant: for schoolchildren, customary
periods of permitted tricking or tormenting
Michaelmas. The feast of St Michael the generally stop at noon, for example *April Fool
Archangel, 29 September, is one of the Quar- jokes.
ter Days, a date for the payment of rents and
the beginning or ending of hiring engage- Midgley Pace-Eggers. Midgley, West York-
ments (see *hiring fairs). It was also a day for shire, has the best-known team of Pace-Eggers,

feasting, the traditional fare being a roast who perform their version of the *mumming
goose, fattened on the stubble fields; such play every *Good Friday in the village and sur-
geese were sometimes presented by tenant rounding areas. The custom had died out in
farmers to their landlords. It was said that 'if Midgley around the time of the First World
you eat goose on Michaelmas Day you will War, but was revived in 1932 by the local
never lack money all year'. schoolmaster with a team of boys, and the
play has been performed every year since, still
Michaelmas goose. In past centuries, the under the auspices of the school.
traditional connectionbetween Michaelmas H. W. Harwood and F. H. Marsden, The Pace Egg: The Midg-

and the goose was as strong as it is today ley Version (1935); Sydney Moorhouse, Country Life (16 Apr.
1938), 398; John Brennan, ED&S (Summer 1976), 50-1.
between Christmas and the turkey. Everybody
who could afford to ate a goose on St Michael's
Mid-Lent Sunday, see *fig Sunday.
Day (29 September), and had probably been
mother's day, *M0THERING SUNDAY.
doing so since at least the 15th century:
1471 A certain John de la Hay was bound to give Wil- midnight. In the daily cycle of *time, mid-
liam Bamaby, Lord of Lastres, Herefordshire, for a
night represents the deepest point of negativ-
parcel of demesne lands, one goose fit for the lord's when
ity, *ghosts, demons, and all uncanny
dinner on the feast of St Michael. (N&Q, 3s:4 (1863),
beings are most active. prescribed for
It is
400)
many *magic rituals and *divinations. In mod-
It was not uncommon for such stipulated em times it is mathematically defined, so one
gifts of seasonal food to be included in *man- is told that such-and-such will happen 'when
orial tenancy agreements and as Michaelmas the clock strikes twelve'; regarded thus, it
was a Quarter Day when rents were normally derives much of its significance from its
paid, and geese were in their prime at that —
ambiguous status does it belong to the day
season, this would have helped to perpetuate that has just ended or to that which is begin-
the custom. ning? However, in earlier centuries the term
A historical legend seeks to explain the was more loosely applied, to a period rather
connection between bird and day: Queen EUz- than a point of time; it is not clear how long

abeth I was eating a goose on Michaelmas Day this was considered to be, but all supernatural
1588 when she heard of the defeat of the evil forces were supposed to vanish when the
Armada. She therefore declared that everyone *cocks first crowed.
should do so every year to commemorate the Confusingly, midnight is also a time for cer-
*
great victory. Unfortunately for the legend, it tain celebratory rites, such as first footing and
can be seen that the connection antedates the seeing the *New Year in.because by
This is

Armada by at least 100 years, and anyway that modem reckoning a day begins at midnight
victory was in August. (not at simset, as in ancient cultures), so the
Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 81-4; Brand, 1849: i. 367-71. day which inaugurates a new cycle must be
midsummer 238

launched with joyful and luck-bringing rituals Midsummer processions in London first
at the eariiest opportunity. enter the documentary record as an out-
For powers attributed to those bom at mid- growth of the system of poUcing the city called
night, see *CHIME HOURS. the Watch; men who patrolled the streets at
night to prevent wrongdoing and keep the
midsummer (23/4 June). Astronomically, peace. These Watchmen also provided the
the summer solstice is 21 June, but tradition authorities with a ready-made bodyguard and

throughout Europe reckons 24 June as Mid- they were thus ordered by the Corporation, in
summer Day, and calls the night of 23/4 Mid- 1378, to accompany the aldermen in proces-
summer Eve, Midsummer Night, or *St John's sion on Midsummer and St Peter's Eve. Over
Eve, since 24 June is the feast of St John the the next two centuries the Midsummer Watch
Baptist. In England, the main folkloric fea- processions grew ever more spectacular and
tures of the season were *bonfires, proces- sumptuous, as each Lord Mayor attempted to
sions, and *divinations; it was the date for make his mark. Outside London, midsummer

seeking the magical *femseed, or the 'coal' was similarly a popular time for municipal
under the roots of mugwort. processions, especially once these had been
The eariiest description of midsummer divorced from their religious guild origins by
celebrations, by the 14th century monk John the Reformation and taken over by civic
Mirk, of Lilleshall, Shropshire, turns out on authorities. In Norwich and Chester, among
examination to be quoting from a continental other towns, the Mayor and other dignitaries
writer but is often cited as describing his own would ride in splendour, without the saints
experience and has thus influenced sub- and candles of pre-Reformation times, but still
sequent ideas on the nature of midsummer with a dragon, a giant, or other secular effi-
celebrations and the etymology of the word gies. At some places, the effigies could come
*bonfire. John Stow provides a more usefiil out on their own: 'At Burford (Oxfordshire),
and vivid description of midsummer festiv- annually, and still within memory, on Mid-
ities in London in the 1590s, which gives summer Eve, the men used to carry a figure of
details of local street bonfires, domestic dec- a dragon up and down the town. A giant was

orating customs, and also also added, for what reason I do not know .' . .
spectacular
processions: (Robert Plot, The Natural History of Oxfordshire
(1677), chapter 10).
In the months of June and July, on the vigils of festi-
val days, and on the same festival days in the even-
Like manypopular pastimes, midsummer
bonfires came under increasing pressure from
ings after the sun setting, there were usually made
Puritan reformers in the 16th and 17th centur-
man bestowing wood or
bonfires in the streets, every
labour towards them; the wealthier sort also before ies,and were all but extinguished in most of
their doors near to the said bonfires would set out the country during that time. Some, however,
tables on the vigils ftimished with sweet bread and survived (or were revived) and lasted long
good drink These were called bonfires [i.e. 'boon'
. . .
enough for the 19th-century folklorists to find
or 'good' fires] as well of good amity amongst neigh- traces of them, particularly, it seems, in the
bours that being before at controversy, were there,
west country and the extreme north of the
by the labour of others, reconciled and also for
country. In rural areas, communal fires were
. . .

the virtue that a great fire hath to purge the infection

lit and people danced and generally ate,
of the air . . .
(Stow, 1598: 125-9)
drank, and made merry around them, and
Stow continues to describe people's doors young men made a point of leaping through
bedecked with 'green birch, long fennel, St the flames when they had died down some-
John's Wort, orpin, white lillies, and such like, what, which some commentators like to see as
garnished upon with garlands of beautiftil ritual purificationbut is just as likely to be
flowers' and oil-burning lamps. He then writes simple male showing off. Nevertheless, a con-
at length about the marching processions, tinuing thread throughout the history of trad-
vdth 'whifQers, drummers and fifes, standard itional bonfire customs, which has not been
and ensign bearers, sword players, trumpeters totally manufactured by early folklorists, is
on horseback, demilances on great horses, the notion that the fire and its smoke is bene-
gunners with hand guns, or half hakes, ficial and purifying, keeping at bay disease and
archers in coats of white fiistian and . . .' misfortune— from crops, cattle, and people.
*giants, *morris dancers, torch-bearers, and But there is no mention of anything like this
many more. in many later reports, which stress the good
239 milk

clean fun of outdoor summer evening festiv- have good parallels in European folklore, but
ities. One such is the description of midsum- references to it in England are surprisingly
mer celebrations in Penzance (Cornwall) in scarce. It may be that in EUzabethan times,
1801, which describes the fire itself, *tar bar- when fairy-lore was more vigorous, the notion
rels on poles, fireworks frightening the ladies, was common, or perhaps Shakespeare was
and a long game of *Thread the Needle drawing more on foreign parallels than has
through the streets of the town. The following hitherto been reaUzed.
day was mainly taken up with a fair and boat See also *fernseed. *hempseed, *orpine.
trips (R. Polwhele, History of Cornwall (1816). V^right and Lones, 1940: iii. 6-23; Brand, 1849:1.298-337;
i. 49-51, quoted in Wright and Lones, 1940: Hutton, 1996: 311-21; Lean, 1902-5; Dyer, 1876: 311-31.
iii. 7-8).
Midsummer Eve was one of the key nights midwinter. Although the astronomical sol-
for *love divinations, some of which are stice is21 December, 'midwinter' is a looser
unique to the season, while others also turn concept. Anglo-Saxons used the term *Yule to
up at other times, such as *St Mark's and *St cover a period of some weeks on either side of
Agnes 's Eves. A beUef reported several times the solstice, and in medieval times there were
under the title of the 'Midsummer Rose'— Unks running from the feast of *St Nicholas (6
from Cornwall, Devon, Worcestershire, and December) to Christmas Day. and from
—
elsewhere concerns the plucking of a rose on Christmas to *Epiphany, or even *Candlemas,
Midsummer's Day, although further details which have left traces on the folk customs of
then vary. In the longest form (noted in 1833): these dates. Nowadays, most people would
probably see midwinter as centred on 25
if a young woman, blind-folded, plucks a full-blown December, but extending to cover New Year's
on Midsummer day, while the chimes are play-
rose,
Day and the Twelve Days of Christmas.
ing twelve, folds the rose up in a sheet of white paper
and does not take out the rose until Christmas day, it
will be found fresh as when gathered. Then, if she
migratory legends. A legend which is found
repeatedly at different places, having the same
places the rose on her bosom, the young man to
whom she is to be married will come and snatch it plot in every case but with place names and/or
away. (A. E. Bray, Borders of the Tamar and the Tavy topographical details tailored to fit the indi-
(1879), ii.
120) vidual site, is called 'migratory' (e.g. *Devirs
Dyke, *Hangman's Stone). Owing to the wide
In another version she must walk back- distribution of these story-patterns, both in
wards into the garden. Further examples of Britain and on the Continent, it is assumed
divination out of many possible: (Hertford- they have circulated for several centuries;
shire) maidens can pluck St John's Wort on some can be proved to have medieval or
Midsummer Eve and judge their matrimonial classical forerunners.
chances by seeing if the plant is still fresh in To faciUtate identification, a numbering sys-
the morning; (Somerset) during the night of tem was devised by Reidar Th. Christiansen on
Midsummer Eve, a girl must go to the church- the basis of Norwegian examples (The Migra-
yard and wait for the stroke of twelve. She tory Legends (1958) ). It is used in Briggs, 1970-1,
must have rose leaves, and a herb such as and in most professional collections since the
rosemary in her hand. At the first stroke of 1960s, but needs further expansion.
midnight she must start to run round the
church, scattering the leaves and singing soft- miiic.The care of cows, milking, and butter-
ly: 'Rose leaves, rose leaves. Rose leaves 1 strew, making were surrounded by multiple magical
He that will love me. Come after me now' precautions and fears, presumably because
(Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 16). At noon on they were subject to difficulties which were
Midsummer Day, in the 17th century, girls poorly understood. Various diseases could
would dig up *plantains, seeking a 'coal' under cause cows to yield bloody milk, or none, and
the roots; they put it under their pillows to poor-quaUty milk or poor hygiene in the dairy
dream of ftiture husbands (Aubrey, 1696: 131). could make churning futile, but these failures
Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream clev- were often blamed upon *witchcraft. To guard
erly exploits the association of this date with against this, protective charms and plants
love, sleep, dreams, and magic; it also impUes were placed in or beside cattie-sheds, the cows
that encounters between humans and fairies were blessed and *wassailed, and if need be
were Ukely at this season. Such an idea would *countercharms would be used. An alternative
milkmaids' garlands 240

explanation for bloody milk was that it was a milkmaids were also sometimes found in the
punishment for the wickedness of stealing a company of the *chimney sweeps, who had a
*robin's or *swallow's eggs. similar May Day sfreet custom, with a *Jack-in-
Cattle diseases might also be blamed on theGreen.
witches, as seen from accounts of * counter-
is It is likely that in the earliest stages, the gar-
spells involving *hearts and pins or burning land would simply have been the everyday
one of the dead beasts. Whenever a cow mis- milk-pail decorated with flowers and greenery
carried, the custom in Yorkshire was to dig a to welcome the May. The milkmaids are first
deep hole under the threshold of the byre and mentioned in the mid-1 7th century, although
bury the dead calf there, feet up; this would the references are brief and therefore
prevent ftuther trouble for many years, but ambiguous, such as Samuel Pepys in his Diary
would eventually have to be repeated (Atkin- for 1 May 1667: 'Thence to Westminster in the
son, 1891: 62). way meeting many milk-maids with their gar-
Dairy work also had its problems, for which lands upon their pails, dancing with a fiddler
magical remedies are reported from many dis- before them', which may easily refer simply to
tricts. As milk sours easily in thundery wea- flowers, but the earliest illustration, from
ther, it was v^se to put *thunderstones on the Tempest's Cryes of London (1685-8, reprinted in
windowsill, and plant *bay, *elder, or *holly Judge, 1979: 4) shows the fancy plate and
nearby. Witches might steal the goodness of tankard construction already in being. The
the milk by spells, making it impossible to custom was sufficiently respectable to take
chum it into butter; the standard counter- place in the highest company: 'On May-Day
charm was to plunge a red-hot poker into the the Milk-Maids who serve the Court, danced
chum. The dairy could of course be protected Minuets and Rigadoons before the Royal Fam-
by a *horseshoe or *hagstone, by a *rowan ily, at St James's House, with great applause'
growing nearby; there was also a verbal (Read's WeeUy Journal, 5 May 1733, quoted in
*charm to be recited while churning: N&Q.ls:3 (1851), 367).
The milkmaids' garland was still going
Come, butter, come!
Come, butter, come! strong in 1776, when Samuel Curwen, an
Peter stands at the gate. American visitor, described meeting them in
Waiting for a buttered cake. the street on May Day. But the custom had
Come, butter, come! faded out by the early 19th century, leaving
the May Day streets to the chimney sweeps.
milkmaids' garlands. A regular custom for Hone also describes a different milkmaids'
*May Day and following days in English tov^nis procession, seen in Westminster probably
from the 17th to early 19th centuries. The around the turn of the 19th century, or just
young women who served the townsfolk with before.The maid in question led a cow around
milk would dress up in their finest clothes the streets, both of them adorned v^dth rib-
(borrowed or hired if necessary), dance in bons and flowers.
front of their customers' houses, and collect
Judge, 1979; Hone, 1827: i. cols. 569-72; George L. Phil-
money from them and passers-by. Several lips, Folk-lore 62 (1951), 383-7; Charles Phythian-Adams,

milkmaids would often band together, and in D. Fraser and A. SutclifFe (eds.), The Pursuit of Urban
History (1983), 83-104.
their entourage would include a musician and
the emblem of the custom, the garland. In
most illustrations, the 'garland' was a Minehead Hobby Horse. One of England's
pyramid-shaped structure of polished metal two surviving traditional
*hobby horses,
utensils and vessels such as tankards and although less spectacular, and less well
plate, the shinier the better (again borrowed known, than the *Padstow Hobby Horse. He
or hired for the occasion), topped off with makes his appearance in the streets of Mine-
flowers and ribbons. The maid would cany the head, Somerset, briefly on the eve of May Day,
garland on her head, as she carried her milk- on the Day itself, and the foUoMang two days,
pail the rest of the year, and at least some of accompanied by musicians and attendants
them danced with the garland in situ. How- called Gullivers. These attendants had ceased
ever, many sources show garlands grown too to appear in the late 19th century, but were re-
large and either carried on the head of an introduced in 1967. A description of the horse,
attendant male or even carried on poles from 1895, shows that it has not changed sig-
between two men like a sedan chair. The nificantly to the present day:
241 Mischief Night

a wooden framework about 6 feet long of this [boat] tom of covering mirrors in a house when
shape and narrow enough to rest on a man's shoul- someone dies. The first known reference to
ders; his head, covered by a hideous mask, appearing this is in Orkney in 1786, and most of the
in the middle. All round the framework was nailed a
recorded instances in England are to the
drapery of sacking, reaching the ground, very rudely
northern counties. There are also one or two
painted with circles, principally blue and white and a
references to covering mirrors in the rooms of
long hempen tail at one end was used to swish the
The upper part of the frame- sick people. More common is the practice
boys and passers-by . . .

work was covered with odds and ends of ribbon of covering mirrors in a *thunderstorm,
hanging on both sides (L. Chaworth Musters: MS
. . .
although this is not reported before 1900. In
note in Gomme papers. Folklore Society Archives, another context, however, gazing into the
dated June 1895). mirror will reveal your future spouse, if you
do it correctly. First mentioned by Burton,
The earliest known account dates from 1830
and describes a 'grotesque figure' made by Anatomy of Abuses (1660), this form of *love div-
ination has been reported up into the 20th
fishermen and sailors (James Savage, History of
Hundred of Carhampton century in various versions (Bume, 1883: 381).
the in the County of Somer-
More serious divination with a mirror, or
set (1830), 583-4).
other reflective surface, dates back to classical
Cawte. 1978: 168-74; Patten, 1974.
and biblical times, is mentioned in Britain
since at least the 14th century, and is the basis
mirrors. The looking-glass is one of the hand- for the modem cliche of the crystal-ball gazer.
ful of domestic items which have attracted Reginald Scot (1584: book 13, chapter 19)
more than their fair share of beUefs. Opie and pours scorn on the practices and illusions of
Tatem identify fourteen different supersti- those who purport to tell the future with a
tions, and unlike those associated with the glass: 'But the woonderous devises, and
*fire, many of them can be shown to date back miraculous sights and conceipts made and
a long time. One of the best-known and often- conteined in glasse, do farre exceed all other.'
quoted superstitions of the late 20th century is Similarly, John *Aubrey recorded the trial and
that breaking a mirror brings seven years bad execution of a witch at Salisbury, about 1649,
luck, and this was the third most often who 'shewed people visions in a glasse, and
*
reported item in our Superstitions Survey that a maid saw the devill with her, with
1998/9. The earUest known reference to this whom she made a contract and that she knew
'

being unlucky comes from 1777, and it has 'twas the devill by his cloven foot (Aubrey,
. . .

been regularly reported ever since, but the 1686: 261).

'seven years' is not mentioned until the mid- See also *glasses, drinking.
19th century (Sternberg, 1851: 172). Previous
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 249-53.
to that time, it was said to mean a death, or
simply to be very unlucky. Sternberg is also
the first to advise against letting a baby see Mischief Night. In the fraditional calendar of
itself in a mirror, which is subsequently the 19th and 20th centuries, Mischief Night
reported from all over England— the result was the evening on which children across
varying from bad luck, confracting rickets, or the northern counties thought they had the
becoming cross-eyed. Young women especially right to cause havoc with tricks and other
have traditionally been warned against spend- misbehaviour. Their antics included tying
ing too much time looking at themselves in people's door knobs together, removing their
the mirror by stories that they will see the gates, dustbin hds, or anything else left lying
Devil if they do: 'Some years since 1 knew a about, ringing doorbells and running away,
very proud maid in Cambridge, an Alderman's or, insome accounts, throwing bricks through
daughter, who running to the looking-glass to bus windows, putting fireworks through
view her self, as soon as ever she came home letterboxes, and smashing bus shelters. There
from hearing a sermon upon a Sabbath-Day is clearly a fine line, not always recognized
she thought with her self that she saw the by modem children,between naughty
devil in the looking-glass, and thereupon fell tricks and real vandaUsm. The accepted date
'
distracted .
(1691, quoted Opie and Tatem,
. . of Mischief Night varies. In the 1950s the
1989: 252). Opies reported 4 November as the key night
The danger of seeing something you would across the counties of Lancashire, Cheshire,
rather not appears to be at the root of the cus- Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, and
mistletoe

north Lincolnshire, but, according to Wright treatment, being kept till the following year to
and Lones, reporting mainly 19th century protect the house from lightning and fire
accounts in more or less the same geographical (Drury, 1987: 195-6).
area, it was 30 April. On the available evidence, Early antiquaries thought all types of
the April date seems to have been the earlier Christmas foliage came from that used by
one, but this is not yet proven. Both dates are ancient Romans at the Saturnalia; however,
on the eve of important children's festivals— once mistletoe became especially popular, the
November the fifth and *May Day— and in more picturesque theory of Druidic origin
the former case much of the pilfering was spe gained ground. The very influential John
cifically aimed at gathering material for the Brand claimed it was never used to decorate
next night's bonfire. In Yorkshire, *Halloween churches (Brand, 1849: i. 523-4), but recent
too was sometimes Mischief Night, and this is research has shown he was wrong, at any rate
the regular time in parts of Scotland and Ire- for some regions such as Staffordshire, where
land. Most of the known references date from churchwardens' accounts record repeated
the 1850s onwards, and they are all from the purchases of mistletoe (Hutton, 1996: 37;
counties listed above, except for the earliest, Drury, 1987: 195).
from the Scilly Isles in 1822, which is com- Susan Drury, Folklore 98 (1987), 194-9; Opie and Tatem,

pletely outside the area (quoted in Wright and 1989: 253-6; Vickeiy, 1995: 240-3.

Lones, 1938: ii. 196-7). Nevertheless, children

in other areas played similar tricks at different mock mayors. The annual election of a mock
times, such as *Shrovetide, under different mayor was previously a common custom and
names (see Hole, 1976: 210-11). Although while the details vary from place to place, the
not as widespread as formerly. Mischief Night broad picture is similar. As the name suggests,
has continued into the 1990s. the point of a modk mayor is to parody the
real thing, to make fim of * civic pomp and
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 196-8; 1940: iii. 109;
Opie and
Opie, 1959: 255, 276-80; Hole, 1976: 210-11. ceremony and corporate complacency, or the
pretensions of pohticians and parUamentary
mistletoe. The reputation of mistletoe was candidates. Thus, regular features of the mock
created by Pliny in his Natural History (AD 77). mayor ceremony are ridiculous rules for who
He AATote that in Gaul the *Druids thought it can vote, the speeches before and after the
sacred if it grew on an oak (which it rarely election promising impossible or silly things,
does); they beUeved it protected against injury and grotesque clothing or regaUa (a cabbage
by fire or water, made farm animals and stalk as a mace was common). The new mayor
women fertile, was an antidote
to poison, isalmost always paraded on a chair carried on
and cured epilepsy. Virtually every herbalist the shoulders of his supporters amidst noisy
and folklorist to mention mistletoe, from the scenes of celebration and joy. He naturally
16th century to the present, has repeated this hands out favours and punishments as he sees
information, assuming it to be equally true of fit. The whole affair, could, and often did,
Ancient Britons. Many also claim it as the 'ori- degenerate into a loud, drunken brawl, and it

gin' of the very different Enghsh custom of is this aspect which prompted local author-

using mistletoe as *Christmas decoration. ities totake steps to suppress the custom,
Yet it is not till 1648 that mistletoe is first although the pride-pricking parody may have
Usted (by *Herrick, in Hesperides, no. 893) been just as strong an incentive in many cases.
among the many *evergreens decking The sarcasm was made more pointed by the
churches and homes at Christmas, whereas fact that the mock elections often took place
*holly and *ivy are well attested in the Middle same time as the real ones, in periods
at the

Ages. In 1656 William Coles noted in The Art of when most of the population were denied a
Simpling (p. 41) that it was 'carried many miles vote.
to set up in houses about Christmas time'. It The most famous mock mayor celebration
became important in the late 18th century as was the Mayor of *Garratt at Wandsworth, and
part— soon, the most valued part— of the other places which had the custom include
elaborate kissing boughs/bushes hung up in Newbury (Berkshire) the 'Mayor of the City',
farmhouses and kitchens. There were rules as Bideford (Devon) 'Mayor of Shamickshire',
to when must be taken down, which varied
it Oswaldkirk (Yorkshire), and Lostwithiel
some districts (e.g. Staffordshire
regionally; in (Cornwall). Two surviving examples are the
and Warwickshire) it was given exceptional Mayor of Ock Street and the Lord Mayor of
243 monstrous births

Kilbum, and a revived version at *Randvkdck, dismissed as 'just jigging about', but was
Gloucestershire. Other places also had analo- loosely based on 19th-century social dances.
gous mock corporations and courts, such as Molly dancers wore ordinary clothes, decor-
the Court of Halgavor reported by Richard ated -with ribbons and rosettes, and usually
Carev^'s Survey of Cornwall (1602). had blackened faces, and had at least one man
Wright and Lones, 1936-1940: numerous references;
dressed in women's clothes, while in some
Gutch, 1901: 325-31. teams they all wore female clothes. They
danced in the village street and collected
moles (on the body). The significance of money door to door and from passers-by, who
moles featured in *fortune-telling booklets sometimes joined in.
from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They were The earUest references so far discovered are

thought to be signs of character or fate. found in local newspaper accounts for the
One over the heart meant wickedness; over 1820s, although the word 'Molly' in this con-
the spleen, a passionate nature, and poor text does not appear before 1866. There are
health; on the right armpit or ear, wealth and definite affinities with * Plough Monday
honour, but on the left, the reverse (Hone, plough customs, and it is probable that Molly
1832: 739-40). dancing developed firom these, and like the
ploughboys, Molly dancers had a reputation
moles (the animal). Much used in folk cures, for being rough and ready, and even some-
allof which involved trapping and mutilating what threatening. There has been renewed
the living animal. One or more of its paws interest in recent years, and there are now
would be cut off, sewn up in a bag, and worn many revival Molly dance teams. There are
round the neck (for *toothache, epilepsy, or
several possible derivations for the word
king's evil), kept in the pocket (for
or 'Molly'. Itcould well be simply a form of 'Mor-
rheumatism); it would then be released to die as many customary dance or drama cus-
ris',

slowly, taking the disease with it. Its body cut

toms were locally termed 'morris dances'.
in half, or the skin flayed off alive, would be However, 'Molly' is also common as a dialect
bound to the neck till it rotted (for wens on word for a man dressed as a woman.
the throat and goitre); its blood drunk in white Elaine Bradtke, Truculent Rustics: Molly Dancing in East
wine cured epilepsy (Opie and Tatem, 1989: Anglia before 1940 (1999); Joseph Needham and Arthur L
Peck.JEfDSS 1:2 (1933), 79-85.
256-7). According to Francis Grose (A Provincial
Glossary (1790), 45), if you hold a mole in your
hand till it dies your hands will acquire heal- Monkey Puzzle Tree. The Araucaria araucana
was introduced from Chile in the late 18th
ing power.
Lincolnshire farm-workers used to rid their century, and has since gathered a few trad-
of moles by the same method as was
fields itions, although these are not very widely
more commonly used for *mice in a house: reported: 'It was an old Fenland belief that if a
Monkey Puzzle tree was planted on the edge of
Moles were a damn nuisance for eating what you'd a graveyard it would prove an obstacle to the
planted, especially turnips and swedes, they seemed Devil when he tried to hide in the branches to
to love them. They were difficult to get shut of; we
watch a burial. Many elderly Cambridgeshire
tried a number of ways but often we wrote them a
people beheve the tree is an unlucky one' (Por-
note telling them to go away. You wrote on a bit of
paper, 'I'm sick of you eating my stuff, bugger off to
ter, 1969: 63). Some children have also
the next field', you put the note under a stone. It believed that you must stay silent as you
worked, but don't ask me why. (Sutton, 1997: 36) passed one, or bad luck would surely follow.
Vickery, 1995: 245-6; Opie and Tatem. 1989: 260.
Molly dancing. A customary dance tradition
performed by men at the * Christmas/* New monstrous births. Minor defects in a new-
Year/*Plough Monday season in East Anglia in bom baby were generally explained as due to
the 19th century and up to about the Second some shock or unpleasant sight at the
World War. It therefore comes under the clas- moment *conception, or during the
of
sification of ceremonial * dance, but Molly mother's *pregnancy, but major malforma-
dancing was not as well developed or complex tions were regarded as God's *judgement on
as other dance forms such as *Morris or *Sword serious sin, especially lack of charity, blas-
dancing and has therefore received much less phemy, or breaching a sexual taboo. These
attention. The performance was sometimes ideas were especially prevalent in the 16th
monty 244

and 17th centuries, and continued to appear increase as the moon waxes; one should make
in popular reprints of old works. Thus, an a wish. But it is essential to have a clear view;
1890 reprint of the pseudo-medical Aristotle's to see the new moon through glass (or
Masterpiece (1684) explained that 'some mon- through a tree) brings bad luck. A *love divin-
sters are begotten by a woman's unnatural ation known to Aubrey (1686/1880: 36) and
lying with beasts', as happened in 1603 when stillpractised in the 19th century was for a girl
a child was bom that was half-human, half- to sit on a gate or stile to greet the new moon,
dog others because the parents made
(p. 35); and wish to see her destined husband in her
love while the woman was *menstruating (pp. dreams.
40-1). Opie and Tatem, 1989: 260-6, 279-83; also most regional
collections.

monty. Until about 1914 children in Mon-

mouthshire, Chepstow, and villages of the moonrakers. One of the stock jokes about
Wye Valley used to go from house to house fools is that they mistake the reflection of the

early on *New Year's Day carrying 'a monty', full moon in a pond for a round cheese, and
which was an apple or orange standing on try to rake it out. The nickname 'moonrakers'
three sticks and decorated with holly or box is tiaditionally given to Wiltshire people,
leaves, nuts, tinsel, raisins, etc. In return for a especially those from Bishops Cannings.
It can

few pence they would *display this 'for luck', be a jeer by outsiders; or, more often, it is
chanting: proudly used by Wiltshire men themselves,
with this explanation: once, some smugglers
Monty, Monty, Happy New Year, from Bishops Cannings had hidden barrels of
A pocket full of money and a cellar full of beer!
brandy in a pond, and were spotted by Excise
Round St Briavels (Gloucestershire), they were men while trying to retrieve them. Chal-
still seen in 1950. lenged, they replied that they were 'only rak-
Wright and Lones. 1938: ii. 30-1; I. Waters, Folklore and ing for that big cheese down there', pointing
Dialect of the Wye Valley (1973), 11-13. at the moon's reflection. The Excise men
beheved them— more fools they! Exactly the
moon. The waxing moon was long thought to same story is told in Hampshire, while 'moon-
promote healthy growth; this was the time to raker' as a term for a very fooUsh person
plant seeds, cut one's hair (so that it would occurs also in Herefordshire, West Yorkshire,
grow back thickly), or undertake new busi- and Oxfordshire (Wright, 1913: 181-2).
ness; animals and children begotten or bom Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magcuine 50
with the waxing or full moon would thrive. (1943), 278-86, 411-16, 481-5.

Conversely, cutting corns and charming

*warts should be done with the waning moon, moonwort. The fem Botrychium Lunaria, or
to make them disappear; so should blood- Moonwort, was held to have a strong effect on
letting, as too strong a flow would be danger- metal. Its popular name was 'Unshoe the
ous. The interval between old and new moon horse' as it was believed to draw the nails out
is ill omened; a baby bom then will die of the shoes of any horse that trod on it, and a
young,
or grow up foolish, for 'No moon, no man'. story is told by Culpeper and others to back it
Equally common was the idea that the full up: 'I have heard commanders say, that on the
moon affects the mad, worsening their symp- White Down in Devonshire, near Tiverton,
toms; it was long considered medically sound, there were found thirty horse shoes, pulled off
and still survives at the popular level. A related from the feet of the Earl of Essex's horses,
idea, current within Uving memory, was that being there drawn up in a body, many of them
it was dangerous to
sleep in moonlight, either being but newly shod, and no reason known,
indoors or out of doors, especially when the which caused much admiration {Culpeper's . . .'

moon was full; it could make one blind, or Complete Herbal and English Physician (1653), 163;
mad. 1826 edn., 98-9). Moonwort 's other, more use-
Customs observed on first seeing a new ful, attribute is that if put into a keyhole it will
moon have been recorded from the 16th cen- open the lock. Opie and Tatem given refer-

tury to the present day; one should bow, ences to these beliefs back to 1591.
curtsy, or kiss one's hand to it; one should Opie and Tatem, 1989: 266; N&Q. lls:7 (1913). 108, 177.
turn over or count the money in one's pocket
or purse, and/or spit on it, so that it may mop fairs, see *hiring fairs.
 245 morris dance

Mordiford. In the 17th century, the village bells on their legs, waving handkerchiefs over
church at Mordiford, Herefordshire, had on its their heads, and accompanied by hobby
exterior wall a large picture of a *dragon with horses (Stubbes, 1583). For Shakespeare, a
four pairs of wings, which was repainted sev- 'Whitsun Morris Dance' was proverbial {Henry
eral times before being finally erased when V, II. iv). In Thomas Dekker's play The Shoe-
the church was repaired in 1810-12. It was maker's Holiday (1599/1600), the shoemakers
locally taken to be proof that a monster had perform a morris dance to entertain the Lord
once lived there, and been killed— though as Mayor, and in his The Witch of Edmonton
to how, and by whom, stories varied. The hero (c.1623), one of the main characters plays the
was usually said to have been a criminal who hobby horse, and the morris men are shown
volunteered to fight the dragon instead of planning their performances and parapher-
being hanged; he hid in a cider barrel, and nalia. Morris dancers are also featured, or at
either shot it dead through the bunghole or least mentioned, in many other 17th century
tricked it into attacking the barrel, which was plays, and early pictorial evidence is presented
studded with knives, so that it wounded itself in the anonymous painting. The Thames at
mortally. But the dragon's deadly breath poi- Richmond, with the Old Royal Palace (c.l620).
soned him, so he never enjoyed his victory. Morris dancing thus existed in a number of
Dacres Devlin, The Dragon of Mordiford (1848/1978); social spheres, and in the absence of detailed
J.

Simpson, 1980. information about the activity itself, scholars

classify early references by their context,
dance. The most widely known cere-
>rris 'court', 'literary', and so on.
lonial *dance form in England, although the When more detailed information became
'name includes a range of types and styles. The available 19th and 20th centuries,
in the
common features are that the dancers were scholars identified several types of morris
almost invariably male, wore a special cos- dance, concentrated in different geographical
tume, and they danced for display on particu- areas, and featuring different styles of dan-
lar occasions and not normally at other times. cing, costume, and social organization. The
Morris dancing is also one of the few *calendar labels assigned to these different types are a

customs that are popularly seen as archetypi- rough guide, but are not watertight categories.
Cotswold: what most people think of as 'morris
cally EngUsh and is also one of the few vdth a
demonstrable history back to the early mod- dancing', found in the area now referred to as
em period. There are a number of brief refer- the South Midlands; Chandler delineates the
ences in 15th century sources, the first known area as within an arc vdth a radius of 40 miles,

being in 1458, and by 1494 at least morris with the heart of the Wychwood Forest as its
•
dancers were performing at the king's court: centre and the Thames as the southern
boundary (p. 23). The normal team has six
2 Jan 1494 Privy purse expenses of Henry VII: For dancers, plus a spare dancer or two, fool,
playing of the Mourice daunce £2 (and
musician, collector; dances are either hand-
another on 4 Feb 1502) (quoted
kerchief or stick dances; dancers wear bells on
Hazlitt, 1905: 422)
their legs. North-west: found only in the
By all accounts, morris dancing was hardly a Lancashire/Cheshire area, with dances primar-
rare occurrence in the 16th century, and could ily designed for processional performance,
be included in a range of spectacular events at such as accompanying rush-carts (see rush-
various times of year. In 1552-3, for example, bearing), and participation in carnivals and
Henry Mach}^ of London recorded four *wakes. Teams are much larger than in Cots-
encounters with 'mores dansyng'; twice as wold, and costume more elaborate (JEFDSS 9:1
part of the king's Lord of Misrule retinue (3 (1960), 42-55). Border: a group of dances col-
January 1552 and 4 January 1553), once lected in villages along the Welsh border, at
accompanying a 'goodly may-pole' (26 May one time dismissed as 'degenerate' Cotswold,
1552), and once in the Sherriff of London's but which could equally be regarded as ances-
procession. These early references give Uttle tors of Cotswold (Bume, 1883: 477-82; Lea-
substantive information, but by the end of ther, 1912: 129-32; JEFDSS 9 (1963), 197-212).
that century descriptions start to offer more Bedlam: in recent years a group of references
detail. Phihp Stubbes, complaining vocifer- have been identified, which indicate a set of
ously in 1583, writes of them bedecking them- dances— labelled 'Bedlam' morris— which can
selves with 'scarfs, ribbons and laces', wearing be distinguished from other 'Cotswold'
Morris Federation 246 ;

dances, characterized by stick and hand- even approach this figure. As noted above,
clapping rather than handkerchiefs, the earlier references showed that morris had
absence of bells, ribboned costume rather been found in a wider variety of contexts in
than baldricks, and often by blackened faces. previous years, and it is still not clear how it
Bedlam and Border morris also share a num- was transformed into the regionahzed calen-
ber of features, and Bedlam characteristics are dar custom which the Edwardian collectors
found in certain Cotswold traditions. Further found.
research necessary to ascertain their true
is See also *bampton morris dancers, *betley
position in morris development. *Molly dan- WINDOW, *DANCE, *MOLLY DANCING, *BACUP
cing: a relatively simple type of dance, found COCONUT DANCERS, *SWORD DANCE.
only in East Anglia from the 19th century, but Keith Chandler, Ribbons, BeUs and Squeaking Rddles: The
sufficiently distinct to warrant its own entry. Social History of Morris
Dancing in the English South Midlands
Carnival morris developed from North-west dur- 1660-1900 (1993); Keith Chandler, Morris Danring in the

20th English South Midlands, U60-1900: A Chronological Gazetteer

ing the century, almost exclusively
(1993); Mike Heaney, An Introductory Bibliography on Morris
danced by young girls at fetes and carnivals
Dancing (1985); Cecil J. Sharp. The Morris Book (1907-13;
(JEFDSS 9:1 (1960), 42-55). 2nd edn., 1912-24); Michael Heaney, Bedlam Morris
The key figure in the revival of interest in (1985); Roy Judge, 'The Old EngUsh Morris Dance: Theat-
rical Morris 1801-1880', FMJ 7:3 (1997), 311-50; John For-
morris dancing was Cecil *Sharp, who had
rest and Michael Heaney, 'Charting Early Morris', FMJ 6:2
encountered the Headington Quarry dancers
(1991), 169-86.
in 1899 and set about collecting more after
being approached by Mary *Neal (in 1907) for
dances to teach her *Esperance Club girls. At
Morris Federation. In the early 1970s, a
dramatic rise in the number of women
first working with Neal, but later in oppos-

ition after a very public disagreement over art- actively involved in *morris dancing gave rise
to a bitter debate about females practising
istic standards. Sharp and others set about
what had previously been considered an all-
forging a national revival movement based on
his collecting and Ubrary researches. The *Eng-
male dance form. Membership of the *Morris
lish Folk Dance Society (EFDS) was formed in Ring, the older organization devoted to morris
dancing, has always been restricted to men-
1911/12, and its members sought to encourage
morris, and other traditional dances, across only clubs. The Women's Morris Federation
the country. Numerous clubs were formed,
was thus formed in 1975 as an umbrella
and a nationwide revival was soon under way. organization for women's morris dance teams.
Since that time, much of the heat has gone out
Tensions in the revival rapidly surfaced, how-
of the debate, although there are still men
ever, focusing on questions of style, artistic
dancers who will have nothing to do with
standards, and the role of women in teaching
and dancing a 'masculine' dance form, and women's morris at all. The Federation
these tensions have never been fully resolved. changed its name to the Morris Federation in
The *Morris Ring was founded in 1934, as an 1983 on the agreement to accept membership
of all teams, whether male, female, or mixed,
umbrella organization for morris clubs, fol-
lowed by the *Morris Federation in 1975. There who agree with its aims, which include the
clause "... encourage and maintain the prac-
are still hundreds of clubs up and down the
tice of morris dancing by women and men of
country, who dance in a variety of styles.
all ages'. The Federation has a membership of
Sharp's findings were first published in his
The Morris Book (1907-13) although subsequent
about 400 clubs, and coexists with the Morris
Ring, and a third morris organization. Open
experience prompted him to pubhsh heavily
revised editions in 1912-13, and it is these Morris, in a spirit of co-operation and mutual
assistance.
second editions which are used today. Further
collecting work after Sharp's time identified
more village traditions, but also demonstrated Morris Ring. An association of *morris dance
that the neat static picture, impUed by Sharp, clubs, founded in 1934 by six of the clubs then
with each village possessing a relatively dis- in existence. The *English Folk Dance Society
crete unbroken tradition stretching back into (EFDS), founded by Cecil *Sharp in 1911, had
a remote past was not tenable. None of the been concerned with the teaching of morris
places which had active teams in the late 19th dancing since its inception, but by the early
century could prove a morris tradition back 1930s there was a growing feeling amongst
fiirther than 200 years, and most could not many dancers that the EFDS had moved too
247 Mothering Sunday

translated from French,

farfrom the traditional forms of morris dance, alistic *fairytales
where she the supposed teller.
and that there was 'too much of the classroom is

and the examination hall' and what was lack-

ing was 'the essential unit
of the ceremonial Mother Carey's chickens. This is a nick-
dance, a coherent group of performers, learn- name among late 18th-century sailors for
ing, practising, and dancing together' (Abson, storm petrels, or for snowflakes. Mother Carey
1984: 11). Moves to break away from EFDS is never mentioned in any other connection;

control had already been made ten years she was probably imagined as a crone who
before by the Travelling Morrice founded in controlled bad weather. There is no evidence
1924 by Rolf Gardiner and Arthur Heflfer, for the fanciful idea that the name is a corrup-
which made a point of dancing in the villages, tion of Moter Cara, 'Dear Mother', supposedly a
and deliberately seeking out old dancers and title of the Virgin Mary.
other informants. Nevertheless close links
between the two organizations were main- Mother Goose. In mid-1 7th-century France,
tained, through key individuals
especially the phrase contes de ma mere I'oye meant 'fairy-
such as Douglas *Kennedy. tales', and appeared on the frontis-
in 1697 it

The Ring remains an umbrella organization piece of Charles *Perrault's

Contes du Temps
for morris clubs, with about 170 clubs as frill Passe;when these were printed in English
members, plus about 70 associates, and it from 1729 onwards, they were entitled Mother
pubUshes The Morris Dancer and the
Morris
Goose's Tales. Later (probably in 1765) thepub-
Circular. It holds an annual spring meeting at Usher John Newbery produced a collection of
Thaxted, Essex (where it was founded), in add- traditional *nursery rhymes. Mother Goose's
ition to other meetings organized by member Melody, which became so popular
that for the
clubs up and down the country. One of the next two generations all such rhymes were
major areas of contention in the inter-war caUed 'Mother Goose songs', as they still are in
years had been the heavy involvement of the USA.
women in the EFDS-led revival, and Gardiner A pantomime of 1806 created a tale in
was one of the many dancers who sought to which Old Mother Goose is a kindly witch,
return the morris dance to its full mascuhne owning a gander on which she can fly, and
a
The Morris Ring still holds to its ori- soon chapbooks
glory. goose that lays golden eggs;
are for men
ginal rule that member clubs elaborated the story, adding a stupid son
only, and in the 1970s and
1980s the question named Jack, who unwittingly buys the magic
of women and the morris dance became an became popular in Victorian child-
goose. This
openly contentious issue causing much in a rhymed version of
bitter
ren's books, especially
debate and the formation of rival organ- 1820.
izations, the *Morris Federation and Open and 1955: 88-90; Ryoji Tsu-
Opie and Opie, 1951: 30-42,
Morris. The question is no longer a major rami, FoOdore 101 (1990), 28-35.
problem, and the three organisations
now
coexist in a spirit of co-operation and mutual Mother Goose rhymes, see *nursery
assistance. RHYMES.
Walter Abson. ED&S 46:2 (1984), 11-12; Boyes, 1993: esp.

Mothering Sunday. On Mothering Sunday,

159-79.

or Mid-Lent Sunday (fourth Sunday in Lent),

Mother Bunch. Several Elizabethan writers children and young people Uving away from
allude jokingly to a notorious Mother Bunch
their parents would make a point of going
who sold strong ale, kept a brothel, and seems home for the day, taking presents, usuaUy
to have been proverbial for coarse humour; and sharing
including a cake for their mother,
various traditional jests and bawdy anecdotes
a meal with their family before returning. This
were ascribed to her, for instance in a booklet for appren-
day was particularly important
of 1604, Mixed with Mother Bunches
Pasquil's Jests tices, Uve-in farmworkers, and girls in service,
Merriments. Later, her name was put to differ-
was generally accepted that they had a
and it
ent uses; from the 17th century onwards there to the off. The earUest two references
right day
were *chapbooks where she figures as a vidse to the custom come hard on the heels of each
old countrywoman, teaching a medley of other in the mid-1 7th century:
charms and magical recipes. Mother Bunch's
of elegant mor- a great day at Worcester,
Fairy Tales (1777) is a collection Every Midlent Sunday is
 Mother's Day 248

when all the children and god<hildren meet at the who persuaded Congress, in 1913, that the
head and cheife of the family and have a feast. They second Sunday in May would be dedicated to
call it the Mothering-day'. (Diary of Richard
honouring mothers and motherhood. This
Symonds, 1644)
was brought to Britain by American soldiers
and, in Robert Herrick's oft-quoted poem A during the Second World War, and was later
Ceremonie in Glocester: Tie to thee a Simnell taken up by commercial interests, becoming
bring. 'Gainst thou go'st a mothering' {Hes- extremely popular from the 1950s onwards. In
perides, 1648). Britain, however, the day chosen for Mother's
The first two references are thus from the Day was Mid-Lent Sunday, which had previ-
same western side of the country and support ously been the fraditional day for *Mothering
the idea that this was a regional custom which Sunday, which it in effect replaced. On the
later spread to other parts of western and mid- modem Mother's Day, children (and hus-
land England (and Wales) but was never uni- bands) send cards, chocolates, flowers, etc., to
versal. Several writers make a point of saying their mothers, and many famiUes make the
that they had never heard of it before, for mother breakfast in bed, or take over the
example in N&Ci (4s:5 (1870), 399-400) and housework for the day.
Gentleman's Magazine (1784: 343), but it per-
sisted into the early 20th century in some areas. Mother Shipton. According to popular
The visiting gradually died out as hving-in behef. Mother Shipton lived in Tudor times
with employers became a rarity. The elements and foretold many major events in Enghsh
that are almost always mentioned are the food- history. A
*chapbook of 1641 alleges she was
stuffs; either the items taken by the returning bom at Knaresborough (Yorkshire) in 1488
youngsters, or the traditional dishes eaten at and died in her seventies; however, these
the home, and variant names for the day were details may be inaccurate. A later one (1684) is
often derived from the food involved. frankly fabulous, making her a devil's child
Several authorities maintain that the ultim- and a witch. *Prophecies attributed to her
ate origin of the day is to be found in a
previ-
were exploited in the Civil War.
ous Church custom in which parishioners In 1862 Charles Hindley, a hack writer and
went in procession at mid-Lent to visit their publisher, reprinted one of the old chapbooks,
Mother Church— hence the name Mothering adding some rhyming 'prophecies' of his own
Sunday. There is no proof either way, but invention, concluding dramatically:
given the regional nature of the family-visit The worid then to an end shall come
Mothering Sunday it seems unlikely that there In eighteen hundred and eighty-one.
is a connection between the two customs.
During the later 20th century, a subsidiary These verses caused considerable alarm
custom developed, based on the local church, among the lower classes. Hindley later con-
with clergy handing out Uttle posies of fessed he had written them himself (N&Q.4s: 11
flowers, and sometimes pieces of cake, to chil- (1873), 355). Even so, there was panic when
dren to give to their mothers. But a much the Doomsday year arrived, especially around
stronger influence came from the USA, from Brighton (Sussex), where Hindley's pamphlet
where the invented ^Mother's Day was intro- had been printed; people deserted their
duced soon after the Second World War, homes and spent the nights praying in the
fields. A few years earUer there had been a
although it was placed on Mid-Lent Sunday
rather than the fixed American date. Most brief local panic in Somerset, because Mother
British people now use the term Mother's
Day, Shipton was said to have prophesied that at
although churchgoing families still tend to midday on Good Friday 1879 Ham Hill would
caU the day Mothering Sunday. It is Ukely that be swallowed by an earthquake and Yeovil
the latter term will continue to lose ground to destroyed by a flood {Pall Mall Gazette (Apr.
the more widely used Mother's Day. 1879)).
Charles Edward Long (ed.). Diary of the Marches of the
Mother Shipton is still a tourist attraction at
Royal
Army During the Great CivQ War Kept by Richard Symonds Knaresborough, where pamphlets about her
(Camden Society, 1859), 27; Wright and Lones. 1936: i. are available; during most of the 20th century
42-51; Hutton, 1996: 174-7. the Doomsday prediction appeared, but
altered to read 'In nineteen hundred and
Mother's Day. Created
ahnost single- ninety-one'.
handedly by Miss Anna Jarvis of Philadelphia William H. Harrison, Mother Shipton Investigated (1881);
249 Mr Fox
Richard Head, The Life, Prophecies and Death of the Famous these are apparently not confirmed by later
Mother Shipton (1684); the same, with additions by
authorities in England, although there are one
Charles Hindley (1862); Anon. The Life and Prophecies of
Ursula Southeil, Better Known as Mother Shipton (Knaresbor-
or two in Scotland.
ough, Yorkshire, no date, frequently reissued). See also *tongues.

mountain ash, see *rowan.

'Mowing Devil, The'. The *chapbook of this
printed in 1678, sets out to prove the
title,
mourning. The etiquette of mourning in the reaUty of the Devil by a cautionary tale of an
upper classes is well documented from medi-
amazing occurrence in Hertfordshire that
eval times onwards; it gradually spread into A rich farmer, too mean
August. to pay the
the middle classes, reaching a peak in Vic-
wages which a labourer wanted for mowing
torian times, particularly for women. Black his oats, angrily said 'that the Devil himself
clothing in matt fabrics was the essential fea- should Mow
his Oats before he [the labourer]
ture, with crape hatbands and armbands for should have anything to do v^dth them'. But
men, and veils for women. Women wore God punished his greed and heartlessness.
mourning for two and a half years for the That night, the oatfield seemed to be on fire,
death of a husband, but men only three yet next morning, when the farmer went to
months for a wife; both sexes wore it for a year look at his oats:
for a parent, and for var5dng periods for other
he found the Crop was cut down ready to his hands;
relatives. This was followed (for women) by
and as if the Devil had a mind to show his Skill in
grey, violet, or mauve 'half-mourning'. Very
Husbandry, and scorned to mow them after the
young children could wear white with black usual manner, he cut them in round circles, and
trimmings. Servants wore mourning when- plac't every straw v\dth that exactness that it would
ever their employers did. The poor copied have taken up above an Age for any Man to perform
these customs as best they could; they dyed what he did that one night: and the man that ovras
existing clothes when they could not afford them is as yet afraid to remove them.
new ones. Friendly Societies and Trade Unions
The text is accompanied by a woodcut show-
sometimes kept a few plain black dresses to
ing a small demon crouching over the oats,
lend out to Madows at members' funerals.
which in rings around him, the
lie whole
In the first half of the 20th century mourn-
being surrounded by flames.
ing etiquette was greatly reduced, though as
late as the 1940s it was common to see people
The chapbook was reprinted as a pamphlet by W. Gerish
in 1913, and in his Hertfordshire FoUdore (1970); it is men-
wearing black armbands or black diamond- tioned in several books of local folklore (e.g. Jones-Baker
shaped patches sevm to their sleeves for some 1977). In 1990 it was drawn into the controversy over
while after a death, and a black outfit was still crop circles.

necessary for everyone attending a fiineral.

Nowadays, no outward marks of bereavement Mr Fox. This tale (published in 1790) is the
are displayed except on the day of the ftmeral, English equivalent to 'The Robber Bride
for which only close relatives dress entirely in groom' in the *Grimms' collection and, more
black; for others, any quiet, dark colour v^U remotely, to *Perrault's 'Bluebeard'. A certain
do, though men usually still wear black ties, Lady Mary was wooed by a Mr Fox, and one day
and women black hats and gloves. went alone to visit his house. It was empty, but
she went in and passed through several door-
mouse, see *mice. ways, over which was written: 'Be bold, but
not too bold'. But she opened the doors, and
mouths. On the analogy that an itch on par- found a room full of blood and bones. At that
ticular parts of the body significant of some
is moment Mr Fox returned home, dragging a
ftiture event, two early v^iters refer to an itch- girl with him; as she gripped the bannisters he
ing mouth or lips: cut off her hand, and then killed her. Lady
Mary, who had been hiding, managed to
My mouth has itched all this long day
That is a sign of kissing at least escape unnoticed, taking the fallen hand with
her. Next time Mr Fox came to dine with her
(Chaucer, 'Miller's Tale' (c.l387), lines 3683-4)
family, she said she wanted to tell a dream she
and John *Melton (1620: 47) similarly main- had had, and began describing her visit to his
tains that itching lips foretells a kiss. This house. At each stage, Mr Fox tried to stop her,
meaning is so obvious that it seems odd that saying:
Mulberry Bush 250

It is not so, nor it was not so. ion amongst the nobility to stage elaborate
And God forbid it should be so!
'mummings' which involved dressing up or
But she went on telling her 'dream', and when disguising, such as wearing dragon, peacock,
she spoke of the hand, and he denied it in the and swan heads, or dressing as angels. Other
same words, she produced it in front of every- reports show that it was not only at court that
one, saying: people Uked to disguise themselves at
*Christmas, and there were several occasions
But it is so, and it was so. when attempts were made to ban mummings
And here's the hand I have to show!
and disguisings to prevent masked young men
Whereupon the guests drew their swords, and roaming the up to mischief A
streets getting

instantly cut Mr Fox into a thousand pieces. *New Year custom, apparently confined to the
A Gypsy named Eva Gray told a leisurely, Yorkshire area, involved parties of disguised
carefully detailed version of 'Mr Fox' to the people entering people's houses on New
collector W. H. Thompson at Grimsby in 1914, Year's Eve, without knocking as the doors had
calhng the villain 'Dr Forster'. A related story, generally been left unlocked. The residents
recorded in some 19th-century collections of had to guess their identity, and once they did
local folklore, tells how a girl agrees to meet so offered food and drink to the visitors before
her lover in some lonely place but arrives early they moved on to another house. The custom
and hides by chmbing a tree; to her horror, was almost exactly the same as that which is
when he does come he has a spade, and starts stillgoing strong (also called mumming or
digging a grave. So she stays hidden, and later mummering) in Newfoundland. 'At Wakefield
denounces him for planning to murder her. and Stanby (Yorkshire) the mummers enter a
'Mr Fox' is in Jacobs, 1894/1968: 92-4; house, and if it be in a foul state they proceed
Briggs, 1970-1: A.
ii.446-50; Philip, 1992: 158-62. 'The Cellar of Blood'/'Dr to sweep the hearth, and clean the kitchen
Forster' is in Briggs, 1970-1: A. i. 214-16 and ii. 390
range, humming all the time "Mum-m-m"'
(abridged); and in Philip, 1992: 166-86 (full text).
(Henderson, 1866: 54). In Barton, Cambridge-
shire, up to about 1914, boys with blackened
Mulberry Bush. There can be few English faces, caUing themselves 'mummers', paraded
people who do not know at least the chorus the village singing a verse which has echoes
and tune of the children's *singing game, from the mumming play (Porter, 1974: 72);
'Here we go round the mulberry bush'. The
and, in addition, some Christmas Eve carol-
children hold hands in a ring and dance or
singers in the West Riding of Yorkshire were
walk round to this chorus, then stand still, as were those who car-
also called mummers,
drop hands, and carry out the actions pre- ried the *wassail cup around in the Cleveland
scribed by the verses: 'This is the way we wash
area.
our hands .', or 'This is the way we iron our
. .

Eric Sunderland, 'The New Year Mummers', Dalesman

clothes .
.', each describing an element of
.

(Jan. 1995), 61; Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 224; Hutton,
everyday domestic Ufe. It is presumably the 1996:11-12.
catchy tune (also known as 'Nuts in May' and
'Nancy Dawson') and simple repetitive form, mumming plays. The most widespread of
which explain its widespread popularity in the
English *calendar customs in the 19th century.
19th and earher 20th centuries, but it is played The mummers would tour their chosen area,
nowadays almost exclusively by young chil- at the specified season, enacting their 'play' in
dren taught by adults. The game was first
houses, pubs, or in the open, collecting money
mentioned in the 1820s (in Scotland), and and moving on after each performance.
turns up regularly in collections of children's
'Mumming' is the generic term, but the cus-
games, and some earlier versions have 'goose- tom and performers went by different names
berry', 'ivy', or 'holly' bush. in different areas—Tipteerers (Sussex/Surtey),
Gomme, 1894: i. 404-7; Opie and Opie, 1985: 286-92. Seven Champions (Kent), Johnny Jacks (Hamp-
shire), Soulers/Soulcakers (Cheshire), Pace-
mumming. The word 'mumming' causes Eggers (Lancashire), White Boys, Paper boys,
confusion, as it can refer to a number of rela- *Guisers, and so on. Hundreds of versions of
tively distinct customs, and many *visiting the play are known, from all over England
custom have borne the name, but by far the (except, oddly, Norfolk and Suffolk), lowland
*
most widespread is the mumming play (see Scotland, Ireland (north and west), and south
below). In late medieval times, it was the fash- Wales, and a few in countries settled by British
251 mumming plays
emigrants. Versions differ in many respects, entertain the company with songs, tunes, and
including text, characters, and costume, but soon.
the variations are markedly *regional, and the The play texts have in turn baffled and
similarities across country are more
the intrigued most commentators. They are most-
remarkable than the differences. For the ly couched in rough rhymed couplets,
majority of teams the customary time for per- although parts of the Doctor's speeches are in
formance was over the Christmas/New Year prose. Local words crop up here and there but
season, but in the Cheshire area it was Hal- in general they are not in dialect. They contain
loween, in the north-west it was Easter, while numerous bits and pieces from other genres,
in the East Midlands *Plough Monday (first including echoes of stage plays, anachronistic
after 6 January) was the favoured time. In the references, and topsy-turvy imagery, but can-
majority of cases it was adult, working-class not be traced to any specific known source.
males who made up a mummers team, some- Broadly speaking, the costumes worn by the
times specifically the 'young men' of the vil- mummers can be separated into two distinct
lage, at others the leading lights were older types. In the older style, the participants
men who had been mummers for years. In dressed all the same, often covered from head
some north of Eng-
areas, particularly in the to foot in strips of rag or wallpaper of various
land, the custom was perpetuated almost colours with tall hats covered in rosettes, tin-
entirely by children's teams, but this may and so on. Even where the whole body was
sel,
have been a relatively recent development not covered, ribbons, patches, or tufts of
after the adults ceased taking part. material were often sewn at random on to
Researchers have identified three basic ordinary clothes. Where the face was not
types of play: the Hero-Combat or St George covered by fringes, a common feature was to
* *
Play; the Sword Dance play; and the Plough blacken it with burnt cork or soot. In later
orWooing play. The first was by far the most years, participants attempted to dress
common, and the others have their own appropriately for the character they were por-
entries elsewhere in this dictionary. Within traying. Props were minimal. The combatants'
the Hero-Combat division, there are four sub- 'swords' were often merely sticks, or walking
divisions: (1) Standard Hero-Combat; (2) Soul- sticks; the Doctor normally had a bottle or box
ing play— characterized by appearance at Hal- of pills, and the men needed Uttle else apart
loween and a 'wild horse' character; (3) Pace from something to collect the money in.
Egging play— characterized by appearance at Character names varied from place to place,
Easter and some different characters; (4) Robin and again showed marked regionaUzation,
Hood play— relatively rare, but while the basic and it is often better to talk in terms of char-
action is the same as the standard Hero- acter roles— Presenter, Combatants, Doctor,
Combat, the characters and much of the dia- Doctor's helper, and so on. The presenter was
logue are taken from traditional Robin Hood often Father Christmas, or a character whose
ballads. The basic plot, or 'action' of the Hero- name denotes his role, such as Roomer,
Combat play is simple enough: someone Letter-in, etc. By far the most common first
introduces the team, calls for 'room', and combatant is King or St George, while his
announces that a performance is about to take opponent is most commonly a Turkish Knight
place; a character boasts of his prowess and or Bold Slasher. The character who laments
challenges another to fight; another accepts the death often claims to be the victim's
the challenge; they have a sword fight, one is father, and the Presenter often fills this role.
killed or wounded; in some versions the victor The Doctor is the only character who appears
fights and vanquishes one or more other char- in every version, sometimes with a name (Doc-
acters; a character laments the death and calls tor Brown, Doctor Dodd) but more often than
for a doctor who arrives, boasting of his skills not he is just 'The Doctor'. In some areas the
and his travels; often there bartering over
is doctor has an assistant—Jack Finney or Win-
his fee; in some versions the doctor has an ney. The most widespread of the characters at
assistant with whom he has some verbal cross- the end of the play is Beelzebub (or a variation
talk; the dead/wounded character is brought of his name), but others are Devil Doubt,
back to life; one or more extra characters Twing Twang, Johnny (Jolly) Jack, Billy Sweep,
appear, each with a short speech, one of and Souhng plays included a Wild Horse char-
whom asks the audience for money or food, acter, whose antics closed the performance
which ends the play; many teams would then (see *hobby horses, *Antrobus Soul-Cakers).
mumming plays
A feature of a number of plays was a 1880s and 1890s, but failed to produce his
'female' character called Molly, Bessie, etc., promised book. R. J. E. Tiddy commenced
played by a man. Contrary to popular opinion, another collection, but was killed in the First
the Dragon hardly ever appears as a character World War, and his The Mummers Play (1923)
in traditional plays— in perhaps twenty of the was edited from his notes. E. K. Chambers, the
more than 1,000 versions known— and in well-known drama historian, was the first to
most of these there is evidence of Uterary bor- write a book-length study. The English Folk Play,
rowing to explain its presence. published in 1933. Chambers reUed entirely
Describing the custom as a 'play' is mislead- on Uteraiy sources and does not seem to have
ing in that the word raises expectations which bothered to witness any performances or
the mummers could not, and did not try, to interview any performers even though there
There was little space in many venues,
fulfill. were several teams still active within 20 miles
and no theatrical trappings. The men would of his home in Oxfordshire. His book is thus
normally stand in a line or shallow semi-circle only useful for tracing early textual connec-
against a wall, facing the audience, thus defin- tions between mummers and the legitimate
ing a performance space in fi-ont of them. stage. At the same time as Chambers was fin-
Each performer's 'entrance' would simply ishing his book, a visiting American ballad
entail him stepping forward into the perform- scholar, James Madison *Carpenter, collected
ance space, and for his 'exit' he would simply several hundred texts from ex-performers, but
step back into Une. There was much pacing up his collection remained completely unknown
and down, especially during the boast and to British scholars until the late 1970s. In the
challenge section, but there was little attempt mid-1950s, Alex *Helm, while researching
at characterization or real 'acting', even in the morris dances and other calendar customs,
sword fight. Indeed, many writers comment became interested in the mummers when
on the postures and toneless sing-
stiff upright asked to sort out the Ordish collection. Along
song voices adopted by the men, which is dis- with colleagues Dr E. C. Cawte and Norman
missed as inabihty to act, but it is clear that Peacock, he commenced a systematic pro-
this was the traditional style in which the play gramme to gather information, and by 1967
was meant to be performed. As time passed, they were able to publish the seminal English
however, the pressures of the real stage and Ritual Drama: A Geographical Index which listed
other expectations gradually killed the older over 800 versions, demonstrated the distribu-
style and more conventional acting styles tion of the custom, and gave researchers
were adopted, but modem-day revivalists access to a vast wealth of previously unsus-
appear to base their p>erformances on the pected material. The introductory chapters
model of either pantomime or melodrama. also provided the first conceptual framework
The presence of St George also leads some in which to view the custom. Helm and team
writers to presume a overtly nationalistic tone also published a series of booklets, providing
to the custom, but, apart from a few versions texts,photographs, and commentary on a
collected in the West Country, this is another scale previouslyunknown, but, again, Alex
misinterpretation. Most written accounts are Helm died before he could pubUsh his major
completely silent on why the mummers per- book on the subject. Helm's manuscript was
formed, usually because the writers' own finallypubhshed as The English Mummers' Play
confirmed ideas made it unnecessary to ask. in 1980, and although some would now ques-
Ex-mummers interviewed in the 20th century tion his emphasis on ritual, this book is far
almost always stressed the economic benefits and away the best on the subject. Helm's work
of participation. Men could earn the equiva- brought the subject to the attention of a new
lent of several weeks' wages over one season, generation of collectors and a number of valu-
which they would either spend on drink or on able collections were amassed in the 1960s to
their families. In conversation, however, a 1980s. These later researchers more than
second motive was often voiced — 'you took doubled the number of places known to have
pride in it', 'you were the Mummers and you had a play, but at the time of writing, this
had to get it right'. material remains largely in private hands and
The history of mummers scholarship is lit- has not yet been processed into major pubUca-
tered with unfortunate accident and tions. The emphasis of these later collectors

promise. Thomas Fairman *Ordish

unftilfilled has been less to do with the supposed ritual
amassed the first important collection in the basis of the custom and more to do with
 253 Murray, Margaret

the mechanics and the social context of trad- where murder has been committed is marked
itions. for ever— if indoors, by an indeUble blood-
The mumming play has been the most con- stain; if out of doors, by the fact that no grass

sistently misrepresented and misunderstood willgrow there. Evelyn's Diary for 8 July 1656
of English calendar customs. The assumption records an example at Colchester, and Robert
that the mumming play is a relic of pre- Southey describes a field near London called
Christian fertility ritual has bedevilled writing 'The Brothers' Steps', where two brothers
on the subject at least since the Second World killed one another in a duel over a woman,
War, but many writers before that time were and their tracks remain visible (Common-Place
more modest in their claims. The presence of Book, 2nd series (1849), 20-1). The belief is still
St George and the Turkish Knight led many to with us; the latest reference in Opie and
assiune an origin in the period of the Cru- Tatem (1989: 271) is from 1978.
sades, but as the 20th century advanced, the 'Murder will out' was a maxim widely
supposed starting-point of the custom was believed, which might prove true in strange
moved sharply backwards and writers begin to ways. The victim's ghost might haunt the
use phrases such as 'pre-Christian', 'pagan', murderer until he confessed, or the corpse
and 'fertiUty ritual', on a routine basis. The bleed at its murderer's touch. At Kockin
central problem for all these theories is the (Shropshire) in 1590 a man named Thomas
stunning lack of evidence to support them. Elks drowned his little nephew to get an
The plain unromantic fact is that the first inheritance, fled, and was caught; the story
clearly identifiable references to the mum- told some hundred years later was that his
ming play as we know it are in the middle to hiding-place was revealed by the cry of ravens,
late 18th century— 500 years after the Cru- which had followed him ever since his crime
sades, and a thousand years after the EngUsh (Richard Cough, The History of Myddle (1701;
were converted to Christianity. The play is 1981 edn.) 122).
notable by its absence in the written and pic- A *ballad known both in England and Scot-
torial record for all that time, despite the fact land (Child, no. 10, 'The Twa Sisters') tells how
anything to go by,
that, if later distribution is one sister drowned another through jealousy,
itwould have been performed every year in butwhen the corpse was found a musician
thousands of places throughout the kingdom, made a harp or a fiddle from the bones which
and early antiquarians such as *Aubrey,*Strutt, sang by itself to denounce the crime. The same
and * Brand fail to mention it. The question of plot also existed as a folktale, versions of
originsis still unsolved, but the way that ref- which have recently been collected fi-om
erences suddenly start appearing in the 18th teenagers (Wilson, 1997: 119-34). Nowadays
century would strongly argue for an origin the girl is killed by her boyfriend, brother, or
around that time, and, as that period is not husband, and it is he who makes the instru-
noted for its fertility rituals or pagan customs, ment, a piano, which later reveals the crime.
a 'literary' origin is most likely. The tale includes rhymes and, eventually, a
See also *antrobus soul-cakers, *marsh- shriek:
FIELD PAPER BOYS, *MIDGLEY PACE-EGGERS.
Mother, mother, you're pla5ang on my bones,
Someone killed me and stole my precious stones . . .

murder. In earher centuries, *chapbooks and

Davey, Davey, you're playing on my bones.
*broadsides catered for public curiosity about
Someone killed me— you killed me!
crimes; many were based on murder trials
(Wilson, 1997: 123)
and (real or alleged) confessions of murderers
before they were hanged, garnished with
sensational details and morahzing com- Murray, Margaret (1863-1963). An Egyp-
ments, and often with folkloric details. For tologist at University CollegeLondon, who
instance, the murder of Maria Marten by her in middle life became curious about the ori-
lover at Polstead (Suffolk) in 1827 was sup- gins of European *witchcrafl:. She evolved
posedly because her mother
discovered a theory that vetches were members of a
dreamt three times of the 'Red Bam' where highly organized secret society whose pur-
her corpse was hidden; the case became so pose was to maintain a pre-Christian— indeed,
famous that models of the bam were sold as prehistoric— fertility cult practising hvunan
souvenirs. sacrifice and worshipping a homed god. She
f
A tradition frequently found is that a spot imposed rationalistic interpretations on the
myths 254

material wherever possible; thus, references shipped archaic gods. None of these ideas can
to flying were either about dancing or due to stand up to historical investigation.
hallucinations, while the 'Devil' whom the Jacqueline Simpson, folklore 105 (1994); Hutton, 1991:
witches revered was merely their human 301-6, 331-4; Hutton, 1999: 194-201, 377-8; Simpson in
leader, wearing a homed mask. Davidson and Blacker, forthcoming.

She set out her ideas in three books: The

Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921), The God of myths. Stories about divine beings, generally
the Witches (1933), The Divine King in England arranged in a coherent system; they are
revered as true and sacred; they are endorsed
(1954). Although they did not convince most
historians or folklorists, they had great popu- by rulers and priests, and closely linked to
lar success, especially after they were religion. Once this link is broken, and the act-
ors in the story are not regarded as gods but as
reprinted in the 1960s, and have deeply
affected the public perception of witchcraft. It human heroes, giants or fairies, it is no longer
was she who invented the ideas that witches a myth but a folktale. Where the central actor
were organized into *covens of thirteen, isdivine but the story is trivial, as in the tale of
observed fixed annual festivals, were con- Jesus and the *owl, the result is rehgious
cerned with nature and *fertility, and wor- legend, not myth.
 nails (1), see *fingernails. 'Many savages at the present day regard their
names as vital parts of themselves, and take
nails (2). Various powers were ascribed to great pains to conceal their real names, lest
nails, especially large 'tenpenny nails', and these should give to evil-disposed persons a
those taken from Reforged into a
*cofifins. handle by which to injure their owners' (Fraz-
finger-ring, they were a cure for *cramp; er, 1922: 244). One clear illustration is the
*
driven into a witch's footprint, they broke her fairytale Tom Tit Tot, and further instances
•power; rubbed against one's gum and then can be found among *magic practices in Eng-
driven into a tree, they took away *toothache; land. A written *curse or a malevolent *image
driven into the road, or into a stile, they were a may have the victim's name on it; magically
f medium through which one's ague or *warts summoning or banishing supernatural beings
could be transferred to the next person pass- usually involves uttering their name(s); some
ing over them. verbal *charms aggressively address the sick-
ness or injury they are meant to cure ('Ague,
Socially, legally, and emotionally, ague, 1 thee
defy!'). Nevertheless, the analogies
'name', 'identity', and 'status' are closely must not be pressed too far; in particular,
linked. The Christian naming ceremony whatever 'primitive man' may have done,
(christening or *baptism), has both a religious there is no sign that within historic times in
and an identifying social function: the baby is England people tried to hide their names from
admitted into the Church, but it is given a witches, as they did their *hair or *fingemail
name considered attractive in its family's cUppings.
is 'named
social circle, or after' a relative or There has been a strong tradition, especially
friend. As practising genealogists know, among male workers and in communities
inherited forenames are a regular feature of such as the armed forces and schools, of sub-
EngUsh famihes, often over many stituting nicknames for proper Christian
\ generations— the idea that naming a baby names. Many of these are conventionally
after a living parent is unlucky, mentioned in hnked to particular surnames, for example
Camden's Britannia (1586) and occasionally in 'Nobby' Clark, and 'Dusty' Miller.
the 19th century, can never have been wide-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 276-8.
spread. More common in the 19th and 20th
;
centuries has been the behef (still current)
that a child should not be given the same National Centre for English Cultural
name as a dead sibUng (Opie and Tatem, 1989: Tradition (NATCECT). The Sheffield Survey
277-8). of Language and Folklore was founded at the
From the mid-1 9th century onwards, there University of Sheffield in 1964, to collect
was a fairly widespread disinclination to men- material and provide an academic resource
tion the baby's name before the christening; it centre, and its journal *lore and Language was
might even be kept secret. Most references launched in 1969. The Survey formed the basis
imply that it would be tempting fate to pre- of the Centre for EngUsh Cultural Tradition
empt the ceremony, but some are exphcit that and Language (CECTAL), inaugurated in 1975
it could give ill-wishers a chance to harm the within the University's Department of EngUsh
baby magically (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 278). to bring the folklore teaching into a unified
Most folklorists have taken for granted that programme. CECTAL thus joined the Insti-
the latter notion is rooted in prehistory, since tute of Dialect and FolkUfe Studies (Leeds
Neal, Mary 256

University) as the two institutions which partly because Neal had other interests to
offered courses in folklore, but the latter claim her attention, and after the First World
closed in 1984. CECTAL was renamed the War Neal did not return to the fray, leaving
National Centre for English Cultural Tradition Sharp's *English Folk Dance Society firmly in
(NATCECT) in 1997. Throughout its history, control of the fiiture of the dance revival. As
the Centre has been organized by its Director, history is written by the victors, Neal's contri-
Professor J. D. A. Widdowson. The combined bution to the early revival has, until recently,
resources of its library, archive, and Trad- been consistently underplayed, but her point
itional Heritage Museum represent one of the of view has been echoed many times since by
best collections of folklore and dialect people in dance clubs and societies who react
material in the country, and it is still the only against the idea of rigid artistic control. After
place in England where folklore can be stud- the First World War Mary Neal continued to
ied at university level, at present offering devote her life to philanthropic causes, but
M.Phil.,Ph.D., and undergraduate courses. took no ftirther active part in the folk revival.
Numerous other projects have emanated from Mary Neal, The Esperance Morris Book (1910); Roy Judge,
the Centre, including the Institute of Folklore 'Mary Neal and the Esperance Moms', FM] 5:5 (1989),
Studies in Britain and Canada, founded in 545-91.

1986 in conjunction with the Folklore

Department at Memorial University of New- need fires, see *bonfires.

foundland, the English Dialect Lexicon Data-

base, and the Names Project. nettles. It is still generally accepted that net-
tle stingscan be cured by the application of a
Neal, Mary (1860-1944). Clara Sophia Neal dock leaf, but in the past it seems that the
(she became known as 'Mary' in 1888) began accompanjdng words were as important a part
her philanthropic work in 1888 with the Wes- of the procedure as the physical process: 'Net-
leyan Methodist Mission in West London, and tle in—-dock out, dock in— nettle out' (North-

in 1895 formed, with co-worker Emmeline umberland, 1851); or 'Dock, go in, nettle, go
Pethick, her own Esperance Girls' Club for out. Dock shall have a white smock. And net-
working girls. In 1906, in search of activities to tle shall go without' (Addy, 1895: 92). Even
interest the Esperance girls, Neal approached Chaucer knew the charm: as Troilus is protest-
Cecil * Sharp,who put her in touch with Wil- ing that he cannot suddenly stop loving Cri-
ham Kimber, *morris dancer from Headington seyde, 'But kanstow playen racket, to and fro.
Quarry, Oxford, who visited the Club to teach Nettle in, dok out, now this, now that' (Troilus
the girls morris dances. Neal and her associ- and Criseyde (c.l374), iv, lines 460-1). Nettles
ates were captivated by the songs and dances, also featured strongly in the calendar customs
and almost immediately embarked upon a associated with *Royal Oak Day. The trad-
crusade with a view to founding a national itional punishment for children not wearing
revival movement. Sharp and Neal were kept an oak leaf on that day was that their legs
busy collecting, lecturing, writing, and organ- could be attacked with nettles wielded by
izing events, and the Esperance girls were other children. The plant also features regu-
soon travelling the country as teachers of larly in folk medicine (see Vickery).
morris dancing. For a while, Sharp and Neal Vickeiy, 1995: 253-8; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 279; Roy
worked together, but from 1908 rising ten- Vickery, Folk Life 31 (1992-3), 88-93.
sions over artistic standards and the way the
morris dance was taught and presented, Year. In England this has lost nearly all
resulted in a very public parting and the for- of its traditional customs and beliefs. For most
mation of two opposing camps which vied for English people. New Year's Eve is either spent
control of the new movement. Sharp's side quietly at home, or at a party, which lasts till

stressed the need for high artistic standards after midnight to 'see the New Year in'. Such
and for experts to collect and interpret the gatherings differ little from other parties,
dances, while Neal was concerned with the apart from the ubiquitous singing of 'Auld
good that the dances could do to raise the spir- Lang Syne'. For some, the proper way to cele-
its and artistic sensibilities of the poor and was brate is to gather at a pubhc place appropri-

less concerned with standards. Several years of ated for such use. In all cases the stroke of
argument and manoeuvre followed, but by midnight is immediately followed by much
1914 Sharp was beginning to win the day, cheering, shouting, hooting of horns, and
257 New Year
again 'Auld Lang Syne'. A piece in the Illus- first-footer was called the 'Lucky Bird*. On
trated London News (2 Jan. 1897, 1, 3) described entering, the first-footer would sometimes
how masses of people had started to accumu- remain silent until he had poked the fire, or
late every year on the steps of St Paul's in had placed coal on it, and several references
London after new bells were installed in 1878. maintain that he should enter by the front and
Church authorities stopped the New Year bell- leave by the back door. A simpler way of
ringing because they were worried about pub- ensuring luck was to open the front and back
lic disorder, but the meeting-place had doors to let the old year out and the new one
become traditional and the crowds continued in (N&Q.4s:l (1868), 193). In ahnost all cases the
to gather each year. In the 1930s, the church first-footer was rewarded with food, drink,

again took notice of the New Year crowds and and/or money, and people who fitted the local
arranged community singing, which was even made a substantial
ideal for first-footer often
broadcast to 'listeners-in' to the new wireless sum by going from house to house (by
(reports in The Times, 18, 19 Nov. 1935, 1 Jan. arrangement) early on New Year's Day. The
1936, 1 Jan. 1937). After the Second World seriousness with which some people took the
War, the focus of London celebration shifted first-foot rules is evidenced in various sources,
to Trafalgar Square, where it has remained. such as the following reported in NEjCI (7s: 10
The only other regular features of the season (1890), 5): reporting on a trial in Mansfield
are the ubiquitous saluations of 'Happy New (Nottinghamshire), and explaining why a
Year' and the tendency to make personal 'New young woman was walking the streets at one
Year resolutions'. Neverthless, there is a gen- o'clock in the morning, it was stated that she
eral awareness in England that New Year is had returned from the midnight service at her
really the Scottish celebration par excellence. local church but her mother would not let her
In earher times, the season was taken more into the house until her father or brother
seriously. Many of the following superstitions came in first, which was some hours later. The
and customs can be seen in the light of the same journal (4s:5 (1870), 89) reports a farmer
principle that the beginning of any enterprise who could not get into his own house on New
or period is vitally important, and largely Year morning until someone with darker hair
determines its relative success or failure. The came hours later.
literature on New Year in the past is domin- New Year's Eve or Day was also one of the
ated by the custom of 'first footing' or 'letting key times for divination. Particularly popular
in the New Year'. Again this custom is now- was 'dipping' into the Bible and reading aloud
adays associated mainly with Scotland, but in a passage to predict how the coming year
the 19th century it was known and practised would be (see under *book (divination with)).
over most of England as well, although clearly Another widespread method involved inspect-
taken more seriously in the northern counties. ing the ashes of the domestic fire for shapes
In broad outUne it was very similar (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 95), while many put their
everywhere— the first person to come into the faith in whom they met first on New Year's
house after midnight on New Year's Eve had to Day, preferring certain types of people for
have certain personal characteristics and to luck (as in the first footing), but a variation
conform to certain rules in order to bring luck was the idea that the Christian name of the
to the house for the coming year. The details first person of the opposite sex you see on that
of the custom, however, vary considerably day will be that of your future partner (Hend-
from place to place, and there seems to be no erson, 1866: 55). Even before the day was
discernible pattern. In most places the first- declared a *Bank HoUday in England (in 1974),
footer must be dark haired, or dark skinned, there were strong traditions that no work
but some insisted on a fair haired or light should be done, and it was one of the days
complexion. Almost invariably, a male first- when *washing was particularly unlucky, and
footer was required, and some stipulated a when new clothes should be worn (see
married man while others required a bach- clothes), but itwas essential to ensure you
elor, while some say flat-footed or cross-€yed had money in your pocket or you would be
people must be avoided. It was common for poor all year.
the first-footer to carry symbolic gifts— bread On the principle of setting a precedent,
and coal being the most common commod- there was a widespread beUef that nothing
ities, but whiskey, and 'something green' (i.e. should be taken out of the house before some-
alive) were also popular. In some areas, the thing had been brought in. Adherence to this
New Year 258

tenet would ensure that the net flow of luck, is obscure history', proffers an Old French
'of

prosperity, food,and so on, over the next year word, aguillanneuf, as a probable source, mean-
would be inward and positive rather than ing 'the last day of the year, new year's gift,
outward. 'Never throw any ashes, dirty water, the festival at which new year's gifts were
or an)rthing, however worthless, out of your given and asked with the shout of aguillanneuf ,

house on this day (Denham Tracts, 1895: ii.

. . .' which almost exactly fits the descriptions of
24; Henderson, 1866: 57). There was a particu- New Year between the 15th and 17th centur-
larly strong aversion to taking fire, in any ies, where the emphasis is on gifts and visit-

form, out of the house, and woe betide anyone ing. The oldest references to gift-giving at
who let their *fire go out on New Year's Eve or New Year refer to royalty and nobility
Day (Harland and Wilkinson, 1882: 214). exchanging expensive presents, as far back as
Another important element of New Year the time of Henry III (see Brand, 1849: i. 15)
celebrations was visiting. This could take the and up to EUzabeth I. In later periods the cus-
form of neighbours visiting each other, when tom certainly existed within families as well
an essential ingredient was, of course, the as between friends and those with social obli-
food and drink provided. A form of *visiting gations up or down the More
social scale.
custom involved children going from door to modest traditional gifts were oranges stuck
door, singing traditional verses and hoping for with cloves, gilded nutmegs, capons (from
money or food in return. tenant farmers to landlords), various other
foodstuffs, and papers of pins. The earlier vis-
wish you a merry Christmas custom
I
iting is again mostly reported from
And a happy New Year
Scotland, but again it is clear that it was also
A pocket fUll of money common in northern England. It consisted of
And a cellar full of beer
bands of young men (later children) going
A good fat pig
That will last you all the year
from door to door on New Year's Eve, singing
I wish you a merry Christmas
and expecting gifts. A version from Richmond,
And a happy New Year Yorkshire, commences:

(Herefordshire: Leather, 1912: 90) it is the New Year's night, to-morrow is the
To-night
day
At Driffield (Yorkshire), Hastings (Sussex), And we have come for our right and for our ray
and Pudsey (Yorkshire), and probably else- As we used to do in King Henry's day
where, there was a *scrambling custom, where Sing, fellows, sing Hagmen heigh!
boys assembled in the street, outside shops, (Ingledew, BaUads and Songs of Yorkshire (I860))
calling on the shopkeepers to throw items out
to them (Nicholson, 1890: 21; Sussex Archaeo- The fact that Scotland and England have dif-

logical Colleaions 33 (1883), 238; N&(1 5s:8 ferent views of the relative importance of
(1877), 504). Christmas and New Year is the result of the
Most of the customs already discussed can- divergence of religion during the Puritan
not be shown to be very old, and the picture of revolutions of the 17th century. As is well
New Year before the 19th century was very dif- known, the gradual increase in influence and
ferent indeed. Despite its ubiquity, neither the power of 'Puritan' Protestant sects across
phrase nor the custom of first footing can be much of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries
traced before the turn of the 19th century- brought increasing pressure on saints' days
even in Scotland— and most of the other and other festivals which were branded as
beliefs detailed above are not found before the Catholic inventions. Christmas was thus
1850s. As is well known, the name for the New increasingly discouraged and finally banned
Year in Scotland is Hogmanay, and this, in altogether in England in 1645. At a popular
various spellings such as Hagmena, was also level, there was thus a tendency for people to
the regular term in northern England and the from the dangerous
fransfer their celebrations
earliest use of the word so far discovered is in Christmas to the secular New Year. At the
Yorkshire. An entry in the household accounts Restoration, Christmas was reinstated, only to
of Sir Robert Waterton, of Methley, in 1444, be removed again in Scotland, by the Kirk, in
records payments for a big 'hogmanayse' and 1688-90. The stage was thus set for the two
a little 'hogmanayse'. The entry is all in Latin countries to go their own way, and Scottish
apart from that word (see Folklore 95:2 (1984), people made New Year their main midwinter
252-4). The OED, after admitting that the word festival.
 Nine Maidens

Details of New Year celebrations up to thought that the experience was 'caused by
medieval times are sketchy, although if the some witch turning the unlucky sleeper into a
Church condemnations are to be beUeved the horse or mare' and riding him or her through
people certainly indulged in some sort of the air to a sabbath (Brockie, 1886: 32).
behaviour which offended ecclesiastical sens- The usual charm to prevent nightmares was
ibiUties. The upper echelons of society had hanging a *holed stone over the bed, but
New Year feasts, although, as noticed in the horseshoes wrapped in red flannel were used
*
entry for Christmas, there was a strong trad- in the same way, for example in early 20th-
ition of the 'Twelve Days of Christmas' and it century London (Lovett, 1925: 12). The earliest
isthus not always easy to separate Christmas account is from a 15th-centiuy manuscript,
and New Year. Reading between the Unes, the where the stone is combined with a rhymed
main thrust of the Chm-ch's disquiet was con- prayer to *St George:
cerned with *divination (see Button, 1996: 7-
Take a flynt stone that hath an hole thorow it of hys
8) which, as already stated, would be a logical owen growynge, & hange it ouer the stabill dore, or

thing to be doing at the start of a New Year. ellouer ye horse, and writhe this charme: In nomine
Beyond this the picture is even more specula- Patris &c. Seynt lorge, our ladys knyght, he walked
'

tive, but there is sufficient to argue

. . .
day, he walked nyght, till that he fownde that fowle
strongly for the existence of a major pre- wyght [foul creature]; & when he her fownde, he her
Christian festival beat and her bownde, till trewly ther her trowthe
marking the opening of the
new year, at the moment at which the sun had sche plyght that sche sholde not come be nyght with-
inne vij rode [seven rods] of londe space ther as Seynt
reached the winter solstice, and its strength
was being renewed. There leorge i-namyd was. In nomine Patri &c. And wryte
is testimony to this this in a bille and hange it in the hors' mane. (MS
in the Anglo-Saxon, Viking and Welsh com-
Bod. Rawlinson C 506 fo. 297)
ponents of the British heritage' (Hutton, 1996:
8),but what they did is still open to debate. Shakespeare gives a similar verse in King Lear
For other customs which took place at New invoking St Withold:
(ill. iv),

Year, see *allendale tar barrels, *book (div- Swithold footed thrice the old (wold, moor).
ination with), *hobby horses, *lifting, He met the night-mare, and her nine fold (foals?).
mumming, *mumming plays, *riding the Bid her alight.
stang, *sword dances, *wassailing. And her troth plight.
And aroint thee, witch, aroint thee!
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 1-49;
Opie and Tatem,1989:
283-7; FoUc-Lore 3 (1892). 253-64; M. E. Ringwood, Folklore
71 (1960), 252-5. Brand, 1849: i. 10-20.
night raven. A name given in some early
translations of the Bible for one of the birds of
nightjars. Because of their silent flight, large abomination (Leviticus 11: 16). It was appUed
eyes, and weird purring were
cry, nightjars in country speech either to the nightjar, the
garded as uncanny. In Yorkshire they were night heron, or the bittern. The deep booming
d to be the souls of *unbaptized infants, call of the male bittern was regarded as a fear-
wandering for ever, and/or to be the sinister ftil *omen; Oliver Goldsmith remembered
Gabriel Ratchets. In Shropshire and Cheshire from his boyhood 'with what terror the bird's
they were called 'lich fowl', i.e. 'corpse birds', note affected the whole village; they con-
and in several counties the 'night hawk', sidered it to be the presage of some sad event
'night raven', or 'night crow', a term taken ... if any person in the neighbourhood died,
from a bibhcal list of birds which are 'an they supposed it could not be otherwise, for
abomination' and should never be eaten the Night Raven had foretold it' (An History of
(Leviticus 11: 16). They were also commonly the Earth, and Animated Nature (1774)).
called 'goatsuckers', being thought to suck the
udders of goats and cows, infecting them with nine. A very powerfiil odd *number for luck
disease (Swainson, 1885/1969: 97-8). and magic; being 3 x 3 it multiphes the force of
three, and it is the number of months of
nightmares. In folklore, a 'mare' or 'night- pregnancy. Many curative charms, divina-
mare' not a distressing dream, but a super-
is tions, and other magical procedures require
natural being who crushes a sleeper's body by words or actions to be repeated nine times,
sittingon it (see * hag-riding); the word is nine objects gathered, etc.
sometimes mistakenly associated with 'mare'
= 'female horse'. Around Durham, it was Nine Maidens. Several groups of standing
Nixon the Cheshire Prophet 260

Stones in Cornwall and Devon are called 'The with attendant demons on the north side,
Nine Maidens', or 'The Merry Maidens'. Sup- saints and angels on the south. The main

posedly, these were girls who were turned to entrance of old churches is rarely on the
stone for dancing on a Sunday; at Belstone north, but many have a smaller door there
(Devon) the piper was petrified too and the which was opened only during baptism, for
stones are said to dance every day at noon. the fiend to escape by (Charlotte Bume, Folk-
Such tales are pan-European; they date from Lore 19 (1908), 458-9).
the Middle Ages to warn of *judgements on For the same reason, many were unwilling
sinners who disregard holy times or places. to accept burial on the north side of a church-

S. P. Menefee, Folklore 85 (1974), 23-42; Westwood, 1985: yard, this being regarded as unhallowed
201-2. ground; the prejudice persisted from the 16th
to the early 20th centuries. Gilbert White,
Nixon the Cheshire Prophet. During the writing of Selbome (Hampshire) in the 1780s,
and Hanoverians in the complained that:
rivalry of Jacobites
early 18th century, both parties interpreted the churchyard is very scanty, especially as all wish
prophecies attributed to 'Robert Nixon of to be buried in the south-side, which is become such
Cheshire' to their own
advantage. Nixon is a mass of mortality that no person can be there
supposed to have been an imbecile living in interred without disturbing or displacing the bones
the days of Henry VII (or James 1, in other ver- of his ancestors At the east end are a few graves,
sions) but unlikely that he really existed;
it is yet none, till very lately, on the north-side; but as two
or three famiUes of the best repute have begun to
sayings ascribed to him were circulating in
Cheshire from the 1520s. The only early bury in that quarter, prejudice may wear out by
degrees, and their example be followed by the rest of
manuscript surviving is of the late 16th or
the neighbourhood. (The Natural History and Antiquities
early 17th century. It is ftiU of local allusions,
of Selbome (1788), 322)
mingled with political sayings drawn from
late medieval and oral folk tradition; they are

vague, but picturesque, for example:

nosebleed. General *charms to staunch
blood are dealt with under *bleeding, but
When a raven shall build in a stone lion's mouth there are also some methods aimed at
specific
On a church top beside the Grey Forest,
stopping nosebleeds. It could certainly be
Then shall a king of England be drove from his
crown. argued that few people in modem England
And return no more. would rely on verbal charms and S5mipathetic
magic to stop bleeding from real wounds, but
The first known printed text appeared in the realm of the nosebleed is still susceptible
1713, and has a Jacobite bias, corresponding to and beUef. The most-quoted
to 'folk medicine'
the views of several Cheshire aristocrats at cure in modem tradition is to put a key down
that time, notably the Cholmondeleys of Vale the back of the sufferer, but it has been dif-
Royal (who secretly held the manuscript until ficult to find out how old this belief is, being
1943). Hanoverian pamphlets appeared in recorded only since the 19th century (N&Q.4s:7
1714 and 1719, and were frequently reprinted, (1871), 91; Black, 1883). A ribbon or thread tied
especially in the 1740s. They were reissued in round the neck was another regular cure, and
the 1790s in collections of *Doomsday a detailed note in Folk-Lore (23 (1912), 349)
predictions. records the use of a special 'bloodstone', worn
Jacqueline Simpson. FoMore 86 (1975), 201-7; Ian Sellers, round the neck on a knotted red silk thread. In
Folklore 92 (1981), 30-42; T. Thornton, in Prophecy, ed. Ber- earher times, others preferred to wear a *toad
trand Taithe and Tim Thornton (1997), 51-67.
round the neck (Gutch, 1901: 170, quoting a
manuscript of c. 1600) but this is claimed as a
noodles, see *fools. remedy for many ailments. Cobwebs placed in
the nostril wererecommended by some, while
north. According to Scripture, Satan set up one man at least claimed that moss which had
his throne on a mountain in the north (Isaiah grown on a human skull was particularly
14: 13), and demonic attacks are to be effective (Black. 1883: 96-7).

expected from that quarter (Jeremiah 1: 14, 6: A sudden nosebleed has long been taken as
1). The symbolism of church architecture a sign of bad luck to come, especially if it takes
reflects this; the medieval clerestory windows the form of two or three drops of blood only.
at Fairford (Gloucestershire) show evil tyrants Opie and Tatem list examples from 1180
261 November the Fifth

through into the late 19th century, and Samu- tinues, but the amount of folklore included in
el Pepys recorded in his Diary (6 June 1667): '. . . its pages decreased sharply around the First
But it was an ominous thing methought, just World War.
as he was bidding me his last adieu, his nose
fell a-bleeding, which run in my mind a pretty November the Fifth. Variously called Bon-
while after".Occasional sources distinguish fire Night, Guy Fawkes Night, Firework Night,
between the left (bad luck) and right (good Plot Night, Squib Night, November the Fifth
luck) nostrils (see Lean, 1903: ii. 289). was officially declared a day of national cele-
Porter, 1969: 83-4; Black, 1883: 62, 76, 96-7, 111, 183. bration and commemoration in response to
190-1; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 287-8; Lean, 1903: ii. 52, the failed attempt by Guy Fawkes and other
288-90; Forbes, 1971: 293-316. Catholic sympathizers to blow up both King
James 1 and Parliament in 1605. As originally
noses. One of the many parts of the body decreed, a special thanksgiving service was to
which significant if it itches, but a range of
is be offered on the day, church bells were to be
meanings have been reported since the 17th rung, and the people allowed to celebrate with
century. In Thomas Dekker's play The Honest bonfires and merrymaking. This was nothing
Whore ((1604), ii. i): 'We shall ha'
guests to day, unusual at the time, as *bonfires and *bells
I lay
my little maidenhead; my nose itches so', were the normal means used to mark national
while John *Melton (1620: 47) declares: 'When celebrations, and this encouragement by the
a man's nose itcheth, it is a signe he shall authorities continued for many years. A cus-
drink wine'. Multiple reasons, with satisfying tom which legitimized the position of those in
rhythm, are often given: 'You will shake hands power and which combined rehgious polemic
with or kiss a fool, drink a glass of wine, run with political mobilization would clearly have
against a cuckold's door, or miss them all four' continued and powerful support, and it is no
(Connoisseur (13 Mar. 1755); compare Folk-lore coincidence that November the Fifth was one
24 (1913). 90). A similar conftision pertains to a of the few public customs which was not sup-
blue vein which can appear across the top of
pressed during the rule of the Puritans in the
the nose: you will drown, be hanged, die 17th century.
yoimg, and so on (The Shepherd's Kalendar Nevertheless, the custom changed con-
(1503); Lean, 1903: ii. 291; foIJc-Lore 68 (1957), siderably over the years as the people grad-
413). According to Addy (1895: 144) a tumed- ually appropriated it for their own purposes.
up nose indicates deceit.
*Effigies were burnt as early as the 1670s,
See also *nosebleed.
although until the 19th century these were
Lean, 1903: ii. 142, 283-8, 291;
Opie and Tatem, 1989: more likely to be of the Pope or some domestic
288; Hazlitt. 1905: 441-2.
poUtical enemy rather than Guy Fawkes him-
self Orderly processions and controlled bon-
Notes & Queries. Launched in November fires soon gave way to the carrying and rolling
1849, as a weekly miscellany, Notes & Queries of blazing tar barrels, letting off" of guns or
(N&Q) was the brainchild of Wilham J. *Thoms. fireworks and general noisy, drunken, and
He had previously organized a column in the dangerous mayhem became the norm. When
Athenaeum as a medium for the exchange of these activities took place in the confines of
information between folklorists, antiquarians, city streets rather than more spacious rural
literary researchers, and the like, and N&Q, was areas, serious questions of public order and
an extension of the same idea. N&Q. became an the safety of property were raised, which was
indispensable part of the scholar's library, and not helped by a generally held notion that
folklorists in particular are grateftil for the November the Fifth was a day on which extra
mass of information its pages contain; as evi- licencewas p>ermitted.
denced by the number of citations included in By the 19th century respectable people in
this Dictionary. Thoms edited N&Q_himself until many towns were beginning first to withdraw
1872, and he compiled a selection of the folk- their support fi-om such crowd-based customs
lore material contained in the first twelve vol- and then actively to oppose them. As these
umes, which was pubhshed as Choice Notes people also held power as vestrymen, coimcil-
(1859). He also described the circumstances of lors, and magistrates, they were able to use
its foundation in a series of articles in: 5s:6 the fiiU authority of police and even, when
(1876), 1-2, 41-2, 101-2. 221-2; 5s:7 (1877), 1- necessary, local miUtia, to suppress the more
2. 222-3, 303-5. The publication still con- boisterous and dangerous aspects of the
number 666 262

custom. Lighting fires and setting off fire- Please to remember the Fifth of November
works within towns were forbidden and per- Gunpowder treason and plot
I see no reason
petrators increasingly harassed by the police. why gunpowder treason
Should ever be forgot
Many towns in England were the scenes of
protracted and often bitter struggles between See also *ciueen Elizabeth i's anniversary.
those who wanted to keep their old customs
Cressy, 1989; Roger Swift, History Today (Nov. 1981), 5-9;
intact and those dedicated to suppress, or at Gavin Morgan, 'The Guildford Guy Riots 1842-1865',
least reform, them. Straightforward suppres- Surrey Archaeological Collections 76 (1985), 61-8; Ervin
sion was sometimes ameliorated by the sug- Beck, Folklore 95:2 (1984), 191-203; D. G. Paz, Historical
Research 63 (1990), 316-28. Folklore Society Cuttings
gestion of different ways of carrying out the Files.
celebration, such as encouraging celebrators
to move to a nearby public open space where
the custom could be better controlled. A less
number 666. Among the prophecies in the
Book of Revelations (Apocalypse) one about is
overtly manipulatory development was the
a 'Great Beast' who and
will rule the earth
tendency to privatize the custom by
mark his followers on the brow or hand with
encouraging people to hold their Guy Fawkes
celebrations in family groups within the priv-
the 'number of his name', which is 666.
Commentators soon dubbed this figure 'the
acy of their own gardens and yards, and many
of the better-off famihes had already with- Antichrist', and tried to identify him. Clearly,
the original allusion was to the pagan Roman
drawn to the safety of their own property
some time before mass celebrations were empire, its statues, and its coinage; with some
forcing, 666 can be matched to the numerical
finally suppressed. These private celebrations
had become the norm by the early 20th cen- value of 'Nero Caesar' written in Hebrew let-

Over the centuries new interpretations

ters.
tury, and continued to be the basic pattern
until fears over safety and other societal arose— to English Protestants, 'Antichrist' was
usually the Pope, but Napoleon, the Kaiser,
changes in the 1960s and 1970s brought about
and Hitler have also been given the title. In
another, again partly orchestrated, move
towards controlled public displays. At the time the 17th century, some feared Doomsday
of vmting (1997), the private back-garden would come in 1666. This was the theme of

celebration is still on the decUne and the Francis Potter's An Interpretation of the Number
666 (1642), which Pepys read during the fate-
organized set-piece display, provided again by
local council or local group or charity, has
ful year: 'His close is most excellent, and
become the commonest way to enjoy fire- whether it be right or wrong, mighty
is

works and bonfires. A few places in England ingenious' (Pepys, Diary, 16 Feb. 1665/6 and 10
Nov. 1666).
stillpreserve some of the older traditions
In current popular imagination, 666 is
associated with the Fifth: *Lewes (Sussex)
where impressive torch-ht processions and regarded as Satanic. There have been many
main press reports of 'unlucky' cars with 666 as the
giant effigies are the feature, while
hcence number, and no such licences have
*Ottery St Mary (Devon) and *Hatherleigh
been issued since 1991. Similarly, in 1993
(Devon) maintain the spectacular, but danger-
ous, blazing *tar barrels. Croydon Council renumbered a grave-plot in
its cemetery from 666 to 665a (FLS News 19
It was also during the 19th-century
suppres-
sion of the mass celebrations that the custom (1994), 10). Phone numbers with 666 in them

became increasingly associated vnth children. may be rejected, or regarded as a joke. Some
During the late 19th century and most of the marginal Christian sects have further fears:
that bar-codes on retail goods secretly include
20th century, the sight of children displaying
their effigies and accosting passers-by with a 666 as Satan's device to enslave the world, and
that hospitals brand this number invisibly on
plaintive or aggressive 'Penny for the Guy?'
was commonplace, and there were numerous the hands of newborn babies (FLS News 20

In Lancashire children (1994), 4).

regional variations.
would go Cob-Coaling to collect material for
their bonfire, while in Yorkshire it was com- numbers. There is no systematic numerology
mon for children to
go *Guising, or acting a in English folklore; the only numbers widely
cut-dovm version of the *Pace Egg play. There regarded as significant are *three, *seven,
were also rhymes accompanying Guy Fawkes *nine, *thirteen. The latter only acquired im-
customs, usually on the lines of: portance over the last two or three centuries.
 263
nutting

but the good luck ascribed to odd numbers work. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes
below ten is a regular feature of European (1951; 2nd edn., 1997).
folklore. Curiously, five has little role in folk- Nursery rh)mies have suffered the
lore, except as the *pentacle. Twelve is the indignity of having more nonsense written
only even number occasionally regarded as about them than any other folklore genre.
significant; presumably stands for com-
it Commentators have sought to explain nur-
pleteness, by association with the twelve sery rhymes in terms of pohtical satire,
hours on a clock-face, the twelve months of ancient mythology, Freudian psychology,
the year, and the old way of reckoning by fertility ritual, sun-worship, and any other
i
dozens. intellectual fad of the time, and the game of
Occasionally, it is said there are 365 win- spotting hidden meanings is likely to continue
dows in a very large house (or trees in a copse, The truth is that
for the foreseeable fijture.
or steps in a long flight), 'one for each day of few of the rhymes can shown to be older
the year'. *Number 666 is regarded as Satanic than the 18th century, many of them have
and unlucky. identifiable authors, and are easily under-
stood as nonsense rhymes for ctiildren or the
flotsam and jetsam of adult songs, poems,
numskulls, see *fools.
customs, plays, and so on. This is not to
underestimate the problems of evidence of
nursery rhymes. Traditional rhymes which this field, and the possibility that many
are passedon to children while they are still of rh5mfies could be much older than their first
nursery age. The key point here is that the known printings, but inventing origins from
transmission is normally from adult to child, stray internal clues is hardly Ukely to pro-
which can be distinguished from *children's duce real knowledge.
lore, which is mainly transmitted between The normal term for nursery rhymes in the
children. Most adults have a basic repertoire of USA is *Mother Goose Rhymes.
nursery rhymes at their disposal— there can See also *baa baa black sheep, *goosey
be few adults in England who cannot recite GOOSEY GANDER. *HEY DIDDLE DIDDLE, HICK-
*Baa Baa Black Sheep, *Little Jack Homer, or ORY DICKORY DOCK, *HUMPTY DUMPTY, *JACK
*Jack and Jill— but many buy books of rhymes AND JILL, *LITTLE BO PEEP, *LITTLE JACK HORNER,
when they become parents, which have the *MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB, *OLD KING COLE,
added advantage of illustrations, from which *OLD MOTHER HUBBARD, *0RANGES AND
they read to their children. The rhymes them- LEMONS.
selves provide a fascinating array of imagery,
rhythm, and simple structure, which have nutting. In areas where wild hazels grew
pleased generations of children and adults, freely, large groups of villagers (particularly
and, despite their apparent inconsequential- women) would go into the woods to gather
ity, far outstrip any other verse form in terms them as food, or to sell to dyers. These exped-
of distribution and popularity, and their place itions were Uvely affairs, where a good deal of
in the national consciousness
is proved by the love-making went on; this sexual aspect, com-
frequency with which advertisers and parod- bined with the traditional use of 'nuts' to
ists use them. mean 'testicles', accounts for the jokes in folk-
A surprising number of nursery rhyme col- songs and nursery rhymes about girls 'gather-
lections, usually in the form of *chapbooks, ing nuts in May'.
were published from the mid-1 8th century It was also said that if you go nutting on a

onwards, with titles such as Tommy Thumb's holy day you'll meet the *Devil; the first
Pretty Song Book (c.l744). The Top Book of Ml, for record (in 1670) refers to *Holy Rood Day (14
Masters and Mistresses (c.l760), and Gammer
Little September), but it was more commonly
Gurton's Garland (1784); but no scholar thought applied to Sundays. The present writer heard
the rhymes worth their notice until James it seriously said in Sussex in the 1940s \}S]. On

Orchard *Hamwell published his two collec- the other hand, a vicar of Hailsham (Sussex)
tions of The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842) wrote flippantly in 1884 that the Devil who
and Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales of England helped a girl who went nutting commonly
(1849), on which virtually all subsequent col- appeared in the form of her sweetheart
lections reUed for material, until the (Simpson, 1973: 65).
researches of lona and Peter *Opie's seminal
Vickery, 1995: 172-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 290.
oak. The oak symbolizes steadfast courage, occupational customs. There are few places
royalty, and England. There are specific of work which have no customs or lore
associations with the Royal Navy, and with the attached to them at all, even if it is only the
Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, cele- bu5dng of cakes on one's birthday or the office
brated on * Royal Oak Day. Christmas party. Some occupations, however,
Individual oaks can be locally famous.
Many have a much v^der range of traditional prac-
are called 'Gospel Oaks',because they mark a tices and beliefs. Outsiders often dismiss the

spot on the parish boundary where * Rogation older customs as barbaric or 'anything for an
processions used to pause while a Gospel pas- excuse to get drunk', but insiders argue that
sage was read. One in Sherwood Forest is said such events are only a bit of fim and help to
to have been a meeting-place for *Robin Hood promote camaraderie and loyalty to work-
and men. Another, at Clipstone (Not-
his mates which helps in the daily grind of work,
tinghamshire) is the ParUament Oak, so called and anyway they survived it all right in their
because either King John or Edward I con- time. Such customs, indeed, range from the
vened a ParUament there. Another, in the mild, low key, and friendly to the boisterous
grounds of Boscobel House (Shropshire) is said and vdld horseplay which can clearly be used
to be the one in which Charles II hid after the as a guise for cruelty and victimization. Cus-
Battle of Worcester, while all along the route toms usually cluster around particular identi-
of his escape there are trees (not necessarily fiable points in an individual's working life:

oaks) in which, it is claimed, he also hid from entering a trade or a new firm (footing/
—
pursuers for example an oak near Melksham initiation), quaUfying as a fiilly-fledged worker
Court (Gloucestershire), and a hollow elm in (banging out, for example), leaving a firm or
Brighton (Sussex). Wesley several times held retiring. Some trades have particular points in
open-air services at the tree now called Wes- the work cycle to celebrate, such as complet-
ley's Oak near Altrincham (Cheshire). ing a building (*topping out) or crossing the
Cords of window-bUnds had a toggle shaped line at sea. Other times for celebration are key
likean acorn, which was said to prevent light- events in the worker's life outside the work-
ning from entering through the window, since place, in particular his/her impending wed-
itwas believed (mistakenly) that oak trees are ding, birth of a baby, and so on.
never struck by hghtning. Such blinds are now The first key point is starting at a new
rare, so the belief must be dying out. Grated workplace, and various customs exist to 'wel-
oak bark or acorns were a country remedy for come' or initiate a newcomer. A key variable is
diarrhoea, and an infusion of oak bark was the age and status of the worker— new young-
drunk for rheumatism (Hatfield, 1994: 36, 46). sters are more Ukely to be greeted with prac-
tical jokes and horseplay, while older people

Oak Apple Day, see *royal oak day. changing jobs would normally get away vdth
buying a round of drinks. The latter was for-
malized in the past in many trades as 'footing',
Oberon. Shakespeare found this name for a which the English Dialect Dictionary defines as
fairy
—
king in literature, not folklore in a late 'the entrance upon a new position or occupa-
medieval French romance, Huon of Bordeaux, tion: the fine levied upon a new workman, &c.,
translated into English in 1548. Several later generally spent in drink. Usually in phrase To
poets copied him, but the name did not enter pay one's footing'. Thomas Gent, later famous
folk tradition. as a printer in York, described a custom
265 Old Horse

enacted when he joined a London printing flowers, and so on, and similarly the dressing
firm about 1713 is his The Life of Mr. Thomas up of the girl herself In many cases she has to
Gent, Printer, of York ({1832), 15-17). wear the decorations all day and all the way
At the darker end of the spectrum is the 'ini- home (accompanied by a workmate to ensure
tiation rite'with which newcomers are greet- that she follows the rules). If appropriate her
ed, which can be the disguise for bull5dng and car may also be decorated. This type of cele-
racial or sexual harassment. Practices in the bration normally carried out by women, but
is

British army were heavily criticized during the there are some reports of practices in male
1980s for allowing degrading and barbaric workplaces, involving the filling of jacket Un-
rites, and the Fire Service was similarly ings with confetti. Again, the procedure can be
attacked for customs apparently aimed at unwelcome, as detailed in the Daily Express (31
keeping women out of the occupation (Folk- Jan. 1996, reprinted KS
News 24 (1996), 14)
lore Society Cuttings File). A less vindictive where workers at a Yorkshire factory were
way of greeting novices existed in many tiades sacked for subjecting a girl soon to be married
and businesses, and involved sending the to being sellotaped to a chair, drenched with
youngster to fetch some non-existent item— water, covered with scraps of plastic, and
striped paint, sky-hooks, the burglars' address whiskers painted on her face. Earlier
book, elbow grease, pigeon's milk, and so on. examples of wedding occupational customs
All theseasoned workers are party to the joke are described under *printing trade.
and contrive to send the dupe on to someone An form of occupational custom,
earlier
else, in some versions giving him/her some- largely forgotten now, was the annual proces-
thing to carry on the way (traditional sion on the day of the trade's patron saint (e.g.
examples in N8(l 186 (1944), 24, 78-9, 120-1. the woolcombers on *St Blaize's Day) or as part
124, 278). of the general trade guild involvement in local
The most tenacious of occupational cus- *civic customs.
toms, now mainly associated with the printing See also *blacksmiths, *building trade,
trade but previously practised more widely, is coopering trade, *harvest customs, fish-
the 'banging-out' of apprentices as they reach ing industry, *PRINTING TRADE, *SAINTBLAIZE,
the end of their training, which still (1998) saint CRISPIN'S DAY, ST MONDAY.
takes place despite being frowned on by many Smith, 1969; George Monger, Folklore 82 (1971), 314-16,
employers and Trade Unions. In modem guise, and Folklore 86 (1975), 50-61; David Vy^iite, New Society (13
the ceremony usually involves the victim May 1971), 805-7: Folklore Society Cuttings File.
being tied up, covered in anything sticky and
nasty and left outside in some pubUc place, ogres. A term
adopted from the French, and
but previous examples also stress the noise more Uterary than colloquial,for a man-eating
involved (see *printing tiade). A similar cus- giant Uke the ones in Jack and the Beanstalk
tom existed in other trades, such as cooper- and Jack the Giant-Killer.
ing, where it was called Trussing the Cooper.
Most apprentices are relatively wilUng, but
Old Horse. In a similar situation to the Old
things can go very wrong, and there are occa-
Tup, the Old Horse is both a song and a cus-
sional reports of accidents and even the death
tom. As a song, it is found in different versions
of the victim (e.g. Guardian (22 Dec. 1989)).
all over England, and it details how the horse
It is not just the men who
enjoy the licence used to be so proud and fine but is now old and
permitted by customary activity: 'It's my 23rd
decayed:
birthday next month and I'm dreading it. I've
just started working in a factory where there But now that he's grown old
are only a dozenmen and about 20 women, And scarcely can he crawl
and every time a man has a birthday they gang He's forced to eat the coarsest grass
That grows against the wall
up and strip him .
(Woman (19 June 1989),
. .'
Poor old horse.
62). Another occupational custom which
seems set to persist into the twenty-first cen- The Old Horse was also an animal disguise
tury is the marking of a colleague's upcoming custom, performed at Christmas/*New Year
wedding by female office and factory workers. and found in and around the area where the
Details vary from place to place, but the cen- counties of Yorkshire. Derbyshire, and
tral themes are the
decorating of the desk or Nottinghamshire meet. The Horse was con-
workstation with ribbons, pictures, paper structed by mounting a horse's skull, or
Old King Cole 266

wooden horse's head, on a pole. The mouth old style (dates), see *calendar.
could open and close, operated by a string. The
team consisted of the Horse and an unspeci- Old Tup, Derby Ram. 'The Derby Ram' or
fied number of men who would sing the song 'Old Tup' is a widely collected traditional song,
while the animal pranced or otherwise acted found all over the Enghsh-speaking world. As
up. In some versions they pretended to shoe with all traditional songs, it exists in numer-
the horse during the song. The earliest refer- ous versions, including bawdy ones, but it
ences to the custom only date to the 1840s. always describes, in hyperbolic terms, a won-
See also *hobby horses, *seafaring drous ram or tup:
CUSTOMS.
This ram it had two horns, sir
Cawte. 1978: 117-24. That reached right up to the moon
A man went up in January
And he didn't come down till June.
Old King Cole. One of the most popular of
the *nursery rhyme canon, which also exists as The song also describes how the ram was but-
an adults' cumulative song and in many par- chered and how the parts of his body were
odies, obscene and otherwise.The song is first used.
mentioned in 1708/9, but only appears regu- In the vicinity of Sheffield, however, the Old
larly in print from the late 18th century Tup was more than just a song, as there they
onwards. Numerous attempts to identify a real had a * Christmas * visiting custom which
'Old King Cole' have been unconvincing and included someone impersonating the Tup and
unnecessary. a dramatic performance. The Tup's construc-
Opie and Opie, 1997: 156-8. tion varied according to the age and abihties
of the performers. At the most sophisticated
end of the spectrum, a wooden head (or some-
Old Mother Hubbard. One of the first super- times a real sheep's head) was fixed to a pole
stars of the *nursery rhyme field, Mother Hub-
which was carried by a man hidden by a sack
bard featured in the Comic Adventures of Old
or a cloth. The head could have real ram's
Mother Hubbard and her Dog printed by J. Harris
horns and boast other attributes such as a red
in 1805, which was an immediate success, sold
tongue. But at the most amateur end the ani-
tens of thousands of copies, and spawned pir-
mal could simply be made by a boy wearing a
ate editions, parodies, and sequels, and the
sack which had its comers tied to resemble
rhyme itselfwas reprinted in countless other
ears, over his head. The Tup was accompanied
collections. Almost overnight Old Mother
by a group of four to six, who sang the song
Hubbard became a stock figure in early 19th-
and in the simplest versions he merely jigged
century popular culture. The fourteen-verse about in time with the music. In the more
rhyme was written by Sarah Catherine Martin developed versions they enacted the killing of
(1768-1826) in 1804, and the first verse at least the Tup, and added characters such as Little
is still very well known. Nothing is simple in
Devil Doubt and Beelzebub, borrowed from
the nursery rhyme field, however. It appears
local versions of the
*
mummers play. The
that Miss Martin did not compose the whole
earliest references to the custom are from the
piece, but took an already known three-verse
mid-1 9th century, although the song is much
rhyme and extended it with new stanzas, pos- older, and the custom is still not quite extinct.
sibly modelled on another rhyme concerning
Compare *old horse. See also *hobby
Old Dame Trot and her Comical Cat. These three
horses.
verses had appeared in print in the 1790s and
Cawte, 1978: 110-17; P. S. Smith, L&L 1 (1969), 6-8.
were probably even older still, but we have no
evidence to prove it.
omens. Occurrences outside human control,
Opie and Opie. 1997: 374-80.
interpreted by communal tradition as foretell-

ing future events seeing *magpies, hear-

(e.g.
Old Nick. This humorous nickname for the ing an *owl hoot); they differ from *taboo
Devil recorded in the 17th century. Its
is first actions which cause bad luck but can and
origins are uncertain, but it may be related to should be avoided, and also from deliberate
certain German and Scandinavian words attempts to discover the future by *divinations
beginning in nik-, used for various dangerous and *fortune-telling. Some foretell something
supernatural creatures. pleasant: to see a small *spider on your hand
267 Ooser

means money, to find nine peas in one pod the Great *Plague of the 1660s, when it was
means (for a girl) a happy marriage. Others widely beUeved that tobacconists and onion
foretell misfortunes, especially death. Such sellerswere largely immune. The same behef
beliefs are extremely widespread in European leads some people to think it unlucky or dan-
folk culture, where many English examples gerous to keep a cut, raw onion, for fear it
can find parallels. might attract illness into the house fi:om the
Many omens are drawn fi-om things natiu-al outside air; any unused part, and even the
they become significant either
in themselves; peeUngs, must be thrown out at once.
because the observer is currently in some An idea common among schoolchildren in
stressful situation, or retrospectively, once the 19th and 20th centuries was that if you
something has happened to 'fulfil' them. rubbed raw onion on to your palm, the pain of
Others are perceived as supernatural phe- being caned on the hand would be much less-
nomena which only ever appear as ened, or, even better, the cane would spUt in
warnings— *corpse candles, *wraiths, the half (cf *hair, animal).
*Gabriel Ratchets. Some items straddle the *Love divinations involving onions were
*
categories: comets were supernatural to practised on *St Thomas's Eve.
some, natural but sinister to others; *dreams Opie and Tatem, 1989: 292-4; Vickeiy, 1995: 265-8; N&(1
are, to most people, a natural phenomenon, lls:ll (1915), 68, 117-18, 409, 477; lls:12 (1915), 101,
but some think they can be sent from God, 149-50, 167-8, 209, 245-6, 286, 367-8, 406; Culpepefs

while others regard the abihty to 'dream true' Complete Herbal and English Physician (1653; 1862 edn.), 109.

as a personal psychic power. Underlying the

whole concept is a belief in *fate (or Provi- Ooser. The so-called Dorset Ooser has excited
dence) rather than mere chance: the future is and puzzled folklorists since it was first
already fixed, and omens offer glimpses of its brought to public attention in 1891. It was a
pattern. large carved wooden head with staring eyes,
Most folklore collections and all books on flattened nose, hair, beard, and, most notably,
superstitionsmix together the things said to sweeping curved bull's horns. Its lower jaw
cause good or bad luck and the true omens, was hinged so that the mouth could be opened
which merely /oretdl it; their bald Ustings give and shut by a string, in the same way as many
* *
no clue to the emotional importance omens hobby horses and the Salisbury Giant. The
can have in helping people to see a pattern in Ooser was apparently unique and was in the
their lives, come to terms with loss, and so possession of a Crewkeme family until it dis-
forth. appeared, or fell to pieces, before the 1930s.
The deviUsh nature of the face, and its usual
onions. Long prized for medicinal purposes. description as a 'mask', led many people to
Popular tradition lays particular stess on the presume its use in some diaboUc rite, but this
efficacy of raw onion rubbed on wasp and bee is unlikely. Although it was large enough to be

stings, and on warm onion juice dropped into worn on the head, the wood was sohd and
the ear for earache; they are also mentioned there was no provision for the wearer to see
for kidney troubles, coughs and colds, chil- through it. It is much more Ukely that this was
blains, baldness, aching wrists and ankles, and the head of a processional figure, designed to
as a general antiseptic ointment. They are also be carried like the *Salisbury Giant, or perhaps
believed to dissolve hardened substances in in a *rough music procession such as the
the stomach— especially useful after eating *Wooset in nearby Wiltshire/Berkshire. The
hard-boiled eggs, regarded as indigestible— similarity in name
supports the latter inter-
and to take away the smell of new paint. pretation. The is confused, however,
situation
There was, and is, a widespread belief that by two earUer references to the word 'Ooser'.
onions attract and absorb impurities fi-om the In Thomas Hardy's novel The Return of the Native
air. Many sources claim that peeled or cut (1878, book 4, chapter 6), a character says
onions kept in a room will destroy germs, thus 'What have made you so down? Have you seen
preventing or curing any fevers or colds; their a ooser?', and in W. Barnes's Glossary of the Dor-
shrivelling and gradual blackening is held to set Dialect (1886, 85) the word is glossed as 'A
prove this, and once they have done their mask with grim jaws, put on with a cow's skin
work they should be burnt. This is supported to frighten folk'. If no other information
by stories about particular epidemics such as comes to Ught, the exact nature of the Ooser
the cholera outbreak in London in 1849 and will remain a mystery. The only rehable
 opals

description, with photograph, is in Somerset kept by Peter and lona also formed the basis
N&Q,2 (1891), frontispiece and 289-90. for the latter's Dictionary ofSuperstitutions (1989,
with Moira Tatem).
opals. In the 20th century, opals have been Peter and lona's work began at a time when
considered by many to be unlucky, especially folklore studies in England were at a low ebb,
as engagement rings, because they symbolize and made a startling impact, both in its me-
widowhood and tears. Those who know their ticulous pursuit of historical accuracy and its

astrology maintain, however, that the stone is painstaking recording of contemporary

lucky for those bom under Libra. This modem material from children of school age. Never
prejudice against the opal is curious, as in the had the systematic gathering of material on
past it was a treasured and lucky stone, and it such a large scale been attempted in England,
seems to have undergone a reversal of fortune and the results were an impressive testimony
as regards popular beUef Correspondence in to the vigour and constant development of

N&Q. in 1869 and 1875 states clearly that opals tradition. Their use of printed sources was also
were regarded as unlucky stones by some exemplary in its precision.
people at the time, and other references (e.g. Peter Opie was President of the Anthropol-
Fortnightly Review (July 1884), 85, and Addy, ogy Section of the British Association for
1895: 93) add confirmation, but there are 1962-3, and President of the Folklore Society
some dissenting voices which maintain that for 1963-4. Poor health, however, forced him
the colour of the opal makes the difference to husband his sfrength; he lectured rarely,
between good and bad luck. In classical times and concentrated on research, writing, and his
the opal was certainly treasured, and PUny superb collection of early children's books and
(Natural (ad 77), xxxvii. xxi-xxii)
History toys, part of which is now in the Bodleian in
devotes much
space to it. It is not clear when Oxford.
or why the reversal occurred, although one or
two theories have been advanced. Sir Walter Oranges and Lemons. The traditional rhyme
Scott's novel Anne of Geierstein (1829), which which details some of the church-bells of Lon-
features an unlucky don is known all over the Enghsh-speaking
opal, may perhaps take
some of the blame for its bad reputation, but world, and exists in numerous versions. Its
first known printing was c.1744, in a version
thisremains speculation. Opals were also con-
sidered to be connected with eyesight, and that starts with

there are hints that they conferred invisibility Two sticks and an apple
on the wearer (e.g. Ben Jonson, The New Inne Ring ye bells at Whitechapple
I. Old Father Bald Pate
(1631), vi).
Ring ye bells at Aldgate . . .

Opie andTatem, 1989: 294; N&Q.4s:3 (1869), 59. 154; 5s:3

167 (1934), 458; 168
(1875), 429, 475; 5s:4 (1875). 56, 97; and appeared regularly in 18th- and 19th-
it
(1935), 30, 86.
century printed sources. It was not unusual for
rhymes to be made on local bell-chimes, and it
Opie, Peter Mason. (1918-1982). Apart from was presumably its regular appearance in
a brief army career in his early twenties, Peter
print which made the London rhyme become
Opie's life was devoted to collecting and study- the standard. Traditionally, the rhyme also
ing folklore, especially children's lore, on accompanied a game (see *Gomme). There is
which he and his wofe lona became world- some doubt about which St Clement's the
famous authorities. Using both library rhyme refers to, although the congregation of
research and fieldwork, and drawing on St Clement Danes are sure it is their church
information from many correspondents, they which is mentioned, as they have a custom
assembled materials from which were built a which began in 1920 on the occasion of the
series of scholarly and elegantly written restoration and re-hanging of the church's
books, which are recognized as essential ref- bells. Every year, on or near 31 March, the
erence works in their respective fields: The church is decorated with oranges and lemons,
Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (1951), The and children from the nearest school attend
Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959), Child- for a special service. They are given fruit as
ren's Games in Street and Playground (1969), The
they leave, which is traditionally provided by
Qassic Fairy Tales (1974), and the posthumously the London Danish community.
published The Singing Game (1985) and Child-
Opie and Opie, 1997: 398-401; Gomme, 1898: ii. 25-35;
ren's Games with Things (1997). The card-indexes
Hole, 1975: 151-2; Howard. 1964: 65-6.
269 origin stories

Ordish, Thomas Fairman (1855-1924). All a land inside a mountain, with a rich castle
his working life was spent in the Civil Service, standing among fertile fields; there Orfeo sees
but he is remembered for his research into people who on earth had seemed to die by
early theatre (particularly Shakespeare) and sickness or violence, but had really been taken
the history of London. He joined the Folklore by fairies. As a reward for his music, he is
Society in 1886/7 and served on its Council allowed to take Heurodis home (there is no
from 1888 to 1909 (with gaps), with traditional taboo on looking in this version).
drama as his main interest. Ordish made the Text in Kenneth Sisam (ed.), 14th Century Verse and Prose
first real attempt to make a systematic collec- (1921), 13-31; modem translation in J. R. R. Tolkien, Sir
* Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and
tion of material on mumming plays and Sir Orfeo (1975).

*sword dances, primarily by pubhshed appeals

for assistance, but also by his own collecting. origin stories. For centuries, there have been
He published three influential articles: 'Morris folktales which set out to explain how a cus-
Dance at Revesby', FoTk-Lore ]oumal 7 (1889), tom began, why a *place-name was given, how
331-56; 'Folk Drama', Folk-Lore 2 (1891), 314- some feature of the landscape was formed,
35; 'EngUsh Folk-Drama IF, Folk-Lore 4 (1893), why an animal, bird, or plant has certain char-
149-75, and a third in this series is to be found They not only explain, but, in
acteristics.
in his unpubUshed papers. Ordish tried to many cases, supply a justification by reference
convince the theatre history estabhshment to a prestigious authority or a notable past
that their literary bias had led them to err in event, the more impressive the better.
commencing their account of the develop- Examples from the religious sphere include
ment of drama with the medieval miracle and legends claiming topographical features
mystery plays. He maintained that the trad- resulted from a saint's act or a *judgement on
itional drama which was collected in the 19th sinners (see *wells, *trees, *standing stones,
century was a direct survival of Anglo-Saxon *Semerwater); pious stories linking animals or
and Danish custom which, along with the birds with Jesus (see *donkey, *owl, *robin);
*May games, *hobby horses, pageants, and customs validated by a link with the Christian
processions, were the true origins of the calendar (see burning *Judas, *catteming,
flowering of the dramatic impulse in post- *souling).
medieval England. Secular stories to account for local customs
As early as 1896, his projected book on the are fascinatingly varied, some containing a
mumming play was annoimced as forthcom- fairdegree of historical accuracy, while others
ing, and it was still being advertised as such in are colourfiil pseudo-history, or even jokes.
1905, but it never materialized, and there is Several events were allegedly founded by a
evidence that its imminent arrival discour- noble medieval benefactress (see *bread and
aged others from embarking on such a project. cheese dole, *Haxey Hood Game, *Tichbome
On his death, his extensive collection disap- dole); some supposedly celebrated a victory,
peared from view until it was resurrected, for example catching a traitor (*Hunting the
sorted, and transcribed by Alex *Helm and Earl of Rone), foiling French invaders (Pad-
Margaret *Dean-Smith in the early 1950s, and stow), or simply outwitting a rival village
is now lodged in the Folklore (*Painswick). Street *football in several places
Society Archives.
It was this exposure to a mass of
mumming was said to have originated in kicking an
material which resulted in Helm's continued enemy's head— a Scotsman's at Alnwick
interest and influential writing on the subject, (Northumberland), a Dane's at Chester. People
which put traditional drama back on the folk- giving money to a *Jack-in-the-Green were fol-
lore agenda in England in the 1960s. lowing the precedent of 'a lady who found her
Alex Helm, Folklore 66 (1955), 360-2; Margaret Dean- long-lost son as a sweep, and then she gave a
Smith, Folk-lore 66 (1955), 432-4. Obituaries: Folk-Lore 35 celebration each year' Qudge, 1979: 45-51).
(1924), 379. *marbles champion-
Tinsley Green claims its

ship began when two EUzabethan gentlemen,

'Orfeo, sir'. This narrative poem, written in rivals in love, staked the lady's hand on a mar-
southern England in the late 13th or early bles match.
14th century and probably based on a lost Besides these tales, which arise from within
French original, retells the myth of Orpheus folk tradition, there are origin theories which
and Euridice as the story of an abduction to, were initially proposed by intellectual obser-
and rescue from, *fairyland— here described as vers, but now permeate popular culture. One
orpine 270

type claims a 'historical core of fact' under- was thought to be close alongside the human
lying a fantastic or nonsensical item: for world, but underground or under water. BeUef
example, a dragon legend is 'really' a memory in this was strong in the Middle Ages, but
of Viking attacks, a nursery rhyme is 'really' diminished in later centuries.
about the Plague. The other is *Frazer's theory
that folk customs are survivals of *fertility
Ottery St Mary (Devon). Here there are two,
cults.Performers, press, and pubUc now large-
apparently unrelated, customs for Bonfire
ly ignore individual origin tales in favour of a Night, or *November the Fifth. The most
single all-purpose explanation: it is prehistoric spectacular is the *tar barrel roUing in the
and *pagan (preferably *Celtic), and whatever
evening, in which blazing tar-barrels are
it may look like now, it was 'really, originally'
carried on the shoulders of local men as they
a fertility ritual. Thus origin tales, hke other run around the village streets. The other is the
aspects of folklore, evolve to reflect current firing of the 'rock cannons', which are ten
tastes.
partly hollowed metal bars filled with gun-
powder and exploded at three points during
orpine. One of the orpine's nicknames is the day, allegedly to commemorate the land-
'Midsummer Men', after a *love divination
ing of WiUiam III in 1688 (Kightly. 1986: 131).
custom carried out on *Midsummer's Eve and
Compare *Fenny Poppers.
reported all over the country since at least the
Shuel, 1985: 187
18th century. To test the potential relation-
ship between two people, take shps of orpine,
stick them upright, and place them side by overlooking, see *evil eye.

side in pairs. The mutual attraction or aver-

sion is judged by whether the slips inclined owls. That an owl's cry means death or dis-
towards or away from each other. John Aubrey aster is an old and widespread motif, both in

(1686: 25-6) claims that in his day it was par- folk beUef and as a Uterary convention; it

ticularly 'cooke mayds and dayr5anaids' who apphes most strongly to the screech of the
were partial to this procedure, but the method bam owl. To see an owl by daylight, or to
and meaning remained remarkably stable have one knock against the window, is
until well into the 20th century. especially ominous (Opie and Tatem, 1989:

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 295; Vickeiy, 1995: 270-1. 295-6).

Ophelia in her madness remarks 'They say
Otherworld. There no the owl was a baker's daughter' (Hamlet, iv. v),
is clearly defined
Otherworld for the dead in EngUsh folk a reference to a medieval legend of the wide
Most stories and practices imply
tradition. spread type which offers an 'explanation'
Christian beliefs, plus, in some cases, a vague, based on some imaginary incident in Jesus's
half-formulated idea that the dead are present Jesus, passing a baker's shop, asked for
life.

in their graves. Traditions about *ghosts indi- bread; the baker's wife was about to put a
cate that their presence on earth is an anom- good slab of dough into her oven for him,
aly, but usually do not exphcitly address the when her daughter snatched most of it back,
question of where they come from and where saying it was far too much for a beggar. But at
once it swelled up enormously. 'Oo, ooo,
they should rightly be; one exception is the
oooo!' she cried, and turned into an owl
type of tale where an exorcist forces a ghost
into a lake or under a boulder (see * laying) and (Howard Staunton (ed.), The Plays of Shakespeare
binds it there; this might imply an Otherworld (1858)).
in the depths of the earth.
Fairyland, too, is a form of Otherworld; it oysters, see *grottoes.
pace eggs, see *easter eggs. swing from side to side, up and down, swirling
and swaying. The musicians walk slowly in
Pack Monday Fair (Sherborne, Dorset), see front or behind, and there is one who acts as
*TEDDY ROWE'S BAND. Teaser, dancing in front of the Oss, holding a
painted club. Others in the party dance as
padfoot. A shape-changing Yorkshire *bogey, well.The whole party sings the song, over and
over again, the first verse of which is quoted
particularly belonging to the district round
Leeds. Henderson (1866: 237-8) says one old above, and other verses make httle sense but
woman saw it rolling ahead of her like a bale
work remarkably well. Every now and then
of wool; others said it was invisible, though the music slows, the rhythm of the song
one could hear the soft padding of its feet, fol- changes, the Oss sinks to the ground, the dan-
lowed by an cers crouch down, those nearest stroke it
ear-splitting roar.
gently:
Padstow Hobby Horse. This north Cornwall
O where is St George
village has a day-long custom to celebrate the where is he O
*
coming of May, with a hobby horse who He is out on his long boat on the salt sea
dances in the streets while its attendants sing: Up flies the kite
Unite and unite and
And down falls the lark O
let us all unite
Aunt Ursula Broadwood she had an old ewe
For summer is acome unto day
And whither we are going we will all unite And she died in her own park
In the merry morning of May.
and to the triumphant shout of 'Oss! Oss! Wee
The narrow streets of the town are decor- Oss!', it springs back to Ufe with renewed

ated with flags, flowers, branches, and bunt- vigour.

ing, half the locals are dressed all in white Eariier in the day, children's horses can be
with a dash of blue or red as a wrist-band, sash, seen around the town, smaller versions of the
head-scarf, or neckerchief, there is a huge real thing, learning their trade. The night
*maypole in the middle of the town, and the before, starting as the church clock strikes
'Obby 'Oss cavorts through the narrow streets midnight, the night-singers perambulate the
to the sound of massed accordions, drums, town, singing to the inhabitants. Padstow
and singing. This goes on all day, and there is Obby Oss has fascinated folklorists and other
nothing else hke it in the English calendar. At commentators for years, and many are the
present there are two Osses and therefore two theories of origin which are presented, nor-
teams, blue and red, and there have been mally on some variation of the fertility ritual.
others in the past. Both Osses are constructed It is true that women caught under the skirts

in the same way: a circular wooden frame- of the Oss will be married (or pregnant) within
work with a man inside with his head poking a year, and there are numerous other httle
out through a hole in the top. A skirt of black details which can be used to 'prove' anything
material hangs all the way round the frame, one Ukes. One local story relates that once,
and a tall pointed head, with mask, is placed when Padstow was about to be invaded by the
on the man's head. The Oss also has a smaU French, and the menfolk were away at sea
head in front and a tail behind, but by no fishing, the women of the town constructed
stretch of imagination does it look Uke a the Oss and its antics frightened the cowardly
horse. The Oss can be made to dance, it can invaders away.
paganism 272

Donald R. Rawe, Padstow's Obby Oss and May Day Festivities one religion rather than another. The same is
(1971); Doc Rowe, Well CaD Once More Unto Your House of
true large categories of non-rational
(1982).
thought and action, e.g. those involving *fate,
*luck, *omens, and minor practices such as
paganism. The term (with its synonym 'hea- touching wood; Christians who think or act
thenism') for any religion where several gods in this way rarely see it as inconsistent with
and goddesses are worshipped; its relationship faith. *Calendarand *life-cycle customs usually
to folklore has long been debated, and is cen- involve celebratory activities (e.g. dancing,
tral to most *origin theories. special foods, drinking, disguise, bonfires) dis-
In England, the first people to discuss folk- tinct from the religious side of the event (if
lore from the outside (as opposed to partici- any), but not felt to be in conflict with it. The
pating in it) were Ehzabethan Protestants, appropriate word for these is 'secular', not
who usedit as a weapon in their campaign to 'pagan'.
identify Cathohcism with paganism. They In England, a fair amount is known about
sought out every possible similarity between Roman, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon religions
medieval customs and rituals and those of the before the arrival of Christianity, but little
only two pagan cultures they knew about: Old about the conversion process itself, which has
Testament Gentiles, and classical Greeks and led modem advocates of paganism to claim
Romans. This was the argument of Philip that tolerance and continuity was the norm.
Stubbes's TheAnatomie ofAbuses (1583), with its For the first wave of Christianization, that
famous diatribe against the * maypole as a which reached the Celtic Britons of the 4th
'stinking idol'; it was taken up by antiquarians century, the only evidence points the other
such as the Revd Henry * Bourne, whose way: when Celtic Christians reused pagan
Antiquitates Vulgares (1725) attacks popular cus- sites, they mutilated and dumped the statues
toms and beUefs as coming from Pagan Rome of the gods (Merrifield, 1987: 96-106). The
via Papist Rome. Even *Aubrey, who liked old final conversion, that of the Anglo-Saxons, is |

ways, held the same theory. In his signifi- described by Bede as a peaceful process, but
cantly titled Remaines ofGentilisme andjudaisme evidence of continuity is again scanty. Despite
(1686) he argues that ceremonies and beUefs the interpretation sometimes put on *Pope
were 'imbibed' by the ancient Britons from Gregory's letter, no Saxon pagan shrine has
the Romans, and survived wherever 'the yet been found underlying a church; though
Inundation of the Goths' (i.e. Anglo-Saxons) (very exceptionally) some Roman sacred sites
did not penetrate (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 55). were reused (Merrifield, 1987: 93-5). Coinci-
Several generations of writers referred back dence of dates is even less significant. The
to Flora, Ceres, or the Saturnalia, to explain dates of *Christmas and *Easter had been fijced
English festivals. Then 19th-century scholars long before Christianity reached Britain, and
showed that early Germanic and Celtic reflected Roman paganism and the Jewish
peoples had had myths and rituals of their Passover respectively, not the festivals of
own, independent from Rome, supplying northern Europe; since every day in the Chris-
closer precedents for EngUsh traditions. tian year celebrated at least one saint, every
Claims for pre-Christian origins have always pagan festival necessarily coincided with a
had great appeal among the general public, if saint's day, for reasons quite unconnected
only for the glamour antiquity confers; cur- with local cults.

rently they are more popular than ever, for The only significant documents are some
pagan beUefs (especially *Celtic ones) are seen law-codes of the 7th and 8th centuries forbid-
by many as admirable, and Christian tradition ding sacrifices to Germanic deities, and some
as repressive and dull. more in the early 1 1th century applying to the
However, there is an important distinction diocese of York, where Viking settlers had
between showing that a custom or belief is reinttoduced them. The names of some gc
older than Christianity, and arguing that appear in place-names, royal genealogies, and
when it is found among Christians it means one or two *charms, but their myths vanish?
paganism is still aUve. Some aspects of the surviving hero-legends (*Beowulf, *Wayland)
supernatural (e.g. fear of *ghosts and witch- have no religious content.
craft, beUef in *dreams) are so commonplace There is thus no general framework to suj
that they can occur in virtually any period, port claims that individual folklore items arel
including our own, and do not correlate with pagan survivals, and each must be assessed on
273 Palm Sunday

its own merits. For discussion of the main the custom's origin. Most agree that the pies
candidates, see *abbots bromley, *animal had small china dogs inside, but they are
DISGUISE, *CERNE ABBAS, *FOLIATE HEADS, referred to variously as plum pies, apple pies,
*GREEN MAN, *HALLOWEEN, *HEADS, *JACK-IN- meat pies, or even cakes topped with almond
THE-GREEN, *MAY DAY, *MAYPOLES, *MUMMING, paste. Explanations of the pies also vary. The
*SHEILA-NA-GIGS, *SKULLS, *SWORD DANCES, one most often quoted by joumaUsts links the
UFFINGTON, *WELLS, *WILMINGTON, *YULE. custom with the Roman festival of Lupercalia,
For discussion of British religions in relation to later which, it is said, involved the sacrifice of dogs.
folklore, see Hutton, 1991. For the religions individually, As usual this can be dismissed completely. The
see Martin Henig, Religion in Roman Britain (1984); G. A. local legends are far more interesting one is —
Waite, Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain (1985);
that the local landlord, despairing as to how to
Miranda Green, The Gods of the Celts (1986); Proinsas Mac-
Owen, Rites and Religions feed all the people flocking to Painswick Feast
Cana, Celtic Mythology (1983); Gale
of the Anglo-Saxons (1981); David Wilson, Anglo-Saxon actually resorted to cooking puppy-dogs.
Paganism (1992). People from neighbouring villages use the
dog-filled pies as a way of deriding Painswick
Painswick Feast and Church Clipping. This people as barbarians, but the Pains wickians
Gloucestershire town is noted for several trad- turn this round. They maintain that they once
itions, which cluster around the old * Feast invited the young men from neighbouring vil-
day. The church is dedicated to the Virgin lages to a feast, and afterwards informed them
Mary, and on the first Sunday after her Nativ- they had been eating dog-pies especially
ity on 19 September (Old Style), the parish- cooked for them.
ioners, and many visitors, gather at the church Shuel, 1985: 84-5; Sykes, 1977: 124; Hole, 1975: 94-5;
for the * Clipping ceremony. This involves a Stone, 1906: 19-21; Briggs, 1974: 35-6.

procession of local children, led by church

banner, clergy, band, and choir, around the
churchyard. For the 'clipping', the children Palm Sunday. In the late Middle Ages, this
join hands and encircle the church, and while was one of the most vivid festivals of the year.
a special hymn is sung they walk forwards Before Mass, the priests blessed 'palms' (twigs
and backwards three times. Everyone then of sallow, box or yew) which the congregation
processes to the stone steps of the tower carried in procession and later took home.
where the vicar delivers a sermon.The chil- During Mass people made crosses, either from
dren wear their best clothes and flowers—-the their 'palms' or from sticks and string they
boys as buttonholes, the girls in their hair or had brought to the church; these too were
carrying baskets— and they receive a bun and blessed, and taken home to ward off evil
a token payment. (Duffy, 1992: 23-7).
One element of the Painswick custom Echoes remained in the secular folk custom
which has fallen by the wayside, and for of 'going a-palming', common from the 18th
which no one can offer a satisfactory account, century until the mid-1 9th century. Groups of
was the behaviour of the children after the young people went into the woods to collect
cUpping was over. They used to run, pell-mell, the catkin-bearing hazel and sallow, to decor-
along the road to the vicarage, shouting 'High- ate their homes and bring luck for the year,
conceivable that the bun and/or
gates'. It is and to wear in their buttonholes. In northern
*
payment is a remnant of a scrambling cus- counties, sallowwas still made into crosses
tom, previously carried out at the vicarage, and hung on walls; William Henderson
but this is guesswork. The word 'clipping' recalled making them himself as a boy in the
means 'embracing', but at Painswick it has 1820s, 'like a St Andrew's Cross, with a tuft of
been conftised with the physical cUpping of catkins at each point, bound with knots and
the 99 *yew trees in the churchyard. It used to bows of ribbon'. In some places those gather-
be believed that only 99 yews would grow in ing 'palms' then headed for a prominent hill,
the churchyard, and that all attempts at plant- to dance and hold sports, eat figs and cakes,
ing more would be unsuccessful. and drink sugared water. This caused annoy-
The other tradition for which Painsv^dck is ance to landowners whose hedges and woods
known is the baking of Puppy-Dog Pies. were invaded, and was held to encourage
Writers differ quite sharply in describing drunkenness, brawling, and immoraUty; it
these delicacies and it is as hard to get an was discouraged by the later Victorian gentry.
authoritative description as it is to pin down See also *fig Sunday, *pax cakes.
pancake races

pancake races. The custom of eating pan- It also has sexual connotations; 'parsley bed'
cakes on * Shrove Tuesday is well attested from is a euphemism for female genitals and 'pars-
the 16th century onwards; in the 19th century ley' for pubic hair— hence a traditional put-off
there are many references to the custom of used since the early 17th century when chil-
toUing a church beU at 11. a.m. or midday to dren ask where babies come from; they are
show the day's work was over and jolUfi- told 'from the parsley bed' (variants: 'from the
cations could begin, including cooking the nettle bed' or 'under the gooseberry bush'). Its

pancakes. This was variously known as the role in gynaecological lore seems inconsistent:
Pancake Bell, Fritter Bell, or Pan-Bum Bell, and some sources say sowing, picking, or eating
is thought to have evolved from a medieval parsley will make a woman conceive easily;
custom of ringing to call people to church for others say crushed parsley placed in the
'shriving'. vagina, or eaten three times daily for three
Nowadays, all over the country, there are weeks, will bring on a period and cause mis-
races in which women must toss pancakes in a carriage; others recommend eating large
pan while running; they are now generally quantities to recover from childbirth (Opie
accepted as an integral part of the season, and andTatem, 1989: 298-9; Vickery, 1995: 273-5).
some have been held sufficiently regularly to
be regarded as established local customs. The
pavement. A well-known game or supersti-
most famous, at Olney (Buckinghamshire) tion of 20th-century children is to avoid step-
claims as its*origin legend that back in 1445 a ping on the cracks between the paving stones
woman rushed off to church on hearing the
(or even on cracked stones) of the pavement.
shriving bell, still holding her frying pan. Its
There is a wide variety of predicted con-
real age is hard to estabUsh. It is not men-
sequences. Treading on a crack could bring
tioned in Wright and Lones, which must mean
general bad luck, predict how many pieces of
not only that it was not held in the 1930s but china you would break, or even mean that you
that there were no references to it in older
would have a black baby. Alternatively, bears
works. What is certain is that soon after the
or snakes will chase you. Opie and Tatem give
Second World War the vicar 'revived' it (is it
the first known reference as c.1890. Several
significantthat the alleged origin date is *
responses to our 1998/9 Superstitions Survey
exactly 500 years before 1945?), and that in related a current children's beUef that step-
1949 'the Junior Chamber of Commerce of
ping on a 'three-drain' (a drain or manhole
Liberal, Kansas, USA . . .
challenged the cover in three sections) is particularly
women of Olney as to who could win a race
unlucky.
over the same distance' (Ingram, 1954: 90).
Opie and Opie, 1959: 220-2; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 300.
The races have been twinned ever since; the
times of the American and English winner are
then compared, and an overall prize awarded. pax cakes. The churches of King's Caple,
Hentland, Sellack, and Hoarwithy— all now in
Any female resident over 16 can take part,
is wearing an apron, has her
Hereford and Worcester— have a tradition of
provided she
head covered, and is carrying a frying pan distributing small buns on *Palm Sunday after
the morning service; they are called pax cakes,
complete with pancake, which must be tossed
three times on the way. The pubUcity inspired signifying reconcihation and goodwill. It was
a host of imitators from the 1960s onwards, estabUshed in 1570 by a local landowner. Lady
and today pancake races multiply yearly. Scudamore; in the 19th century, local farmers
Tom provided cider and ale (Leather, 1912: 97-8).
Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 8-16; Ingram, Bells in
After lapsing in the early 20th century, the
England (1954), 89-92.
Hentland custom has been revived, and is now
well kept up both there and at Sellack, where
parsley. There are various sayings about sow-
cider too is given. The distribution is made as
ing parsley, which is notoriously slow to ger-
minate. It must be sown on *Good Friday the parishioners leave church, the vicars say-
before noon; its roots go seven (or nine) times ing to each, 'God and good neighbourhood', or
down to Hell and back before any shoots 'Peace and goodwill'.
appear; it will only grow where the wife is boss
of the household. Transplanting it is thought peacocks. In medieval sjonbolism, peacocks
to bring death or disaster, and some also say it represented vanity and pride. Nowadays, some
should never be given away. think they bring bad luck; more commonly, it
275 pentacle, pentangle, pentagram
isonly their tail-feathers that are feared, and banks, especially on Sundays, she would drag
should not be worn, used in fans, or brought them in and eat them (Henderson, 1866: 229).
indoors as decorations. This belief is first
noted around the niid-19th century, and has Hedge. At 9 o'clock in the morning of
been widespread since; it is generally the day before *Ascension Day a small group of
explained by the green eye-like markings, Whitby residents in north Yorkshire gather on
emblem ofjealousy and the evil eye. The bird's the foreshore of the harbour to construct what
screech is also said to foretell rain. looks Uke a small fence, but is called a 'hedge',
out of willow sticks and interwoven strips of
Pearly King, Queen. London costermongers hazel. This hedge has to be strong enough to
(street vendors) are the only English occu- withstand three tides, and always is. When the
pational group to have evolved a festive cos- hedge is complete, the Bailiff of the Court Leet
tume. Men of their leading famihes wear black of Fyling blows a horn and shouts 'Out upon
velveteen suits to which hundreds of mother- ye! Out upon ye!', meaning 'shame on you'. As
of-pearl buttons are sewn in decorative pat- usual, there is a legend to explain this odd
terns; the women's black velveteen dresses are event. In 1159, two lords, William de Bruce
similarly adorned, and they wear huge hats and Ralph de Piercie were out boar-hunting on
with ostrich feathers. This showy style dates the Abbot of Whitby's land. One particular
from the late 19th century, and probably boar took refuge in a local hermitage, and the
developed out of a single row of buttons hermit refused (or neglected, as he was pray-
stitched to the trouser-seam by coster lads; the ing) to open the door. They were so angry that
first to wear it is said to have been Henry Croft they attacked, and mortally wounded, the
(1863-1930). In each borough, the eldest poor hermit. Before he finally died, the hermit
couple in the most respected family holds the begged the Abbot to spare the lives of the lords
title of Pearly King and Queen. Pearlies are if they agreed to an annual penance. He left
much in demand as tourist attractions, and at precise instructions that they should build
charity fimd-raising events (Binder, 1975). this hedge, on the foreshore, having carried
the sticks on their backs, supervised by the
Peeping Tom, see *godiva. Officer of Eskdale-Side. Failure to do so would
result in forfeiture of their lands. There is no
Peg o' Nell. The
*water-spirit of the *river doubt that legend is completely untrue.
this
Ribble in Lancashire. She was said to be the AU authorities agree that the custom goes back
ghost of a servant at Waddow Hall, Clitheroe, well beyond the 12th century and is a relic of
who broke her neck when she slipped on the Homgarth, which was a *manorial obligation
ice, having been sent to fetch water on a frosty by which tenants had to build and maintain
night. Every seven years she would claim a life particular hedges or fences on the Lord of the
in revenge, but this would not necessarily be Manor's land. These same authorities all dis-
human— she could be tricked by deliberately agree on this particular hedge, and whether it
drowning a cat, bird, or dog. A local story tells was to keep animals in or out, and whether
how a young man once insisted on fording the the horn refers to the homed animal or a
river, even though he was warned that it was hunting horn, and so on.
the seventh year and no animal had yet been Smith, 1989: 29-32; Rightly, 1986: 187-8; Jeffrey, 1923:
sacrificed; he and his horse were swept away 38-45; Gutch, 1901: 344-8.
by a sudden gush of water (Henderson, 1866:
229). pentacle, pentangle, pentagram. A five
In other versions, she was said to Uve in pointed star made by drawing a single Une as
'Peggy Nell's Well', in a meadow on the edge interlocked triangles, also sometimes called
of the river, where a headless stone statue Solomon's Seal, or the Endless Knot, used as a
beside the well is supposed to represent her, powerful protective symbol; now often
the head having been chopped off as punish- regarded as the essential mark of a magician.
ment after she caused a Puritan preacher to It is first found in ancient Greece and the

fall in the river. Near East as a decorative pattern on coins and

buildings, and was a symbol of the perfect
Peg Powler. A green-haired *water-spirit in universe (four elements plus spirit) among
the *river Tees, used by adults as a *bogey; Gnostics and Neoplatonists in the early cen-
children were told that if they played on the turies AD. It reached medieval Europe via
Percy, Thomas 276

Jewish and Arab culture, and was reinterpreted sides —including Wordsworth, Scott, and Col-
in Christian terms as an emblem of the Five eridge. It caught the mood of the time, which
Wounds ofJesus, guaranteed to put demons to was for an unsophisticated, relatively natural
flight. In the 1660s, Aubrey had a clergyman style of verse, and the wildness of the ballads,
friend who
always headed his letters with it; even in the attenuated form printed by Percy,
this custom had once been widespread, 'for proved irresistible to the stirring romantic
good-luck's sake' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 51). notions of the Uterary world. Neverthless,
Medieval legend said that either this design while poets welcomed the book wholeheart-
or the six-pointed star had been engraved on a edly, scholars such as *Ritson attacked Percy's
seal-ring used by Solomon to control demons. editorial methods which by modem standards
The author of *Gawain and the Green Knight calls were extremely poor, but which were
the 'pentangle' on Gawain's shield 'Solomon's unexceptional for the time. Percy had cer-
Sign', but interprets it in terms of the Five tainly interfered with the ballads he pub-
Wounds, five senses, five virtues, and the Five Ushed, editing, conflating, softening, rewrit-
Joys of Mary. A pentagram within a circle was ing, and all but faking. He attempted, in later
the basis formost of the complex protective editions, to remove at least the most glaring
patterns drawn on the ground by ritual magi- editorial faults, and was also forced to rewrite
cians of the Renaissance (and later) when the incorporated essays on origins in par- —
summoning banishing spirits; modem
or ticular as regards the history of the profes-

magicians sometimes extend the term 'pent- sional minstrel class. By the time the fourth
acle' to cover any disc engraved with magic edition was needed,
in 1794, Percy himself
symbols, reserving 'pentagram' for the five- was reluctant to have his name still connected
pointed star itself. When displayed verti-
it is with such trivial matter, and it was thus

cally (e.g. when worn as a medaUion), it has ostensibly edited by his nephew, also called
one point upwards if the intention is protect- Thomas (1768-1808). The scholarly world had
the late 19th century occultists have
ive; since to wait until 1867-8 to see the manuscript in
regarded a pentagram with two points its entirety and be able to judge for themselves
upwards even Satanic, though this
as sinister, the full nature of Percy's handling of the bal-
distinction does not appear in older writings. lads, when it was finally edited and published

in fiill by J. W. Hales and F. J. Fumivall as Percy's

Percy, Thomas (1729-1811). Bishop of Dro- Folio MS, as a result of the perseverance of Pro-
more from 1782 to 1798, he also had a lifelong fessor F. J. *Child. Despite his editorial short-
interest in literary matters, wrote poetry, and comings, Percy has retained his fame as a
edited a number of pubUcations, including pioneer, and one of the Victorian societit
translations from the Chinese and Icelandic. founded to reprint early ballad and poetic
His major claim to fame, however, came with material was fittingly called the Percy Society^;
a manuscript which he discovered (probably —
Bertram H. Davis, A Scholar Critic in the Age ofjdhnso
about 1753) 'lying dirty on the floor under a (1989); Albert B. Friedman, The Ballad Revival: Studies in 1

bureau in ye parlour' of his friend Humphrey Influence of Popular on Sophisticated Poetry (1961); DNB.

Pitt's house in Shifhal (Shropshire), which the

maids were using to Ught the fire. The manu- Perrault, Charles (1628-1703). In 1697 tl
script contained, amongst other poetical
French writer pubUshed Histoires et Contes
items, versions of traditional *ballads, and had Temps Passe, eight fairytales with traditioi
probably been compiled in the mid-1 7th cen- plots, rendered in a polished and witty style

tury. Percy was finally persuaded to pubhsh they were translated into Enghsh in 1729
his find, in February 1765, as Reliques of Ancient Mother Goose Tales, a term taken from Perrault'i
English Poetry: Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads,
subtitle. Five are now among the basic tales i

Son^ and Other Pieces of Our Earlier Poets (Chiefly English children know: 'Cinderella', 'Sleepii
of the Lyric Kind) Together with Some Few of Later Beauty', 'Puss in Boots', 'Bluebeard', and 'Re

Date. This was the first real collection of bal- Riding Hood'.
lads, and was an immediate success, with a
new edition required a month later, a third in phantom carriages. A fairly common mot
1775, and a fourth
in 1794. Reliques laid the in legends of the 19th century or earlier is that
foundations for ballad collection and study in the *ghost of some local aristocrat or lan<
Britain, but also changed the face of poetry, owner rides about the countryside at night
being cited as a source of inspiration on all a spectral black carriage; its horses may be:
 pigeons

headless, or fire-breathing, or luminous, and and was callously abandoned by the other; in
similarly monstrous *black dogs may precede this version, when
the ghostly ship is sighted,
it. Recorded versions show considerable relish it is sinking below the waves (A. W. Smith,

for these macabre details. A famous instance is forthcoming). However, during the 19th cen-
the carriage of Lady Howard of Tavistock tury a more dramatic legend evolved in
(Devon), who died in 1671 after marrying, and Europe, and became widely known, in Eng-
allegedly murdering, four husbands in turn; it land as elsewhere; in this, the Dutchman is not
is made of bones, with a skull at each comer, a wrecked vessel, but one that is doomed to
and runs nightly ft'om Tavistock to Okehamp- sail for ever, because her captain blasphem-

ton Castle (Brown, 1979: 32). ously swore God could not prevent him round-
Besides these elaborate but fanciful tales, ing the Cape.
there were sober personal anecdotes about
Pharisees, see *farisees.
sightings of phantom ftinerals which were
dreaded as death *omens, foreshadowing real
photocopyiore. When the photocopier
funerals.
became readily available in offices in the
1960s, people seized on the new medium for
phantom ships. Several 19th-century folk- their own unofficial purposes and a new folk-
lorists noted traditions in Cornwall about
lore genre was bom. Photocopyiore exploits
phantom ships. Some were to be seen sailing the machinery to create multiple copies of
straight ashore, skimming over dry land as if it
items, which are then circulated from person
were sea; the sight was an *omen of storms
to person. Much of the content of photocopy-
and wrecks. Sometimes dramatic explanations
lore is traditional, including jokes and car-
were offered: that the ship bore the *ghosts of
toons, while other pieces are new, such as
two pirates, one of whom had murdered the
* spoof memos, and satirical comments on
other, or the Devil coming to carry off the
office procedures. As the item gets repeatedly
soul of an old wrecker (Bottrell. 1873: 247-9).
copied, and gradually fades, somebody
Tales about spectral ships generally involve
redraws or retypes it, and
slightly different
re-enactment of tragedy, the vessel appearing
versions are created, in the same way as oral
near the place where it sank on an anniversary
tradition creates subtly different versions.
of the disaster. There are two such legends
Many of the items circulated are bawdy, or
about wrecks on the Goodwin Sands (off Kent).
downright obscene, while others perpetuate
The first concerns the warship Northumherland,
racist and sexist stereotypes, and the ease and
one among several driven on to the Sands dur-
privacy of the copying process are ideal for
ing a gale in November
1703; 50 years later she
this sort of material. The use of headed note
allegedly reappeared, with her ghostly crew
paper adds a spurious authority.
leaping into the sea. The second concerns the Also called 'Xerox-lore'.
Lady Lovihund, said to have been deUberately
Smith, 1984; Dundes and Pagter, 1975; Dundes and
wrecked on the Sands on 13 February 1748 (or
Pagter, 1991.
1724) by the mate, because the woman he
loved had married the captain, who had pictures. The idea that a picture suddenly
brought her aboard for their wedding voyage. falling off the wall betokens a death—
This ship too supposedly returned every 50 especially if it is a portrait— has been current
years, in 1798, 1848, and 1898; to the bitter since at least the late 17th century, and is still
disappointment of journalists, she was not not obsolete. The beUef is quite understand-
seen in 1998. These tales are often included in able if one accepts that sudden unexplained
modem books on sea-lore, but it is unclear happenings can be Uterally ominous and the
how old they are; the Lady Lovibund, for fact that a portrait can symboUcally represent
instance, seems first to have been mentioned the real person. In some circles, it was
a
in 1924.
regarded as unlucky to hang pictures over
The first known reference to that most fam- door or a bed. The first mention of this belief is
ous of all phantom vessels, The Eying Dutchman, in Igglesden (c.l932: 234) who reports it as a
is in The Life of a Sea Officer, by Jeffrey, Baron de superstition of the *theatre.
Reigersfeld (Maidstone, c.1830). His account is See also *'crying boy' painting.
yet another 're-enactment' story one of two
—
Opie andTatem, 1989: 304-5.
ships rounding the Cape of Good Hope on the
way to the East Indies foundered in a storm pigeons. Often connected with illness and
pigs 278

death in English folklore. Behefs regarded a ingham (Norfolk), the Holy Rood at Broom-
pigeon alighting on a bed, or even on a house, holm (Norfolk), the Holy Blood at Hailes Abbey
as a sign of at least sickness, and sometimes (Gloucestershire), and *Glastonbury. People
death, and there is a tradition that a sick per- went on pilgrimage as a penance for sin, or to
son asking for a pigeon must be near death as fulfil a vow, or seeking a cure for sickness. The

'that is almost the last thing they want'. usual procedure was to spend several days
Numerous references from the 17th century praying near the saint's tomb or the altar
onwards concern the use of pigeons in med- where the holy relic was kept, and if possible
ical, often near-death, contexts. It was com- to touch it; at Canterbury, pilgrims drank
monly believed that a live pigeon, cut in half, water which allegedly contained a trace of
and applied to a sick person's body, would Becket's blood. Flasks of water and pouches of
draw out a fever or sickness. Samuel Pepys' dust scraped from the shrine were taken
Diary, forexample, twice mentions this pro- home for ftiture use.
cedure: 'they did lay pigeons to his feet while I It was normal to make offerings at shrines.

was in the house; and all despair of him .' . . A common custom was to bend a silver *coin
(21 Jan. 1668). Similarly, application of a when vowing to make a pilgrimage, and give it
pigeon would draw out adder poison. A saying on arrival. Another was to measure the height
that 'He who is sprinkled with pigeon's blood of a sick person (or the length of an injured
will never die a natural death' has a legend to limb) with thread, and then use this as the
support it. When Charles 1 was receiving a wick of a *candle to be burned at the shrine.
new bust of himself, sculpted by Bernini, a Those who had experienced a miraculous
pigeon flying overhead was attacked by a recovery or escape might leave miniature wax,
hawk, and the pigeon's blood fell on the bust, silver,or gilded images of bodies, heads,
staining it red round the neck— a stain that limbs, eyes, teeth, hearts, animals, boats,
could never be removed. In other versions anchors, or carts, each representing an injury
(such as Aubrey, 1696) it is a different or healed or an accident averted. Votive offerings
unnamed bird (N&Ci 7s:8 (1889), 468; 7s:9 hung in hundreds round the shrines; period-
(1890), 13-14, 77). See also *adders, *feathers. ically wax ones would be melted down into

Black, 1883: 163-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 308-9; NSKl candles and silver ones into coins, but plenty
151 (1926), 136. always remained.
Finucane, 1977; Ben Nilson, Cathedral Shrines of Medieval
pigs. Sailors and *fishermen commonly England (1998).
regard pigs as very unlucky; they will not say
the word 'pig' at sea ('grunter' or 'porker' is pin-a-sight. A *display custom of little girls in
used instead); those who meet a pig on the an Oxfordshire village in the 1880s. In Lark Rise
way to their boat v^ll not sail that day; some To Candleford (1945, chapter 9), Flora Thomp-
yfiU not allow pork or bacon on board (Clark, son describes making 'a kind of floral sand-
1982: 151-60; GUI, 1993: 78-81). This fear is wich' by stripping asmany brightly coloured
presumably based on the 'uncleanness' of pigs petals as possible from flowers, and laying
in the Bible, and perhaps more specifically on them on a small sheet of glass, vdth another
the Gadarene swine (Mark 5: 11-15; Luke 8: sheet placed over it. The whole thing would be
22-3), who drowned. Some said marks on pigs' wrapped in brov/n paper, 'in which a little
legs were caused by the pressure of the Devil's square v^dndow was cut, with a flap left hang-
fingers, when he entered that herd. ing to act as a drop-scene'. The device was
It is said that pigs can see the wind, and also called a *pin-a-sight'; if the girls showed them
(inaccurately) that they cannot swim, because to adults, they expected to be rewarded with a
they cut their throats with their ov^nti trotters. pin, and recited:
In Sussex, pigs are
respected for their
A pin to see a pin-a-sight.
independent spirit and associated with the All the ladies dressed in white.
county's informal motto, 'We wun't be druv'. A pin behind and a pin before.
Perhaps because of 'piggy bank' money boxes, And a pin to knock at the lady's door.
pig figures are lucky *charms.
See also *poppy show.

pilgrimage. Medieval England had many pil-

grimage centres, including those of Thomas a pins. One important folkloric function of pins
Becket at Canterbury, the Virgin Mary at Wals- is to symbolize attack. Witches were regularly
279 place-names

suspected of using them in their destructive neighbourhood; victims can escape by turning
image magic, and of mysteriously intro- some item of clothing inside out. They may do
ducing them into the bodies of their victims, this by appearing as a flickering Ught, or by
who would then vomit them. The crew of a turning into what seems to be a horse (a 'colt-
fishing smack, in the 1880s, were dismayed pixy') and luring the traveller's own horse into
when a pinned-up parcel was brought aboard; a bog. They may operate either singly or in
the captain dropped the pins overboard one by groups; the latter may be seen dancing in cir-
one, at arm's length, explaining they were cles. They invade stables at night, tangling the

'spiteful witches', and all subsequent mis- horses' manes and making them sweat; they
fortunes in that trip were blamed on the pins cause strange noises and play tricks, Uke
(N&Q. 7s:4 (1887), 165-6). poltergeists.
Pins were also much used in aggressive However, single pixies are sometimes cred-
*counterspells by those who thought them- itedwith being helpfiil, like *brownies, and
selves bewitched (see *hearts and pins, *witch like them will cease working if spied on,
bottles). Inthe fiercely worded love charm thanked, mocked, or given clothes. In the lat-
involving an animal *blade-bone, pins were ter case, proud and delighted, the pixy disap-
sometimes used instead of a knife to prick the pears, crying:
bone, and there are tales from East Yorkshire
Pixy fine, pbcy gay.
and from Derbyshire of girls driving pins into now will run away.
Pixy
a Uve frog as part of a charm to force a man to
Pixy tales will be found in Bray, 1836; Bottrell, 1870-90;
marry them (Hole, 1973: 90). They also serve as Hunt. 1865; Courtney, 1890; Tongue, 1965.
a medium of magical transference, for
example when rubbed over a *wart and then place-names. To find the true origin and
stuck in the ground, so that someone may meaning of place-names requires access to
tread on them and 'catch' the wart. early documents and famiUarity with Old and
Pins were popular offerings in holy *wells Middle EngUsh dialects, but lack of these
and *wishing wells, though now *coins are resources never stopped people devising
more usual; when so used, they were generally explanations by relating names to real or
bent. imagined history, legend, or fanciful word-
The best-known belief about finding pins is play. There are hundreds such in every coimty,
expressed in the rhyme (first recorded in 1842 not only for towns and villages but for fields,
and still current): woods, rocks, lakes, etc. Some draw on estab-
Ushed story-patterns; others are mere pvms
See a pin and pick it up, and jokes.
All the day you'll have good luck;
See a pin and let it lay.
Village rivalry has led to many place-name
You'll have bad luck all the day. rhymes which recur in various parts of Eng-
land with differing but appropriate names.
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 309-12.
Thus:
for riches, for poor,
pixy, pisky. This is the standard term in for a pretty girl, and for a whore.
Devon, Cornwall, and Somerset for a * fairy,
Taunts rhjoning 'people' and 'steeple' are
though many writers from the early 19th cen-
widespread, for example:
tury onwards have insisted that the two races
are quite distinct; the word is probably related Dirty Tredington,wooden steeple.
to *Puck. One distinctive feature is the belief in Funny parson, wicked people.
Devon and Cornwall that pixies are the ghosts (Gloucestershire)
of babies who died unbaptized, an explanation
Berwick is a dirty town,
often given for the *Will-o'-the-Wisp, but not A church without a steeple,
for other EngUsh fairies. However, stories told A dunghill before every door.
elsewhere about fairies are told of pixies in the And very deceitful people.
south-west, for example that they ask a (Northumberland)
human midwife to assist at their births,
So are lists with insulting epithets:
abduct babies and leave changelings, steal
from human homes, etc. Beggarly Bisley, strutting Stroud,
Their best-known characteristic is causing Mincing Hampton, Painswick proud.
people to lose their way, even in a familiar (Gloucestershire)
placenta 280

Mary Williams, folklore 74 (1963). 361-76; W. F. H. eat her afterbirth if (as in France) they feared
Nicolaisen. Folklore 87 (1976). 146-59. The latter uses she would then eat her offspring too (G^lis.
Scottish examples, but sets out principles equally applic-
1991: 166).
able to English material.

Plagua. The Great Plague ravaged London,

placenta. The information on popular •child- and other places, in 1665/6. and as with all
birth practices is too inadequate to allow us to major events generated its own set of behefs
judge whether the placenta was always for- and customs at the time, and also reverberat- !

mally disposed of (not just thrown away), but ing ever since. We are fortunate to have in J

this seems likely. In 20th-century midwifery, Daniel Defoe's A Journal of the Plague Year
the official rule was to burn it— on the fire in (1722). a 'fictionalized' account of life in

the living-room or bedroom for home deliver- London in 1665. numerous examples of the
'

ies, in an incinerator at hospital. Some said folklore of the time. Indeed. Defoe proves to be
one could tell how many more children the an excellent observer of the folkloric. includ- i

woman would have by counting the pops it ing, amongst other things, portents, preventa-'
made while burning; *Aubrey said midwives tivecharms, herbal remedies, and omens. In
predicted how long a baby would live by burn- the early stages of the plague, people's fears
ing the afterbirth (Aubrey. 1686/1880: 73). drove them to 'running about to fortune-tellers,
Nowadays, women who give birth at home cunning-men and astrologers to know their for-
sometimes choose to have the placenta buried tune' (p. 47). and he gives details of some of the
in the garden, with a shrub planted over it. charms used— 'papers tied up with so many
This is a revival of an older custom, with con- knots, and certain words or figures written on
tinental parallels (G^lis. 1991: 167-71); some them, as particularly the word Abracadabra,
informants recall the practice from before the formed in a triangle or pyramid (pp. 51-3).
. . .'

Second World War. and add that a placenta Other preventatives were herbal, including gar* ;

was the best possible fertilizer for rose bushes lie. rue. tobacco, and vinegar. Defoe was also

\}S\. Others
eat the placenta as a natural medi- one of the first writers to identify what we now
cine to avoid post-natal depression, and this term *contemporary legends (p. 102).
too may have a traditional basis, since French The Great Plague lives on, in various ways,
evidence suggests that it was sometimes eaten inEngUsh folklore. At Eyam, Derbyshire, since
to encourage lactation (G^lis. 1991: 167-71). 1905, the last Sunday in August has been
The National Childbirth Trust recently pub- Plague Sunday. This commemorates the hero-
Ushed a book. Placenta Special: Eat It or Plant It?, ic part played by the village people when the .

since it frequent topic among young

is 'a disease broke out in their midst. By maintain-
mothers' {Independent (27 Nov. 1998). 3). A pla- ing a self-imposed quarantine neighbouring
centa can also serve as a dressing to promote communities were spared, but 259 of Eyam's
healing of pressure sores and deep ulcers, and 350 inhabitants died (Kightly. 1986: 189; Pal-,
be rubbed on the mother's breasts to prevent mer, 1991: 122). In addition, several places in
chapping when breast-feeding \}S]. England claim to have a Plague Stone, the dis-
In 19th-century Cheshire, some men tinguishing mark of which is an indentation
beUeved they 'could gain the affections of a which served as a receptacle for vinegar in
woman almost against her will by burying a which money could be placed by non-locals
placenta at the threshold of her house. This doing business with a quarantined village.
was actually done within living memory at Correspondence in N6Q, 159 (1930) identifies
man named Gatley, he
Gatley (Cheshire) by a existing examples and gives numerous refer-
having procured one for two guineas. The ences. In modem times, the plague is often
charm failed in this instance, the woman cited as the origin of saying 'bless you' when

being very self-willed' (Moss. 1898: 169). someone *sneezes. and also as the basis for the
Some farmers disposed of a cow's or mare's children's game*Ring-a-Ring-a-Roses. Neither
placenta by hanging it in a hawthorn tree. In has any evidence to support it. In local lore,
Hampshire in the 1930s this was done 'as a the presence of a 'plague-pit' is often postu-
preventative of fever in the cow' (Vickery. lated as the possible cause for hauntings or to
1995: 170); on a farm in Bilsdale (Yorkshire) it explain unused pieces of land.
being done, to bring luck to newborn
is still

foals (flSNews 28 (1998). 8-9). They may also plantain. Bruised plantain leaves applied to a
have wanted to thwart the animal's instinct to cut are said to stop it bleeding; more dubi-
</ukly. ao infusioQ oftmcks bom plantain and cession and 0ough were the main focus, but
iKMiey or treacle was said in East Anglia to cure the ctistom took on divergent forms, with
cables; its flowers are among those which some teams performing versions of *plou^
should not be hrou^t indoors, on pain of plays, others simply dancing and singing or
causing one's mother to die (Vickery. 1995: 52, reciting rhymes. The first known reference to
161. 285). For the magic coal' allegedly found the plough procession dates tcom January
under its roots, see •Midsununer. 1413, in Durham, but it is not until the ISth
century that informative (Ascriptions of the
The moct recent and most autixnita' custom become available.
twc woA oo the foUdore of plants in the Brit- See also *MOU.y dancing, *mumminc piaySu
iA falec n Boy Vidcery's A Dictionary cf FUaiX Hutton, 1996: 124-33; Wright and Lones. 1938;ii.93-M»*
tort (1995). drawing on information gathered —
E. C. Cav»rt«, "It's an Ancient Custom Intt How Anaent?*.
in Buddand and Wood, 1993: 37-56.
between 1981 and 1S*94. as well as on previous
\nxAs and journals. It covers behefs, customs,
and traditional uses, and is supplemented by plays. One of the three main types
Ins ixx>klet on IMudcy Hcmts (1985). Among of *mumming play, foxmd only in the East
older woiks, the most important are T. F. Midlands, and first reported in the 1820s.
Thiitletcm Dyer's The FoOc-Lore of Plants (1889). Performances were concentrated on *Plough
and Geofl&iey Grigison's The Eng^shman's Piora Monday, but could take place at any time over
(1955; 2nd edn.. 1987). the *Christmas/*New Year period, and were
See *nawEMs. "hekxs, "tmexs, and tbe typically by teams of male farmworkers who,
oaflMsofiodmdual plants. in addition to performing the play around the
neighbourhood, dragged a plough with them,
Mough Monday. The first Monday after and were thus often called by local names
•Twelfth l>ay January) and in rural coro-
(6 such as Plough Jags, Plough Bullocks, and so
flMinities this was traditionally the day on on. Plough plays invariably include the
ivlikh fermworkers prepared to go back to combat/ctue sequence of the more widespread
work after the Christmas break, and to start Hero-Combat type of play, but their main fea-
tbe all-important task of ploughing the fields ture, which distinguishes them, is a 'wooing'
nady for sowing later in the year. The day section. Either a 'Lady' (played by a man) is
itself had its own customs, including <me in wooed by a series of suitors or, more com-
whkh one of the fiarm lads had to get into the monly, a Recruiting Sergeant entices the
lotcfaen and place one of the tools of his trade Lady's farmworker lover away and she then
at tbe screen, or fireplace, before the maid had accepts the Fool's advances. Much of the woo-
pot Hie early morning water on to boil (see ing is expressed in sung dialogue.
Iteser. 1580/1878 edn.: 180).More common, Peter Millington. FMj 7:1 (1995). 71-2; Helm. 1981:
however, was some form of ceremony involv- 11-19; M. W. Barley. JEPDSS T2 (1953). 68-95; C. R.
Baskervill, Modem /'hflolcKy 21 (1923), 225-72.
ing a plough In many areas there was a coro-
mcm plough', housed in the church, which
could be used by any smallholder too poor to s. to the Wirral and along the
mm one himself. At New Year or Wough Mon- Cheshire/Lancashire border, poldies are a type
day the plough would be blessed by the parish of *fairy said to hve in woodland. One of the
priest and then decorated and paraded arotmd present authors []S] was told by a friend who
the neighbourhood by the pioughboys of the often visited that area as a child in the 19506.
local farms. Money collected by these men how children going to the woods would be
went to maintain the 'plough lights' whkh told by their parents to come home in good
were candles kept burning in the church to time— Tou take care of the poldies. As soon as
'

OKure continued divijoe Messing on this it starts to get dark the poldies come out They

essentia] operation in the farming cycle. The were also thought of as guardian spirits of the
leformation of the church in the 16th century woods, who would punish anyone who did
abolished both the hghts and the plough bless- damage there by causing them to have some
ing, and also removed the ecclesiastical sanc- accident. The informant recalls a cotisin of
tioc for the plough procession, but the latter hers dehberately twisting small branches off a
continued, or was revived, by the farmworkers tree and tossing them away, despite her pro-
now collecting money on their own behalf—to tests; a few minutes later he sprained his
he spent oo drink and menymaking. The pro- ankle badly, which she thought might %vell be
poltergeists 282

the poldies' doing. Some years later, she heard For if those temples are well built, it is requisite that

of a building contractor abandoning plans to they be converted from the worship of devils to the
service of the true God; that the nation, seeing that
grub up a wood in the Wirral because of con-
stant delays from flooding, machinery break-
their temples are not destroyed may the more
. . .

familiarly resort to the places to which they are

downs, etc.; local people said it was due to
accustomed.
poldies defending their homes.
So far, the letter is permissive rather than
poltergeists. Although the name is a Victo- prescriptive: well-built temples can be reused,
rian borrowing from German, the phenom- once properly consecrated. It does not say that
enon has been repeatedly described in EngUsh every temple must be so used— far less that
sources from EUzabethan times onwards; the siting of purpose-built churches should be
sometimes a *boggart or similar household determined by proximity to pagan shrines and
goblin was blamed, sometimes *witchcraft, landmarks. Gregory then turns to festivals:
sometimes a demon or a ghost. Famous
And because they have been used to slaughter many
examples, much discussed by learned writers
oxen in the sacrifices to devils, some solemnity must
at the time, were the 'devil' haunting the royal be exchanged for them on this account, as that on
Woodstock in 1649; the 'Tedworth
palace at the day of the dedication, or the nativities of the holy
Drummer' which caused innumerable dis- martyrs whose relics are there deposited, they may
turbances in a Wiltshire house from 1661 to build themselves huts of the boughs of trees, about

1663, and was thought to be a demon magic- those churches that have been turned to that use
from temples, and celebrate the solemnity with
ally sent by an aggrieved ex-soldier whose
drum had been confiscated by the magistrate religious feasting, and no more offer beasts to the
Devil, but kill cattle to the praise of God in their eat-
living there; and the 'Cock Lane Ghost' of
ing, and return thanks to the Giver of all things . . .

1760-2 (Bennett, 1987: 184-8; Finucane. 1982:

140-3, 157; D. Grant, The Cock Lane Ghost To schedule the new feasts to coincide with
(1965)). the anniversary of the church's dedication, or
the feast-day of its patron saint, would almost
Pope Gregory's Letter (ad 601). Very often inevitably break any previous links with the
quoted, but rarely in full, is a letter sent by agricultural cycle or seasonal tuming-points-
Pope Gregory to Abbot Melhtus, who was the letter does not advise picking saints whose
about to join Augustine in England, in the year days match pagan festivals. His advice that
601; we know of it only through Bede's Ecclesi- people should build huts {tabemacula) of tree
astical History of the English Nation, vmtten in branches does not imply that this was already
731 (book 1, chapter 30). Those who wish to an EngUsh custom; it is more likely that he
demonstrate the origins of fraditional cus- had in mind the Old Testament Feast of Tab-J
toms and lore in pagan times use it as a much- emacles (Leviticus 23: 39-43) as a suitable;
needed bridge across the societal chasm of model for converts to adopt. There is no rea-
Christianization; they take it to mean that the son to think the EngUsh had such huts, and far i

Church in England adopted a general policy of likelier that they feasted comfortably indoors^
appropriation rather than confrontation, and in the halls of local leaders, or possibly in thci
from this basis argue for a large-scale survival temples themselves, if these were large. That-
of non-Christian elements within the Church Gregory was thinking of the Old Testament is
and/or within society. It has become a key borne out by the rest of the letter, which dis-
element in many modem interpretations of cusses how 'the Lord made Himself known to ,
folklore. the people of Israel in Egypt' by gradual I

This is thus a crucial text, requiring close degrees, allowing them to go on killing beasts,
scrutiny. The numerous translations agree in but 'in his own worship', not as an offering to
substance but differ a Uttle in emphasis; the the Devil. This raises the question of how'
one quoted here was first published by Dent in much Gregory actually knew about English
1910. Gregory asks Mellitus to tell Augustine: paganism; did he have detailed information,
or was he making generalized assumptions
what I have,
upon mature deliberation of the affair
about how pagans behaved?
of the English, determined upon, viz., that the
It is in any case doubtftil that the
poUcy out-
temples of the idols in those nations ought not to be
destroyed; but let the idols that are in them be des-
Uned in this letter was widely adopted. In the
troyed; let holy water be made and sprinkled in the same year. Pope Gregory wrote to King Ethel-
said temples, let altars be erected, and relics placed. bert, urging him to 'aboUsh the worship of
283 precious stones

idolsand destroy their shrines' (Bede; book 1, laid at memorials for the dead of all recent
chapter 32). The few other relevant docu- wars.
ments include no other reference to any pohcy Country beliefs about poppies were chiefly
of accommodation, but on the contrary men- warnings: to pick or sniff them supposedly
tion several temples deUberately destroyed; caused headaches, earache, blindness, warts,
archaeology has so far found no traces of or a strong possibiUty of being struck by light-
pagan Saxon shrines under any churches. ning.The purpose may have been to stop chil-
David Wilson concludes: 'There is no intim- dren trampUng the com in order to pick
ation from the hterature that any attempt was flowers (Vickeiy, 1995: 286-90).
made to convert these sites into Christian
churches on the lines suggested by Gregory' Porter, Enid (1909-84). Curator of the Cam-
(WUson, 1992: 29-43). bridge and Country Folk Museum, Cambridge,
\rida D. Scudder (ed.), Bede's The Ecclesiastical History of the
from 1947 to 1976, and a leading authority on
English Nation (1910). that region's material culture, dialect, place-
names, local history, cures, customs, tales, and
poppet, poppy shows. A '^display custom of beUefs. During her fieldwork she discovered
children in the 19th and early 20th centuries, two excellent Fenland informants, W. H. Bar-
where they arranged flowers, small dolls, rett and Arthur Randall, from whom she col-
dolls' house furnishings, etc., inside a shoe- lected enough tales and reminiscences to edit
box or similar container; adults or other into five books (pubhshed under their names,
children would be asked to pay a peimy, or not hers), important sources for the region's
sometimes only a pin, for the privilege of look- life and storyteUing. Her own major work is

ing in through a sUt in the side. Poppies were Cambridgeshire Customs and FoMore (1969), a
not necessarily used; the name may be a mis- regional study equal to the finest in earher
understanding of 'peepshow'. As children car- generations, covering University and civic cus-
ried their boxes through the street, they toms as well as rural lore. Her FoMore of East
would chant such rhymes as: Anglia (1974)is a smaller book, but equally

well researched; she contributed numerous

A pin to see the poppet show
All manners of colours oh!
articles to local journals. Both her museum
See the ladies all below!
work and her writings are major achieve-
ments.
A recent informant recalls how, as a Uttle
Carmen Blacker, in Women and Tradition, ed. Hilda David-
girl living in Hove (Sussex) in the 1920s, she son and Carmen Blacker (forthcoming).
would put ferns or beach pebbles on the bot-
tom of a shoe-box, and then flowers and 'little potatoes. Carried in one's pocket, potatoes
bits and pieces of coloured glass, feathers, were widely thought to cure or prevent
shells—anything to make a pretty pattern', rheumatism, especially if they had been
especially, if possible, 'coloured paper from a stolen; as they dry and harden, they sup-
sweet wrapping'. Boys in Norwood (London) at posedly are drawing from the sufferer's body
the same period made peepshows in cereal the uric acid (or, according to other inform-
boxes, depicting scenes from stories or nur- ants, the iron) pain. The idea
which causes the
sery rhymes. was common in the 1950s (Radford, Radford,
Gomme, 1894: 41-2; Irene Saxby, London Lore 1:2 (1978), and Hole, 1961: 272), and is probably still to be
19-20. found. A common cure for *warts was to rub
them with a shce of potato, and bury it; as it
poppies. Besides s5mibohzing sleep and shrivelled, so would the warts.
unconsciousness, poppies were also associ-
ated with death, and already at the time of prams, see *cradles.
Waterloo it was said that those growing on
the battlefield had sprung from the blood of precious stones. Lapidaries, i.e. freatises on
soldiers (Dyer, 1889: 115). This symbohsm was the 'virtues' of precious and semi-precious
taken up during and after the First World stones, circulated throughout medieval and
War; in the period leading up to Armistice Renaissance Europe. Some writers dealt only
Day and Remembrance Sunday (11 November, with their supposed curative properties;
and the Sunday nearest to it) they are widely others said they had a moral influence too, for
worn as lapel badges, and wreaths of them example that amethyst prevents drunkenness,
pregnancy

and sapphire cures anger and stupidity; the pregnant woman's womb on a thread, or one
majority also listed magical powers, for of her own hairs, to see if it spins clockwise or
example detecting poison, driving demons anti-clockwise, or straight; however, inform-
away, ensuring the favour of princes, etc. The ants disagree on which movement means
power of the jewel could be enhanced by which sex (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 302-3;
engraving it with planetary or zodiacal sym- Chamberlain, 1981: 241; Sutton, 1992: 57).
bols, or v^dth religious formulas such as Blemishes in a newborn infant were blamed
Hebrew titles for God, names of angels, acro- on the circumstances of its *conception, or
nyms representing Scriptural phrases, etc. events during the mother's pregnancy. The
Many surviving medieval and Elizabethan best known is the harelip, caused by a *hare
rings and pendants prove that these principles crossing the mother's path, but virtually any
were put into practice by those who could troubles could be explained this way. If, for
afford to do so. Those who
could not, never- instance, a child had an ugly birthmark, it
theless knew about them at second hand, would be said to resemble something the
through popular manuals of magic such as The mother had stared too hard at, or been fright-
Secrets ofMbertus Magnus, of the Vertues ofHerhes, ened by, or longed in vain to eat. Examples of
Stones, and certaine Beasts (1637). Unrelated but this beUef can be found from the 16th century

analogous beliefs have arisen in the 20th cen- to the present. A woman from Hackthom (Lin-
tury, first as regards the luck of birthstones, colnshire) recalled in the 1980s:
and more recently as regards the healing
Iknew of a child who was bom with a perfect mouse
properties and spiritual symbolism of crystals. on his wrist. His mother had gone into the pantry
and had seen a mouse (it's the truth I'm teUing you)
pregnancy. The folklore of pregnancy, hke and she grabbed her wrist like this and the child was
that of *childbirth, is inadequately recorded in bom with the shape of a mouse on his wrist. My hus-
England. The process was jokingly compared band used to say it was balderdash, but it's true.
with baking bread; a pregnant woman is still Anj^way, he had to go into hospital to have it taken
said to 'have a bun in the oven', and a men- off, so there. (Sutton, 1992: 56)

tallyimpaired child to be 'half-baked'. Various Deformities were also sometimes seen as

signs were thought to indicate the baby's sex. God's *judgement on a sin of the mother (not
Ancient Greek authorities had taught that a
the father), typically a blasphemous remark,
male foetus lay to the *right of the mother's or a refusal of charity. The beUef was exploited
womb and affected the right side of her body, for propaganda by both sides during the Civil
and this notion can be found as late as 1724 in War. A royaUst pamphleteer claimed a Puritan
Jane Sharp's The Compleat Midwife's Companion: woman had declared while pregnant that she
'If it be a Boy, she is better Coloured, her Right
would rather bear a headless baby than let her
Breast will swell more, for Males lie most on
baby be baptized, and that this had duly hap-
the right side and her Belly especially on that
pened; a Puritan pamphleteer matched this
side lieth rounder and more tumefied and the
with the story that a royalist woman had said
Child will be first felt to move on that side, the
it would be better her child had no head than
Woman is more cheerfiil and in better Health, become a Roundhead, with the same result. In
her Pains are not so often or so great' (cited in
1871, the Revd Francis Kilvert learnt of a crip-
Chamberlain, 1981: 190). woman then living in Presteigne, who
pled
Women still pass on such tips to one was said to have the face and feet of a frog:
another, though often with amusement rather
than belief. Some say one can tell the baby's The story about this unfortunate
being is as follows.
sex by whether carried high or low,
it is and Shortly before she wasbom, a woman came begging
to her mother's door with two or three little chil-
whether it kicks to the right or to the left;
dren. Her mother was angry and ordered the woman
others, that 'boy baby bumps are all out at the
away. 'Get away with your young frogs,' she said.
fi-ont, while girl baby bumps are spread round
And the child she was expecting was bom partly in
the side as well'. Many say boy babies kick the form of a frog, as a punishment and a curse upon
harder ('He'll be a footballer!'), but the reverse her. {Mvert's Diary, ed. W. Plomer (1960), i. 380-1)
is recorded too: 'If you don't feel much move-

ment fi-om the baby it is a boy' (Chamberlain, See also *CHILDBIRTH, *CONCEPTION, *CRADLE,
1981: 241). *LIONS, *MONSTROUS BIRTHS.
A divination frequently mentioned is to
suspend a wedding ring or a key over the prehistoric sites. Visible landscape features
285 prophecies

which seemed artificial, yet had no practical it was as if a dozen blacksmiths had gone sud-
ftinction and no known history, frequently denly crazy' (Drake-Camell, 1938: 111-12).
feature in *local legends. They are associated In previous times the trade had also many
with the *Devil, *giants, *fairies, and legendary other customs to mark key points in the
heroes or wizards. Many are said to conceal worker's life. Charles Manby Smith describes a
treasures, or to be places where ritual actions mock wedding custom at the firm of Han-
(such as running round them) can raise sard's, about 1836, to celebrate a colleague's

ghosts. How much of all this was seriously forthcoming marriage. First of all his worksta-
beUeved, and how much merely repeated for tion was decorated v/ith branches, ribbons,
fun, is hard to assess. and so on. The workers then commenced
See also *barrows, standing stones, making the fearful banging noise, and then
CADBURY CASTLE, *LONG MEG, mERRY MAID- came a procession around the workshop with
ENS,rollright stones, stonehenge, way- a man dressed as the bride, a surrogate groom
land's SMITHY, willy HOWE. (the real one being a Uttle firail), elaborately
Grinsell, 1976, isa systematic listing; more detail for attired master of ceremonies, fiddler, and
individual sites will be found in regional collections, and others. A nonetoo-decent oration was
in some cases also in Westwood, 1985. delivered and the whole party to
decamped
the pub (Charles Manby Smith, The Working
primroses. These flowers were believed to Man's Way in the World (1853)). This is all a far
affect luck in poultry rearing, presumably from the elaborate and dignified May Day
cry
because primroses and chicks are both bright ceremonies at Stationers' Hall, described by
yellow {'Uke affects like'). From the mid-19th Hone in 1827 {Every-Day Book, ii. 314-15).
century to within living memory, children See also occupational lore.
were warned never to bring fewer than thir-
teen primroses into the house, for this was the
Prisoners' Base. One of the most popular
optimum number for a clutch of chicks, and
chasing games on record, although only
fewer primroses meant fewer eggs would
hatch. It was sometimes further believed that played nowadays in watered down form. It
requires a fair degree of organization, and also
giving someone a single primrose, or bringing
needs more concentration and strategy than
one indoors, would cause death (Vickery,
most chasing games and it was played in earl-
1995: 293-7).
ier times as much by adults as children. Two
teams are chosen, each has a home-base and a
printing trade. At least until recently, the
prison at opposite ends of the playing area.
printing trade has had many of the character-
Players chase each other and if caught are
istics which encourage the development of
placed in the opposing prison, but can be
occupational lore and customs, being a par- freed again by their own side. The essence of
ticularly well-organized, long-standing trade that a player chases one opponent
the game is
where skilled workers and trainees are
at a time, but can also be chased him/herself at
employed in close co-operative conditions. As
the same time, and play is directed by two cap-
with other trades, most customs were associ-
tains. Full instructions are printed in Gomme
ated with key events in an individual's
and Opie. The latter also gives early references
domestic or work hfe: birthday, wedding,
back to the 14th century, and there are
birth of first child, first day at work, comple-
numerous literary mentions, including Shake-
tion of training, promotion, retirement, and
speare (as 'Country Base' in Cymbeline, v. iii)
so on. The custom of 'banging out' workers at
and Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590-96: v. viii. 5):
the end of their apprenticeship is still carried
'as they had been at bace. They being chased
out, and it usually involves covering the victim
that did others chase'. The earUest references
in anything sticky and messy (printing ink,
are French, and the game may have originated
flour, feathers, and so on), tying him up and
there. Certainly it was as popular on the Con-
leaving him thus in a pubUc place. The custom tinent as in Britain. Also called Prison Base,
gets its name from another part of the custom,
in which the whole workforce mark the event
Prison Bars, Chevy Chase, Chivy, Country
Base, Fast and Loose, or simply. Bars, Base, etc.
by making a tremendous noise: 'each seized
Gomme, 1898: ii. 79-83; Opie and Opie, 1969: 143-6.
one of the heavy metal frames in which the
type is arranged and a small bar of iron. They
hammered on the frames with such force that prophecies. For English popular 'prophetic'
proverbs

writings, see *Merlin, *Nixon, *Mother ants of the story of the man who spies on his
Shipton. Foreign texts, notably the verses fairy helpers, one published in 1854 and the
of Nostradamus, have also been frequently other in 1875. A farmer (or a carter) who real-
translatedand reinterpreted to fit the pre- izes someone has been secretly threshing his

occupations of each generation. com (or feeding his horses) watches two small
See also *doomsday, *number 666. fairies toiling at these tasks until one says to
the other, 'I say. Puck, I sweats, do you sweat?'
proverbs. Short, crisply structured sayings The man bursts out laughing (or cursing), and
widely known in a community, which convey the fairies msh off; he falls sick and pines
traditional observations on human nature and away (or his horses do) (Simpson, 1973: 55-7).
natural phenomena, moral judgements, Also in the mid-1 9th century, being 'poake-
mockery, warnings, etc. Though circulating led' was a dialect term in the Midlands and

orally, their wording is fairly stable; they west of England for having lost one's way at
generally display formal devices including night or feehng bewildered and confused.
alliteration, rhjnne and assonance, rhythmic Briggs, 1959.
phrasing, balanced opposition, and parallel-
ism, which govern the formation of such
modem examples as 'garbage in, garbage out' Punch and Judy. Puppet shows were well
and 'the family that prays together, stays established in Elizabethan and Stuart times,
together'. These features, however, may be especially as a popular fairground entertain-
absent, especially in those which started life as ment. The subjects were very various: Bible
literary quotations, for example 'Hell hath no stories, the legends of Faustus. *St George or

fury like a woman scorned'. Familiar proverbs Dick *Whittington, historical episodes such as
are often alluded to rather than given in ftiU, the Gunpowder Plot, and so forth. In 1662
and may also be deliberately distorted for Pepys noted the arrival of a new character
humorous effect (see *Wellerisms); they influ- from Italy, called PoUicinella or Punchinello,
ence the language of slogans and advertising. but soon to be renamed 'Punch'— a fat hunch-
Collections of English proverbs first appear back with a shrill voice who would disrupt the
in the 16th and 17th centuries, where they are more serious plays by bawdy remarks, fight-
usually set alongside parallels in other Euro- ing, and farting.
pean languages and the classics, reflecting the Soon, Punch developed a mini-drama of his
educated collectors' awareness of inter- own (first mentioned in 1682), centred on the
national cultural tradition; a high proportion battlesbetween him and the shrewish 'Mrs
of Enghsh proverbs are of foreign origin. Punch',whose name at this period was Joan.
See the Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs (3rd edn., ed. Another of its standard features was an
Wilson, 1970); Simpson and Speake, 1992.
F. P. encounter with the Devil; a writer in The Lon-
don Spy on 10 May 1699 says that at a May Day
Puck. Although 'Puck' is now mainly thought fair he heard 'a senseless Dialogue between
of as the personal name of one character in Punchinello and the Devil . . .
conveyed to the
Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, it is in Ears of a Listening Rabble thro' a Tin Squeak-
fact an ancient word, found both in Germanic er'. The ending varied; most evidence from the

and in Celtic languages, for a demon, *gobhn, 18th century supports Strutt's comment in
or troublesome *fairy. In medieval and Eliza- 1802 that 'Punch is constantly taken away
bethan Enghsh, the connections can be quite from the stage by the Devil at the end of the
sinister; Langland calls Hell 'the poukes puppet show', but some writers say that it was
poundfold', and Spenser, calling down bless- always Punch who beat the Devil.
ings on a newly married couple, prays that In 1828 John Payne CoUier, a journalist,
they may be safe from fires, lightning, interviewed a puppeteer called Giovanni Pic-
witches, 'the Pouke and other evill sprights'. cini and took down the text of 'Punch and
But Shakespeare's Puck is only a mischievous Judy' from his dictation, while the illustrator
trickster who boasts of shape-changing and George Cruikshank drew scenes of the pup-
leading travellers astray; like a helpful pets in action. The basic plot is the one used
domestic *brownie he arrives at the end of the ever since: Punch loses his temper with his
play, broom in hand, to sweep the house so own baby and kills it, fights his wife and kills
that the fairies may bless it. her, kills a succession of characters, beats a
The name 'Puck' appears in two Sussex vari- pohceman, tricks Jack Ketch the hangman
287 Punkie Night

into hanging himself rather than Punch, and booklet from Routledge & Kegan Paul in 1976, which,
the Devil. Later showmen added however, omits the important introduction and notes.
finally kills
For an analysis of one present-day performer's art, see
further characters and episodes, notably a
Robert Leach, Folklore 94 (1983), 75-85.
clown, a ghost, a beadle or constable, and a
crocodile, and developed the role of Dog Toby
Punkie Night. A punkie is a hollowed out
(areal dog, not a puppet); to this day, no two
shows are aUke in every detail. mangold-wurzel, with shapes cut through the
sides, and a lighted candle inside. The children
Towards the end of the 19th century Punch
of Hinton St George, Somerset, parade the vil-
changed from an itinerant fairground and
street show appealing primarily to adults to a lage streets on the last Thursday in October,
with their lighted punkies, calhng at different
children's treat associated with seaside holi-
houses in the hope of receiving money or
days and Christmas parties. Since 1962, the
300th anniversary of the arrival of Punch in sweets, singing:

England, the show has been enjoying a strong It's punkie night
tonight
revival, but is increasingly geared to child- It's punkie night
tonight
ren's tastes, with much audience participa- Give us a candle, give us a Ught
tion and topicality, as in pantomimes, to It's punkie night tonight

mask the unwelcome violence of the basic

plot. There is nowadays a competition for the
Traditionally, the showmen carved their best punkie designs. A local legend purports
ovm puppets and jealously guarded their per- to explain the custom's origin. The village
sonal method of making a 'swazzle', the metal menfolk went to Chiselborough Fair, and got
device which, held in the mouth, transforms too drunk to find their way home. Their
the human voice into Punch's screech. Some wives fashioned lanterns out of mangold-
famihes performed Punch for several gener- vmrzels and went to fetch them. The prob-
ations. The 'script' was always open to vari- lem with this explanation is that it implies
ation and improvisation around a central that the men only got drunk at Chiselbor-
structure; this interplay of fluidity and stabil- ough once. The neighbouring village of
ity, individuaUty and anonymity, marks Punch Lopen claims the custom (and legend) as
and Judy as folk art. their own, and other villages have started

Speaight, 1955/1990, and 1970; Leach, 1985. J. P. CoUier's punkie nights.

1828 text. The Truncal Comedy or Comical
Tragedy of Punch K. Palmer. Folklore 83 (1972), 240-4; Kightly, 1986: 191;
and ]udy was reprinted several times, for
example in a Hole, 1975: 96-7.
Quarter Days, see *calendar. faith and denigrating the Roman Catholic
Church. Parades and processions took place
Queen Elizabeth anniversary
I
(17 Novem- on the day, anti-popery sermons were
ber).The anniversary of Queen Elizabeth I's preached, and bonfires and effigies, similar to
accession to the throne in 1558 was previously those of *November the Fifth, were much in
an important date in the Protestant festival evidence.
calendar, and was used well into the 18th cen-
tury as a way of propagating the Protestant Brand, 1849: i. 404-8; Cressy 1989.
rabbits. The idea that rabbits are unlucky is music specially by MacColl and
written
mainly Umited to *fishermen, who insist that Seeger. The ftiU of Radio Ballad pro-
list

the word 'rabbit* must never be uttered at sea, grammes, with first broadcast dates, is as fol-
nor the actual animal brought on board; they lows: The Ballad ofJohn Axon (railwayman) (July
should be called 'long-ears', 'furry things', or 1958), Song of the Road (the building of the Ml)
'bob-tailed bastards' (Gill, 1993: 84-6). There (Nov. 1959), Singing the Fishing (the herring
was a similar fear among Dorset quarrymen in industry) (Aug. 1960; winner of the Prix d'lta-
the 1950s (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 191). Wild lia that year). The Big Hewer (mining) (Aug.
white rabbits might be witches, or death 1961), The Body Blow (polio sufferers) (Mar.
omens (Tongue, 1965: 51; Maple, 1960: 243; 1962), On the Edge (teenagers) (Feb. 1963), The
Folk-Lore 4 (1893), 258). Rght Game (boxing) (July 1963), and The Travel-
Nevertheless, a rabbit's foot carried in the ling People (Gypsies) (Apr. 1964). Three of these
pocket was a lucky *charm in the 20th cen- were turned into television programmes by
tury; examples mounted in silver made in Phihp Donellan: Shoals of Herring (1972), The
America but sold in England were advertised Rght Game (1973), and The Big Hewer (1973). The
as 'the left hind foot of a rabbit killed in a programmes were re-issued on compact disc
country churchyard at midnight, during the in 1999.
dark of the moon, on Friday the 13th of the Ewan MacColl, journeyman: An Autobiography (1990),
month, by a cross-eyed, left-handed, red- 311-36.
headed bow-legged Negro riding a white
horse— this we do not guarantee' (Folk-Lore 19 rag trees, see *wells.
(1908), 296).
A fairly widespread modem custom among rainbows. A rainbow is now regarded as
children was first recorded in 1909: lucky, asymbol of peace, and an occasion for
making a wish; it is sometimes said to mean
My two daughters are in the habit of saying 'Rabbits!'
on the first day of each month. The word must be
good news coming. In older lore, however,
there was some fear of rainbows; in the 19th
spoken aloud, and be the first word said in the
month. It brings luck for that month. Other children, century, children tried to drive them away by
I find, use the same formula. (N&Q.10s:ll (1909), 208) 'crossing them out', i.e. Ia5dng crossed twigs or
straws on the ground (Opie and Tatem, 1989:
Other versions, common between the wars,
322). To point at one brought 'dreadftil bad
use the formulas 'White rabbits!' or 'Rabbits,
luck' (Leather, 1912: 16).
rabbits, rabbits!', and some add that one must
say 'Hares!' or 'Black rabbits!' last thing the Ram Roasting. Every *Whitsun, a Uve and
previous night. ram was driven in a cart in
suitably decorated
procession around Kingsteignton, Devon, and
Radio Ballads. A highly influential series of then pubUcly roasted. Nowadays, the ram is
radio programmes devised by Ewan *MacColl already dead before being paraded, and the
and Peggy Seeger and produced by Charles custom has moved to the nearest bank holi-
Parker for the BBC, between 1958 and 1964. day, but the principle is the same. While the
The programmes covered a wide range of ram is being roasted, there are games and

topics and broke new ground in the extensive other celebrations, and everyone present
use of tape recordings of ordinary people talk- should have a piece of the ram's meat, but
ing and singing, interwoven with songs and there are now so many visitors that only those
Randwick Cheese-Rolling and Wap 290

with special programmes get a piece of the pieces from 1794); Kightly. 1986: 71, 166-7; Briggs, 1974:
184-6.
animal itself. Animal-roasting customs were
relatively common in the past, but Kingsteign-
ton is the only one to survive in this area, and rapper dances, see *sword dances.
even this one was radically altered around
1885. Phylhs Crawford records that, about rats. Regarded as uncannily intelligent, hos-
1937, an aged woman had explained that her tileto humanity, dirty, and destructive. They
husband, the vicar, had started the procession, are supposed to foresee the destruction of any
eradicated the drunkenness, and transformed house or ship they are living in, and to aban-
the custom into a 'fine old ceremony'. This is don it; hence the proverbial sa5dng that 'rats
an excellent example of how *calendar cus- leave a sinking ship'. *Fishermen think they
toms can change, on *Merrie England lines, must not be named on board, and say 'long-
virtually overnight. The accompanying origin tails' instead (Gill, 1993: 86); an East Anglian

legend is noteworthy in that, uniquely among girl told the Opies in 1953 that one should
calendar customs, it approximates the pagan- only speak of a rat as 'Joseph', to avoid bad
origins view of the early folklorists, and it luck (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 322-3).
would not be at all surprising to learn that a Plagues of rats were regarded as sinister.
wandering amateur folklorist had planted it. Charlotte Latham was told of a Sussex man
The story is that, long long ago, the Fairwater whose cottage was said to be full of evil spirits
stream, on which the village reUed for water, in the form of rats; every night one would hear
unaccountably dried up. The people sacrificed him cursing them and begging them to leave
a ram in the dry river bed and that started it him in peace, and his neighbours thought
flowing again, and it has continued to flow they would eventually carry him off to Hell
ever since, because the custom has been kept (Latham, 1878: 23). Charles Dickens recalled a
up. terrifying tale his nurse used to tell him, about
Crawford,1938: 131-3; V^right and Lones, 1936: i. 169-70; a carpenter who 'sold himself to the Devil for
Kightly, 1986: 193; N&Q.6s:7 (1883), 345. an iron pot and a bushel of tenpenny nails and
half a ton of copper and a rat that could
Randwick Cheese-Roliing and Wap. Rand- speak', and thereafter is so tormented by this
wick, Gloucestershire, had two, probably rat that he tries to kill it, only to find himself

unrelated, *calendar customs of note. The haunted by dozens of them. He is pressed for a
cheeseroUing was described in a letter, dated sailor, and finds rats on board, led by the

April 1827, pubUshed in Wilham Hone's Table speaking rat, gnawing the ship to pieces;

Book, which related that every May Day three nobody believes his warnings, and all are
large Gloucester cheeses were decked with drowned (Dickens, The Uncommercial Traveller,
flowers and carried on litters in procession chapter 15).

through the town, and were then rolled Similar horror surrounds sewer rats. An eld-
around the church before being cut up and erly eccentric man in Worthing (Sussex) in the
distributed. This custom has been revived, fol- 1970s firmly believed that armies of them
lowing closely the old description, but with would emerge and overrun the town if he did
only one cheese being distributed and the not regularly scare them away by noisily
other two set aside for rolling at the start of thrashing lamp-posts and raihngs [JS]. In Man-
Randwick Wap. The term 'Wap' has not been chester in 1981, a woman told how, when her
satisfactorily explained, but it is the name for father-in-law was young, he once saw a horde
the local revel or feast, which was held on the moving firom one part of the town to another,
second Monday after *
and it perhaps
Easter, led by a King Rat, 'the biggest rat of the whole

pertains to the weaving trade which was the shebang' (Bennett, 1988: 17-18).
mainstay of the village economy. The celebra- A very different tradition is remembered
tions included a *mock mayor ceremony, first in the families of 'toshers' who worked in
mentioned in 1703, and suppressed about London sewers in the late 19th century. They
1892 because of the drunkenness it encour- beUeved in a character called the Queen Rat,
aged. It was revived in 1972, along with other who could turn into an attractive girl and
celebrations of the new Randwick Wap (see seduce any tosher she fancied; if he satisfied
Briggs). her, she would see to it that he had good luck

Hone, 1827: 277; Hartland, 1895: 33-7; V^right and

and found money and other valuables lost
Lones, 1936:
i.

i. 128-9;Gomme, 1883: 228-30 (reprinting —

down the gratings provided he never boasted
 redemption rumours

of meeting her, for if he did he might get and marlpits to drown them, known as
drowned. Usually the man did not guess who Tommy Rawhead, or Bloody-bones (Wright,
she was, for she looked quite human, except 1913: 199).
that her eyes caught the light like an animal's,
and she had claws instead of toenails; how- red. In most contexts, red is associated with
ever, she might give him a rat-like love-bite on good luck, health, and joy, presumably
the shoulder or neck. The children a man had because it is the colour of blood, and hence of
with his human wife after having been v^th the living body as opposed to the corpse. There
the Queen Rat would have one blue eye and are numerous references in folklore collec-
one grey one, grey being the colour of the tions to the use of red threads, ribbons, wool,
river (Liz Thompson, FLS News 21 (1995), 5; 22 or pieces of flannel to prevent or cure a wide
(1995), 4-6).
variety of ailments; also to red thread as pro-
Most people, however, wanted to get rid of tection against ^witchcraft— a selection of
rats.Like *mice, they were believed to respond
examples can be found in Opie and Tatem,
to magic; a Cornish rat-charmer of the 1950s 1989: 326. Trees and shrubs with red berries
worked by whistling, which 'seems to have a are powerful, either for good or ill (*hawthom,
hypnotic effect on rats, causing them to crawl
*holly, *rowan, *yew).
to him, or, if fleeing, to stop: whereupon the
However, a few behefs link red with fore-
rat-charmer is able to pick them up and sub-
boding, notably a widespread current taboo
sequently to dispose of them' (Folk-lore 64 on giving a mixed bunch of red and white
(1953), 304). *flowers to a sick person, and another, less
common, that petals dropping from a red rose
ravens. In general, ravens are unlucky birds, or a poppy are an evil omen for the person
and their croaking an *omen of death. How-
holding it (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 325). The
ever, the tame ones at the Tower of London association with blood can turn sinister, as
are England's *mascots; if ever they die out, or
when emblem of a red hand is
the heraldic
fly away, the Crovm and the country will be taken tomean that the family founder was a
It was Charles II who gave the first
destroyed. murderer, or when legend claims that after
ravens to the Tower, and the beUef may only some battle a local river ran red with blood. In
date from his time. On the other hand, *Arthur
popular art and stage tradition, the Devil may
himself, the archetypal protector of Britain, be red, though *black is more usual. The S5m(i-
was linked with these birds. Cervantes wrote bolism whereby red means 'danger' or 'halt' is
in Don Quixote (1605, book II, chapter 5) that no
modem, and does not seem to have folkloric
Englishman will kill a raven because 'there is roots.
an ancient tradition common all over that
kingdom of Great Britain that this king did not
die, but by arts of enchantment was trans-
redemption rumours. Redemption rumours
are a subgroup of *contemporary legend. The
formed into a raven'. Similarly, a contributor
core of the story is that a person, usually
to N&Q_(ls:8 (1853), 618) told how his father,
young or vulnerable,is in trouble or need but
some sixty years earher, aimed a shot at a
can be saved or cured if we all do some rela-
raven on Marazion Green (Cornwall), and was
rebuked by an old man who said King Arthur tively minor but cumulatively useful thing.

was still alive in the form of that bird.

The earliest known example was reported in
the Illustrated London News (18 May 1850), 349:

Raw-Head and Bloody-Bones. A traditional EXTRAORDINARY POSTAGE STAMPS CONTRIBUTION:

*bogeyman; also used allusively for robbers, Some time since, there appeared in the public joiir-
etc., whose rumoured activities created panic. nals a statement to the effect that a certain young
The earhest citation in the OED, from 1550, lady, to be placed in a convent, by her
under age, was
lists 'Hobgobhn, Rawhed, and Bloody-bone', father, if she did not prociu-e, before the 30th of

with punctuation implying that the latter are April last, one million of used postage stamps. This
caused numerous persons to forward stamps for the
two distinct beings; other early quotations
purpose of securing her liberty . . .'

seem to support this, but in the 19th century

the whole phrase is generally a hyphenated Modem versions of the story often involve
unit. In East Angha, Lincolnshire, Warwick- the collection of particular branded
shire, Lancashire and Yorkshire, children were products— crisp packets of a certain brand,
told there was an ogre lurking in deep ponds the pull-out tabs of cigarette packets, the
red hair 292

bar<odes off other packets, ring-pulls from luck; when *first footing is done at New Year,
soft-drink cans, and so on, and if we collect a they are unwelcome (Harland and Wilkinson,
million . . . One favourite promised outcome is 1873: 225; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 325-6). On
that they will supply a kidney machine to a the other hand, their fighting spirit is
local hospital. These are regulariy reported in admired.
local and national newspapers when the dis- Families where red hair is frequent are often
appointed dedicated collectors find they have said to be descended from the Danes, from the
been deluded. Scots, or from Spanish sailors of the Armada-
Another force comes into play here in the all formerly enemies of England. If only one

form of ostension, which is the term used for child has this colouring, it might be vaguely
when 'folklore' becomes 'reaUty' by someone ascribed to 'bad blood', or, more specifically,
pursuing an idea and making it real. In Britain, to the mother's adultery— nowadays, it is usu-
the classic case was young Craig Shergold, of ally jokingly said, 'with the milkman'.
Surrey. There have been numerous examples Another 'explanation' is that the parents had
of rumoured sick children wanting our help in made love during the woman's period, thus
cheering up or cure, and when Craig, aged 10 breaking a powerfiil taboo. This does not
in 1989, was diagnosed as having a terminal appear in standard English folklore collec-
brain tumour a friend suggested an appeal for tions, presumably because of its unseemly
get-well cards to get him into the Guinness Book nature, but was known, and used as a taunt, in
of Records and cheer him up. From a slow local Kent and London in the 1950s and 1960s, and
start, Craig started receiving cards irom all is remembered by some elderly nurses [JS];

over the world. By 1991, over 33 milUon cards French parallels prove its authenticity (Gelis,
had been received (Sun (7 Mar. 1991) ), and they 1991: 14-15). More frivolously, it is said that if
still arrive. As countless people copied the two women pour tea from the same teapot,
details and passed them on, the name and one will have ginger-haired twins.
address and age became garbled ('Craig John'
N&Q_12s:2 (1916), 128, 196-7, 239, 379; 12s:5 (1918), 194,
is how it appears most often), and someone 218.

somewhere changed it to 'business cards' and

'compliments shps'. The invention of the fax regional folklore. The collection and publi-
and E-mail has speeded up the distribution cation of folklore on regional lines has such a
process. Craig's family has appealed, on long and respectable history in England that
numerous occasions, for the deluge to cease many would not even think of questioning it,
(they stopped counting at 100 million), but but it is not the only, or necessarily the best,
there seems to be no way to stop it. Craig way of organizing folklore material. The
underwent a successfiil operation in America regional impulse has a number of sfrong
in 1991. roots,both practical and theoretical. Collect-
Marion Shergold, Craig A
Mother's Story (1993); ing folkloreis time consuming and arduous
Shergold:
Folklore Society Cuttings Collection. even today, and in Victorian and Edwardian
times a local emphasis was often a practical
red hair. Traditional ideas about red-haired necessity, but a stronger impulse came from
people are not complimentary. Physically, local pride. It was not only the Scots, Irish, and

they are said to sweat easily, bleed copiously, Welsh who felt the need to celebrate their
have a strong foxy smell, and such bad breath traditions and demonstrate their unique qual-
that they can raise blisters on other people ities to bolster feehngs of nationhood, but
simply by breathing over them. Morally, they inhabitants of, say, Yorkshire, or the West
are expected to be 'bad children' who cause Country could be equally proud of their local

nothing but trouble; they will be hot- traditions.

tempered, freacherous, and highly sexed. The Earlier antiquarians such as *Aubrey,
medieval notion that *Judas, Cain, and Mary *Brand, and *Hone pubhshed compendia on a
Magdalene were red-heads arose from these national scale, but from Victorian times most
behefs, and helped to perpetuate them. They of the major fieldwork collections have been
carried over into conventions for stage vil- undertaken on a regional or county basis,
lains; Shylock was regularly given a red wig, as including Henderson's Notes on the Folklore of the
was Mephistopheles in Grattan's Faust at Northern Counties of England (1866), Bume's
Sadler's Wells in 1842. Shropshire Folklore (1883), Udal's Dorset Folklore
It is held that meeting a red-head brings bad (1922), while the Folklore Society's project to
293 revival

reprint earlier printed material, the County sufficient song collecting, over many decades,
was organized on similar lines.
Folk-lore series, to reach overall conclusions, and it is clear
In post-war Britain, the major Folklore of the that, apart from a handful of local songs, the
British Isles series pubUshed by Batsford (1973- folk-song repertoire is very similar all over the
7) and individual items such as Tongue's Som- country.
erset Folklore (1965) and Sutton's Lincolnshire Cal- At its can
best, intensive localized fieldwork
endar (1997) show
that the impulse is still as result in thedevelopment of detailed expert
strong as ever. The general pubUc also take a knowledge of a more hohstic kind than genre-
strongly local view of the subject, and, in pub- based collecting over a wider area usually
Ushing terms, it is clear that the existence of allows, but the time constraints on research
an identifiable local 'market' is a major factor often make the intensive approach impracti-
in determining whether or not a folklore book cal. For the genre-based researcher, a broad
is published. sweep is necessary. The major problem with
Some traditional genres are indeed regional. the regional material which we have inherited
*
Dialect is one obvious example, and calendar is its unsystematic nature, and comparisons

customs are another. With customs, the term are fraught with difficulty. The collectors had
'regional' can have two distinct meanings- their own particular definitions and agendas
one being that certain customs are only found from which to work, and many areas, such as
in one area (e.g. *souling), the other that ver- Surtey and Essex, remained largely
sions of customs found over a wide area (such unresearched. To complicate comparison fur-
as *mumming plays) display regional or local ther, the major collections were compiled
which distinguish them from
characteristics decades apart. The evidence is thus too patchy
those of another area. Similarly, lona and for an overall picture of many genres to be eas-
Peter *Opie were able to show that many ily discerned. In a multi-genre work such as
aspects of children's lore in the 1950s (e.g. the present Dictionary, this presents problems
*truce terms and the names of certain games) for the reader. An entry on calendar custom,
could usefully be plotted on distribution for example, may read, 'in a Hampshire ver-
maps. Mumming plays are a good example of a sion . . .', or 'in the West Country and
. . .',

genre in which much collecting and publish- thereby indicate an important distinction,
ing has been on a regional basis, but the con- whereas in an entry on a superstition which
'
clusions of some leading authorities have reads 'A Yorkshire farmer reported the . . .

delayed further enquiry based on geo- place-name is provided for contextual pur-
graphical distribution. Margaret *Dean-Smith poses, but may not have any geographical
and Alex *Helm declared that the core of the significance.
action of the play, the death and resurrection, All the major regional books are listed in the
was what mattered, and that the texts were Bibliography.
simply 'local accretions' which did not need to
be studied. Later researchers, however, have revels, see *wakes.
reaUzed that a close analysis of a large number
of texts would give an opportunity for under- revival. A deceptively simple term which has
standing how traditional transmission from excited debate in the folklore
protracted
place to place has functioned, and may also world, primarily because its meaning shifts
give clues about the earher stages of develop- with the perspective of each onlooker. In the
ment, if not actual origins of the custom. folk *song and *dance world, 'the Revival'
Some experiments have been carried out in usually refers to one of the two major
this direction, using computers to map distri- upsurges of popular interest in those topics,
bution, but a major study remains to be which became national movements.
undertaken, and other customs could poten- In other spheres, the term is used to cover
tially benefit from a similar approach. both the restarting of a custom after a tem-
Several other major genres, including nar- porary lapse, and the deliberate introduction
rative, superstition, and song, display Uttle or of a custom into a different community or
no sign of regional aspects, although it is cer- social context. Clearly, few if any local cus-
tainly possible that the apparent homogeneity toms can prove an unbroken record of per-
here is only a reflection of collecting activity. formance throughout their histoiy, and folk-
There has been Uttle systematic collecting of lorists normally accept any revival in this

superstitions or narrative, but there has been sense as part of the traditional nature of
ribbons 294

things. Problems of definition start to occur ing or victimized group. The first and best
when others start a new series of perform- known is the red Aids Awareness ribbon
ances which they have copied from elsewhere, launched in New York in 1991, and almost
and this is particulariy noticeable in genres immediately adopted in Britain. It was quickly
which have strong regional or local character- followed by pink or blue ones for cancer vic-
istics. The morris dancers of *Bampton stop- tims, and then by others for various political
ping and restarting, for example, is a different causes: yellow ones to demand the release of
matter from the people of Burnley or Bridg- hostages or those unjustiy imprisoned, again
water starting to perform the Bampton dances. on an American model; green in support of
It is clear that the dissemination of traditions Irish political prisoners; purple for animal
in the past must have included precisely this rights campaigners; 'rainbow' for racial toler-
kind of 'copying' of others' existing traditions, ance, and also for homosexual equality; dark
by communities or individuals, and new per- blue or black in mourning for pubhc disasters.
formers may thus be seen to be starting a trad- In 1995, Lewisham Town Council gave out free
ition of their own, in time-honoured fashion. blue lapel ribbons to express awareness of the
This debate brings into the open the fiirther dangers of drinking and driving (FLS News 22
notion of 'authenticity', and the question of (1995), 8-9; 23 (1996), 10).
who 'owns' folklore. A common-sense argu- Although so new, the custom draws on an
ment that folkloric traditions, as part of our older 'language' of distinctively coloured
common heritage, belong to everybody and markers worn on the lapel or stitched to the
therefore to nobody, often fails to appease clothing— examples would include the ros-
those who see their own local customs or trad- ettes of poUtical parties, the Blue Ribbon
itions appropriated by others, whether for badge of the Victorian temperance movement,
pleasure or for profit. As noted under *regional black arm-bands or patches sown on to men's
is often attached to
folklore, fierce local pride jackets in *mouming, fabric *poppies and
a community's customs and traditions. Alexandra Day roses tucked in the lapel but-
It is not only in the geographic sense that tonhole. A more remote precursor would be
the appropriation of others' traditional lore the coloured 'favours' which PhiUip Stubbes
can be seen as contentious. Songs collected in his Anatomie of Abuses (1583) says were worn
from working-class singers by middle<lass at *Midsummer revels. After several decades in
collectors turn up in different guise in the lat- which metal badges and stick-on labels pre-
ter'scompositions, on the concert stage sung dominated, ribbon, the oldest medium for
by professional singers, or on commercial such displays, is enjoying a resurgence.
recordings by folk or pop groups, very often
with no acknowledgement of their original rice. Although mentioned rarely in the stand-
source, or payment of any sort of 'royalty'. ard folklore works, there are several traditions
Even without the moral/legal questions concerning rice. It was a common fallacy
involved, the relationship of these perform- amongst sailors that regular use of rice is con-
ances to 'folklore' is at best ambiguous and ducive to bUndness, and a slang term for rice
open to further debate. on board ship was 'Strike-me-blind' (HazUtt,
Victorian and Edwardian reformers were 1905: 510). Many young women in the 19th
expert in the art of 'revivals' which, while century ate quantities of raw rice to improve
claiming to be genuinely traditional, were their complexions (N&Q.lls:3 (1911) 189, 258),
either invented or changed so radically as to while others beheved that rice 'prevents the
retain only a tenuous connection with the ori- increase of the population' and that it was
ginal source (see *Merrie England), but which thus given deliberately to Poor ReUef claim-
helped to create a generahzed notion of a ants (Chambers, 1878: ii. 39).
'national' traditional culture belonging to all. See also *weddings.
At the end of the 20th century, the same pro-
cesses appeared to be still in force. riddles. A word game or joke, comprising a
See also *dance, *fakelore, *regional question or statement couched in deliberately
FOLKLORE, *SONG REVIVAL, *TOURIST LORE. puzzhng terms, propounded for solving by the
hearer/reader using clues embedded within
ribbons. In the 1990s, a fashion arose for that wording. Closely related to other forms
wearing a small loop of coloured ribbon on including the conundrum (which relies more
one's lapel to declare support for some suffer- on puns) and the catch (joking questions
295 Ring-a-Ring-a-Roses

which pretend to be riddles), the riddle's dis- in other contexts, aform of 'riding the stang'
tinguishing mark is its use of metaphor. Rid- could be used as a punishment at any time of
*
dles have a very long and respectable history, year. Compare also Corby Pole Fair.
and there is hardly a Uterature, oral or writ-
ten, in which riddles do not occur, often in the right. Most past and present cultures (perhaps
form of riddle contests. Six of the *ballads all)contrast the right and *left hand to the
included in *Child's collection include riddle advantage of the former, presumably because
motifs, and they occur in numerous other in most people it is stronger and more skilled;
songs and tales. in EngUsh, there is also a strong verbal con-
In England, the riddle was popular with nection with 'right' in the senses 'correct,
adults for centuries, at both a domestic level good'. The right hand symbolizes power,
and in literary circles, existing as a party or authority, benevolence, honour, and loyalty; it
parlour game well into the 19th century, but is used in gestures of greeting or blessing, in

from that time it gradually lost favour until it shaking hands, taking oaths, etc. In the
reached its present condition, surviving only ancient Roman system of augury, omens to
in children's humour, and in certain well- the right of the enquirer were favourable.
defined genres such as in the *Christmas Whatever the origins of these semi-conscious
cracker. In children's hands riddles are aUve meanings, Christianity strengthened them by
and well,and they are very popular with all some vivid imagery: the risen Christ sits 'at
ages. Riddles are usually the first form of joke the right hand of the Father', and at the Last
mastered by the child, partly because of their Judgement the 'sheep' will be on the right, the
satisfying formula which, once mastered, can 'goats' on the left (Matthew 25: 33).
serve as vehicle for a range of ideas, in which In folk beliefs, good luck is regularly associ-
the child can test the boundaries of humour, ated with the right side: it is lucky to see the
and the formula is readily understood by new moon to one's right, to put the right
everyone. The riddle repertoire is constantly stocking or shoe on first, to cross a threshold
replenished with new items on old lines, but with the right foot, and so on, while in each
includes a core which has been around a long case the *leftis unlucky.

time. The Opies showed that several of the See also *left.
riddles they collected in the 1950s had been
current since the 16th century in English, and rightward movement. A *circling move-
even further back abroad— 'How deep is the ment made by turning to the *right is
ocean?—A stone's throw'; 'How many balls of described as a 'right-handed', 'clockwise', or
string would it take to reach the moon?— One 'sunwise' turn, and is regarded as bringing
if it was long enough'. good luck. Though the belief is strongest in
Mark Bryant, Dictionary of Riddles (1990); McCosh, 1979; Scotland and Ireland, it was customary in
Opie and Opie, 1959: 73-86; Susan Edmunds, 'The Riddle parts of England in 19th-century country
Ballad and the Riddle', L&L 5:2 (1986), 35-46. funerals to cany the coffin sunwise round the
churchyard (Hereford Times (20 Mar. 1838).
Riding the Stang. A *New Year's Day custom, cited in Opie and Tatem, 1989: 384). Recent
apparently unique to the Cumberland, West- instances of the idea in England are that when
morland, Yorkshire area. A band of people, making sauces, puddings, or cakes the stirring
armed with stangs (poles) and baskets took to must always be done clockwise, or the cooking
the streets and accosted any stranger they met will go wrong; that ropes should be coiled
and subjected him to be mounted across the clockwise; even, that in stirring tea and laying
women, in a basket, and thus car-
pole, or, if a a table one must never go 'against the sun'
ried, shoulder height, to the nearest pub (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 385-6).
where he/she was expected to buy a drink. The The primary reason why this direction of
only way to avoid this treatment was to pay a movement is said to be'sunwise' appears to be
fine straightaway (Gentleman's Magazine (1791), that in order to remain facing the sun as it
quoted in Gomme, 1884: 14-15). This is one of moves from east through south to west, one
a range of customs in which the working has to pivot round constantly to one's right.
classes claim the right to 'manhandle' their See also *leftward movement.
superiors (compare *Lifting). Riding the Stang
is also the name for a local form of Children's singing
*rough Ring-a-Ring-a-Roses.
music in many other parts of the country, and. game, known throughout the English-
Ringing tiie Devil's Knell 296

speaking world, and with many continental ment rings and eternity rings have become
analogues. Nowadays, the game tends to be widespread, and in the latter part of the 20th
one of the first taught to children by adults, century men took to wearing wedding rings
rather than being learnt from other child- too.
ren, and therefore considered babyish by
is Rings showing a true-love-knot and those
school-age children. The first known pub- showing a heart held by clasped hands have
lished versions are firom the 1880s, although long been favoured as love tokens, as has the
an American forerunner (Ring a ring a rosie A gimbal ring, also spelled 'gimmal' or 'jimmal'
bottle fiiU of posie All the girls in our town ring, which is one that can be split in two (the
Ring for little Josie) is reported from 1790. name derives ultimately from Latin geminns,
The behef that the rhyme originated with 'twin'), and joined up again at will. It is pos-
the Great * Plague is now almost universal, but sible that the traditional songs of the
many
has no evidence to support it and is almost 18th and 19th centuries in which a sailor
certainly nonsense. Early writers on the breaks a ring in two and leaves half with his
Plague do not mention the rhyme or, indeed, sweetheart are referring to gimbal rings, as it
sneezing as a sjnnptom of the disease, and the would be quite difficult to break an ordinary
rhyme only appears 200 years later. The earl- ring.
do not make the con-
ier folklore collectors Rings can also be imagined as conferring
nection between the rhyme and the Plague, benefitson the wearer; examples set with
and the idea appears to date only from the gemstones engraved with occult letters and
1960s, but is now so widely believed as to be designs were common till EUzabethan times
unshakable. (Evans, 1922: 110-39; Ettlinger, 1939: 167-9),
See also *sneezing. but grew rare with the general dechne of
Opie and Opie. 1985: 220-7; Gomme, 1898: ii. 108-11. magic in the later 17th century. Copper rings
and bracelets are now commonly worn to pre-
vent rheumatic pain, but this seems to be a
Ringing the Devil's Knell. About ten o'clock *
fairly recent development; silver cramp rings,
on *Christmas Eve, ringers gather at All Saints
on the other hand, are attested from the 14th
church, Dewsbuiy, Yorkshire, to Ring the
to the 19th centuries. The current semi-playful
Devil's Knell. The church's tenor bell, called
revival of interest in astrology and magic has
Black Tom of Southill, is rung once for every
created a market for a wide variety of 'lucky'
year since Christ's birth. It is called the Devil's and symbohc rings.
Knell, or more colourfuUy, The Old Lad's Pass-
ing Bell, because of the behef that the Devil
died when Christ was bom. The tolling is care-
Ripon hornblower. A *civic custom in which
fully timed to finish on the stroke of midnight. the official Hornblower for Ripon, North York-
A local legend explains the custom as estab-
shire, blows blasts on his horn at 9 p.m. every
hshed by one Thomas de Soothill, in penance
night of the year in four different directions
for murdering one of his servants five or six
from the four comers of the obelisk in the
hundred years ago.
main square of the town, and also three blasts
Sykes, 1977: 149; Hole. 1975: 12-13. outside the home of the Mayor. The present
horn dates from 1865 and when not in use is
rings. Rings make excellent symbols of iden- displayed in a glass case, along with a 17th-
tity, and obUgations, being worn on
authority, century predecessor, and an even more
the hand (itself a sjmibol of power), and visible ancient horn which are only taken out on spe-
both to the wearer and others. Hence they can cial days (called 'horn days'). The Hornblower

indicate married status, personal pledges of is the direct descendant of the Wakeman

love, legal identity, and family affihations (the whose job it was, up to the 16th century, to
seal-ring), and royal or episcopal authority. For keep nightiy watch for burglars and thieves,
a woman to lose or break her wedding ring and the blowing of the horn signified the start
was a terrible *omen, probably foreshadowing of the watch. The custom is said to date firom
the husband's death, and even removing it for Anglo-Saxon times, which is feasible, but the
a few moments was thought wrong, or earhest evidence dates only from the 15th
unlucky. It was and is common to be buried century. *Bainbridge (North Yorkshire) also
with one's wedding ring. With the growing has a homblowing custom.
prosperity of the past two centuries, engage- Kightly, 1986: 141; Smith, 1989: 142-5.
 297 Robin Goodfellow

rites of passage, see *life-cycle customs. comes down with great strength and vio-
lence'; Dartmoor men call the river 'he', not
'it'. There was a similar attitude towards the
Ritson, Joseph (1752-1803). Although he
scraped a Uving as a conveyancer, Ritson's Derwent (Derbyshire); in 1903, discussing a
real preoccupations were with his antiquarian recent drovming, a local woman talked of the
researches and and he quickly river as if it were a hving being, blaming the
writing,
amassed an unparalleled knowledge and col- victim for his arrogance:
lection of early British poetry and song, which 'He didna know Darrant, he said it were nought but a
at the time had been neglected by other brook. But Darrant got 'im. They never saw his head,
scholars. His undoubted strengths as gatherer he threw his arms up, but Darrant wouldna let him
and annotator resulted in a number of valu- go. Aye, it's a sad pity, seven children! But he shoul-

able pubUcations on his chosen subjects, often

dna ha' made so light o' Darrant. He knows now!

ovm expense. On a personal level,

issued at his Naught but a brook! He knows now!" (FdOc-Lore 15
(1904), 99)
however, Ritson had definite problems, and
he pubUcly attacked a number of other See also *peg o' nell, *peg powler, water-
authorities— particularly Warton (History of spirits.

and *Percy— for their

English Poetry), Pinkerton, robbers. Local oral history often preserved
errors and what he saw and
as their slapdash
reasonably accurate memories of the crimes of
dishonest editorial methods. These attacks
robbers, *smugglers, and *highwaymen for
were so vehemently worded and so p>ersonally several generations, especially if the inns they
abusive that, despite often being right in point
frequented and the *gallows and gibbets
of fact, he made few friends and many
where they died were still standing. Yet there
enemies. Combined with his other personal
was always a tendency for tales to grow in the
pecuharities— vegetarianism and atheism
telling. Sometimes the rogue is recalled as a
included— Ritson's pedantry and obsessive hero for his physical strength, sometimes for
behaviour meant that when he died after a his clever tricks to outwit the law: stolen
brief spell of 'madness' he was not much
sheep hidden in a cider barrel, horses shod
mourned. In hindsight, there is no doubt that
j backwards, smuggled goods carried in coffins,
his public strictures on the likes of Pinkerton
etc. The opp>osite tendency was to see the rob-
i

and Percy forced editors of the time and later

ber as a villain who met an appropriate fate, as
to be more careful in the way they handled
in the story of the *Hangman's Stone.
and presented their sources, and he thus con-
There are several tales from Victorian times,
amount in the development of
tributed a fair
presented as true, in which a robber gains
scholarly method which is now taken for
entry to a house in disguise, or hidden in a box
granted. His main publications in folklore- or bimdle left there by an accomplice, or by
related fields are: A Selea Collection of English
using a *Hand of Glory; a yoimg servant-girl,
Songs (1783), Gammer Gurton's Gariand (c.l783). alone in the house, contrives to wound him.
Ancient Songs from the Time of King Henry EI to the
put him to flight, or even kill him by pouring
Revolution (1792), The English Anthology (1793),
boiling fat down his throat as he sleeps, or
Scotish Songs (1794), Robin Hood (1795).
applying a red-hot poker (Briggs, 1970-1: A. i.
Bertrand H. Bronson, Joseph Ritson, Scholar-at-Arms (1938); 307; B. i. 171-2, 183-4; Charles Dickens, 'The
A. Burd, Joseph Ritson: A Critical Biography (1916).
JHeniy Holly Tree' (1855)).

rivers. There are a few traces in 19th-century Robin Goodfellow. This was the best-known
local traditions of a beUef that certain rivers name for an individual *fairy in late medieval
are malevolent, and wiU periodically take a and Tudor England. He was a mocking shape-
human hfe. The best known is the Dart changer, with a characteristic guffawing laugh
(Devon), about which there is a rhyme: of 'Ho, ho, hoh!'. He could turn into a horse,
tempting weary travellers to mount him, and
River of Dart, River of Dart,
then dumping them in a river; or lead them
Every year thou claimest a heart.
astray as a Will-o'-the-Wisp; or appear in some
The contributor who reported this to N&Ci terrifying shape. Yet he also took on the help-
511) explained that 'it is said that
(ls:2 (1850), ful *brownie role in homes and farms. Eliza-
ayear never passes without the drowning of bethan and Stuart writers often alluded to his
one person, at least, in the Dart', and that 'it is tricks; a blackletter pamphlet which appeared
liable to sudden risings, when the water in 1628, entitied Robin Good-FeUow, his Mad
Robin Hood

Prankes and Merry Jests, asserts that he was the Swing' typified revolt; there are medieval
son of *Oberon by a human girl, was granted name being applied to rioters
instances of the i

his powers by his father, and eventually joined and robbers, and of criminals using it and
the fairy dance and was carried off to fairy- *Friar Tuck's as ahases (Knight, 1994: 25, 105,
land. It includes the standard brownie motif 108-9).
that when a gratefiil girl gives him a waistcoat Rhjrmes about Robin Hood are mentioned in
instead of a bowl of creamy milk, he disap- the 1370s; the 38 extant ballads date from the
pears for ever. His name reflects this ambigu- 15th to the 17th centuries, most dealing with
|

ity;'Goodfellow' might be either a tribute to a single adventure, with much similarity in

his merry nature and helpfulness, or an eva- situations. They do not explain Robin's past, f

sive term based on fear, since his pranks could nor why he was outlawed; only two mention ,

be troublesome. his death, murdered by the Prioress of!

Some EUzabethans regarded all fairies as Kirklees. They show him robbing the rich, but |

demons. Robert Burton included Robin in his only once giving the proceeds to a poor man— j

hst of 'terrestrial devils which as they are

. . .
though in 1500 a Scottish chronicler says this j

most conversant with men, so they do them was his usual practice, and it is now seen as j

most harm' (The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), the defining trait of his character. In the bal- >

part I, section 2, 'A Digression of Spirits'). The lads, Robin

gleefiilly defies middle-ranking
Mad Prankes pamphlet has a curious woodcut authority figures such as sheriffs and abbots,
showing him (identified by the initials G F) as a though he honours King Edward; the chief
phallic, goat-footed, homed Uke Pan or
figure emphasis is on the loyalty between him and
Satan, but carrying a lighted candle and a his companions, their exciting adventures,
broom, presumably to show he does house- and the freedom of forest Ufe. In some, he acts
work by night; there are bats and birds over- with a riithlessness which modem presenta-
head, and small figures, fully clad, are dancing tions conveniently ignore.
round him. The image does not fit anything in Acting was as important as verse in trans-
the text; the artist may have been adapting an mitting the tradition. In Tudor times,
illustration of a witches' sabbath. throughout southern and midland counties,
For a collection of hteraiy texts mentioning Robin and his followers appeared in local
Robin Goodfellow, see W. Carew Hazlitt, Fairy pageants organized by churches as fund-
Tales, Legends and Romances Illustrating Shake- raising events, often at *Whitsun; men in cos-

speare (1875); for discussion, Briggs, 1959 and tume would parade through the village or
1976. town, or visit neighbouring ones, to collect
money. Bishop Latimer was once furious to
Robin Hood. The merry outlaw Robin Hood, find a church where he intended to preach
skilled in archery and singlestick fighting and closed for this reason. Associated amusements
a master of tricks and disguise, has been popu- included archery, wrestUng, mock combats,
lar fi-om the 14th century till today; in early and folk-plays about Robin's fights and dis-
sources he is localized (if at all) in Bamsdale guises (three short scripts survive), and the
(probably Yorkshire, possibly Rutland), and in whole event could form part of the *May
later ones in Sherwood Forest. Various com- games.
panions are named, notably *Little John, and The idea that Robin was no ordinary outlaw
in one ballad a 'King Edward' appears. but an impoverished Earl appears first in
None of the many attempts to provide a his- Richard Grafton's Chronicle at Large (1569) and
torical identity for him is wholly convincing; was elaborated in plays by Anthony Munday
the clues are too slight and contradictory, and (1598-9) and Martin Parker's ballad, 'A True
'Robert' and 'Hood' were both common medi- Tale of Robin Hood' (1632). These sources shift
eval names. The opposite approach, which, the period to that of Richard I, and Munday
relying on green clothes, sees him as a
his invents a love-triangle between Robin, *Maid
woodland untenable; throughout the
spirit, is Marian, and Prince John. Variations on these
tradition Robin is merely a human being ideas appear from the early 19th century
whose adventures, unhke Arthurian material, onwards in plays, novels, children's books,
contain no magic or marvels (Keen, 1977: 219- and films; Robin becomes a symbol of gal-
22). The third possibility is that 'Robin Hood' lantry, patriotism, freedom, and justice.
was simply a fictional figure tj^jifying ban- Various barrows and huge rocks are named
ditry, just as 'Jack Straw' and later 'Captain after him in many parts of England besides
 299 rolling pins

those where tradition says he lived; like other from Christ's crown of thorns; alternatively,
heroes, he was popularly endowed with gigan- that feathers got singed as it carried water
its

tic strength. There is a tomb in Kirklees Park to souls in the fire of Purgatory. Either way, it

(Yorkshire) alleged to be his; 16th- and 17th- was blessed by God for its kindness.
centiuy antiquarians mention an inscribed To kill or injure a robin, or steal its eggs, was
gravestone there, but their acounts are incon- regarded as wicked, and sure to bring bad
sistent with one another and with the existing luck; 19th-century sources speak of cows giv-
monument (Keen, 1977: 179-82). There is no ing bloody milk, piglets dying, or buildings
reason to suppose it is authentic. catching fire, while the Farmer's Weekly in 1974
See also *friar tuck, *little john, maid quotes a warning that 'you'll end up with a
MARIAN. broken leg or arm'. In Yorkshire in the 1880s,
The ballad texts can be found in Child, 1882-98/1965, a boy who took a robin's eggs would be sur-
and in Dobson and Taylor, 1976. For the May plays, see rounded by other boys, pointing, hissing and
Wiles, 1981, and Hutton, 1996: 270-4. Keen, 1977, argues
slapping at him, and chanting
for a fictional hero embodying a popular longing for
social justice. Knight, 1994, stresses the multiplicity of Robin takker, robbin takker,
the legend; Knight 1999 reprints all the main sources.
Sin, sin, sin!
John C. Bellamy's Robin Hood: A Historical Inquiry (1985),
and J. C. Holt's Robin Hood (1982;, rev. edn., 1990), seek a Swainson, 1885: 12-18; Radford, Radford, and Hole,
real-life original.
1961: 282-4; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 328-30.

robins. Folk traditions about the robin are Rogation Days. These are the Monday, Tues-
contradictory; some link it with death, others day, and Wednesday before *Ascension Day,
see it as a sacred bird, cheerful and friendly to on which, before the Reformation, priests led
humans. The idea that a robin pecking on a processions round the fields, blessing crops
window or entering the house brings death and praying for good harvests. A secondary
has been recorded in many areas from the purpose was to bless the main boundary
early 19th century onwards, and is still some- markers of each parish, in towns as well as
times found; a Gloucestershire girl in the rural areas. A cross, relics, hand-bells, and
1950s said it was a death-sign to receive a banners were carried; those taking part were
Christmas card with a robin on it (Folklore 66 sometimes given a communal meal supphed
and a woman in Hull in the 1990s
(1955), 324), from church fiinds, or received food at the
!

always threw away such cards from mixed houses they passed. The event was also known
I
packs (Gill, 1993: 67). However, the great as Cross Days or, in northern districts, Gang
popularity of robins on Christmas cards from Days (from gang - 'walk').
Victorian times onwards shows this fear must Inevitably, some early Protestants attacked
be rare. the processions as superstitious; how far they
A belief first recorded in the late 16th cen- succeeded is debated (Thomas, 1971: 62-5;
tury may explain the Unk with death. It was Hutton, 1994: 175-7). However, there were
thought that if a robin found someone lying financial reasons why parishes wished to
dead, it would cover the face (or even the estabUsh exact boundaries pubhcly, so a
whole corpse) with moss, leaves, or flowers, modified form of the custom, minus its
being a 'charitable' bird, 'thatloves mankind blessings and other CathoUc features, was
30th alive and dead'. There are many literary established under Elizabeth I and became
ullusions to this idea, and forms the climax
it widespread in the 17th century, especially
3l"the ballad of 'The Babes in the Wood'. after the Restoration. It was known as beat-
The robin, and his alleged 'wife' the *wren, ing the bounds.
according to well-known rhymes:
V fi p sacred,
Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 129-38; Hutton, 1996: 277-87.

The robin redbreast and the wren

Are God Almighty's cock and hen.
roiling pins (glass). Decorative glass rolling

md: pins, hungin cottages in the late 18th and

19th centuries, are generally love tokens from
Hurt a robin or a wran.
sailors to their wives and sweethearts, or vice
Never prosper, boy or man.
versa, as their designs and inscriptions often
A pious legend, probably from medieval show. They were also linked to luck; if one was
imcs, says the bird got its red breast when it broken, it was a sign that the ship carrying the

njured itself in trying to pluck out a thorn giver had been wrecked, or that some great
Rol (right Stones 300

misfortune was about to strike the family. The ing a funeral party in a West Sussex village
pins are hollow, the knob at one end being a and asking about the nosegays many of them
stoppered opening; it is said they could hold carried, and being told that the rosemary and
gifts of tea or rum, but when used as house- rue in them were 'fine things against
hold charms were generally filled with *salt, or infection'.
*
sometimes with coloured beads, seeds, or Rosemary was also popular as a Christmas
threads. They, and the similarly decorative decoration, an all-purpose disinfectant, and
glass rods and 'walking sticks', were some- even as a hair rinse. As late as the 1990s people
times called *charm wands. were still calling it the 'friendship bush': 'You
always had to plant rosemary in your garden
Rollright Stones. A lively story is told about so that you wouldn't be short of friends' (Vick-
this prehistoric monument in Oxfordshire, ery, 1995: 318). Nevertheless, a parallel belief
which consists of a circle of stones plus a sin- states that rosemary only thrives where the

gle taller stone, some 50 yards off, called the woman of the house is dominant. A much
King Stone. An invading king had encamped older tradition, reported by Nuttall, holds that
his army on the hill, encouraged by a witch's rosemary plants never grow taller than the
promise that if he could reach the crest in height of Christ when he was on earth, and
seven strides and see the village of Long thatwhen they are 33 years old their upward
Compton in the valley, he would be king of all growth stops.
England. It seemed easy, but the witch cheated Opie and Tatem, 1989: 332-3; Vickeiy, 1995: 318-19;
him, raising a mound to block the view. He HazUtt, 1905: 524-6; Hone, 1832: 19-21; G. Clarke Nut-
and his men became stones, and she an elder. tall, 'Rosemary at Christmas', The 19th Century 98 (1925),
797-804.
It is said that the King Stone goes down to

the stream to drink 'when he hears the church

roses. Medieval and later poets constantly
clock strike midnight'; the stones of the circle
sometimes dance in the air. The elder tree used the red rose to symbolize sexual love,
bleeds if cut on *Midsummer Eve, at which the pleasure, and woman's beauty; these mean-
ings are still well understood, e.g. red roses are
King Stone nods approval. Anyone trying to
remove the stones meets bad luck, and it is given to a woman, paper rose petals are
thrown as confetti. It was also a medieval cus-
impossible to count them— a baker who tried
to do so by putting a loaf on each stone found
tom to wear coronets of roses (or other blos-

one always disappeared. In the 19th century, soms) as festive adornments; this survives as
some said *fairies lived underground near the the bridal wreath. However, this flower rarely
figures in folk customs, presumably because
King Stone; others thought chips from the
its period of blooming is so short; the only
King Stone brought good luck.
magical beUef about it was that if a girl picks a
Descriptions of the Rollright Stones begin
with Camden in the 16th century, and the rose on *Midsummer Eve, wraps it up,. and
finds it unfaded on Christmas Eve. her lover is
legends grow more detailed as time passes; the
true (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 332). Nowadays,
ftiUest account is by L. V. Grinsell, The Rollright
roses are thought appropriate to all forms of
Stones and Their Folklore (1977).
love; they may be laid on a coffin, a rose bush

Romanies, see *gypsies. planted as a memorial to the dead, etc.

rosemary. According to traditional lore,

Rose lyee, the. This gruesome *fairytale
rosemary isa versatile httle plant, and in gen- (analogous to the *Grimms' 'The Juniper Tree')
eral its uses are positive. Lines in A Nosegaie was collected in Devonshire by *Baring-Gould
Mwaies Sweet, for Lovers to Send for Tokens of Love
in the 1860s. A pretty little girl is murdered by
.
(c.1582), provide the famous definition of
. .
her stepmother, who cooks her heart and Uver
and serves them to the child's father; she is
rosemary for remembrance, as quoted by
'Rosemarie is for then buried by a rose tree, where her httle
Ophelia in Hamlet, iv. v:

remembrance, betweene us dale and night'. brother weeps for her daily. In the spring a
white bird appears among the roses, sweetly
Rosemary was essential at both *weddings and
funerals, and its use at the latter is partly singing:

explained by its reputation for practical rather My wicked mother slew me.
than symbolic protection. A writer in The My dear father ate me.
Monthly Packet (23, (1862), 88) describes meet- My little brother whom love 1
,301 rowan
Sits below, and I sing above. clear that the authorities, such as the local
Stick, stock, stone dead.
police, whilst not condoning such behaviour,
The bird's song so charms various craftsmen would often make sure to be 'out of the way'
that she gets from them a fine pair of shoes, a while it was going on and nobody would be

gold watch and chain, and a millstone. Carry- willing to testify even if charges were brought.
The victims would usually move away, or at
ing these, she lures the family out of the house
one by one and drops the watch and chain on least keep a low profile and appear to mend

her father, the shoes on her brother— and the their ways, but in extreme cases the stress or

millstone on her stepmother. shame could lead to suicide. Rough music is

clearly related to continental customs, of
Text in Henderson, 1866: 314-17; Jacobs, 1894/1968:
13-16; and Philip, 1992: 143-6, who adds references for which the French Charivari is probably the
some Yorkshire variants. best known.
E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common (1991), 467-538.
rough music. Under a names
variety of local
and differing methods, rough music was the
main customary way in which members of a
Round Table. A large oak table-top, six
metres wide, is displayed in the Great Hall of
community expressed displeasure at trans-
Winchester Castle (Hampshire) as being
gressions of societal norms, usually, but not
Arthur's Round Table. It was made in the 14th
exclusively, concerned with sexual and mari-
tal matters such as v^dfe- or husband-beating, century, possibly for Edward III, who in 1344
and so on. The term planned to found an 'Order of the Round
idultery, co-habitation,
Table'. A design was painted on it on the
rough music' and other local names such as
orders of Henry VIII in 1522; at the centre is
ran-tanning', reflect the almost universal
the Tudor rose, and at the top a 'portrait' of
lement of noise— participants would bang on
Arthur modelled on Henry himself A central
3ld kettles,saucepans, or shovels, blow on
inscription reads: 'This is the rownde table of
cow-horns, wave rattles, shout and
/vhistles,
jawl- anything to make a loud and discord- kynge Arthur w[ith] xxiiii of hys namyde
mt Other names, such as '* knyttes'; the names are written round the
noise. Riding the
edge, with Galahad's and Mordred's on either
iJtang' and 'Skimmington Riding' encapsulate
side of the king.
lie other regular feature— the parading of
At Mayburgh (Cumbria), a Bronze Age
effigies of the guilty parties, or sometimes
earthwork, a flat round platform within a
leighbours impersonating them. The effigies
ditch is called the Round Table; on the beach
vould be mounted on a pole, a cart, or a
near Cresswell Point (Northumberland) there
lonkey— often with the man placed back-
yards facing the tail. After processing the
was a large circular rock caUed King Arthur's
table, destroyed by the 1870s (N&Q.4s:7 (1871),
leighbourhood, these effigies would usually
)e burnt in front of the victims' house. 281).

Examples are recorded regularly from the

6th century onwards, including Henry Mach- rowan. Also known as mountain ash, wittem,
n's Diary (22 Feb. 1562/3), Stow (1598/1994: whitty, wiggen, and quickbeam, rowan was
;00), Samuel Pepys, Diary (10 June 1667), the the tree most often credited v^th protective
ngraving by William Hogarth entitled Hudi- magical powers against all effects of *witch-
ras Encounters the Skimmington (1726), and a craft, not merely in Celtic areas but through-
U-knovm Uterary example is in Thomas out Britain (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 333-4;
Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge (1884), chap- Vickery, 1995: 319-22). A correspondent from
ers 36, 39. The proceedings were 'regulated' Westmorland in Hone's Table Book (1827: ii,
'ylocally understood rules and expectations. cols.674-5) says 'its anti-witching properties
n earlier examples, it seems to be accepted are held in very high esteem' in northern
hat the next-door neighbour of the counties, where, to prevent spells on farm
offending
arty should take the place of the effigy, and animals and butter-making, the chum-staff
he occasion would provide the opportunity and the shafts of forks used in the cowhouse
pr
much ribald humour. As wath all such and stable must be made of its wood. The same
[igilante behaviour, these proceedings could was true in many other areas, as was the use of
ie seen as great ftin or highly fiightening mob rowan wood for carters' whips, the pegs of cat-
ehaviour, depending on whether you were tle tethers, and cradles. In Lancashire, rowan
n the performing side or receiving end. It is twigs over the bed ensiu'ed peaceful sleep, i.e.
Royal Maundy 302

repelled the *nightmare; in Yorkshire, looped oak-leaf wreath around the neck of a statue of

twigs were hung on gateposts; in both coun- Charles in All Saints' Church. Other locaUzed
ties, rowan wood was used to make * witch names include 'Shick Shack Day' and 'Yak Bob
posts. In some North Yorkshire farms, the pro- Day'.
tective twigs over every door and bed, known See also *arbor day, "^castleton garland,
as 'witch-wood', were annually renewed; one *WISHFORD MAGNA.
must cut them from a tree one had never seen Opie and Opie, 1959: 263-6; V^right and Lones, 1936: i.

before, and bring them home by a different 254-70.

route (Atkinson, 1891: 97-9).

Oddly, some Lancashire people thought it Rudkin, Ethel (1893-1985). Bom Ethel Hutch-
an unlucky tree and would not have one in the inson in Willoughton, Lincolnshire, Mrs Rud-
garden, transplant one, or bring cuttings into kin spent little of her long life away from her
the house; in such cases, its ominous white native Lincolnshire. She was a dedicated col-
flowers were more important than its *red lector of Lincolnshire material, and was active
berries. in a number of fields
including local history,
archaeology, folk-Ufe, and dialect, as well as
Royal Maundy, see *maundy Thursday. folklore,working for many years with little
recognition or encouragement but eventually
becoming an acknowledged expert in all these
Royal Oak Day, Oak Apple Day (29 May).
subjects. Her home, which was packed with
One of the few customary days which have an
artefacts,farm implements, and memorabiUa,
identifiable historical starting-point:
as well as books and manuscripts, became a
This was the first anniversary appointed by Act of
place of pilgrimage for researchers. Her main
Pariiament to be observ'd as a day of general folklore collecting, in the 1920s and 1930s,
Thanksgiving for the miraculous Restauration of his was made directly from the people of the vil-
Majestie: our Vicar preaching on 118 Psahn 24.
lages up and down the county and covered the
Requiring us to be Thankful! & rejoice, as indeede we
broadest range of topics. A string of articles
had Cause, gohn Evelyn's Diary, 29 May 1661)
published in the *Folklore Society's journal,
When Charles II arrived in London on his detailed below, included her careful descrip-
birthday in 1660, it signified not only the res- tions of * calendar customs, beliefs in witches
toration of the monarchy itself, but also, it was and and an important con-
devils, stone-lore,
hoped, the return of the pre-Puritan tolerance tribution on *Black Dogs. Her one book, Lin-
of popular sports, customs, and celebrations. colnshire Folklore was published at her own
The story of how Charles had hidden in an oak expense in 1936, reprinted in 1973 by EP Pub-
tree to avoid capture after the Battle of Ushing of East Ardsley, and is still in demand.
Worcester had become part of the nation's Major articles: 'An Account of the Haxey
popular memory, and the oak leaf quickly Hood Game', Folk-Lore 43 (1932), 294-301:
became the symbol of the day. Until well into 'Lincolnshire Folklore', Folk-Lore 44 (1933),
the 20th century, anyone caught not wearing 189-214, 279-95; 45 (1934), 144-57, 248-67;
an oak leaf or oak apple on 29 May could be 66 (1955), 385-400; 'The Black Dog', Folk-Lore
pinched, kicked, or otherwise abused. Whip- 49 (1938), 111-31; 'Lincolnshire Plough Plays',
ping with nettles was a favourite punishment, Folk-Lore 50 (1939), 88-97; 'The Plough Jack's
hence the name 'Nettle Day' in some areas. In Play', Folk-Lore 50 (1939), 291-4.
its heyday. Oak Apple Day appears to have Foreword by J. D. A. Widdowson, to the 1973 reprint of
absorbed some of the customs we would nor- her Lincolnshire Folklore; Obituary by Theo Brown. FoVdore

mally associate with May Day. Certainly, some 97:2 (1986), 222-3.

places kept their maypole celebrations up for

the whole month. William Hone's Every-Day rue. By coincidence, the name of this plant
Book (1827: 356-61) details some of the cus- (from Greek, via French) is identical with an
toms extant in the 1820s. Some relatively low- Enghsh word meaning 'to regret bitterly', and

key loyal customs still take place: at Worcester so the plant symbolized grief or repentance.
the Guildhall gates are festooned with oak Discussing Herefordshire wedding customs,
branches (Shuel, 1985: 60) while at Northamp- Ella M. Leather records an incident where a
ton a previous procession of Mayor, Corpora- waited in the porch at her ex-lover's
jilted girl
tion, and children, carrying oak apples, has wedding and, as the couple emerged, threw a
now been replaced by the simple placing of an handftil of rue at them, in a parody of the
303 Rye hot pennies

throwing of flower petals, sa5dng, 'May you church: and that women
'. . . shall have leave
rue this day as long as you Uve!' This curse was to cany rushes to the church for the decoring
thought particularly effective because the rue of it, according to their old custom'.
'was taken direct from the plant to the The usual method of bringing in the rushes
churchyard, and thrown "between holy and involved them being piled high on a waggon
unholy ground", that is, between church and highly decorated with flowers and ribbons.
churchyard'. Other jilted girls had put a bunch Illustrations of the custom often show the
of rue enclosing a half-eaten shce of bread and rushes built into elaborate shapes. The wag-
butter in the church porch (Leather, 1912: gon was accompanied by *morris dancers,
115). and people carrying garlands (which could be
Medicinally, rue tea was used in East Anglia hung in the church afterwards); the proces-
for stomach ache and as a spring tonic (Hat- sion would often go round the whole parish
field, 1994: 54, 56), but also to cause abortions before ending up at the church. As wooden
(Chamberlain, 1981: 122, 128). floors became more common, rushbearing

purpose, and in most places graduaUy

lost its

rushbearing. A prime example of a custom faded away. A few have proved more tenacious
which originally had a logical practical pur- and have the custom still, while others have
pose but which was turned into an elaborate revived it in recent years (see *Grasmere,
occasion by tradition and which continues in *Ambleside).
isolated places long after the original raison Alfred Burton, Rushbearing (1891): Hole, 1975: 85-8;
d'etre isgone. When churches had earth Kightly, 1986: 199-201; E. F. Rawnsley, The Rushbearing in
floors, or even cold stone floors, it was the Grasmere and Ambleside (1953); Brears, 1989: 178-203;
Linda Fletcher, Folk Life 36 (1997/98). 66-71.
custom to make the building more habitable
by laying a thick layer of rushes (or hay or
straw) on the floor. It was not only rural par- Rye hot pennies. A *scrambUng custom
ishes that had rushes, as the churchwarden's which still takes place on 23 May, as part of
accounts for St Mary-at-Hill, London, for the annual mayor-making ceremony in Rye
example, includes a payment of 3d. in 1493 (East Sussex). Immediately after the new May-
'For three burdens of rushes for new pews'. or's election, he/she appears at a window of
These rushes were renewed periodically, and the Town and throws hot new pennies to
Hall
the process of bringing in the new supply was the waiting crowd of children and adults. Rye
what became expanded in many places into is not unique in including a scrambUng elem-

the elaborate rushbearing custom, particu- ent in a *civic custom and the two local stories
larly in the north-western counties of Eng- which seek to explain it are also found else-
land. The date for rushbearing varied, but was where. One is that at one time the Mayor of
often during the local *wakes week if in the Rye was also a Member of Parliament and
right season. sought to bribe voters, while the other
Rushbearing was one of the pastimes specif- explains that when Rye had the privilege of its
ically permitted on Sundays by order of King own mint, the town ran out of pennies and
James I's *Book of Sports (1618), in terms which that they were brought so fast that they were
indicate that it was already more than simply still hot.
a practical exercise to keep the feet warm in Simpson. 1973: 119; Howard. 1964: 112.
sabbat(h), witches'. In many parts of Sunday are invaUd, etc. (Opie and Tatem, 19i
Europe from about 1400 onwards it was 382-3). The underlying religious rules w«
thought that on certain nights witches gath- relaxed during the 20th century, and th€
ered to worship Satan, with feasting and beUefs have now faded out.
obscene orgies, and to plan their evil deeds.
Such assembhes were called 'synagogues' or sage. Features in a *love divination pi
'sabbaths', since Jews supposedly worshipped cedure, reported only occasionally, such as:
the Devil. These ideas barely touched England;
On All Saints' Eve a young woman must go out intol
only half a dozen references have been the garden alone at midnight, and while the clock
found— three in Lancashire (two in 1612, one strikes twelve she must pluck nine sage leaves, one
in 1633), and one each in Yorkshire (1622),
at every stroke up to the ninth. Then, if she is des-
Devon (1638), and Northumberland (1673) tined to be married, she will see the face of her hus-
(Sharpe, 1996: 76-8, 278-80). Two of the Lan- band; if not, she will see a coffin. (Bume, 1883: 177).
cashire sabbaths were said to have been held
on a *Good Friday, 'one constant day for a year-
Asimilar description, from Lincolnshire,
calls for twelve leaves at midday on St Mark's
ly generall meetinge of witches'— a dramatic
Eve (quoted in Opie and Tatem). Like *parsley,
reversal of Christian ritual, by feasting on a
sage is said to grow best where the wife is
The Devon sabbath was set on Mid-
fast-day.
summer Eve; for the others no date is given. dominant, while others claim a link between
the plant and the prosperity of the family.
These English accounts mention no sexual
but the "^Devil is usually said to be pres- Sage has also had its medicinal uses; to keep
orgies,
teeth clean, reUeve sore gums, and boiled in
ent, and in the Devon account he licks the
water to make a drink to alleviate arthritis.
witches, leaving a black mark; one Lancashire
teenager said she had seen witches dig up and Opie and Tatem, 1989: 335; Vickeiy, 1995: 328.
eat a dead baby. However, there are also fan-
tasies drawn from folk traditions, especially in
sailor, A generally reported beUef
touching.
the statements from the boy Edmund Robin- is that lucky to touch a sailor, or at least a
it is

son in Lancashire in 1633 and from Anne sailor's collar. In most cases it appears to be

Armstrong in Northumberland in 1673. Both females, or children, who are actually wilhng
claimed to have been turned into horses and to carry out the action, which may say more
ridden to a house where witches pulled on about the gender-based societal norms of
ropes hanging from the rafters, whereupon interpersonal contact than about who holds
roast meat, milk, butter, cheese, and wine fell the behef itself The earliest known refer-
from the air for their feast. ences, however, date only to 1916, and it is
possible that it originated during the First
Sabbath-breaking. Enghsh folklore is frill of World War. See also other beliefs involving
warnings against Sabbath-breaking. The touching under *hunchback, *touching iron/
theme occurs in local legends, in the stories of wood, *statues.
*
the Seven Whistlers and of the *Man in the N&Q.12S: 1 (1916) 430, 491; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 335.
Moon. Children were told the Devil would get
them for *nutting, sewing, or playing ball St Agnes's Eve (20/1 January). Martyred in ad
on Sunday; whoever celebrates a birthday on 303, St Agnes was the patron saint of young
Sunday, will die before the next; work done on girls, so this was a favourite date for *love
Sunday never prospers; cheques dated on a divinations— a tradition which became widely
 St Bride's Day

known through Keats's poem "The Eve of St belief reported by Wright and Lones is that

Agnes', though his idea of the ritual is heavily wherever Ullies of the valley grow wild the
romanticized. Reality was much simpler. In parish church is usually dedicated to St
Derbyshire, girls fasted for 24 hours before Andrew.
going to bed at midnight of the 20/1 January, See also *squirrel hunting.
and lying on the left side said three times: Wright and Lones, 1940: ill. 186-91.

St Agnes be a friend to me.

In the gift I ask of thee. St Anne's Day (26 July). Sidney Oldall Addy
Let me this night my husband see. describes the following *love divination pro-
cedure for St Anne's Eve, probably as collected
They then dreamed of their future husbands
in Derbyshire or Yorkshire, although similar
(Long Ago 2 (1874), 80). John Aubrey gives
another: 'Upon St Agnes night, you take a row ones are reported elsewhere for Midsummer
of pins, and pull out every one, one after and other times.
another, saying a paternoster, sticking a pin in A stoolis set in the middle of a room, and a bowl of

your sleeve, and you wiU dream of him or her water put thereon. A string or piece of rope is then
you will marry' (Aubrey, 1696: 136). hung across the room. Seven unmarried girls, who
Other methods included making the *dumb must not speak till the ceremony is over, come in,
cake, and scattering barley seeds. The latter and each hangs a smock on the line. Then each of the
girls in turn drops a bay-leaf into the water, and sits
was practised in Lincolnshire up to the Second
down immediately opposite to the smock which she
World War:
has hung up. Soon afterwards a young man will
Two or three lasses at a time would go out into the enter the room, take a bay-leaf from the bowl, and
orchard or garden and one or two kept guard while sprinkle the smock of the girl whom he intends to
the other sowed the barley. They didn't like being marry. He will marry her that year.
out in the dark on their own so they went out a few
at a time. If an apple tree was not at hand an oak tree
Ben Jonson includes a reference to divin-
would do. A dittywas said while the seeds were atory dreams in his masque 'The Satyr', but
sown, I never got toknow what that was. A secret, 1 John *Aubrey (1686/1880: 54) challenges this
was told. The seeds did grow quite quickly in many and says he must mean *St Agnes. It is cer-
cases. (Sutton, 1997: 27-8). a far
tainly true that St Agnes 's Eve/Day is

Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 106-10. more common time for love divinations, but
as Thomas Killigrew (Thomaso, (1663), ii. iv)
St Andrew's Day (30 November). In some includes the term 'St Ann's Vision' in a Ust of
areas, such as Bedfordshire, Buckingham- failed love charms, it seems that Jonson was
shire, Hertfordshire, and Northamptonshire, correct.
St Andrew was regarded as the patron saint of
lace-makers (but see also *St Catherine) and
St Bartholomew's Day (24 August). Every
his day was thus kept as a holiday, or 'tander-
24 August, the Mayor of Sandwich visits St
ing feast', by many in that trade. Thomas Bartholomew's Hospital (Almshouses) at
Sternberg, describing customs in mid-1 9th- Sandwich, Kent, and attends a memorial ser-
centuiy Northamptonshire, claims that St vice for the Hospital's founders, and one of the
Andrew's Day Old Style (11 December) was a
sixteen residents is chosen as 'Master' by stick-
major festival day 'in many out of the way vil-
ing a pin in a Ust of names. Then the local
lages' of the county: the day is one of
'.
children race round the building and are
. .

—
unbridled Ucense a kind of carnival; village
rewarded with a bun each. The ceremony's
scholars *bar out the master, the lace schools
date of origin is not known, but there was
are deserted, and drinking and feasting prevail
once a dole of bread, cheese, and beer and the
to a riotous extent. Towards evening the vil-
bun race is probably a modified version of this.
lagers walk about and masquerade, the
women wearing men's dress and the men Rightly, 1986: 202-3; Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 49-50.

wearing female attire, visiting one another's

St Blaise, see *blessing the throats.
cottages and drinking hot elderberry wine, the
chief beverage of the season .'
(Sternberg, . .

1851: 183-5). In Leighton Buzzard, Bedford- St Briavels (Gloucestershire), see '^bread

shire, a featureof the day was the making and AND CHEESE THROWING.
eating of Tandry Wigs (a wig in this case being
a cake or bun) (N&Q. 5s:2 (1874), 138). A St Bride's Day (1 February). St Bride or Bridget
strange
St Catherine's Day 306

is much more popular in Ireland and the Here comes Queen Catherine, as fine as any queen
Isle of Man than in England, but one behef With a coach and six horses a-coming to be seen
And a spinning we will go, will go, will go
reported from the Midlands maintains that
And a spinning we will go
dew collectedfrom plants on this day is par-
(Baker, 1854: ii.
436-7)
ticularly good for the complexion (compare
May dew). At Melton Abbey, Dorset, there is a St Cath-
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 117. erine's Chapel where, according to a local
tradition recorded in 1865, spinsters used to
pray: 'A husband, St Catherine; a handsome
St Catherine's Day November). This
(25 one, St Catherine; a rich one, St Catherine; a
(probably fictional) mart}^-, very popular in nice one, St Catherine; and soon, St Catherine!'.
the Middle Ages, was said to have been broken Another version of the alleged prayer ends:
on a wheel— hence the 'Catherine wheel' 'But am-a-one's better than nam-a-one, St
firework. She was patron saint of lacemakers, Catherine!' (The Family Herald (16 Sept. 1865),
spinners, rope-makers, wheelwrights, carpen- 319; quoted in Opie and Tatem, 1989: 336).
ters, young women, and female students, and Brand also gives detailed instructions for a
some of these had customs particular to her *love divination for St Catherine's Day, taken
day, although some of them seem to have con- from a chapbook called Mother Bunch's Golden
fiised the Saint with Queen Catherine of Fonune-Teller. For the *visiting custom called
Aragon. In Buckinghamshire and Hertford- 'Catteming', see *souling.
shire, lace-makers and children attending
Wright and Lones. 1940: iii. 177-86; Brand, 1849: i.

lace-making school, took Cattems Day as a 410-14.

hoUday. They called at neighbours' houses
requesting refreshment, and some of them St Christopher. All that is known historically
dressed up as men to do so. Cakes called wiggs of Christopher is that he was a martyr in Asia
(oblong-shaped and flavoured with caraway Minor (3rd century?); his name means 'Christ-

seeds) and 'hot pot' (warm beer containing carrier'.According to medieval legend, he was
beaten eggs and rum) were traditional fare on a giant who became Christian and used to
the day. In the evening, Catherine wheels were serve travellers by carrying them across a
ignited and a game of jumping the candlestick river. One day he was almost crushed by the
was played— if the candle went out as a weight of a young boy, for the boy was Jesus,
woman jumped over it she would have bad who carries the weight of the world. Many
luck for the coming year (compare a similar English churches had wall paintings and win-
game under *buckets). These customs had dows depicting Christopher, usually facing
largely died out by the 1890s. A tradition the main entrance, as it was said that anyone
which explains the connection between lace- who saw an image of him would not die that
making and St Catherine's Day relates that day. He was also patron of travellers, and pro-
Queen Catherine of Aragon first taught the tected people from plague and storm. Proces-
trade to Enghsh women and that once, when sional *giants were sometimes named after
trade was very poor, she burnt her lace and him, he being a rare example of a virtuous
ordered new to be made, encouraging other giant; one survives, at *Salisbury (Wiltshire). St
ladies at the court to follow suit (N&Ci 3s: 1 Christopher medals were already known in
(1862), 387) (see also *St Andrew). the Middle Ages; one of Chaucer's pilgrims,
In the mid-1 9th century, the rope-makers of the Yeoman, wears a silver one. They are very
Kent also celebrated the day in style. There popular charms in the 20th century, especially
they had torchUght processions on 25 Novem- among motorists and those travelling by air.
ber, with drums and fifes, and six men carry-
ing a female wearing musUn and a gilt crown, St Clement's Day (23 November). Claimed as
to represent Queen Catherine (N&Cl 2s:5 the patron saint of blacksmiths, who cele-
(1858), 47). In the eariier 19th century, the brated his Day in various ways. Earher refer-
female children of the workhouse of Peter- ences, however, indicate that other trades had
borough also went in procession on this day, an interest in the day, and that it was previ-
dressed in white, with coloured ribbons. The ously an important festival: 'Itm. geuen to the
tallest girl represented the Queen and had a bakers of the Prince house on saynt Clementes
crown and sceptre, and they visited houses Even comyng wt theyre Bolle vs (November
and sang: 1537)' (Hazlitt, 1905: 131), and similarly at
307 St David's Day

Newcastle in 1637 (J. J. Anderson, Records of replaced solemn pageantry. Boys copied the
Drama: Newcastle Upon Tyne (1982),
Early English customs of Guy Fawkes Night by asking for
157-8). Proclamations of 1540 and 1541 to money 'in the name of St Crispin'. At Horsham
suppress *boy bishop ceremonies also include (Sussex) a ftirther custom had developed by
St Clement's as one of the times that children the 1830s: every year an effigy was made of
should not be dressed up and taken in proces- someone 'who had misconducted himself or
sion (Ian Lancashire, Dramatic Texts and Records herself, or had become particularly notorious

of Britain (1984), 66). during the year'. This was hung up outside a
See also *souiing, for the *visiting custom called pub near the offender's home and left there
'dementing'. till 5 November, when it would be taken down

and burnt. It was called 'the Crispin', by ana-

St Crispin's (25 October). Crispin and
Day logy with 'the Guy', and for weeks people
would be wondering 'Who is to be the Crisps
Crispian, martyred in ad 285, were said to be
brothers of noble birth who learnt the humble in?' (Henry Burstow, Reminiscences of Horsham
trade ofshoemaking rather than be a burden (1911), 76-7).
on the persecuted Christian community; they Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 102-4; Simpson, 1973: 131-
3.
were therefore patron saints of cobblers and
of the Shoemakers' Guild. One legend claimed
they Uved for a while at Faversham (Kent), but St David's Day (1 March). As the patron saint
the popularity of their cult in England may of Wales, St David is obviously more honoured
also reflect patriotic pride in the victory at there than in England. According to Times Tele-
Agincourt, fought on their feast day, 25
scope for 1823 (p. 56): 'Early on the first of
October. March, girls of Steben Hethe, now called Step-
The Shoemakers' Guild celebrated this day
ney, used to go to Goodman's Fields in search
in style. In early Stuart times they were of a blade of grass of a reddish tint'. Whoever
responsible for staging plays,
presumably found one would be sure to secure the hus-
about the Ufe of these saints, one of which was band of her dreams within a month. All over
for the Queen at Wells (Somerset) in 1613 (Ian
England it was believed necessary to keep
Lancashire, Dramatic Texts and Records of Britain your windows closed on 1 March to keep the
(1984), 280). Their power and confidence, and fleas out: 'If from fleas you would be free. On
their love of pageantryand dramatic imper- 1st of March, let your v^dndows closed be' (Sus-
sonation, wasobvious in Suffolk in 1777,
still
sex) or 'The Devil shakes a bag of fleas at
when a parade of Shoemakers and their everybody's door on 1st of March' (Shropshire).
'Prince' rode through the town, with trum- St David's Day was, however, the time for
pets, fifes, and drums: the EngUsh to make anti-Welsh gestures,

The Prince was mounted on a fine grey horse and although it is not clear why, unless it was in
most magnificently habited. He was attended by his retahation against the wearing of leeks which
nobles, superbly dressed in green and white, and his was taken to recall a famous Welsh victory
guards in blue and white, which made a very good over the 'Saxons'. The protest often took the
appearance. His noble and warlike Br. Crispianus form of processions carrying and burning
appeared in a coat of mail, attended by his troops, in effigies of stereotypical Welshmen, such as
two divisions, one in red and white, the other in that recorded by Samuel Pepys in his Diary for
purple and white. They all rode in half boots, made 1 March 1667:
of morocco, in different colours adapted to the uni-
and caps were extremely neat in
fonns; their jackets in the street in Mark-lane do observe (it being St

elegant taste, made all of leather The prince, David's day) the picture of a man dressed like a
attended by his guard, with his torch bearers and a Welchman, hanging by the neck on one of the poles
grand band of musick playing before him, went to that stand out at the top of one of the merchants'
the Play, and was received with every mark of houses, in fiill proportion and very handsomely
respect. (Quoted in Clyde, 1866/1976: 280-1) done—which is one of the oddest sights 1 have seen
in a good while, for it was so like a man that one
St Crispin's day seems to have been particu- would have thought it was endeed a man.
larly well celebrated in Sussex, with bonfires,
fireworks, tar barrels, and behaviour more Welshmen were often portrayed as riding
usually associated with *November the Fifth, goats, and a correspondent to William Hone's
at least in the 19th
century, by which time Year Book (1832: 796) described the sale of
heavy drinking and some rowdyism had edible 'taffies' on St David's Day, which were
St Dunstan

made of white 'parlement' in the shape of 'a Ages he was regarded as the patron saint of j

Welshman riding on a goat' provided by the England, and a model of chivalry. His feast was |

gingerbread sellers, but these had recently celebrated by civic and guild processions, \

disappeared. which gave much scope for horse-riding

Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 158-9; Brand, 1849: i. 105-7. knights and effigy dragons, such as *Snap at i

Norwich. Parades were held at Leicester, Ches-

St Dunstan (909-88). Dunstan, Abbot of ter, Coventry, Reading, and King's Lynn, as

Glastonbury Abbey and later Archbishop of well as many smaller places, but they did not i

Canterbury, played a major role in both long survive the Reformation; popular cus- j

Church and State matters, and when young toms were then transferred to warmer dates
|

was a fine craftsman in painting, embroidery, such as *May Day and *Midsummer, and 23 i

and metal-working. Within ten years of his April is not now marked by any traditional !

death he was regarded as a national saint. In customs.

folklore, he is remembered for his conflict George's persona was remodelled in a :

with the * Devil (a 12th-century story); this is remarkably popular work. The Famous History of j

sometimes said to have happened at Glaston- the Seven Champions of Christendom (1596-7) by I

bury, sometimes at Mayfield (Sussex). The tale Richard Johnson, which strips away the Chris-
goes that one day when Dunstan was working tian elements, replacing them with chivalric i

at his forge making a chalice, a lovely girl and magical adventures imitated from medi- \

arrived and began tempting him, whereupon eval romances. Here, George is bom in Coven-
he gripped her nose with red-hot tongs, and try, son of the Lord Steward of England, but
she turned back into a demon, whom the saint stolen soon after birth by an enchantress
dragged round the smithy by his nose. A con- whose power he eventually outwits; he saves
vent school at Mayfield still shows medieval Sabra, the King of Egypt's daughter, by killing i

tongs, alleged to be the very ones. Various a dragon; after further adventures he dies
modem elaborations include the idea that the from the poison of another (English) dragon,
Devil cooled his burnt nose in the springs at and is buried in Windsor Chapel. Johnson's i

Tunbridge Wells (Kent) or the Roaring Spring book was often reprinted, and formed the j

near Mayfield; that he flew off" with the tongs basis for *chapbook abridgements, plays, and
'

still in place, they dropped off at Tong-

till children's versions; it is thanks to this that ;

dean (Sussex); and that he tried to destroy George appears in many texts of the mum-

Mayfield, but was foiled by Dunstan's invent- ming play.

ive new use for *horseshoes— i.e. fixing them There have been repeated attempts to per-
to doors. Hilaire Belloc's The Four Men (1911) suade English people to celebrate St George's j

makes Dunstan the hero of the *Devirs Dyke Day by wearing a rose, and
flying flags or |

legend. frequent newspaper complaints of the lack j

See Farmer, 1978: 136-9 for the facts; Westwood, 1985; of a national holiday. Local celebrations were
|

96-7, and Simpson, 1973: 63-4, for the legends. fairly common in the 1930s, but faded out !

again after the Second World War. Currently

St George (d. c.300). This early martyr was (1996-9) appropriate greeting cards are com- |

probably a soldier. He is credited with endur- mercially available, and a civic pageant was I

ing astounding tortures and performing once again held at Salisbury in 1997. The St i

equally astounding miracles, but it was the George flag (red cross on white ground) i

tale of his combat against a * dragon to save a has recently been enthusiatically adopted by
princess's life which really ensured his popu- Enghsh football fans as a national symbol.
larity. This first appears in the Legenda Aurea V^right and Lones, 1938: ii. 178-83; Christina Hole, Eni;

{The Golden Legend) in the 13th century. lish Folk Heroes (1948), 103-20; Simons, 1998: 80-94.

His importance in Western Europe

increased after a reported vision of him during St John's Eve (23/4 June). This is the night :

the siege of Antioch in the First Crusade was of 23/4 June, now more generally called {

taken as a sign of victory. A mihtary and aris- Midsummer Night or Midsummer Eve, and '

tocratic cult rapidly developed. His feast day an important date for *bonfires and divin-
(23 April) was made a hohday in England in ations.
1222; Edward chose him as patron of the
III

Order of the Garter in 1343; Henry V invoked St Mark's Eve (24/5 April). This was the night
him at Agincourt; by the close of the Middle forkeeping watch to see the wraiths of those
 )9 St Nicholas

ho would die during the year. The practice church backwards three times, look in at the
asbeen recorded throughout England from keyhole, and say certain words, or lose their
le 17th century till 19th century,
late in the power (Rudkin, 1936: 73).
pecially in northern and western counties, S. p. Menefee, in The Seer, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson (1989),
he first reference to it is in 1608, when a 80-99.

in Walesbie (Nottinghamshire) was

joman
[larged before a church court
'for watching Saint Monday. Not a saint at all, but 'keeping
Saint Markes even at Nighte laste in the Saint Monday' was formerly used to describe
jpon
jhurch porche to presage by divelishe the regular practice of staying off work on
the deathe of somme neigh-
{emonstracion Mondays, particularly in the shoemaking
lours within this yeere' (Transactions of the trade.The custom was already well known in
horoton Society 30: 12, cited in Opie and Tatem, the 17th century, as evidenced by the line in
989: 80). In 1673, a Yorkshire vicar said it the play: 'They say Monday's Shooemaker's
vas frequently practised by those poor ignor-
hoUiday, Tie fall to that trade' (Dekker, If It Be
nt souls' who waited in pairs in the church- Not Good, The Diuel Is In It (1612) ). This gives the
ard to see the wraiths pass into the church, in he to a legend, involving a Perth shoemaker
he order in which they will dye, 'and when and OUver Cromwell, which seeks to explain
hey are all in they hear a murmuring noise in its origin {Folk-Lore Record 1 (1878), 245-6). The
hurch for a while' (Gutch, 1912: 44). custom fell into disuse following the gradual
There are variations of detail; some sources
spread of more regulated working hours and
ay the watcher must be fasting, others that he the introduction of half-day working on Sat-
aust circle the church before taking up his
urdays. There is a French phrase, reported
losition; some say he will see headless or rot- from the 16th century, /aire le lundi des savetiers,
ing corpses approaching, or coffins, but most or 'to keep the cobbler's Monday'.
lescribe identifiable wraiths. 'Those who are
N&Q.8s:l (1892), 88. 212, 232-3, 252, 441, 523.
die soon, enter the first, and those who will
ilmost survive the year do not approach until
St Nicholas (4th century). Little is known of
learly one o'clock If the person is to be
the reallife of this Bishop of Myra in Turkey,
irowned, his representative will come as if
but he was very popular in the Middle Ages.
itruggUng and splashing in water, and so on
br other cases of premature death,' wrote a Legend says he once resuscitated three little
forkshire correspondent to Hone's Every-Day boys whom an innkeeper had murdered and
3ook in 1827 (cols. 548-9). Those who would
salted down to make into pies, and on another
occasion secretly threw three bags of gold
become gravely but not fatally ill, he added,
A^ould approach the church and peep in, but through the window of a poor man's house, as
dowries for his three daughters, who would
not enter. There are several tales of watchers
otherwise have been sold into prostitution. He
who saw their own wraith, and died not long
is therefore regarded as a patron saint of chil-
ifter.

This date was also, though less often, chosen dren, who, in many Catholic countries, get
for *love divinations; in a lawsuit in 1827, a presents during the night of his feast (6
ivoman was reported as saying: 'I'll tell you December).
His feast was once linked to children in Eng-
what I did to know if I could have Mr Barker.
land too; merrymaking and imruhness were
On St Mark's night I ran round a haystack nine
allowed in some schools. Aubrey wrote in the
times, with a ring in my hand, calling out,
1680s:
"Here's the sheath, but Where's the knife?",
and when I was running round the ninth time, And the Schoole-boies in the west still religiously
1
thought I saw Mr Barker coming home' observe Nicholas day (Decemb. 6*), he was the
S'

(Hone, 1827: ii. 159). Patron of the Schoole-boies. At Currey-Yeoville in

Somersetshire, where there is a Howschole (or schole)
One Lincolnshire writer says a girl who
in the Church, they have annually at that time a
picks twelve leaves of *sage while the clock
Barren of good Ale brought into the church; and that
strikes midnight will see her ftiture husband,
and anyone can become 'as wise as the devil' night they have the priviledge to breake open their
Masters Cellar-dore. (Aubrey. 1686/1880: 40-1).
by catching *femseed (J. A. Peimy, Lincolnshire
N&Q. 3 (1892-3), 209). Another was told that It was the date
for choosing *boy bishops,
every year witches and others who have sold who were actually called 'St Nicholas'; the
themselves to the Devil must go round the church historian John Stiype noted that in
St Peter's Eve 310

1554, in London, 'the Nicholases' were going particular saint— churches, obviously, but also
about the streets as usual, though this had colleges, hospitals, towns, streets, *wells, hills,
been forbidden, since the citizens Uked the woods, wayside crosses, and much else— and
show so much {Annals of the Reformation (1709- these names often survive. Saints were also
31)). So they did two years later, according to adopted as patrons of social groupings, espe-
Henry Machyn's Diary, 'and had mych good cially trade and craft guilds; after the Refor-
cheer as ever they had, in mony places'. These mation, official celebrations were secularized,
customs died out in England but their contin- but at folk level the Unks of certain crafts to
ental equivalents are important in the devel- saints were remembered (see *St Gatherine, *St
*
opment of Santa Glaus. St Nicholas and his Glement, *St Grispin).
gifts reached America through German and Saints protected those who honoured them,
Dutch settlers, and became famous there in a both spiritually and against material mis-
poem by Glement Glark Moore, "The Visit of fortunes; many were regarded as defenders
Saint Nicholas' (1822). In Moore's account he against one particular disease or danger. Such
is no longer a bishop but a chubby, pipe- speciahzations were not peculiar to England;
smoking, cheerful old man 'dressed all in fur throughout the Gathohc world people
from his head to his foot', driving a reindeer thought of St Ghristopher as the protector of
sledge and canying a sack of toys— details that travellers, St Glare as the healer of eye
have North European parallels. Forty years troubles, St Margaret as a helper in childbirth,
later, in the 1860s, illustrations to this poem etc. There was a vast international corpus of

by Thomas Nast were captioned as * Santa legendary biographies, the most famous being
Glaus, no longer as St Nicholas. the Legenda Aurea (The Golden Legend) in the
13th century; an Enghsh version printed in
St Peter's Eve (28/9 June). The joint feast of 1483 was extremely popular. The stories there
Sts Peter and Paul is on 29 June, and the pre- standardized were known to everyone, liter-

ceding night is the occasion for a variant form ate or not, for generations; they were taught
of *love divination, recorded only from Tat- through sermons and through visual repre-
tershall (Lincolnshire). Girls wishing to dream sentation in church murals, windows, etc.
of their destined husbands must take nine Most saints also had an identifying symbol
keys to bed with them, knotted with their which was equally standardized— St Peter
hair, and say: carrying keys, St John the Evangelist with an
St Peter don't take it amiss eagle, St Luke with an ox, St Mark with a lion,
etc.
To gain your favour I've done this.
You are the holder of the keys Most saints revered in England were those
Favour me I ask you please. known throughout Europe; others were native
to this country. Gomwall remains an area not-
(Sutton, 1997: 138)
able for numerous Geltic saints unknown

saints. The importance of saints in medieval elsewhere, dating from the first period of

England has left many traces in folklore. Dates Ghristianity (i.e. Romano-British, not Saxon).
were commonly expressed by reference to The Anglo-Saxons venerated some Geltic
saints' feasts, the more important of which saints, plusmany missionaries and martyrs
from their own Gonversion period, monks,
(nationally or locally) were holidays. Ghurch
*ales, *fairs, and many *calendar customs were nuns, bishops, and kings; some were deleted
from the calendar after the Gonquest, but
originally set on such hoUdays; well into the
20th century, the date of village * wakes often others remained or were reinstated, e.g.
recalled the saint to whom their church was Alban, Ghad, Guthbert, Dunstan, Oswald,
dedicated, allowing for the eleven-day calen-
Edmund of East Anglia, and Edward the Gon-
dar shift of 1752. Saints' days were the usual fessor. The medieval period saw the canoniza-
markers mentioned in weather lore, and in tion of Thomas a Becket, who rapidly became
farmers' rules for the timing of seasonal tasks; England's most famous saint. Bishop Hugh of
rents and hiring agreements were fixed by Lincoln, Bishop William FitzHerbert of York,

them, hence the legal importance of Lady Day and Bishop Thomas Gantilupe of Hereford.
and *Michaelmas. In popular belief, the eves of Others were locally revered, but canonization
certain feasts were appropriate times for
was a slow process and the Reformation inter-
divination. vened before they were officially declared
Places as well as times were dedicated to a saints; they include the healer and exorcist
 St Stephen's Day

John Scheme of North Marston (Buckingham- complaining loudly of the amount they were
shire), and Henry VI. expected to pay out to all and sundry Hutton
—
The Roman CathoUc Church continues to quotes Jonathan Swift and Joseph Fielding on
adopt new saints. The Forty EngUsh Martyrs, the subject—and the satirical magazine Punch
i.e. CathoUcs executed between 1535 and 1679, included regular pieces against the custom
had received popular veneration from the throughout the mid-1 9th century, with vary-
time of their deaths, and are now officially ing proportions of good humour and bitter
classed as saints; Thomas More and John Fisher complaint, as for example: 'How much longer,
were canonized in 1935 and the others in 1970. we ask with indignant sorrow, is the humbug
See also the entries for individual saints and of Boxing-day to be kept up for the sake of
their feasts; also *pilgrimages and *wells. draining the pockets of struggling trades-
Farmer, 1978, describes all English saints and all inter-
men . . .'
(Punch (1848), 271).
national saints who are or once were venerated in Eng- Clearly, there was a complex network of
land; the Introduction outlines the history of the cult of social obhgations regarding who gave Christ-
saints here. An influential earlier compilation is Alban
mas boxes to whom, and fiirther details are
Butler's The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal
Saints (4 vols., 1756-9; rev. edn., 1953-4). See also David given by Hannah CuUwick, working as a maid-
RoUason, Saints and Relics in
Anglo-Saxon England (1989); servant in London, in her diary for 1863, when
Finucane, 1977; Ben Nilson, Cathedral Shrines of Medieval she recieved money from the tradesmen who
England (1998). dealt with her 'Missis' (Liz Stanley (ed.). The
Diaries of Hannah Cullwick: Victorian Maidservant
St Stephen's Day (26 December). The day (1984), 145, 261).
after Christmas Day, or 'Boxing Day' to most
There are a number of references to parties of
of us, St Stephen's Day is nowadays subsumed
villagers descending on the local woods on
into the general two-day Christmas period and
Christmas Day or St Stephen's Day in an orgy
has Uttle character of its own. Boxing Day
of 'hunting' any live animal or bird they could
derives its name from a previous custom on
find. In some cases this was under the guise of
the day of asking and giving 'Christmas *
hunting the *wren' or squirrel hunting cus-
boxes', i.e. presents, either money or in kind.
toms, but it was also wddely beheved, espe-
The 'box' was originally the receptacle into
cially in the northern counties, that the game
which the money was placed, but it gradually
laws did not apply on these days.
came to refer to the gift itself. There are strong
It was also generally the custom to bleed
historical traditions of gift-giving on
horses on this day, often after riding them
Christmas Day and *New Year's Day, and at
hard first, as it was believed that it would do
different periods each of these days was con-
them good for the coming year (see Brand for
sidered the proper time for presents to family
16th- to 18th-century references). One or two
and friends, but the Boxing Day gifts were dif-
other isolated customs are recorded. An
ferent again. On this day, there was a definite
ancient custom existed in the parish of Dray-
feeling of a gratuity for services rendered, ton Beauchamp, Buckinghamshire, called
rather than of a gift between equals. The earU-
'Stephening', which probably originated in a
est references, in the 1620s to 1640s refer to
charity dole. Inhabitants would visit the Rec-
apprentices and servants as recipients of
tory and assert their right to eat as much bread
money gifts from their employers, and later in and cheese and drink as much ale as they
thesame century there are references to
chose. The rector managed to discontinue the
money being given to tradespeople who had custom in 1808 (Transactions of the Buckingham-
served one well during the year, staff" at clubs,
shire Archaeological Soc. 1 (1858), 577-8).
and so on. But as the custom spread, trades-
Another curious custom existed at Brighton of
p)eoplethemselves also felt obliged to give
bowling or throwing oranges along the high-
Christmas boxes:
roads on this day. The one whose orange is hit
It is
customary for employees to call upon those who by that of another forfeits it to the successful
employed their masters and ask for money. Grocers hitter (Stxssex Archaeological Collections 33 (1883),
used to make their customers a present of pliuns for
256).
their Christmas puddings and bakers invariably gave
See also *christmas, *marshfield paper
a plum cake at this time. The custom extends to cer-
BOYS, *MUMMING PLAYS, *SQyiRREL HUNTING,
tain subordinate officials, the sexton, clerk,
e.g.
wassailing, *WRENS.
ringers and watchmen. (Baker, 1854: 73)
Wright and Lones. 1940: iii. 273-9; Brand, 1849: 532-4;
Already in the 18th century people were Hutton, 1996: 23-4, 114.
St Swithin 312

St Swithin Swithin more prop- Good Saint Thomas see me right

(d. 862). (or,

erly,Swithun) was Bishop of Winchester. As a

Let me see my love tonight
mark of humiUty, when he was dying he In his clothes and his array
That he wears most every day.
asked to be buried out of doors, where he
would be trodden on and rained on; in the (Sutton, 1997: 204)

following century he was regarded as a saint, Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 198-9.

and the then Bishop had his bones reburied in

a shrine inside the cathedral on 15 July 971. St Wilfrid's Feast. This *feast celebrates the
|

According to legend there was a heavy rain- day that St Wilfrid returned to Ripon, North 1

storm, either during this ceremony or on its Yorkshire, from Rome in ad 686, although j

anniversary; one 14th-century chronicler says there is no evidence that it goes anywhere i

it caused massive flooding, several drownings, near that far back. The centre of the celebra- |

and a famine. Hence the popular saying, tion is the procession on the Saturday before i

known since EUzabethan times, that if it rains the first in August, led by a man
Monday |

on St Swithin's Day (15 July) it will go on dressed as the saint on a white horse and j

raining for forty days (Opie and Tatem, 1989: including bands, morris dancers, and carnival I

337-8). floats. A short service is held at the cathedral, !

and the saint gives prizes for the best floats, j

St Thomas's Day December). In many Special Wilfrid pies (cheese and apple) and
'

(21
areas this was the date for *thomasing (or Wilfra tarts (almonds and lemon) are made

gooding), a ritualized begging for food in

and sold in the tovm.
readiness for Christmas, and Wright and Smith, 1989: 107-8; Shuel, 1985: 88; Kightly, 1986: 203.
Lones Ust a number of doles formerly distrib-
uted on this day. There are a few scattered Salisbury Giant and Hob-Nob. St Christo-
reports of other customs and beliefs: in several pher, the SaUsbury *giant, now lives in the

parts of the country, including Buckingham- Salisbury Museum(Wiltshire) and only comes
shire, Yorkshire, and Warwickshire, it was the out on special occasions. He is the twelve-foot
custom up to the 19th century to 'ring (previously fourteen-foot) tall pageant giant
Christmas in' by a peal of church bells on St originally belonging to the Salisbury Guild of
Thomas's Day. In Kent, one should sow broad Merchant Tailors, and is the last surviving
beans on this day, and Denham Tracts (1895: ii.
example of a once popular genre. He is Ught
92) goes further: enough for one man to carry him, and is
The day of St Thomas, blessed divine. designed so that the carrier cannot be seen,
Is good for brewing, baking, and killing fat swine.
and, in procession, he can sway, lean, and
turn. The giant's costume has been renewed
Wright and Lones. 1940: iii. 200-9.
many times in his existence, altering his

St Thomas's Eve (20/21 December). A *love appearance quite dramatically. In 1982 he

acquired a red woollen robe, 15th-century
divination designated for this night, involving
style head-dress, leather gauntlets, and leather
the use of an * onion, has varied little for 300
baldrick. The head
definitely the oldest part
is
years. In Mother Bunch's Qoset (1685: 7) the
of the figure, although it is not possible to
instructions are:
determine whether it is the original one. It is
Take a St Thomas onion, and peel it, and lay it in a carved from a block of wood, and, in the past,
clean handkerchief and lay it under your head . . .
his hps were able to move, presumably
and as soon as you be laid down say these words:
. . .
worked by the from inside. When in
carrier

Good St Thomas do me right procession, he accompanied by two men

is

And bring my love to me tonight ('whifflers') canying his regalia, a huge wood-
That I may look him in the face en sword and a mace, and a Yeoman to carry
And in my arms may him embrace. his staff of office. The procession also usually
includes *morris dancers, first mentioned in
Then in thy first sleep thou shalt dream of him that
shall be thy husband. 1564. The first mention of the giant is in 1570,
but he was already old enough then to need
A Victorian example from Derbyshire says the repairs to his costume. It is possible, though
onion should be stuck vdth nine *pins, and has not at present provable, that he is as old as the
a slightly longer verse (Long Ago 2 (1874), 21). In Guild itself, which received its charter in 1447.
modem Lincolnshire, the girl says: His other companion of long standing is
 313 Sandman, the
!

Hob-Nob. the *hobby horse (occasionally son who has bewitched me neither eat, drink,
referred to as a dragon). In E. C. Cawte's defin- nor sleep, till the spell is broken' (Harland and
ition, Hob-Nob is a 'tourney' horse, that is, the Wilkinson, 1873: 235).
operator wears a framework around his waist, A widespread custom in the days when the
suspended from his shoulders, which has a dead were laid out at home was to put a plate
horse's head and tail, and a cloth which hangs of salt on the chest of the corpse, and keep it
all round, reaching the ground so that it hides there till the *funeral; in Cumberland in the
his legs. In Hob-Nob's case, the operator's early 20th century it was 'almost universal
upper body is covered in netting perhaps to
— among the poorer classes' (Folk-Lore 31 (1920),
disguise him, or to protect him from rotten 154), and the same was probably true else-
i fruit thrown by exuberant onlookers. As where. The reason, it was generally said, was
usual, Hob-Nob's jaws are designed to open to prevent the body swelling; however, the
and shut. Hob-Nob is not mentioned specific- salt might once have been regarded as a

ally in the earliest records, but appears in magical defence against evil spirits, or against
1572, when 'Thomas Barker dyd bringe in one the possibility of the "^ghost walking.
Hobby-Horse .'. Since 1873, the giant and
. . Like *bread and *coal, salt is one of the
Hob-Nob have belonged to the Museum. appropriate token gifts brought when first
Hugh Shortt, The Giant and Hob-Nob (1972; 2nd edn., footing on New Year's Day, or given to a new
revised John Chandler, 1988); Cawte, 1978. *baby, or brought into a new house; in these
cases it represents prosperity.
sallow. In early spring, sallow twigs bear
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 338-44; Radford. Radford, and
fluffy yellow flowers before they have any Hole, 1961:297-9.
leaves. These were gathered for use in church
decorations and processions on *Palm Sunday, Samhain. Meaning 'summer's end' and pro-
and were widely known as 'palms'; nowadays, nounced 'sarwin', this is the Irish name for 1
real palm is imported instead. Some people November, the beginning of winter; in medi-
believed sallow or willow twigs protect a eval Irish tales, the preceding night is often
house from witchcraft and the evil eye, but associated with fairies, ghosts, and super-
also that one should never use them to beat an natural adventures. It has never been an Eng-

animal or child, for they would stunt its lish word, but *Wiccans and other Neo-Pagans
growth (Vickery, 1995: 134-5). use it in preference to *A11 Saints' Day and
Halloween.
salt.The belief that spilling salt brings bad
luck (especially, a quarrel between friends) A custom in several
sanding. reported
was first noted in the 16th century, and is locations but surviving only at *Knutsford,
widely known today; to avert the evil, one Cheshire, is the decoration of pavements with
shovdd take a pinch of the spilt salt with the coloured sand on special occasions such as
*right hand and throw it over the *left *May Day and for local *weddings. At Knuts-
shoulder— into the fire, according to older ford, the sand is dispensed through a ftmnel,
sources, or 'to blind the Devil', as is now some- and it is said that it is better when it rains
times said. To explain this belief, some people because the colour thus lives on for a while in
claim that *Judas spilt the salt at the Last the paving stones. Henderson (1879: 40-1)
Supper, but the sjmiboUc role of salt in folk- also mentions sand strewing for weddings in
lore is strong enough to account for it.
19th-century Newcastle.
Just as it keeps food wholesome, so salt was Haworth and W. M. Comber, Cheshire
Shuel, 1985: 34; D.
used to repel spiritual and magical evil, both
Village Memories (1961), plate 23; Roy Kerridge, Bizarre
in Catholic ritual and in folk practice, and Britain (1985), 60-3.

as a symbol of incomiptibihty and virtue

(Matthew 5: 13). The use of salt as *magical Sandman, the. imaginary figure who
An
protection is recorded from various parts of sprinkles sand on your eyes
to send you to
England, though less regularly than in Scot- sleep; if you can feel hard grains on your eye-
land and Wales. A handful thrown into the fire lashes in the morning, you know the Sandman
would torment witches and drive them away; came last night. It is not clear how long this
in Lancashire this had to be done for *nine has been part of nursery lore, or where it came
successive mornings, with the words: 'Salt, from. 'Dustman' with the same meaning is
salt! 1
put thee into the fire, and may the per- foimd in 1821, and there was a Lancashire
Santa Claus 314

On Christmas Eve, when the inmates of a house in

figure called Billy-Winker, 'a mythical sprite
that closes the eyes of children at bedtime' the country retire to bed, all those desirous of a pres-
ent place a stocking outside the door of their bed-
(Wright, 1913: 202). However, the first record
room, with the expectation that some mythical
for 'Sandman' itself is in a translation of Hans
being called Santidaus will fill the stocking or place
Anderson's tales in 1861 (OED), so a contin-
something within it before morning. This is of
ental origin seems possible. course well known, and the master of the house does
in reality place a Christmas gift secretly in each
Santa Claus. This American name for the stocking; but the giggling girls in the morning, when
Christmas used in
gifl:-bringer is increasingly bringing down their presents, affect to say that
Santiclaus visited and filled the stockings in the
England, generally in the shortened form
'Santa'. Early American settlers, being Pur- night. From what region of the earth or air this
benevolent Santiclaus takes flight 1 have not been
itans, rejected the English *Father Christmas,
able to ascertain.
but later Dutch immigrants brought traditions
about *St Nicholas, popularized through a WiUiam Brockie noticed the same custom
poem by Clement Clark Moore, 'The Visit of round Durham in the 1880s; he too was puz-
Saint Nicholas' (1822), now more usually zled by the unfamiliar name and made the
called 'The Night Before Christmas'. Moore ingenious but mistaken guess that it was
describes the saint not as a bishop in a red 'Santa Cruz, the Holy Cross' which brought
cope, as in Holland, but as a fat man dressed in the presents (Brockie, 1886: 92-3). By what
ftir, driving a reindeer sleigh. He may well channels this American feature reached Victo-
have been aware that in many European trad- rian England is at present unknown. One pos-
notably in Germany, St Nicholas is
itions, sibility(proposed anonymously in The Times of
accompanied by fur-clad or gnome-Uke ser- 22 December 1956) is a popular American
vants who carry presents for good children, story. The Christmas Stocking by Susan Warner,
but a birch for bad ones; such images might printed in London in 1854 and several times
seem more appeahng than a saint in reUgious thereafter.
garb. Illustrating Moore's poem in the 1860s, See also *father Christmas.
Thomas Nast used the colloquial Dutch 'Santa
Claus' rather than the formal 'St Nicholas', and
Saturday. Two related beliefs concern work-
dressed him in a belted jacket and furry cap.
ing on Saturdays. Firstly, there was a prejudice
During the rest of the 19th century, Santa
against starting a new job on a Saturday, or
was often shown in a red jacket but with blue even starting any important work: 'I recollect,
knickerbockers, as befits a Dutchman; in the when 1 was a boy in Norfolk, thirty-five years
20th century, an all-red outfit with white
ago, hearing old labourers say that it was bad
trimmings became the norm, especially after a luck to put in a crop on a Saturday' (N&Q, 9s:7
Coca-Cola advertising campaign exploited his
(1901), 337-8). The other warns against work-
figure in 1931. The artist, the Swede Haddon ing at all on this day. These ideas have been
Sundblom, also gave him a drooping tassled reported most frequently from Scotland, and
red cap like those associated with elves and
only in scattered instances in England, and
gnomes; he may have been thinking of a they appear to originate in the religious prac-
Swedish Christmas gnome. Scandinavian tice of keeping Saturday afternoon clear of
influence also accounts for the elfin assistants work to prepare for Sunday, which
regular
often mentioned, and the home at the North was observed in medieval and later periods.
Pole.Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer dates 37-41.
Opie and Tatem. 1989: 344-5; Brand, 1849: ii.

from 1949, in a song by Johnny Marks.

The name apparently reached England in
scissors. As with *knives and other sharp
the 1870s, to the puzzlement of observers,
objects, tradition dictates that anyone
who
though the hanging-up of stockings was already receives scissors as a present must give the
an 'old' custom, at any rate in the northern
donor a coin, otherwise the gift will 'cut the
counties (Henderson, 1866: 50). The first men-
love' between them. The earhest known refer-
tion of the gift-bringer's name which we have
ences (1507 and 1611) relate to knives in this
traced is aletter to N&Q.(5s:ll (1879), 66), where
context, but the first to refer specifically to
a Mr Edwin Lees says he has 'only lately been
scissors is also the first to mention the pay-
told' of a custom currently observed in Her-
ment in return:
efordshire, Worcestershire, and Devonshire,
which he has not seen recorded an5rwhere: Dearest brother, I
give you a grate many thanks for
315 sea beans

the siszers you sent me by Mr. Shokman. I gave him scrambling customs. A recurrent feature of
sixpencs for fear tha should cute love one your side: customs, over the country, is a 'scram-
all
but for mine 'tis gronded to fear ather siszers
to well
bUng', whereby something is thrown to a
ar knifs cutting of it. (Letter from Ehzabeth Went-
crowd and everyone scrambles to get it. In
worth, Feb. 1707, quoted in Opie and Tatem)
many cases the item thrown is edible— nuts,
oranges, apples, or even pieces of pie (at *Hal-
The belief hasbeen recorded regularly ever
laton), bread and cheese (at *St Briavels) or
since that time, and is still current. There are a
pancake (^Westminster School). In other cir-
number of about dropping a pair of
beliefs
cumstances it is money— usually pennies, and
scissors, reported since the late 19th century, sometimes heated first (e.g. *Rye, Sussex).
but with little agreement on what it means or
Scrambling is often part of another custom,
what to do if it happens. Some maintain that if
particularly *civic customs and doles. In the
you drop a pair of scissors someone else must cold Ught of day, scrambling can seem some-
pick them up for you (also said of other every- what odd behaviour. In a children's custom
* *
day objects, such as spoons, umbrellas, etc.), the point obviously the ftin of the scram-
is
while others say that if the points stick into
bling but in a charity dole such as the
itself,
the ground it is a sign of a wedding, or death,
Bread and Cheese throwing at St Briavel's the
or more work on the way (for dressmakers).
logic is less easy to find. The point here,
per-
Igglesden adds: 'Should a sempstress drop her
haps, is the element of luck, or random choice
scissors accidentally it means a mourning
in the distribution. In addition, there are trad-
order... "(0.1932: 209).
itions of bridegrooms throwing handfuls of
Scissors were sometimes used as a defence
*
coins at *weddings.
against witchcraft. If a pair was hidden under
See also *hungerford hocktide, *pains-
the doormat, no witch could enter the house;
WICK FEAST.
ifbehind a cushion, she would be uneasy in
the room, and would soon leave, without
harming anyone. Some said that scissors used Scrapfaggot Green, the witch of. Accord-
in this way should be open, thus adding the ing to articles in the Sunday Pictorial of 8 and 15
power of the *cross to that of *iron and cutting October 1944, the village of Great Leighs
edge. (Essex) was being plagued by nocturnal acci-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 345. dents to livestock, tools scattered, bells ring-
ing, etc. They said it was because bulldozers
widening a lane to a mihtaiy base had pushed
aside a boulder at a crossroads called Scrap-
Scot Reginald (71538-99). Scot's The Discov-
of Witchcraft (1584) is the first EngUsh book
erie faggot Green— a boulder covering the remains
devoted to this topic, and also has valuable of a witch, together with the fire that burnt
her. When the boulder was replaced, trouble
sections on brownies, demons, and
*fairies,
other supernatural beings, and the use of stopped.
"Die 'weird events' have been taken ser-
*charms. In its ambiguous title, 'discovery'
means 'unmasking, debunking'; Scot regarded iously by several writers on the occult (e.g.
Valiente, 1973: 352-4), but locals now admit
allalleged magical acts as mere trickery. From
his acid comments, it is clear that he had they were tricks played on the London jour-
nalist. How much genuine folklore underlay
closely observed both rural vdtches and their
accusers. They are, he writes, poor and ugly them is now unclear; the name 'Scrapfaggot'
women who Uve by begging, going from house invites puns, there are historical records of a

to house 'for a
witchcraft case at nearby Boreham, and there
pot full of milke, yeast, drinke,
some such and seems to have been a 'Witch's Stone* aroimd
pottage, or releefe', if reftised
in the 1930s (though not at the crossroads).
will curse anything from the master of the
house to 'the Uttle pig that heth in the stie'; Since the 1980s, a stone outside a pub in Great
whatever goes wrong after that is blamed on Leighs is claimed to be the original, sup-
the witch. posedly brought there in 1945.
Scot's book was loudly condemned by his FLS News 17 (1993), 12-13; 19 (1994), 11; 20 (1994), 11; 24
(1996), 2; 26 (1997) 3-4; Revd W.J. T. Smith, TTie Boreham
contemporaries; James I, outraged, wrote his
Witch: Fact or Fiction? (1995).
own Daemonologie to refiite it. A modem edi-
tion by Montague Summers was reprinted in
1972. sea beans, see *lucky beans.
seafaring customs and beliefs 316

seafaring customs and beliefs. Two deep- piece of rusty iron, and they are finally
sea customs have been reported on a regular dumped into a sail or tub of water. The precise
basis and are thus well known. The first is details changed from ship to ship, but the
usually called 'bur3dng the dead horse' but in basic outline was very similar, and a great deal
the following account, written by an emigrant of horseplay took place. Modem cruise liner
on the Northumberland in 1874, it is 'burning': crews still perform the ceremony on passen-
gers, although the rough handling is obviously
We having been a month at sea, they 'burnt the dead toned down on these occasions. Good
horse' tonight. This is a usual custom, these being
accounts can be found in Simon Braydon and
the particulars. All the ship's company have a
Robert Songhurst (eds.). The Diary ofJoseph Sams
month's salary in advance, that is they get a draft
payable three days after the ship has sailed, which (1982), 30-1; Frederick Pease Harlow, The Mak-

they leave at home in old England. Therefore they ing of a Sailor (1928), 176-86; Hone, 1827: ii.
work the first month on board shop and are earning 697-8. Hone's Tahle-Book (1827: 315-16) con-
no money, so when the month is up they 'bum the tains an interesting parallel from the Green-
dead horse' thereby meaning that they have com- land whale fishery, enacted on May Day 1824
menced afresh and now are earning money. The on board the ship Neptune, from London. The
ceremony took place about 7.30pm. An effigy as near seamen had apparently prepared for the
the form of a horse is made out of sailcloth etc., with
event, before sailing, by acquiring coloured
a tar barrel fiill of combustibles for its body, & is
ribbons, with which to decorate their garland.
mounted on a carriage with a sailor as jockey &
The basis of the garland was a cask hoop,
hauled around the decks, with songs. Then an auc-
tioneer is appointed & puts for auction, giving
it up covered with ribbons, set on a pole, about four
itspedigree etc. The highest bidder has it or rather feet high. A model of the ship, prepared by the
has to make his bid good, which money is made up ship's carpenter was fixed on top like a wea-
by general collection. This money which amounts to ther vane. What occurred on May Day was an
several pounds is divided amongst the sailors. After almost exact replica of the crossing the line
this they hauled the horse up to the yard arm & set
ceremony, with Neptune addressing the cap-
fire to him, & then cut him adrift. On the whole the
tain, and the comic shaving of any newcomers
performance was very amusing & caused consider-
in the crew.
able excitement. (Simon Braydon and Robert Song-
hurst (eds.). The Diary ofJoseph Sams (1982), 34)
There are countless superstitions and beliefs
attributed to seamen, but only a sample can be
A very similar account is given, of a voyage wind was clearly
given. In the days of sail, the
from London to Melbourne about 1897, in Folk- both a potential and feared enemy, and a
ally
lore 8 (1897), 281-4, with the addition of the number of sfrategies were available for sum-
text and tune of the song 'Poor Old Horse', moning a wind, although few for getting rid of
sung on the occasion. The idea of doing work it. *WhistUng and the untying of magical
already paid for being a 'dead horse' is not *knots are generally known, but other ways
simply a seaman's term, being reported with include the whipping of the ship's boys, which
similar meaning from various parts of the is reported in 1620 and 1811, cutting a pig's

country and in several trades (Joseph Wright, throat, and buying wind with coins (FLS News
EDD II, 1900: 38). 21 (1995), 15-16). Seamen were amongst those
The ceremony of 'crossing the line' is car- who believed it dangerous to sleep in the light
ried out on crossing the equator, on anyone in of the *moon, which was still being reported
the ship's crew who has not previously done well into the 20th century (KS News 20 (1994).
so. One sailor dresses as Neptune and is let 7). Sailors had a particular antipathy to sharks,

over the side so that he may make a grand and when they caught one they delighted in
show of coming on board, where he is greeted treating it with more than ordinary savagery,
with respect and is welcomed by the captain. in revenge for colleagues lost at sea. A shark
Various ceremonies and speeches are per- following a ship was regarded as unlucky,
formed, but the key part of the custom is car- perhaps because it was thought that they
ried out on any novices. One by one they are could 'smell' a sickness on board and thus
brought forward, blindfolded and with hands seemed to be waiting for a death (FLS News 20
tied,and seated on a board. Sometimes a doc- (1994) 6-7). Many sailors were particularly
tor examines them, with humorous dialogue, prone to seeing omens in any occurtence out
but invariably the main part is the shaving. of the ordinary. The ship's cat being lost over-
After being daubed with tar, treacle, or any- board, birds alighting on the rigging or follow-
thing else to hand, their face is scrap>ed with a ing the ship (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 1; FLS News
317 seven

11 (1990), 15-16; 24 (1996), 7-8), and the curi- There is still no agreement on the derivation
ous belief reported in The Times (2 Dec. 1966) of the word 'shanty' (usually spelt 'chanty' in
that no bird has ever been known to alight on earher works), which only appears fi-om the
the deck or rigging of HMS Victory. mid-1 9th century, although sailors' work
See also *coins, *davy jones, *ears, fish- songs certainly existed before that time.
ing INDUSTRY, *KEYS, *WHISTLING. Hugill (1961: 20-3) summarizes the main the-
See series of articles by A. W. Smith, and others, in FLS ories, which include: from the West Indian
News 12 (1991), onwards. huts, called 'shanties' which could be moved
by concerted effort of the community, accom-
panied by hauUng songs; drinking dens of the
souls of drowned and fishermen may
sailors Gulf ports, called 'shanties'; fi-om the French
become seagulls, and that therefore these chanter, 'to sing', or firom the EngUsh word
birds should never be killed; the belief is fairly 'chant'. None of these is wholly convincing,

widely known nowadays, but the first record but Hugill himself inclined towards the first.
given by Opie and Tatem (1989: 345-6) is only The earliest clear reference to a sea shanty is
fi-om 1878. Occasionally gulls are linked with found in a manuscript of about 1400, quoted
death in a more general way; in the 1970s a by J. O. *Hamwell (The Early Naval Ballads of Eng-
Sussex woman commented that some had land (1841)) which includes the fines: 'Y-how!
swoop>ed into her garden 'as a warning' on the Taylia! The remenaunte cryen. And pull with
day her sick mother died JS]. all theyr myght'.
Stan Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas (1961); Stan Hugill,
sea shanties. Sea shanties, a sub-genre of Shanties and Sailors' Songs (1969); W. B. Whall, Sea Songs and

folk *song, were songs sung on board saiUng Shanties (1910).

ships to assist with the hard manual work

involved by providing rhythmic co-ordination seasonal customs, see *calendar customs.
among the team of workers and also enliven-
ing their The basic pattern of a shanty was
toil. Semerwater, Simmerwater. A lake called
for a leader (shantyman) to sing some lines, Semer or Simmer Water near Askrigg (North
while the others joined in the chorus or Yorkshire) is said to cover the site of a lost vil-
refirain. The relative proportion of call and lage, submerged as a *judgement on the wick-
response, the length of fines, and the rhythm edness of the inhabitants, according to a tale
would vary according to the type of work first recorded in the 19th century. A weary

being undertaken, which Hugill divides into traveller, who was really a disguised angel (or
two main categories: heaving songs for con- Christ, or St Paul, or *Joseph ofArimathea, or a
tinuous tasks (capstan, windlass, or pumping witch, according to various versions), went
work), and hauling songs for intermittent from house to house begging food and shelter.
tasks (mainly sail-work). A good shanty could All reftised, except one poor widow in the last
prove highly effective in improving the effi- cottage of the village; in one version (Addy,
ciency of a team of sailors, and a good 1895: 61), the kindly widow was a Quaker, and
shantyman was in constant demand. Unlike the traveller a witch, who waved an ash twig
other types of English folk-song, shanties are over the village, saying:
characterized by being mainly improvised,
'Simmerdale, Simmerdale, Simmerdale, sink.
and a narrative or coherent text was hardly
Save the house of the woman who gave me to drink.'
thought necessary. A shantyman could insert
'verses' inany order, could make them up, or Thereupon water filled the valley, drowning

retrieve them fi-om memory, and it was only allthe houses but one; on fine days the ruins
the chorus, in which the others would join, can still be ghmpsed under the lake.
which needed to be in set form, and even here
it was seven. Powerful and lucky, Uke other odd
only the rhythm that really mattered.
Many shanties were adapted from popular numbers, and also because it corresponds to
songs of the day, and they were also likely to the seven *days of the week, themselves
be bawdy, or even obscene, with nearly all derived fi-om the moon's phases in its 28-day
authoritieswho write fi-om personal experi- cycle. In folk beUef, it is linked to the idea of
ence explaining that the pubUshed versions cycles of growth: at 7, a child supposedly
are necessarily pale reflections of the real reaches 'the age of reason'; at 14, puberty; at
thing. 21 (formerly), legal adulthood. In astrology
seventh son 31i

and old medical theory, every seventh year of who had themselves been miners or fisher-
one's life was a time of crisis, the most dan- men, returning to warn comrades of danger;
gerous being one's sixty-third year (9 x 7), the when they were heard, one must at once stop
'grand cUmacteric'. There is still a fairly com- work and go home, otherwise lives would be
mon idea that in the course of seven years lost. Even those who knew the cries were in

every cell in one's body is renewed. fact those of curlews and similar birds still
In folk magic, seven is less often mentioned dreaded the sound, and would not work till
than *three or *nine, but does occur; it may be the next day (Henderson, 1866: 100; Bume,
said, for example, that running seven times 1883: 231-2; Billson, 1895: 36-8; Wright, 1913:
round a particular *grave will raise a *ghost. A 197). In Leicestershire, the Whistlers were said
seventh son (or daughter) was widely credited to be seven colUers who got drunk on a Sun-
with healing power. day and agreed to whistle after dark, for a bet;
a whirlwind carried them up into the clouds,
seventh son, daughter. From the 16th cen- where they must fly as swifts for ever (Palmer,
1985: 61, 100-1). In Lancashire, some said they
tury onwards, a seventh son (or, more rarely,
seventh daughter) was widely thought to have were the souls of wandering *Jews, similarly
doomed. In Worcestershire, and occasionally
psychic powers, usually as a healer, but some-
in Shropshire,it was said that 'six of them fly
times as a dowser or fortune-teller; even more
about looking for the seventh, and when they
powerftil was one whose father (or mother)
was also a seventh son (or daughter) (Opie and find him the world will end' (Bume, 1883:

Tatem, 1989: 346-7). The first English record is 232).

in Thomas Lupton, A Thousand Notable Things Swainson, 1885: 180-1, 200-1; Radford, Radford, and
Hole, 1961: 300-1.
(1579), and like many others refers to the
*king's evil: manifest by experience that
'It is

the seuenth Male Chyld by iust order (neuer a sex. Information and misinformation on sex,
and jokes about must always have circu-
Gyrle or Wench being borne betweene) doth
it,

lated informally, yet, paradoxically, it is Uter-

heele onely with touching through a naturall
gyft, the Kings Euyll' (ii, § 2). Throughout the
ary scholars who give most insight into this
semi-secret oral tradition. Elizabethan sexual
18th and 19th centuries there are instances of
male and female healers claiming this gift, slang and jokes are well documented, since
and extending it to many other types of ail- they are central to Shakespeare's humour; so
are the innuendoes in Restoration dramatists
ment; the Post Man of 6-9 October 1711
annoimced: and 18th-century satirists; there are even
anthologies of such minor genres as the
There is lately come to town Martha Sneath, a
bawdy limerick, a form of wit popular among
gentlewoman who is the seventh daughter, who has educated men in the late 19th and 20th cen-
cured the twenty years, both in town and
evil for this
turies,and the bawdy songs of all-male groups
country: she useth medicines, but toucheth seven
(students, rugby footballers, army, etc.). Dirty
mornings; likewise a diet drink that cures the
dropsy; she is to be spoken with any time of the day
jokes are a flourishing oral genre (sometimes
at Mrs. Smith's, at Black Horse Yard, in Nightingale aggregating into joke cycles, e.g. about Viagra,
Lane, East Smithfield. (Quoted in N&Q. 7s:l (1886), 6) or Essex girls), and are frequently found as
graffiti.
A related idea was that a seventh son was Sexual folklore certainly exists, both on a
destined to become a doctor, for he would seriousand on a jocular level. One widespread
have a natural aptitude for the profession;
notion, seriously taught by doctors and
some said he would have a birthmark like schoolmasters well into the 20th century, was
seven stars {Denham Traas, 1895: ii, 273). that boys who masturbate go bUnd, or 'soft in
the head'. Girls' taboos about menstruation
Seven Whistlers. These were said to be seven were equally unscientific, though less alarm-
birds, flying together by night, whose cries ing. There was, and still is, a good deal of 'folk
forebode disaster. Belief in them was fairly wisdom' about sexual characteristics, though
common among seamen and coal-miners in it is hard to tell how seriously it is held. Thus,
the 19th century, these being risky occupa- it is said that the size of a man's nose indicates
tions where *whistling was thought to be woman's mouth, the size
that of his penis; of a
unlucky. Sometimes the Whistlers were said and tightness of the entry to her vagina. Big
to be the spirits of the dead, especially those feet could have the same meaning. Baldness in
 319 sexism

a youngish man is supposed to indicate viril- wit may consist either in uttering the offen-

ity,especially if accompanied by thick bodily sive word or unexpectedly avoiding it.

hair, so women allegedly find bald men sexy. Few folklorists have yet done research on
j Oysters, Spanish fly, valerian, and ground-up the topic; Sutton, 1992, is the only book based
animal horn are all reputed to be on English current material, from women
aphrodisiacs. informants. The present authors sent out a
which
In older folk beliefs, certain animals questionnaire in 1998, on which much of the
were inherently virtuous, such andas *bees present entry is based.
lions, would respect a virgin, but attack an See also *conception, *menstruation,
I
unchaste girl; hence, a virgin could walk pregnancy.
through a swarm of bees unstung. Nowadays it

is sometimes said that if a woman forgets to sexism. Taken as a whole, folk tradition firm-

put *salt on the table when setting it for a ly reinforces traditional gender roles, and sees
meal, it is a sign she has lost her virginity. women men. This view is of
as inferior to
In the days when pubUc behaviour had to be course far older and more widespread than
discreet, various rumours circulated about Christianity, but in a Christian culture such as
visual signals indicating sexual status and England's it would be confirmed both by bib-
intentions. In the 1950s, it was said that a girl heal teaching and by the practical rules of
wearing a Robertson Marmalade goUiwog Church Ufe. Until very recently, CathoUcs and
badge meant 'I've lost my virginity', and any most Protestants forbade active participation
woman wearing a thin bracelet round her by women in ritual, and devised rules to make
ankle was sexually available, or even a prosti- their presence as unobtrusive as possible; they
tute. Some said if a woman wore a red hat, or must keep their heads covered, must not
red shoes, or allowed her petticoat to show, it preach, nor serve as acolytes, nor enter the
meant she was not wearing knickers. Prosti- sanctuary, since *menstruation was seen as
tutes had ways of attracting clients without polluting.
I
actually sohciting in the legal sense; some Sexism is implied by many details of custom
used to walk slowly, accompanied by a poodle, and belief, and examples will be found
while others might stand in shop doorways throughout this work— for example, *first
jingling a bunch of keys to show they were footing must be done by a man; at *baptism
available, and had a flat to take the client to. A
*
boys must precede girls; in conception and
red lamp in the window was the sign of a pregnancy the favoured *right side is associ-
brothel, hence the phrase 'red light district'. ated with boys, but the *left with girls; the
In recent years, there has been similar talk 'females' in traditional customs were men
about homosexual signals based on how one's comically dressed up; and so forth. The most
tie is knotted or one's breast-pocket hand- serious instance of this stereotyping was that
kerchief folded, though probably the wisest witchcraft was far more often ascribed to
guide is the folk saying, 'It takes one to know women than to men.
one'. It is often said by 'straight' people that In songs and narratives, the picture is less
any man wearing one earring is gay, though consistent. There are songs describing strong,
they disagree as to whether it is the left or the active heroines who dress as soldiers to follow
right ear that matters; in any case, male ear- their lovers to war, or clever ones who outwit
rings are now so common that they can hardly evil men; on the other hand, there are plenty of
be significant. mocking nagging wives. Folktale heroines are
Colloquial speech abounds in references to often brave and resourceful in dealing with
sexual acts and organs. Until recently they would-be *robbers, murderers, and dangerous
were completely taboo in general society, so supernatural beings, as in *Mr Fox and related
for the male subgroups which did use them stories. In local legend, one finds a handful of

among themselves they were a powerfiil mark noble ladies honoured as benefactors, or as
of 'belonging'. Currently, they are used freely founders of a tradition; *Godiva is the best
by far more people than at any previous known, and others are associated with the
period in England. They still have aggressive Haxey Hood Game, the *Tichbome Dole, and
and insulting force, but in some contexts are the St Briavels bread and cheese throwing.
exploited for humorous effect; they are com- Powerful supernatural females were fairly
mon in minor verbal genres such as riddles, common in medieval and Ehzabethan Utera-
playground rhymes, and Umericks, where the ture (e.g. Morgan le Fay, Mab, Titania), but not
Shaftesbury Byzant 320

in later folklore; those that do occur are a hunted *hare which always escaped and dis-
almost all sinister *bogeys such as *Black appeared near the cottage of a reputed witch;
Annis, *Jenny Greenteeth, and *Peg Powler. ifthe hunters entered, they would find her at
Only the recently discovered Queen *Rat of home, but panting. Eventually, a dog managed
Cockney toshers' lore fits the ancient role of to bite the hare's rump, and when next seen
the goddess who bestows good luck on her the woman had a wounded leg. Versions of
hiunan lovers. this tale were still current in Sussex in the
1930s (Simpson, 1973: 69-70), while in War-
Torborg Lundell, Folklore 94 (1983), 240-6; Malcolm Jones,
FoMore 101 (1990), 69-87; Jacqueline Simpson, Folklore wickshire at the same period there were stor-
102 (1991), 16-30. ies of women wounded while in the form of
cats (Palmer, 1976: 86-7); both types were
Shaftesbury Byzant. An annual ^manorial believed and told in Somerset in the 1960s
custom by which the inhabitants of Shaftes- (FoMore 74 (1963), 323-4)).
bury, Dorset, perpetuated their right to draw Shape-changing is also characteristic of cer-
water ft-om wells in the neighbouring hamlet tain fairies; see *boggart, *guytrash, *puck,
of Enmore Green. To preserve this right, the etc.
people had to go to Enmore Green on Holy
after 3 May),
Cross Day (first Sunday perform Sharp, Cecil James (1859-1924). Bom in
some sort of a dance, and hand over a penny London, Sharp sp>ent much of his early adult-
loaf, a gallon of ale, a calf s head, and a pair of hood in Australia, returning to England in
gloves, to the Lord of the Manor's bailiff. These 1892, planning to make a living in music. He
an accovmt of 1527, but
details are given in served for many years as music master at
other sources confirm that the custom was
Ludgrove Preparatory School, and Principal of
already in place as early as 1364. The day of the the Hampstead Conservatoire of Music, and he
event was changed to the Monday before seemed destined to remain an obscure figure
Ascension in 1662, to move it off the Sabbath, on the fiinges of the respectable music estab-
and the celebrations soon developed into a lishment, but two chance encounters with
week-long fair. The 'Byzant' is a three or four traditional music transformed him into the
foot trophy, made of wood and splendidly dec- most important figure in the Edwardian
orated with silver and gold medals, necklaces, revival of interest in foUc *song and *dance.
buckles, and rings, which was formerly carried On Boxing Day 1899, Sharp first saw the Head-
on a pole at the head of the procession, and is ington *morris dancers perform, and noted
now preserved in the Shaftesbury Museum. down the tunes from the young concertina-
The custom lapsed in 1829, ostensibly to save
player, Wilham Kimber. At the time, he did
Shaftesbury Corporation some money, but little more than arrange the tunes for piano,
there have been a number of revivals. but the experience took on greater signifi-
George Frampton, FoMore 101:2 (1990), 152-61. cance some years later. At that period, Sharp
was not alone in contemporary musical circles
shape-changing. A frequent beUef about in feeling that British music had been over-
witches was that they would turn into ani- shadowed by continental models for too long,
mals. As *Gervase of Tilbury wrote (c.l211), and to start thinking about how to forge a new
'Women have been seen and wounded in the British (in most cases, English) form of musical

shape of cats by p)ersons who were secretly on expression. His first attempt was to edit and
the watch, and next day the women have
. . .
publish a Book of British Song (1902), which was
shown wounds or loss of Umbs.' At witch drawn from previous collections of 'national'
trials, such anecdotes were sometimes prof- songs, but a second chance meeting changed
fered in evidence, for instance at Taunton in his view, and the direction of his life, com-
1663; Edward Fairfax wrote in his Daemonolo- pletely. On a visit to Hambridge (Somerset) in
gia (1622) that 'The changing of witches into summer 1903, Sharp overheard a gardener-
hares, cats and the like shapes is so common, John England— singing 'The Seeds of Love'. He
as late testimonies and confessions approve soon commenced an ambitious programme of
unto us, that none but the stupidly incredu- collecting, publishing, lecturing, and propa-
lous can wrong the credit of the reporters or gandizing, and constructed the theory that as
doubt of the certainty.' folk-song had existed in the hands of unspoilt
All over rural England in the 19th century, and uneducated rural people, it necessarily
folklorists recorded a semi-humorous story of embodied the true musical soul of the nation.
321 Sharp, Cecil James

The first volume of his Folk Son^from Somerset 1909. In 1914, Sharp went to America to help
appeared in 1904. He joined the *Folk-Song with Granville-Barker's New York production
Society, which he publicly accused of being of A Midsummer Night's Dream, and while there
virtually moribund. After a very public dis- gave lectures and conducted a number of
agreement with the Board of Education over classes in folk-song and dance and established
the type of songs taught in schools, he pub- a USA branch of the English Folk Dance Soci-
lished (with Sabine *Baring-Gould) English Folk- ety. He returned there in 1915 and again in
songs for Schools in 1906, and the immensely 1916 to start an intensive and highly success-
influential English Folk Song: Some Conclusions in ful song collecting campaign in the
1907. Appalachian Mountains, which continued in
Sharp was approached, in 1906, by Mary 1917 and 1918. After the First World War,
*Neal, organizer of the Esperance Working Sharp's position as leading experton folk-song
Girls' Club, in St Pancras, London, which and dance was secure, and and
his principles
catered mainly for poor young women in the aims increasingly accepted by the musical and
dressmaking trade, for advice on songs and educational establishments, and his appoint-
dances to teach the girls. Sharp sent her to see ment as Occasional Inspector of Training
William Kimber, who came to London to give Colleges in Folk Song and Dancing gave him
lessons to the girls, who were soon perform- the opportunity to inculcate his views into
ing morris dances at their own gatherings and the ftiture teaching force. He was still active in
increasingly in public as outside interest grew lecturing, demonsfrating, adjudicating, and
rapidly. Sharp pubUshed the first part of his organizing right up to the time of his death.
Morris Book in 1907 (completely revised in the The building which bears his name, *Cecil
second edition of 1912), and he used the Sharp House, was raised as a memorial to him,
Esperance girls at his lectures and also as and opened in 1930.
teachers for the growing number of morris There was a tendency after his death for
devotees. Tensions between Sharp and Neal, Sharp to be regarded as the unquestioned
however, had begun to surface, focusing on founder of the folk-song and dance revivals in
questions of artistic standards and control of England, and as he had in essence vanquished
the burgeoning folk-dance revival, and these most dissenters by then, those who carried on
burst into increasingly acrimonious pubhc his work after his death were necessarily

exchanges. Both sides gathered supporters, dravm from his associates and disciples. Hard-
but Sharp finally won the day as Neal, who had ly a word of criticism was raised against him
other concerns than folk-dance, withdrew until a new generation of enthusiasts in the
from the field. Meanwhile, the Board of Educa- 1970s— children of the second revival— began
tion had included morris dance in their to reassess their own roots in the first revival,

recommendations for physical exercise in and Sharp came under critical scrutiny, ver-
schools, and Sharp cultivated a close relation- ging on vilification (e.g. Harker, 1972). Fortu-
ship with the South-Westem Pol5^echnic nately, more balanced assessments have also
Institute (later the Chelsea Physical Training appeared, but the man and his actions still
College), in part to provide himself with a excite sfrong emotions and interest among
body of teachers to replace the Esperance researchers and lay people alike. It is all too
women, and the *EngUsh Folk Dance Society easy to find evidence to show Sharp in a bad
was formed in 1911, firmly under his control. Ught. He was certainly autocratic and stub-
Many leading lights of the folk-dance revival bom, and too willing to engage in unseemly
became involved at this time, including public argument, even when he himself was
George *Butterworth, Douglas *Kennedy, Alice on unsure ground. His criticism of the Board
*Gomme, and Maud and the prin-
*Karpeles, of Education's poUcy on national songs sits
ciples he laid dovm had a
lasting effect on the awkwardly with his own British Songs publica-
revival for decades. Sharp was also keen to tion only four years previously, and his first
revive the old social *dances (country dances) Morris Book volume was almost completely
which had almost faded from memory, and he rewritten for its second edition as doubt was
undertook research into Playford's English cast on thetraditional standing of some of
Dancing Master (first published in 1651) and the dances, and his own interpretation of the
other early dance manuals, and also collected genre. Nevertheless, most of his faults can be
what he could from village traditions; pubhsh- explained, if not excused, by reference to his
ing the first part of his Country Dance Book in role as a pioneer, a man with a mission, and.
 322
Sharp. Cecil James

originated with 'the people', and is

therefore
importantly, a man in a hurry (he came to his
life's work in his mid-forties). distinguished from both the 'art' music of the
His editorial practices have also been ques- educated classes and the commercial popular
tioned. On the song side, he was far more music of the time, and that it has undergone a
interested in the music than the texts and form of evolution by being 'selected' for per-
while the tunes were noted and published as petuation by the community. Items which do
not suit the community's taste fall by the way-
exactly as possible, the words suffered every
side, and those which survive are thus neces-
possible editorial indignity, being 'softened',
sarily genuine 'folk' and therefore
have
amalgamated, tidied up. and. in some early
cases, completely rewritten. Sharp was cer- intrinsic value. This evolution takes place at
and he both micro and macro (national)
tainly not alone in these attitudes, (village)
defended his practices by saying that he need- levels and the basis of Sharp's beUef that a
is

ed to produce 'singable' versions which would knowledge of genuine folk music was neces-
suit the tastes of the Edwardian music-buying sary to revitalize English classical music: '. . .

as that (musical) taste is the controUing factor

public. The early collectors believed that the
texts had been corrupted by the *broadside in the evolution of folksong, national pecuhar-
trade anyway. Similarly, comparison of his itiesmust ultimately determine the specific
fieldwork notebooks and his published works characteristics of the folksongs of the differ-
show that he was wilUng to take Uberties with ent nations' (Some Conclusions, 38). The three
dance material to reach a performable result, processes involved in this evolution are,
and his morris and sword dance books must be according to Sharp, continuity, variation, and
seen as practical manuals rather than aca- selection. This definition included a number
demic studies. Sharp is also criticized on a class of problems— not least in positing an ancient
basis— portrayed as the middle-class man origin for traditional songs when later

exploiting working-class culture for his own research has shown that many of the songs
profit and status— an accusation which can be collected originated on the 18th century stage
levelled atmost folklorists— but on closer and pleasure gardens. His definition of the
examination the view is simpUstic. To main- 'common people' as 'those whose mental
tain that the material 'belonged' to the work- development has been due not to any formal
ing class alone is to beg questions of origin and style of training or education but solely to
cultural transmission at least. Sharp certainly environment, communal association and
had many of the characteristics of his class, but direct contact with the ups and downs of life'
there is plenty of evidence that he got on well (p. 4) is also untenable, and, in fact, is at odds
with his 'informants', and his guiding prin- with the real backgrounds of most of his best
ciple was to return the treasures of traditional informants. Only in the case of the 'modes' in
song and dance to a people swamped by com- which traditional song tunes are sometimes
mercial (e.g. music hall) popular culture. How- set, did his early definitional work prove of
ever patronising this sounds today, it was a lasting value.
validargument at the time. Nevertheless, Mary Cecil Sharp left three lasting positive leg-
Neal's assertion that her working girls learn- acies: a huge body of collected song and dance

ing direct from traditional (working-class) material, most of which would otherwise have
dancers was more valid than his model of fil- perished imrecorded; the foundations of
tration through trained (middle-class) experts viable revival movements in song and dance;
found little sympathy from him, secure in his and greatly enhanced public perception of the
notion that these important items could only existence and inherent value of traditional
be saved by experts like himself. musical forms. Sharp caught the mood of the
Sharp was the only one of his generation to time. There was a widespread, but largely
attempt a serious definition of the field of folk- incoherent feeling in several intellectual fields
song and folk music, as encapsulated in his that there was something missing in English
En^ish Folk Song: Some Conclusions (1907). His life; a heady combination of nationalism,

attempt was ultimately unsuccessftil (see xenophobia, rural nostalgia, arts and crafts,
song, and Wilgus, 1959, for further discus- and fear of rapid societal change. The appar-
sion), but he provided a working definition ent simplicity, artlessness, and, above all, pure
which served as the basis for all in the field Enghshness of these newly discovered trad-
imtil well after the Second World War. The itional forms were precisely what was needed,
basis of Sharp's definition is that folk-song and they became widely fashionable for young
 323 shepherds

and old alike. The fact that his immediate suc- Celticpaganism (Sheridan and Ross, 1975: 8).
cessors chose to pursue a relatively passive However, a recent study (Weir and Jerman,
pohcy of continuance rather than active 1986) has proved that the sheela is neither
reassessment and development, and thus rap- Irish nor pagan; it originated in medieval

idly became out of date, is hardly his fault. France and northern Spain, where it is
Main publications by Sharp: song: A Book of extremely common as part of a repertoire of
British Song for Home and School (1902); Folk-Songs grotesque images, often blatantly sexual,
From Somerset (5 parts, 1904-9); English Folk found on early 12th century Romanesque
Songs for Schoob (with Sabine Baring-Gould) churches, especially those along the routes to
(1906); English Folk-Song: Some Conclusions (1907); the great pilgrimage centre of St James of
Children's Singing Games (with Alice Gomme) (5 Compostella. The purpose would be to warn
parts, 1911); English Folk-Carols (1911); English pilgrims against sexual sins by rousing dis-
Folk-Chanteys (1914); One Hundred English Folk gust, presenting the female body as both vor-
Songs (1916); English Folk Songs (1920); English acious and degraded. The fashion for this and
Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians (edited other grotesque carvings reached England
by Maud Karpeles) (1932); major contributions early in the 11th century, and Ireland slightly
to the Journal of the Folk-Song Society 2 (1905), 5 later.

(1914), 5 (1916), 8 (1927). DANCE: The Morris Another interpretation which has been
Book 1907-14); The Country Dance Book
(5 parts, proposed several times is that sheelas were
(6 parts, 1909-22); The Sword Dances of Northern meant away the Devil, since there is a
to drive

England (3 parts, 1911-13); The Dance: An Histor- belief, known over most of Europe since clas-
ical Survey of Dancing in Europe (with A. P. Oppe) sical times, that to display the bum or the sex-

(1924). Sharp's main manuscripts are at Clare ual organs is a powerful apotropaic gesture.
College Library, copies (and much other Irish peasants gave this explanation when
material) at the *Vaughan Williams Memorial interrogated by antiquarians, saying that men
Library, London. afflicted by the evil eye used to ask prostitutes

Obituary, Folk-Lore 35 (1924), 284-7; A. H. Fox to perform such displays as a way of turning
Strangways, Cecil Sharp (1933); Maud Karpeles, Cecil Sharp: their luck (Andersen, 1977: 22-4, 103).
His Life and Work (1967); D. Marker, 'Cecil Sharp in Somer- Once sheelas began appearing on English
set: Some Conclusions', EMJ 2:3 (1972), 220-40; Roy
churches, the locals must surely have
Judge, 'Mary Neal and the Esperance Morris', FMJ 5:5
(1989), 545-91; Hugh Anderson, 'Virtue in a Wilderness: developed stories and behefs about them,
Cecil Sharp's Sojourn in Austraha', FMJ 6:5 (1994), 617- though not along the pious Unes which the
52; D. K. Wilgus, Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship Since
clergy designing the church had intended.
1898(1959).
Unfortunately, nothing of the sort appears in
folklore collections.
sheela-na-gig. This word, or the shorter Andersen, 1977; Weir and Jerman, 1986; Sheridan and
form 'sheela', has been used since the mid- Ross, 1975; Richard N. Bailey, Folklore 94 (1983), 113-17.
19th century by antiquarians and folklorists to
describe medieval sculptured figures of a hid- Sheffield Survey of Language and Folk-
eous naked woman squatting or standing with lore, see *CENTRE FOR ENGLISH CULTURAL
splayed legs, in such a way as to display her TRADITION AND LANGUAGE.
sexual organ, which she is often gripping. The
name comes from Ireland, where these carv- shepherds. The nature of their work kept
ingswere first noticed, but there is doubt shepherds somewhat apart from other farm-
whether it was genuinely widespread in workers, and they had various traditions of
r common speech (Andersen, 1977: 22-4). their own: they continued wearing smocks
r The best-known sheela in England is a when other labourers had long abandoned
dwarfish goggle-eyed carving at Kilpeck (Here- them, and they favoured regional differences
fordshire), but there are about two dozen in the design of crooks and sheep bells. To pass
; .' others, some damaged; one found at Egre- the time while guarding the flock, and to earn
Church (Cumbria) in 1880 holds a pair of extra money, some snared wild birds, and
shears, apparently about to trim her pubic others did elaborate woodcarving. It was cus-
Pmont
hair was long thought that
(Bailey, 1983). It tomary for a shepherd to be buried with a tuft
sheelaswere mainly an Irish phenomenon, of wool in his hands, so that at Doomsday he
and were charms to make women fertile. Eng- could prove what his caUing had been, and so
Ush examples were regarded as survivals of be excused for often missing Sunday church.
 324
shepherds' score

The feet that in Sussex fossil sea-urchins

found on the Downs were called 'shepherds'
crowns' may imply they collected them for
sale. They were often displayed on cottage
mantlepieces or windowsills, sometimes
being blackened with boot poUsh; the gen-
eral beUef was that they acted as thunder-
stones, to keep *thimder away and so prevent
milk ftom turning sour, and some thought
they also kept witches away. They were
regarded as lucky, and whoever found one
must spit on it and toss it over his left
shoulder.
See also sheep-shearing, shepherds'
SCORE.

shepherds' score. Across a wide area of

northern England and southern Scotland, a
curious Unguistic feature has been regularly
reported in the shape of an unusual method of
counting— apparently based on twenty,
reputedly used extensively by shepherds, and
bearing a distinct similarity to Welsh and
other Celtic languages. Individual words vary
considerably from place to place, but overall
the pattern is remarkably similar:

1 Yan
 325 Shrovetide

about the apostle Mark), and, indeed, Cicero in tlepiece ornaments 'for luck', or as 'lucky
45 BC. charms' in jewellery.

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 350.

One common *love divination in the 19th
century was for a girl to set her shoes at right
angles on going to bed, saying:
shoes. The popular custom of tying an old
shoe to the back of the car in which a bride I set my shoes in the form of a T,
and groom are setting off for their honey- Hoping my true-love for to see.

moon is a specialized fonn of what was once a

She would then be sure to dream of her des-
widespread practice, that of throwing an old tined husband.
shoe at or after someone to wish them luck,
on a journey. It is mentioned in Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 305-7; Opie and
especially
Tatem, 1989: 350-4. For shoes in buildings, see Mer-
John Heywood's Proverbs (1546). rifield, 1987: 131-6; June Swann, journal of the Northamp-
Another practice, generally interpreted as ton Museums and Art Gallery 6 (1969), 8-21, and Costume 30
defensive magic, was more secretive. As Ralph (1996), 56-69; for clogs, PIS News 11 (1990), 3-4; 12 (1991),
10. An extensive listing of shoes found in buildings
Merrifield writes:
throughout Britain is kept at Northampton Central
There are few local museums in southern England Museum, and now numbers over 1,500.

that do not possess a few shoes, mostly dating from

the 17th to the 19th century, that were found hidden shrews. The shrew has a very bad reputation
in old houses, usually in a wall, roof, or chimney
in Enghsh folklore. Its bite was believed to be
breast, or under a floor deposited in places that
. . .

are normally accessible only at the time of building

poisonous to domestic animals, and if a shrew
crawled over a cow, horse, sheep, or even
or structural alteration, or by taking considerable
trouble at other times, for example by raising a human, that animal would suffer acute pains
floorboard [A] child saw his father and a work- and swelling. In Britain, these beUefs go back
man put an old worn-out boot, that significantly did at least to the 16th century and, indeed, PUny
not belong to the family, in the rubble when laying includes them in his Natural History (ad 77). It

the kitchen floor, at Wareham St Mary, Norfolk, in was one of the superstitions reported by Gil-
1934-5. He could get no reason for this from his bert White (The Natural History of Selhome
father, who seemed sUghtly ashamed of what he was
(1776), letter 28), and see Opie and Tatem for
doing. (Merrifield, 1987: 131-4). ftirther references. The reported cure and/or

The only first-hand explanation recorded is prevention was to bore a hole in an ash tree, or
this comment from Lincolnshire: 'In the old split a branch or trunk, catch a live shrew and

days, a lot of kids died young, so to keep part imprison it in the hole or spUt and leave it to
of the kid with them, or the spirit of the kid if die and rot away. That tree, henceforth called
a 'shrew-ash', would then have healing powers
you like, a shoe was buried in the waU of the
house so the kid was still with them' (Sutton, over shrew bites. According to N&Ci (5s:9
1992: 135). (1878), 65), another method of making an ash
Similar finds were made in England's oldest effective against shrews was to bury a horse-
coal mine, at Lounge, near Leicester, in 1990; shoe at its roots. A ftirther alternative was to
medieval leather boots, dating from about enclose the shrew in clay, and hang it round
1450, had been laid in certain galleries. This the neck of the cow to protect it. It was also
must be a forerunner of a custom reported considered unlucky for a shrew to cross your
from abandoned lead mines in Yorkshire and path, and that shrews themselves could not
Derbyshire, and an old copper mine in Wales, cross roads or even tracks made by cart wheels

namely placing a single clog at the far end of without dropping dead on the spot. Some of
a passage at the last point reached in
(i.e.
these beliefs were also held about fieldmice.

working or in the backfiUing of such a

it), Opie and Tatem, 1989: 354-6; H. S. Toms, 'Shrew Folk-
lore', Sussex N&Q.2 (1929), 178-9; Lean, 1903: ii. 647-8.
passage, or at a spot where a shaft had
collapsed.
Explanations as to why shoes should be con- Shrovetide. In the Christian calendar, the
i sidered protective can only be conjectural; the three days before Lent were known as
two main ones are that they are dirty, espe- Shrovetide, taking their name from 'shrive' or
cially when old (cf the saying 'Where there's confess. Lent being the longest and strictest

I
muck there's luck'), and that they symboUze fast,however, has given to Shrovetide the
the female sexual organ. Small model boots or character of being the last chance for good
shoes in various materials were used as man- food and unrestricted fim before the long
Shucks Shock 326

pericxl of austerity starting

with Ash Wednes- toms was eventually suppressed, although
day and leading up to Easter. Shrovetide thus many not until the 19th century.
became second only to Christmas for its frivol- In many parts of the country, children went

ity, or, as William Kethe

commented in 1571 Shroving. a standard *visiting custom whereby
'Great gluttony, surfeiting and drunkenness' they sang a song or recited a rhyme and hoped
(A Sermon Made at Blandford Forum, quoted by to be rewarded with food or money:
Hutton, 1996: 152).
Knock, knock, the pan's hot
The three days were generally known as And we are coming a-shroving
Shrove Sunday, Collop Monday, and Shrove For a piece of pancake
Tuesday. Collop Monday took its name from Or a piece of bacon
the habit of eating collops. or cuts of meat Or a piece of truckle cheese
fried or boiled. It made
sense to eat up any Of your own making
meat still remaining in the house, as it would (Hampshire. Fdtk-lore 22 (1911). 323)
be banned from the Wednesday. Similarly, on
Shrove Tuesday, other perishable foodstuffs Unhke other such customs, however, if the

were used up. and although there were householder was not forthcoming the chil-
dren showered his/her front door with stones,
regional variations, these were usually eaten
in the form of pancakes. While Shrovetide or shards of broken pottery— Lent crocking as

now some called it (see also *jack o'lent). Another

passes unnoticed by any but a dwindling
number of religious families. Pancake Day still children's(and adult's) custom on Shrove
means something to millions of Enghsh Tuesday was playing Shuttlecock.
See also *barring-out, *church clipping,
people, and to lemon growers and importers.
The first known mention of pancakes is by *COCK-FIGHTING, *COCKS. THROWING AT. *FOOT-
WiUiam Warner in AMons England (1586). as BALL. *PANCAKE RACES. *THREAD THE NEEDLE.
'Fast-even pan-puffs' (quoted by Hutton, 1996: WESTMINSTER SCHOOL PANCAKE DAY.

152). The term 'Fast-even' (meaning the even- Hutton, 1996: 151-68; Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 1-32;
Hazlitt, 1905: 545-8. Hone. 1827: i. cols. 241-62.
ing before the fast) long survived in the north
of England as a synonym for Shrove Tuesday.
The pancake-making was not left to chance, Shuck, Shock. In Norfolk and Suffolk lore,
but inmany areas was signalled by a church there aremany accoimts of an apparition
bell being rung, at eleven o'clock or twelve known as 'Old Shuck' or 'Black Shuck' (or
o'clock,which obviously became known as the 'Shock'), usually described as a phantom dog
pancake bell. This was the signal for famiUes to as big as a calf, shaggy, with fiery eyes, and
start cooking. If John Taylor (1621) is to be sometimes dragging a clanking chain. Printed
beUeved, some sextons rang the bell as early as references begin in the 1840s, andmemories
nine o'clock. Modem *pancake races are said, of personal encounters continue to the pres-
completely without foundation, to date from a ent day. In most cases Shuck is said to terrify
custom whereby housewives would vie with humans who see him, and their dogs and
each other to make the first pancake and race horses too, and in 19th-century accounts to
to the sexton to prove it. The pancake bell sur- meet him is often said to mean death, for one-
vived in many places till late in the 19th cen- self or another. In other accounts Shuck is

tury (Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 13-15). harmless, or even benevolent— for instance,
A number of other customs and activities by frightening a cycUst into dismounting, and
also became particularly associated with thus saving him from being knocked down by
Shrovetide, especially *football, *cock-fighting, a speeding car. At Overstrand, where Shuck
and throwing at *cocks. Even after the Refor- has long been said to run regularly along a
mation removed much of the importance of he is claimed to be the ghost of a
coastal path,
Lent, and therefore Shrovetide as a religious dog searching for the bodies of his
faithfiil

observance, Shrove continued to be known for drowned masters, who were smugglers or
its excesses. In urban areas, it was fishermen.
particularly
the day for apprentices to let their hair down,
Jennifer Westwood, in Supernatural Enemies, ed. Hilda R.
and their behaviour became proverbial— Davidson (forthcoming).
'They presently (like prentices upon Shrove-
Tuesday) take the lawe into their owne handes shudder. If you suddenly shudder or shiver,
and do what they Ust' (Dekker. Seven Deadly Sins for no apparent reason, it is still likely that you
of London (1606). 35). Each of these active cus- will say that 'someone has just walked over
327 sin-eating

your grave', meaning, of course, the site of bride's shoe; as a countercharm against witch-
your future grave. The first known written craft when churning *milk. A particular heal-
evidence for this notion is in Jonathan Swift's ing power was ascribed to rings made from a
Polite Conversation (1738, i.
4). Occasional vari- silver coin which had been put into the collec-
ations stipulate what it is that is doing the tion in church (so-called 'sacrament money'),
walking— a donkey or even, as suggested by usually a shilling or half a crown; to get it, the
the pimples associated with a shiver, a goose. sufferer had to beg a penny apiece from twelve

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 356. (or 30) different people, usually with the fur-
ther condition that they must be unmarried,
sieve and shears. A well-known form of *div- and of the sex opposite to the sufferer's, and
ination, akin to the *Bible and key method, then exchange them for the 'sacrament
normally used to name a thief or find some- money'. They were supposed to cure fits.
Sometimes, it was thought sufficient to beg
thing which has been lost. Descriptions vary
five, *seven, or *nine sixpenny or threepenny
Uttle, and the following is from Aubrey (1686:

25):
pieces from persons of the opposite sex, and
make the ring of them.
The Sheers are stuck in a Sieve, and two maydens
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 327-8, 357-8.
hold up ye sieve with the top of their fingers by the
handle of the shiers: then say. By St Peter & St Paule
such a one hath stoln (such a thing), the others say. sin-eating. Evidence for this dramatic
By St Peter and St Paul he hath not stoln it. After funeral custom rests largely on a statement in
many such Adjurations, the Sieve will tume at ye Aubrey's Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme
nameofyeThiefe. (1686/1880). 35:
The only significant difference is that others In the County of Hereford was an old Custome at
maintain that you read out loud 'a certain Funeralls to hire poor people, who were to take upon

chapter' from the Bible. This method is men- them all the sinnes of the party deceased. One of
tioned regularly in England from the 16th them I remember lived in a Cottage on Rosse high-

century onwards, including *Scot (1584: book way. (He was a long, leane, ugly, lamentable poor
raskal.) The manner was that when the Corps was
12, chapter 17) and *Melton (1620) and many
later folklore collections. This antiquity pales brought out of the house and layd on the Biere, a
Loafe of bread was brought out and delivered to the
into insignificance, however, against the
Sinne-eater over the corps, as also a Mazar-bowle . . .

earliest reference given by Opie and Tatem, in full of beer, which he was to drinke up, and sixpence
Theocritus' Idylls (c.275 bc). in money, in consideration of which he tooke upon

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 356-7; Henderson, 1879: 233-6. him (ipso facto) aU the Sinnes of the Defunct, and
freed him (or her) from walking after they were
dead.
sillyhow. Literally, 'blessed cap' or 'lucky
cap'; a term used in northern England for the Aubrey adds that he had heard of several
*caul. Herefordshire examples, and believed the cus-
tom had once been common in Wales; in 1714
silver. Silver *coins are mentioned in many another antiquarian said he had seen a note-
different contexts. not clear how much
It is book of Aubrey's giving a second description,
intrinsic power ascribed to the metal itself— from Shropshire. In 1852 a Mr Moggridge of
some, no doubt, since there is evidence that in Swansea claimed it had existed at Llanderbie
Suffolk around 1850 people with fits would in Wales 'within the last twenty years'; the sin-
beg twelve small silver items such as broken eater would be given bread and salt which had
spoons or buckles, to melt into a curative been laid on the corpse's chest, plus half a
*ring, and in some of the stories where a *hare crown, after which he quickly left, for he 'was
(really a witch) is shot with a silver bullet, this regarded as a mere Pariah, as one irremediably
is said to be made from a button. However, lost' (Sikes, 1881: 322-4).
silver objects were not regularly thought During the next few decades folklorists
powerful in the way that domestic *iron hunted for further evidence of the practice.
objects were. They had no difficulty finding instances of
A silver sixpence is frequently mentioned: cakes and wine, or bread and ale, being
as a gift to a new *baby; as a gift left by *fairies consumed by mourners round the coffin, or
for diligent servant girls, or for children shed- distributed to the poor at the house or in
ding a *tooth; as a lucky *charm, especially in a the graveyard. This ceremonial eating and
 328
singing games
the corpse was The Times (18 Sept. 1895), and N&Q.8s:9 (1896),
drinking in the presence of
common at 18th- and 19th<entury funerals in 109-11,169-70,296.
midland and northern counties, especially in
Yorkshire. But there was no further trace of a singing games. As the name implies, the
•professional' human scapegoat, a sin-eater in singing gameis a children's activity in which

Aubrey's and Moggridge's sense. an action accompanied by sung verses—

is

These customs are best understood as

*Ring-a-Ring-a-Roses, The Farmer's in his Den,
echoes of medieval Requiems, and of the cus- Oranges and Lemons, *Green Gravel are well-
tom of giving ahns to the poor (including food) known examples, but there are dozens of
dis- their roots in adult dances of the
in exchange for their prayers, normally others. With
tributed beside the grave or coffin. Scriptural distant past and their wonderfully pleasing
support could be found in the Book of Tobias tunes, singing games have attracted a fair
(or Tobit) which forms part
of the Greek and amount of attention from folklorists since the
Latin Bible: 'Alms deliver from all sin, and late 19th century and are relatively well
from death, and will not suffer the soul to
go documented. But in the playground they have
into darkness Lay your bread and your been in slow but steady decline and, although
wine on the grave of a just man' (Tobias 4: 11, far from dead, the repertoire grows smaller
18). Vague memories of this religious
context and they are seen less often these days.
persisted into the late 19th century. One
Here-
Gomme, 1894-8; Opie and Opie, 1985.
fordshire farmer is reported as saying, 'You
must drink, sir, it's like the Sacrament, it's to
skimmington, see *rough music.
killthe sins of mysister' (Leather, 1912: 121);

in Derbyshire a farmer's daughter explained,

"When you drink wine at a funeral every drop sicin,human. There are a number of stories
that you drink is a sin which the deceased has about humans being flayed (alive or dead) and
committed; you thereby take away the dead their skin being displayed or used for various
man's sins and bear them yourself (Addy. purposes and, perhaps surprisingly, there is a
1895: 123-4; Addy. letter in N&d 8s:9 (1896), factual basis to many of them. The first class of

296). story involves human skin nailed to church

Some can be added.
slight hearsay evidence doors. At least six places have this tradition,
In 1945 a folklorist said hehad heard of a few and probably more, as it has the ring of *tour
19th<entury cases in East Anglia where 'some guide lore about it: Hadstock, Copford, and
unsuspecting person, usually a tramp' was Castle Hedingham (all three in Essex), Roches-
given bread and *salt which had been laid on a ter Cathedral (Kent), Worcester Cathedral, and

corpse, thus acquiring its sins; he said tramps Westminster Abbey (London). According to
still avoided houses where there had been a Tyack, Rochester and Castle Hedingham had
death, for fear of this trick (L. F. Newman, Folk- legends only, while the other four had real
Lore 56 (1945), 291-2). In 1958 came more fragments of skin still surviving in the 19th
second-hand information from the Fens: an century which were analysed and 'proved' to
old lady who had died in 1906 had been told, be human. In most cases, the victim is claimed
when young, how a woman who was a sin- to be a marauding Dane, guilty of the worst
eater ('who, incidentally, was shunned by all crime— sacking a church. Samuel Pepys' diary
the villagers') had qualified herself for the entry for 10 April 1661 records: 'Then to
task. She had taken so much poppy-tea that Rochester and there saw the Cathedrall . . .

she seemed to be dying, and the minister gave Then away thence observing the great doors of
her absolution; she recovered, and was told by the church, as they say covered with the skins
her friends that now that she was free of her of the Danes'. Few of the doors in question are
own sins she could take on other people's, sufficiently old to be survivors from the time
which she used to do by eating bread and salt of Danish incursions, but the core of the story
laid on the shrouds of the dead and being paid is actually the gross sacrilege, and it seems

thirty pennies, whitewashed to look like silver that this barbaric punishment really was used
(Enid Porter, Folklore 69 (1958), 115). for this particular crime. Nevertheless, many
For an anthropological interpretation, see E. of the reports of the scientific testing of the
S. Hartland, Folk-Lore 3
(1892), 145-57; he skin include the phrase 'of a fair-haired
thought the custom is derived from cannibal- person'- sufficiently often for it to appear to
ism. Letters debating the issue will be found in be a folkloric motif in itself
329 skipping (1)

The other class of story is much more holding the rope between them, taking it in
recent. From 1752 the bodies of all executed turns tojump by angling the rope one side to
murderers were handed over to surgeons on the other. There are numerous variations in
which to practise their dissection techniques footwork, speed of turning, actions to be per-
and anatomy lessons. The skins of a surprising formed, and so on. The basic game is static,
number of famous murderers have been pre- but skippers can also progress along the
served, either previously on show in medical sfreet, again either singly or in pairs. The
museums or used to bind books about them, usual learning pathway for beginners is to
such as that of WilUam Corder (the murderer start with short-rope skipping and, once the
of Maria Marten in the infamous Red Bam basic skills of timing have been mastered, to

Murder) at Moyse's Hall Museum, Bury St move on to long rope.

Edmonds; numerous other examples are Long-rope skipping involves a person at
listed in Notes & Queries in the 1920s and 1930s. either end turning a long rope while several
A stray tale reported in N&Q. (148 (1925). 424; others jump, either one at a time or in pairs or
149 (1925), 14) concerns a straggler from the groups. A further complication, now called

Young Pretender's army on their retreat from Double Dutch, and much more common in
Derby in 1745 being killed by the Duke of the USA than in England, is where two long
Cumberland's men and his skin used to make ropes are turned simultaneously, in opposite
a drum. directions. A different form, hardly skipping
in the strict sense, is French Skipping or Elas-
George S. Tyack, 'Human Skin on Church Doors', in
William Andrews (ed.). The Church Treasury of History, Cus- tics where a rope, tied in a loop, is placed
tom, Folk-loreetc. (1898), 158-67; N&Q.2s:2 (1856), 68, 119,
around the ankles of two girls standing facing
157, 250-2, 299, 419; 4s:4 (1869), 56-7, 101-2; 4s:5 (1870),
each other. Participants take it in turns to
310-11; 4s:10 (1872), 352, 448, 454-5; 4s:ll (1873), 138,
292, 373; 9s:12 (1903), 429, 489-90; 10s:l (1904), 15, 73-4, jump inside, outside, or on to the rope, in a set
155, 352; 10s:2 (1904), 14-15; 150 (1926), 459; 151 (1926). sequence of movements and when they have
68-9; 159 (1930), 303; 163 (1932), 250-1, 302, 356. 394;
successfully completed them the rope is
Ruth Richardson, Death Dissection and the Destitute (1987).
moved a bit higher up the legs of the end
people and the whole procedure is repeated,
skipping (1): children's game. Nowadays until the rope is too high for the jumpers to

skipping is almost entirely done by girls, but reach. A length of elastic is now often used
thiswas not always the case. The earliest ref- instead of rope, hence the alternative name.
erences refer to boys, and through most of the Numerous skipping rhymes exist to accom-
19th century boys regularly took part in the action, many of which are apparently
pany the
game. This has led some authorities to con- meaningless but rhythmic chants.
clude that skipping was exclusively played by —
Salt, mustard, vinegar, pepper
boys until the late 19th century but there are
numerous illustrations in chapbooks, books, to the initiated, however, these four words
and magazines of girls skipping, back into the indicate different speeds. Some dictate the
18th century. Why the boys stopped skipping action:
when they did is not clear. Skipping with a
Teddy bear, teddy bear
rope cannot be traced fiirther back than the Touch the ground
17th century, to a work by Jacob Cats, SiXenus
Teddy bear, teddy bear
AkiUadis (1618), and references in England do Turn right round
not appear until the 1730s. As the Opies point Teddy bear, teddy bear
out, this may be because in earher times skip- Climb upstairs
ping was normally done with a hoop, or it may Teddy bear, teddy bear
simply be an accident of history. Say your prayers
There are several basic variations in skip- Teddy bear, teddy bear
Turn off the light
ping, the most important being the distinction
between short rope and long rope. Short-rope Teddy bear, teddy bear
Say goodnight.
skipping can be solo, one child with a short
skipping rope 'turning' over her head— or Commentators on children's games almost
duo, with two girls face to face jumping a rope always lament that children no longer play
turned by one of them— or skilled practi- like they used to and that fraditions are dead.
tioners can get three in at the same time. To the outsider, skipping appears to be one of
Alternatively, two girls can stand side by side. those areas which is dying, but if so we are
 skipping (2) 330

witnessing a very long and slow decline, and merly kept a skull on display, allegedly that of
skipping is certainly not dead yet. someone who had lived there and had insisted
Opie and Opie, 1997: 160-306; Abrahams, 1969; Opie and that this be done; the luck of the house and
Opie. 1959. family was said to depend on its presence, and
if anyone tried to remove or
bury it, it would
either return of its own accord, or cause vio-
skipping (2): calendar custom. At noon on
Shrove Tuesday at Scarborough (Yorkshire), lent and noisy haunting until
replaced. There
hundreds of local people, of all ages, flock to were examples at Wardley Hall. Osbaldeston
the Foreshore with their ropes and Hall, and Timberbottom Farm near Bolton
try their
hand at skipping, in groups or solo, which (Lancashire), Brougham Hall and Calgarth Hall
goes on until after dark. In the past the ropes (Westmorland), and Threlkeld Place (Cum-
were longer, stretching right across the street, bria); some were explained as rehcs of Cath-
turned by local fishermen, and a dozen or fif- ohc martyrs, but they too took
revenge if dis-
teen people could skip in one tiu-bed. At Warbleton
rope, but now- Priory (Sussex), there
adays it is more common for people to keep to were two, allegedly a former owner and his
their family group. The custom still seems murderer, supposed to cause ghastly noises
popular, but many observers have com-
and bring ill luck if moved; they were still
mented that the local people are gradually los- there in 1947 (Simpson, 1973:
47-8).
ing their skipping skills from lack of practice, The *origin tales are very varied. At Bet-
and that the accompanying rh5anes have all tiscombe Manor, near Lyme Regis
(Dorset), the
but died out. The earliest known reference to skull is said to be that of a
Negro slave enraged
the custom is in 1903, and the local at not being sent home to Africa for
theory of burial; in
origin is that Shrovetide was the time when fact female, fossilized, and possibly pre-
it is

the local fishing fleet sorted out their historic. At Burton Agnes Hall
ropes, (Yorkshire),
and discarded any which were worn or other- it is the
youngest of three sisters in Ehza-
wise past their prime. An associated bethan times, who on her deathbed made her
part of
the day is for boys to sisters swear to keep her head on a table so
grab, and 'dump' the
in the sea— an activity which, from local that she could see the Hall
girls completed. The
testimony, goes back at least 30 years, if not famous 'Dicky' of Tunstead Farm (Derbyshire),
before. Similar customs used to take akeady installed in 1790, is said to have been a
place on
Good Friday, and were particularly popular in rightful heir in Elizabethan times, murdered
coastal areas, such as in Sussex where it
was by his cousins {Folk-Lore 41 (1930), 98-9); he
reported at Brighton, Alciston, Hastings, was buried in the garden in 1985
(BilUngsley,
Southwick, and South Heighton, where Good 1998: 165-6).
Friday was called Long Rope or Long Line Skulls were used in traditional cures, usu-
Day.
The Brighton custom is mentioned as ally for but sometimes also for
epilepsy
popular
in 1863 (N&<1 3s:3 headaches and plague; either water was
(1863). 444) but it was
apparently already on the wane when the drunk from them, or fragments were
grated
closing of the beaches during the Second into food. Moss
scraped from an old skull
Worid War finally killed it. One inland was said to staunch bleeding; a tooth from
place
where Good Friday skipping was one cured toothache (Opie and Tatem, 1989:
popular was
Cambridge, where the custom took place on 359-60). In Devonshire in the 1880s, a
the open space called Parker's
Piece, where it
woman whose husband had left her tried to
seems also to have died out as a buy from a chemist a substance called 'Oil of
regular event
during the last war. Other scattered refer- Man', made by distilling the skulls of
hanged
ences show that the custom was men, believing that by burning it she would
quite wide-
spread, being reported, for call him back; she was
example, at disappointed to learn
Teignmouth (Devon) in the late 19th century that 'that article cannot be had now'
(Transac-
(N&Q_172 (1937). 262). tions of the Devonshire Association 21 (1889)
Scarborough: Smith, 1989: 3-8; Shuel, 1985: 152- Dales- 113-14).
man (Feb. 1994), 23-4; Sussex: See also *bones.
Simpson, 1973: 111;' Ralph
Memfield, 'Good Friday Customs in
Sussex', Sussex Arch- The fullest listing of protective skulls
89 (1950), 85-97; Wales, 1990- 50-1-
aeological Collections
is by Andy Roberts
and David Clarke, Fortean Studies 3 (1996), 126-58;
Cambridge: Porter, 1969: 107; N&Q 172
(1937), 262. the same authors have collected current
belieft and
tales about them in their Twilight of the Celtic Gods
siculls. Several (1996), 138-46; see also Westv^rood, 1985: 13-4
farms and manor houses for- 327-8.
331 Snap, the Norwich Dragon

Small-Tooth Dog, the. A Derbyshire fairy- 5s:6 (1876), 158; Black, 1883: 56-7. 157-8; Opie and Opie,
1997: 465-7.
tale, an analogue to Beauty and the Beast, .with
the hero in the form of a dog; he recovers
human form when the girl renames him snakes, see ^adders.
'sweet-as-honeycomb' (Addy, 1895: 1-4; PhiUp,
1992: 69-71). snakestones. Traditions about ring-shaped
'snakestones' are Celtic. Most are Welsh, but
smugglers. There are two levels on which there are Cornish references too, the first

smugglers appear in folk tradition. On the being in Richard Carew (1602: 21):
their tricks and exploits are a topic
first level,
The country people retaine a conceite, that the
for storytelling; local history recalls routes
snakes, by their breathing upon a hazel-wand, doe
they followed, places where they fought the make a stone ring of blew colour, in which there
Revenue men; local legend alleges they had
appeareth the yellow figure of a snake, and that
secret *tunnels. On the second level, people beasts which are stimg, being given to drink of the
wanting to explain away a supernatural trad- water wherein this stone hath bene soaked, wiU
ition often claim it was encouraged, or even there-through recover.
invented, by smugglers to frighten people
Such 'rings' were usually small prehistoric
away ft-om churchyards and lonely houses beads of striped glass, taken from ancient
where they hid contraband. While it is pos-
burials; however, Robert Hunt was told that
sible that 'smugglers' fakelore' did sometimes
snakestones were 'about the size of a pigeon's
occur, no references to it have been found in
egg', and a friend of his had seen one which
contemporary documents; anecdotes about it
was a beautifiil ball of coralUne Umestone, the
only appear much later, and are couched in
coral being thought to be entangled young
general terms. They sound like folklore
snakes (Hunt, 1865: 418). The oldest tradition,
themselves.
attested by PUny in ad 77 and ascribed by him
*
to Druids, was that in summer, at a certain
snails. A popular divinatory use for the snail,
phase of the moon, numerous snakes entwine
found in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland as well
and form a stony 'egg' from a sticky sUme issu-
as England, is to place it in the ashes of the
ing from their mouths. He had seen one: 'It
hearth, or plate of flour, and examine the
on a was round, and about as large as a smalhsh
marks of the creature's random meanderings
apple; the shell was cartilaginous, and pocked
to see the initial of your fiiture spouse's name.
like the arms of a polypus' (Natural History,
The first known mention of this belief is in
XXIX. xii).
Gay's Shepherd's Week (1714: 34). Others In English folklore, fossil ammonites too are
claimed that it was lucky to throw a snail over
called snakestones. Legend claims they are
your left shoulder (Henderson, 1879: 116). coiled snakes decapitated and turned to stone
They also had their uses in folk medicine,
by St Hilda, Abbess of Whitby, or alternatively
*
being recommended for earache (prick with a St Cuthbert; trade in ammonites flourished
by
needle and drip the juice into the ear), coughs at Whitby (Yorkshire) and Keynsham
and colds (boil snails in barleywater), to
(Gloucestershire).
remove *warts, cure the ague (strung on a
thread and frizzled over the fire) (Black 1883:
56-7) and for gout (pounded into a plaster) Snap, the Norwich Dragon. In the Castle
Museum at Norwich there is a *dragon made
(Aubrey, 1686/1880: 256). The well-known
recited to snails of painted canvas over a wooden frame,
rhyme by children:
designed to rest on the shoulders of a man
Snail, snail, Come out of your hole
walking inside it; its neck can retract, shoot
Or else beat you. As black as coal.
I'U
out, and turn, while its iron<lad jaws are
Snail, snail. Put out your horns
bread. And barley corns, opened or snapped shut by a cord. It was made
I'll give you
in about 1795, and is the last of a series of
was first printed in the mid-1 8th century, but effigies recorded since 1408. At first, they fea-
the Opies point out its very wide geographical tured in a reUgious procession on *St George's
spread, taking in most of Europe and China, Day, in which both St George and St Margaret
which possibly argues for it being consider- were impersonated; after the Reformation,
ably older. the pageant became a Mayor's Show without
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 361-2; N&Q. 5s:5 (1876), 208, 395; saints or religious symbols, but kept the
 332
sneezing

dragon and generally included sword-bearing times a letter, four times better; or, once is
'whifflers' to clear the way, and 'Dick Fools' in lucky, twice unlucky. Opie and Tatem quote
motley; it was held annually around Mid- Homer and Theocritus to demonstrate the
summer until 1835. antiquity of sneeze-counting. A manuscript
Two suburbs of Norwich also held dragon from the time of Elizabeth I (Lansdowne MS
parades during the 19th and early 20th centur- 121, p. 146, quoted in N&Q. 7s:2 (1886), 165-6)
ies, with Snaps of their own; these were bur- gives a number of current beliefs concerning
lesque parodies of the main event, with heavy sneezing, several of which are concerned with
drinking and rough horseplay. Two of their the number of sneezes combined with where
dragons are in the museum too, as is the head and when they occur. Other sneeze beliefs are
of a third. more concerned with the personal situation,
The 18th-century Snap is still occasionally of which there seem to be endless variations.
brought out to celebrate major royal and Examples include: it was a bad omen if a baby
national events. In the 1980s, a new Snap was sneezed during its christening (Wiltshire,

made for the local morris side, and assumed the 1975: 94); if you sneeze on a Saturday night
civic role of appearing in the Mayor's parade; after the candle is lighted, you will next week
costumed whifflers were reintroduced in 1996. see a stranger (N&Ci ls:4 (1851), 99); if you
. . .

Richard Lane, Snap the Norwich Dragon (1976); Simpson, sneeze before breakfast you will receive news
1980: 95-8, 101-2; Nigel Pennick, Crossing the Borderline or a present that day (N&(i4s:l (1880), 42).
(1998), 119-24.
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 364-6; Hazlitt, 1905: 553-5; Lean,
1903: ii.i. 24-5, 101, 266-7, 304-5, 327-8, 398-9; N&Q.
sneezing. The belief that a sneeze should be 5s:8 (1877), 108, 221-3, 284, 376.
answered by others with a verbal blessing or
salutation such as 'Bless you!' is, as far as we
snook, see *cocking a snook.
can tell, almost universal, and old enough to
be quoted by many classical writers. In Britain,
snowdrops. Some people feel strongly that if
the beUef has grown up that the custom stems
snowdrops are picked and brought indoors
from the Great Plague, but it is clear that it
they bring bad luck, even death, into the
goes back long before that, as for example in house; to grow them in bowls, however, or in
Caxton's The Golden Legend, printed in 1483,
the garden, is safe. One explanation was that
which includes the saying of 'God help you!' or
they 'look like a corpse in its shroud' and grow
'Christe help!'. In *Aubrey's time: 'We have a
so near the groimd that they 'seem to belong
custome, that when one sneezes, every one els
more to the dead than the hving' (Latham,
putts off his hatt, and bowes, and cries God 1878: 52-3); also, hke other ill-omened
bless ye Su:' (1686/1880: 103-4). This was only
flowers, they are *white (Vickery, 1995: 354-5).
twenty years after the Plague, but he does not Variations mentioned in N&Q,(8s:7 (1895), 167,
make the connection. Nevertheless, ground-
258, 436) are that it is unlucky for a woman to
less as it is, the belief is now so well fixed in
be the first to bring them into the house; that
the popular mind that it counts as folklore in
they bring bad luck for the first brood of
itself. The equally widespread idea that we say
chickens (cf. *primroses); and that they must
'bless you' because our ancestors believed we
only be given by a woman to a man, or vice
were sneezing our soul out of our body is simi-
versa. In 1931, another contributor reported:
larly groundless. See also under Ring-a-Ring-a-
'Ina London flowershop today—Jan. 29,
Roses for an aUied plague problem.
1931—1 asked for some snowdrops. The assist-
There are numerous other folklore items
ant replied: "No, sir, we are not allowed to sell
connected with sneezing. A widespread rhyme
them." 1 expressed surprise, and was told that
distinguishes the days of the week:
Mr (presumably the proprietor of the
Sneeze on Monday, sneeze for danger them unlucky' (N&(1 160 (1931),
shop) thinks
Sneeze on Tuesday, kiss a stranger
100).
Sneeze on Wednesday, get a letter
Sneeze on Thursday, something better
Sneeze on Friday, sneeze for sorrow soap. Several beliefs cluster around soap. For
Saturday, see your love tomorrow example, the idea that soap slipping out of
one's hand means a forthcoming death (N&Ci
(Buckinghamshire; Henderson, 1879: 137)
5s:4 (1875), 9; 5s:6 (1876), 323 ), or that 'Two
Alternatively, it is the number of sneezes persons,more especially if they are sisters,
which matter: once a kiss, twice a wish, three must not pass soap from hand to hand, it
333 song

should be put down by the first, so that the collectingboom of the Edwardian period, led
other can take up' (Leather, 1912: 87). Opie
it by enthusiasts such as Cecil *Sharp and Ralph
and Tatem also report the notion that it is *Vaughan Wilhams (see also *song revival). As
unlucky to give soap as a present, and a belief the collectors began reporting, and publish-
from the *theatre that you should not leave ing, thousands of finds, music students and
soap behind at the end of a run, or you will not composers turned eagerly to them for
return to that venue. material and folk-song became an overnight
craze, recycled into numerous classical pieces.
Opie and Tatem. 1989: 366-7.
The Edwardian collectors had Uttle problem
Society for Folk Life Studies. Founded Sep- recognizing the genuine article. For them,
tember 1961, "The Society aims to further the folk-songs were old and quaint, to be found
almost exclusively in the mouths of the eld-
study of traditional ways of life in Great Brit-
ain and Ireland and to provide a common erly rural poor, who were claimed to be the
remnants of an unlettered, culturally con-
meeting point for the many institutions
servative, and musically uncreative peasantry.
engaged with the various aspects of the sub-
They also took it as read that the conditions
ject'. The movement towards the founding of
folk museums and folk Ufe programmes in for the perpetuation of genuine folk-songs had
Britain was already taking shape in the 1930s, been eroded during the 19th century by rail-

way travel, universal education, urbanization,

heavily influenced by Scandinavian models,
and the need for a society and a journal was and the rise of commercial music in the form
of the music hall, and that they were involved
apparent, but the intervention of the Second
World War postponed further development. in a last-ditch rescue operation. Sharp
The relatively short-Uved journal *Gwenn, declared in 1907 that 'in lessthan a decade,
launched in 1956, proved a useful focal point, English folk singing will be extinct' (Sharp,
and by the early 1960s sufficient interest had 1907: 130), and commented: 'I have learned

been aroused for action to be taken. The Soci- that it is, as a rule, only waste of time to call

ety holds an annual conference, in a different upon singers under the age of sixty. Their
location each year, and its journal *Folk Life was songs are nearly all modem; if, by chance,
launched in 1963 and continues its annual they happen to sing an old one, it is so infected
with the modem spirit that it is hardly worth
pubUcation. Folk Ufe studies in Britain and Ire-
land have been primarily concerned with the the gathering' (p. 150).

physical aspects of traditional life, and the Sharp attempted the only real definition of
the subject for his generation. His collecting
Society's main membership and audience
have been drawn from museum professionals. and writing perpetuated the rural bias and the
Past President Trefor Owen, writing in 1981 on idea of 'unlettered peasant' as the prime
its 18th birthday, commented that the Society source, but he also provided a more theor-
framework by identifying key elements
etical
(as seen through the pages of its journal) had
not been particularly argumentative or con- fundamental to the genre, which have
froversial, but had been more concerned with
remained central to later attempts to define
sohd descriptive scholarship rather than with folklore. He laid particular stress on Continu-
the discussion of theoretical issues. This ity, Selection, and Variation.
Continuity
remains largely true, and many would regard ensures that some songs are passed on from
this as one of the field's major strengths. singer to singer, generation to generation, and
thus exist long enough to become 'trad-
lowerth C. Peate, Folk Life 1 (1963), 3-4; Alexander Fen-
ton. Folk 11 (1973). 5-14; Trefor M. Owen, Folk Life 19 itional'. Selection is the process by which only
Life

(1981). 5-16. those items which satisfy the community's

criteria forjudging a good song survive, while

song. Until the late 19th century, it was gen- those which do not are forgotten. As songs are
erally agreed within the musical estabhsh- passed informally from singer to singer,
ment that England, alone amongst the coun- changes occur, and this variation makes
tries which comprise the British Isles, pos- development of the song possible, while selec-
sessed no traditional folk-song or music. The tion again ensures that only positive changes
campaign to reflite this misconception gath- will survive. Sharp's debt to evolutionary the-
ered pace as the turn of the century oriesis clear, and his writings underpin his

approached, culminating in the formation of fundamental beUef that because folk-songs

the *Folk-Song Society in 1898. and the great have resulted from ages of unconscious selec-
 334
song

tion and moulding by English communities, cisely because a much stronger case could be
by passing fashion and made for the existence of a long-standing
relatively untainted
the 'oral' tradition in the musical sphere, and the
foreign models, they necessarily embody
musical taste, even the musical soul, of the tunes were thus deemed to be much 'purer'
the unconscious output of than the words. Nevertheless, the notion that
English nation: '. . .

the human mind, whatever else it may be, is the rural poor were somehow immune to
The music of the influence by other forms of music is also
always real and sincere . . .

common people must always, therefore, be untenable.

were tremendously
genuine and true' (p. 44). Similar sentiments Sharp's writings
underlay Vaughan Williams's notions of influential, and, filtered through the work of
'National Music'. Maud formed the basis of the defin-
*Karpeles,
which the International Folk Music
By concentrating on the process of trans-
ition

mission rather than the item itself, Sharp Council (founded 1947) adopted at their 1955
side-stepped the problem of origins. By his def- Congress in Sao Paulo:
inition,songs could originate from any source, Folk music is the product of a musical tradition that
and only became 'folk-songs' after being sub- has been evolved through the process of oral trans-
mitted to the continuity/selection/variation mission. The factors that shape the tradition are: (i)

process, but only if a ftirther condition—

the continuity that links the present with the past; (ii)
lack of access to an authoritative original— is variation which springs from the creative impulse of

satisfied. Variation is artificially hampered if the individual or the group; and (iii) selection by the
community which determines the form or forms in
singers are able to check their performances
which the music survives. The term can be applied to
against the original form of a song, as happens
music that has been evolved from rudimentary
when they possess a printed score or even a
beginnings by a community uninfluenced by popu-
modem sound recording. Thus, the notion of lar and art music and it can likewise be applied to
an unbroken 'oral' tradition was mooted as a music which has originated with an individual com-
necessary basis for genuine folk-song. The sta- poser and has subsequently been absorbed into the
tus of oral transmission, however, was itself unwritten living tradition of a community. The term
controversial. Antiquarians and literary does not cover composed popular music that has
scholars such as William *Chappell and F. J. been taken over ready-made by a community and
Child viewed the variations brought about by remains unchanged, for it is the re-fashioning and re-
creation of the music by the community that gives it
oral transmission as 'corruptions', and the
its folk character, {journal of the International Folk Music
process as largely degenerative, while for
Council 7 (1955), 23)
Sharp's theory to function, the oral tradition
needed to be largely beneficial, or at the very Virtually every element of the Sharp/IFMC
least neutral. definition has been questioned by later
It is easy to criticize Sharp's attempts at def- writers, although not replaced by any other
inition and to challenge his assumptions. His workable solution, and since the late 1970s it
description of 'the folk', for example, as has been common for scholars to doubt the
'Those whose mental development has been very existence of a separate genre of 'folk-
due not to any formal system of training or song' (see, for example, Harker, 1985). A fiir-
education, but solely to environment, com- ther criticism of the earUer collectors is that
munal association, and direct contact with the because of their restricted definition of folk-
ups and downs of life' (p. 4) is condescending song they ignored a large part of singers' rep-
and hardly describes the English rural work- ertoires, leaving us with only partial know-
ing class of the time, and he systematically ledge of the singing practices of the time. But
downplays the creative role played by succes- as documentation of the fiiU singing picture of
sive performers, while overstating the humble the time was not in their brief and they made
status of his informants. The idea that English no secret of their restricted area of interest,
people have had a purely oral tradition at any their omissions may be regrettable from our
time in the last three or four hundred years is present perspective, but not blameworthy.
clearly wishfiil thinking, as almost since the The collecting boom had petered out by the
invention of printing *broadside and other First World War. and there was Uttie collect-
printed versions of songs have been available. ing activity in the 1920s and 1930s, apart from
Nevertheless, Sharp and his contemporaries by individuals such as Alfred *Williams and
were almost exclusively interested in the *
James Madison Carpenter. By their definition.
tunes as opposed the texts of the songs, pre- Sharp's contemporaries were correct about
335 song

the demise of traditional singing, although expUcit songs existed, although given the
they were certainly over-pessimistic on the same social mores they would most likely be
speed of its decline. Post-Second World War confined to all-male situations such as army
collecting forays by the BBC/EFDSS and other barracks or the sports locker room. Some
collectors found plenty of songs still known, broadsides overstepped the Une between
and many still being sung regularly in homes, risque and crude. But England had no collector
pubs, and clubs all over the country, but this who made a point of noting everything,
was probably the last generation which would including the bawdy. It has been claimed that
be able to provide this sort of material as part bawdy song has retained a more purely oral

of their everyday lives rather than as con- tradition precisely because of this problem of
scious revival of the past. pubhshing, and this is true to a certain extent.
As with most folklore genres, the age of Some books of bawdy songs were actually pub-
folk-song is often overestimated. A small pro- Ushed, but they tended to be collectors' items,
portion of the folk-song repertoire can be printed abroad, and there is also evidence that
shown to have been current in the 17th cen- bawdy songs circulated in typescript and
tury, and most of these are *ballads included manuscript form. From the 1960s onwards,
in F. J. Child's collection. The bulk of the songs however, books and records of 'rugby songs'
collected at the turn of the 19th century, how- have been widely available, which have stand-
ever, could not claim to be older than 100 ardized the repertoire. England has not had
years, as they had originated in a variety of much of a tradition of work songs (i.e. songs to
popular entertainment sources of the late accompany work as opposed to songs about
18th and 19th centuries: pleasure gardens, work), apart ft-om a vigorous tradition of *sea
song and supper rooms, operas, other stage shanties. After the Second World War when
shows and interludes, music hall, and, most poUtically active enthusiasts such as A. L.
important of all, the printed *broadsides, *Lloyd and Ewan *MacColl started taking an
*chapbooks, and songsters. Nevertheless, des- interest, the song ttaditions of miners,

pite decades of intensive research, the authors weavers, and other industrial workers began
of most songs in the traditional repertoire to be researched. Traditions of song-making
remain anonymous. and singing were identified in many areas, and
The folk-song repertoire can be categorized a characteristic of these traditions was that
in many ways. From the subject point of view, many of the songs had been written by identi-
songs about love, or the relationship between fiable local authors.
the sexes, comprise the vast majority, but It is almost a chche to claim that people do

range from the wistftil to the robust, from the not sing as they used to, but all the evidence
gentie romantic to the comic treatment of confirms this as an accurate assessment of the
aldultery. But there were plenty of other decUne of vernacular song. Home-grown
topics—battie and adventures at sea, includ- music of all kinds has been largely swamped
ing press-gangs and pirates, poachers, farm by the commercial music industry, and the
life,the pleasures (and occasionally miseries) spread of the radio and gramophone has dra-
of drink, highwa5mien and other criminals, matically changed the way that ordinary
and, in the older narrative ballads, the people view musical performance. This is not
exploits of Robin Hood, lords and ladies, kings to argue that in the past all singing was 'folk
and queens. They can be narrative, lyrical, singing', but many popular songs were at least
humorous, pathetic, sentimental, callous, or singable by non-professionals, while few mod-
coarse. The social mores of Victorian and em popular songs are suited to amateur
Edwardian England severely constrained what unaccompanied performance, and as per-
the collectors noted and even more what they formance contexts have dwindled almost to
published, and, given their relative lack of the point of extinction, so has the habit of
concern for the texts, they had few qualms singing. Ironically, we nowadays have far
about 'softening' some of the sentiments more day-to-day access to music than any pre-
involved. In addition, many singers censored vious generation, but it is now primarily in the
items which they thought unsuitable for visit- role of hstener rather than participant. By
ing gentlemen or ladies, and this successive most definitions, folk-song in
England is all
filtering process ensured that a further dis- but dead, although a case could be made for
torted view of the total repertoire was given. one or two exceptions, such as children's
There is no doubt that a range of sexually rhymes and songs, which are still largely
song revival

passed on informally, bawdy songs, carol-

was a degree of continuity between them. The
singing, and other informal genres such
as starting-point of the first Revival is conveni-
football-crowd chants. ently placed at 1898, with the formation of the
*
As indicated, the Edwardian collectors were Folk-Song Society, although it is clear that
primarily interested in tunes rather than thiswas a culmination of a growing interest in
texts. Whereas previous antiquarians such as traditional song evidenced by the increasing

Chappell had 'corrected' tunes to fit with number of publications through the second
estabhshed musical practice of the time, the half of the 19th century. Sabine *Baring-Gould,
folk-song collectors were deUghted to find that Frank *Kidson, and Lucy *Broadwood had all
many traditional tunes used a different tonal published their first volumes of songs before
basis than the standard major/minor forms of the Society was formed. What distinguished
the period; namely, the so-called 'church these new folk-song enthusiasts from their
modes', such as the Dorian, Mixolydian, and primarily antiquarian and literary predeces-
Aeolian. To the modem ear, their main char- sors was a growing interest in the use of
acteristic is that certain notes are consistently traditional music as raw material for the
sharpened or flattened when compared to a renaissance of English musical taste, the iden-
conventional major scale. Such modal idioms tification of the 'folk' as carriers of a valuable
had not otherwise been in regular use since song tradition, and the Mdllingness to leave
the rehgious plain-chants of the 16th century, the library and undertake fieldwork in villages
and were thus held by some to be an import- up and down the country. The motives of
ant marker of the antiquity of traditional these early collectors were a mixture of nos-
music. Sharp and his successors classified the talgia, romanticism, and nationalism, but they
tunes according to modal theory, but such sys- were all driven by the idea that here was
tematization underestimated the fluidity of something essentially 'English' which had all
traditional tonality and modem scholarship but been destroyed by universal education,
An import-
takes a less prescriptive approach. railway travel, urban development, industrial-
ant exception was Percy *Grainger whose ization, and the styles of popular music pur-
thinking on tonaUty was well ahead of its time veyed by the music hall. The movement
(see JESS 3 (1908), 147-242). It must also be received a further boost firom 1903/4 when
stressed that their interest in modal tunes led major propagandist Cecil *Sharp, and young
the collectors to exaggerate their numerical musicians such as Ralph *Vaughan Williams,
*
importance, and a majority of the songs noted Percy Grainger, and George *Butterworth
were in the standard major. became enraptured by folk-song tunes and
See also *ballads, sabine *baring-gould, commenced a collecting boom which lasted
LUCY *BROADWOOD, GEORGE *BU1TERWORTH, until the outbreak of the First World War,
F. J. *CHILD, *ENGLISH FOLK DANCE AND SONG and which resulted in the major manuscript
SOCIETY, G. *GARDINER, ANNE *GILCHR1ST,
B. collections which still exist today.
*FOLK SONG
SOCIETY, PERCY *GRAINGER, The first revival movement achieved several
HAMMOND BROTHERS, FRANK *KIDSON, positive results. In addition to the large quan-
A. L. LLOYD, EWAN *MaCC0LL, THOMAS *PERCY, of collected material which would not
tity
JOSEPH *RITSON, *SEA SHANTIES, CECIL *SHARP, otherwise have been recorded, the pubhc
*SONG REVIVAL, RALPH VAUGHAN *WILLIAMS, awareness of a mass of vernacular song was
ALFRED *WILLIAMS. raised, and it became accepted for the first
Cecil Sharp, English Folk Song: Some Conclusions
(1907); Dave
time that England had an interesting and
Barker, Fakesong: The Manufacture of British Folksong, 1 700 to valuable musical heritage. Many EngUsh com-
the Present Day (1985); A
L. Lloyd, Folk
Song in England
posers made use of folk music in some form or
(1967); lolo A. Williams, English Folk-Song and Dance (1935).
Gammon, 1980; B. H. Bronson, The Ballad as Song (1969); another in their work and certainly enriched
Roger D. Abrahams and George Foss, Anglo-American Folk- the home-grown classical repertoire, and
song Style (1968). schools taught British 'folk-songs' to children
in music lessons. Unlike the parallel *dance
song revival. There have been two major revival, however, the
first song revival did not
*song revival movements in England; one last- result in a
major upsurge in the practice of folk-
ing from the late Victorian period to the singing, and it apparently had no appreciable
1920s, the other commencing after the Second effect on those segments of the population
World War, and they are conveniently termed who sang traditional songs. Folk-Song Society
the first and second Revivals, although there members were mainly academics, musicians.
 337 song revival

or composers, although a few were profes- revival, to a nationwide audience. The adop-
sional singers who included folk-songs in their tion of the 'folk club' as the main meeting
recitals. Put simply, the movement made a dif- place/performance venue (borrowed from the
ference to music in the middle and upper jazz scene) rapidly provided new foci for
classes, but none in the working classes, and it enthusiasts in almost every town in the coun-
certainly did nothing to reverse the perceived try. The new movement received a boost from
decline in popular musical taste. On the nega- the short-lived 'skiffle' boom of 1957/8, which
tive front, the collectors' severely selective was largely based on the repertoire of Ameri-
definition of folk-song has left us with a hope can folk and blues singers such as Leadbelly
lessly unbalanced view of the repertoire of and Woody Guthrie.
traditional song at the time, and the assump- Meanwhile, the EFDSS still survived, dedi-
tion that the rural poor were the only posses- cated to preserving the legacy of Cecil * Sharp
sors of traditional culture. As they took little and others of the first revival. By the 1950s the
interest in the singers themselves, perform- rank-and-file Society membership was more
ance venues, or events, we have little know- interested in dance than song, and their
ledge of the social context in which the songs experience of folk-song would have been at
were sung. concerts where the songs were 'interpreted*
After the First World War the collecting by trained singers and musicians. In confrast,
boom was over, and only a few newcomers the revival's emphasis was on informaUty and
such as Alfred *Williams continued to be participation, and the difference between
The Folk-Song Society merged into the
active. these two performance styles is a key indica-
English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS) tor of the way the folk world was changing. A
in 1932, after pubUcly stating that there piece in the Society's magazine, in 1953,
remained few folk-songs to collect, only vari- reported one of the first contacts between the
Nevertheless, there were stirrings of two worlds. After describing a recent concert
interest in other quarters. The newly formed with its previously announced 'carefully
tants.
BBC, for example, often used folk music in its planned menu', the writer contrasts this with
early progranmies, and developments in other an informal Evening of Folk-Song, where the
areas were building a new set of enthusiasts performers sat around and swapped songs: 'It
which would result in major changes in the was as though the audience had strayed into
j
1950s. Pre-war mass unemployment, the trade some private informal gathering What . . .

i
union movement, popular leisure pursuits programme there was had been sketched out
i
such as hiking and cycUng, workers' theatre, over coffee beforehand and filled in as the
left-leaning children's organizations like the singers' blood warmed. Nothing quite like it

Woodcraft Folk, and so on, all included elem- had been heard before at Cecil Sharp House
ents of vernacular song— either deliberately .
(ED&S 18:1 (Aug. 1953). 26).
. .'

fostered as a vehicle for protest or political The material

for the radio programmes in
'education', or as spontaneous 'community the early 1950s came largely from an ambi-
singing'— which by one definition or another tious BBC project (in co-operation with the
;
had connections with folk-song. Wartime EFDSS) to tape-record dialect and folk-song
propaganda celebrating the achievements of across Britain and to preserve the recordings
the conmion people, and fiirther shifts of the in a permanent archive. Peter Kennedy, Bob
*
poUtical spectrum to the left, encouraged an in- Copper, Seamus Ennis, and others, discovered
terest in workers' culture, both rural and urban. a wealth of material and many previously
These influences coalesced after the Second unknown singers and musicians. Another
World War. In the early 1950s, visiting Ameri- generation of collectors appeared in the 1960s
B"^ can folklorist, Alan Lomax, discovered a grow- and 1970s, and again significant numbers of
ing, but largely unorganized, interest in folk- recordings were made for posterity.
song in Britain, which was fuelled largely from For most people, however, the distinguish-
the burgeoning folk revival in his own coun- ing feature of the second revival was not the
try. He suggested to Ewan *MacColl, A. L. collection and study of materials, but perform-
:
*Lloyd, and others, that the time was right to ance, and this is the area most fraught with
found a British Folk Revival movement. These disagreement and debate. There were inevit-
key players were already involved in regular able disagreements over both repertoire and
V programmes for the BBC, and they thereby style, with major divisions between tradition-
introduced folk-song, and the ethos of the new alists and modems. Even when sticking to a
 338
souling

souling. A visiting custom carried out in the

*
revival-
predominantly traditional repertoire,
ists rapidly developed styles of performance
19th and 20th centuries mainly by children,
which were radically different from the ones but previously by adults, in the Shropshire,
in which the material had been collected and north Staffordshire, Cheshire, and Lancashire
and the performance area,on *A11 Saints Day (1 November) and *A11
previously performed,
milieu and class context were equally far Souls Day (2 November). The soulers visited
removed. It could be said that while the first houses, sang a song, and collected money,
revival was built on the pianoforte and the food, drink, or whatever was given to them.
concert platform, the second was built on the The songs vary somewhat from place to place,
but they all follow the same basic pattern:
guitar and the folk club; both equally foreign
to the traditional music being 'revived'. Other Soul, soul for a souling cake
tensions stenmied from the overt left-wing I pray you, missis, for a souling cake
agenda of the movement's founders when Apple or pear, plum or cherry
faced by later enthusiasts whose interests Anything good to make us merry
were less politically motivated. Some argued Up with your kettles and down with your pans
that all that mattered was that people were Give us an answer and we'll be gone
Little Jack,Jack sat on his gate
making their own music and enjoying them-
selves; others that the middle classes were
Crying for butter to butter his cake
One for St. Peter, two for St. Paul
playing at being working class and misap- Three for the man that made us all
propriating their culture as they had done
Commercial interests (Shropshire: Bye-Gones Mating to Wales &
throughout history.
the Border Country (1889-1890), 253)
moved in as record companies attempted to
create a more commercially viable 'folk-song' Begging at All Souls was already proverbial
sound for the mass market by softening, pret- in Shakespeare's time, as Speed comments in

tifying, and controlling both material and per- Two Gentlemen of Verona i)— 'to speak puling,
(ii.

former. Although the revival supported a like a beggar at Hallowmas'. The souRakes
number of professional singers and musicians, mentioned in the song are the remnant of pre-
and many more semi-professionals, there was Reformation beUefs concerning the need to
a widespread determinedly amateur ethos in help souls out of Purgatory by prayer and
the movement, against commercialism and alms-giving. John Mirk's Festtal (14th century)
impatient with questions of definition and provides an early reference: '. . .wherefore in
intellectualization. Nevertheless, several of olden time good men and women would this
the newly discovered traditional singers day buy bread and deal (give) it for the souls
became active performers in folk clubs and that they loved, hoping with each loaf to get a
festivals, and had LP records of their own. The soul out of purgatory' (p. 269). Denham, writ-
song revival thus contained more than its fair
ing of the north of England, implies that by
share of paradoxes. the mid-1 9th century the practice was on its
Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s there last legs:'A few thrifty, elderly housewives
was a burgeoning nationwide 'folk scene', practice the old custom of keeping a soul
still
with sufficient numerical strength to support mass-cake for good luck. .' (Denham Tracts,
.

hundreds of folk clubs, annual festivals, 1895: ii. 26).

national and local record labels, and a variety Two other visiting customs took place in
of magazines. Althpugh those heady days are roughly the same geographical area, dement-
gone, 'folk music' is still a definable minority- ing (23 November), and Catteming (25
interest pastime, and appeared, in the late November, St Catherine's Day), with the same
1990s, to be on the rise again. basic pattern of visiting, singing, and request-
The founders of the second revival have ing food, although Catteming was apparently
mostly passed on or retired, and even the sec- regarded as more of a female custom. Char-
ond wave is now giving way to a new gener- lotte Bume argued persuasively that these
ation, and further changes are inevitable. three were allaspects of the same custom,
Georgina Boyes, The Imagined Village: Culture, Ideology, and elementing was first mentioned by Plot (1686:
the English folk Revival (1993);Vic Gammon, 'Folk Song and Catteming in 1730 (quoted Wright
430),
Collecting in Sussex and Surrey 1843-1914', History
and Lones, 1940: iii. 168). Of the three cus-
Workshop Journal 10 (1980), 61-89; Niall Mackinnon, The
British Folk Scene; Musical Performance and Social Identity toms, Souling was the most widely reported.
(1993); Dave Marker, Fakesong: The Manufacture of British Wright and Lones, 1940; iii. 121-45, 167-86; Charlotte
ToOcsong; 1 700 to the Present Day (1985). Bume, Folk-Lore 25 (1914), 285-99.
 339 spitting

Spanish Sunday. A local name for *Palm One legend which seeks to explain our
Sunday, after a special drink made on the day regard for spiders tells that on the flight into
by children in the Midlands and parts of Egypt, when the Holy Family took shelter in a
Yorkshire until about the 1920s. They took cave, a spider quickly spun its web across the
broken pieces of Spanish hquorice, lemon, or mouth, and a dove laid an egg in the web. The

peppennint, mixed it with brown sugar and pursuing soldiers thus concluded that the cave
water from a local well (after solemnly walk- had been unused for some time and neglected
ing round it) and shook it vigorously (Hole, to search it. This tale has numerous inter-
1975: 36-7). Similar customs, with different national parallels and is also told of King
names, existed elsewhere. 'Sugar Cupping', David and of Mahomet. A different story
near Tideswell in Derbyshire, involved mix- relates howthe spider spun a beautiftil web
ing sugar and water from a spring at Drop- over Christ's manger in the stable (N&d 169
ping Tar (reported in 1831). Elsewhere in (1935), 460; 170 (1936) 50, 212, 266, 303;
Derbyshire, 'rinsing' meant
mixing well Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 317-18;
water with broken sweetmeats on Easter Henderson, 1879: 312).
Sunday and Monday. At Castleton and Brad- Spiders do not fare so well in the realm of
well, Easter Monday was called 'Shakking folk medicine, as the cure usually results in

Monday'. Children filled bottles vdth well their death one way or another. A long-
water and pieces of special coloured pepper- standing cure for ague or fever was to
mint (reported 1907) (Wright and Lones, imprison a spider, often in a nut-shell, which
1936:1.100-1,112). would be worn as an amulet— Pliny (Natural
History (ad 77), xxx) includes this cure, and
speaking, see ^talking. Enghsh writers since at least the 16th centiuy
have also recommended it. Similar methods
spells. The term generally used for
'spell' is were used for whooping cough. Other cures
magical procedures which cause harm, or involve eating the spider, for example as a
force people to do something against their cure for ague, taken with a spoonftil of jam
will— unlike *charms for healing, protection, (N&Q.151 (1926), 404). Cobwebs were beUeved
etc. There is far less available information to have medicinal value in themselves. Mixed
about spells than about *counterspells; wit- with bread and made into pills, they were
nesses at *witchcraft trials often alleged that another recommended remedy for the ague at
the suspect ill-wished some animal or child, least since the 17th century (N&Q, 10s:l (1904),
but when actual words are quoted they are not 205, 273-4, 317-18). There are many who still
formal spells but commonplace remarks such believe that cobwebs slapped on a wound stop
as 'You'll get no good of that pig'. the bleeding.

Opie andTatem, 1989: 368-72; Black, 1883: 58-61; Lean,

spiders. Considering how general is the dis- 1902: ii) (numerous references, the index in vol. iv is

like of spiders, they feature often and have incorrect, referring to vol. i instead of vol. ii).

mainly a positive reputation in English lore.

The belief that it is unlucky to kill a spider is spitting. Though real or pretended spitting
generally reported: '. If you are sweeping,
. . 'for luck'or to repel ^witchcraft and the *evil
and come on a web, don't destroy it till the eye is an ancient device, concern for hygiene
-
spider is safe, when you may sweep away the and good manners makes it rare now. How-
web; but if you kill the spider it will surely ever, there are many references to people spit-

bring poverty to your house', (Isle of Wight: ting on a *coin especially one
for luck,
N&a 12s:3 (1917), 396). It is still considered unexpectedly found or given, or won in a bet;
lucky ifa small spider alights on you, and spitting on one's hands before fighting, or
these are thus generally called 'money- when embarking on a tough piece of work,
spiders' or 'money-spinners'. To ensure good was done by schoolboys in the 1950s (Rad-
still

luck, some believe you must throw the ford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 318-20; Opie

spider over your left shoulder, or, more elab- and Tatem, 1989: 372-4). Children spit on see-
K orately, hold the thread by which it is hang- ing or doing anything reckoned unlucky (Opie
ing, pass it (and spider) three times round and Opie, 1959: 206-20). They lick a finger
; your head, and place the spider back where before making cross-my-heart or cut-my-
: you found it (N&Q,5s:12 (1879), 229, 254, 277. throat gestures when swearing to the truth of
295, 518). something, often with the formula:
 340
spoons
man; in Cheshire, for example,
My finger's wet. my finger's dry. particular
Cut my throat if I tell a lie. maids who had just been paid their yearly
wage would be afraid to go out carrying much
(Opie and Opie, 1959: 126-8)
money, since 'there are so many of these
Another widespread and ancient belief was
spring-heeled Jacks about'. There was a panic
that spittle had healing properties, especially in the Barnes area of south-west London in the
if used early in the day, before eating or drink-
1830s, culminating in February 1838 when a
sore eyes,
ing anything; it was appUed to girl was attacked by a man who then 'soared
warts, cuts and grazes, babies' rashes, birth- into the darkness'. She described him as
away
marks, and even deformities in babies (Rad- a demon with fiery eyes and breath, who
ford. Radford, and Hole. 1961: 319-20). clawed her with his talons, wearing a tight-
fitting white costume and some
kind of hel-
spoons. One of the household items (the met. Another girl, in Limehouse, said she had
others include *umbrella, glove, and walking been pounced on by a cloaked man who
tall
stick) that if accidentally dropped should only
spat blue flames at her. The matter was taken
be picked up by someone else, or bad luck, or
seriously, and mounted patrols searched for
an argument, or a visitor, wUl follow. the mysterious villain, but in vain.
A servant dropped a spoon, and as she made no Later, the name was appropriated for the

attempt to pick it up, her mistress told her to do it. fantastic romanticized hero of a 'Penny Dread-
Without speaking, thegirl left the kitchen, but soon ful' called Spring-Heel ]ack, the Terror of London,
returned with another maid who performed the
printed in the 1870s. This Jack was a seem-
The one who dropped the spoon explained her
ingly demonic being dressed in a skin-tight
duty.
subsequent procedure by saying that if she herself
glossy crimson suit, with bat's wings, a hon's
had picked it up she would have met with some dire
misfortune. (N&Q. lls:10 (1914), 146, 196)
mane, horns, talons, massive cloven hoofs,
and a sulphurous breath; he moved in gigantic
More generally known nowadays is the leaps, easilyjumping over rooftops or rivers,
belief thattwo teaspoons in one saucer, or one and was extremely strong. But he used his
basin, denote a forthcoming wedding, power for good, saA^ng the innocent from the
although occasionally it is held to mean twins wicked; he was in fact wholly human (a
on the way. In common with many other nobleman by birth, cheated of his inherit-
domestic superstitions, the earUest known ance), and his amazing leaps were due to com-
reference to this only occurs in the later 19th
pressed springs in the heels of his boots. Vari-
century (N&Q.4s:10 (1872), 495). ous boys' comics and other sensational writ-
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 374; Radford and Hole. 1961: 320. ings took up the name.
In 1907 contributors to Nd(l debated
spriggans. These are small, ugly, and mah- whether there had ever been a real Jack. One
cious *fairies found in wild places in Cornwall, had heard tell of 'a lively officer' at Aldershot
where they guard treasures. They steal babies in the 1870s who scared the sentries by vault-
and leave *changeUngs, and bUght crops (Bot- ing across a canal and pouncing on their
trell,1873: ii. 246). According to Robert Hunt, shoulders; another, of a prankster in rural
they are the ghosts of *giants, and therefore Warwickshire in the 1880s using spring-
able to swell from their usual small size into heeled shoes; another, of one in the Midlands
huge figures (Hunt, 1865: 90). Both Bottrell in the 1850s; another had been told by his
and Hunt tell local legends in which spriggans grandmother, as early as the 1840s, that the
are described as merrily playing music and 'monster' was really a Marquess of Waterford,
dancing, and attack men who spy on them. who used to jump out at people in lonely lanes
Anyone who digs for their *treasures will find (preferably women) and pin them to the
himself surrounded by hideous and terrifying ground {N&Ci 10s:7 (1907), 206, 256, 394-5.
figures till he flees in panic; if he is brave 496; 10s:8 (1907), 251, 455). Other local iden-
enough to return, he will find the pit he dug tifications have also been proposed, some see
has closed up again. ing him as a joker, others as a bandit.
The figure could also be exploited as a
Spring-Heel (or Spring-Heeled) Jack. This *bogey to confrol children. In Lewes (Sussex) in
was a general Victorian nickname for a street the 1890s some children were told that if they
*robber who reUed on speed in running to were not good he would leap up and peer in at
escape, and did not necessarily refer to one them through their bedroom windows; they
 standing stones

It involved one man dressing up as a

imagined him as a weirdly tall figure in white, sexuality.
whose springs rattled as he leapt. At the same stag, complete with horns, another dressed as
period in Worthing (Sussex), boys used this a huntsman, and others as dogs. The hunts-
name for a ghostly apparition reputedly man and dogs chased the stag through the
streets of the tovm or village, with much yelp-
haunting a ceri:ain alley (JS). Such fears seem
to have been fairiy widespread among chil- ing, hallooing, and other noise,
barking,
dren up to the First World War. Whether or finallycornering him on the doorstep of the
not Spring-Heel Jack was a folklore figure offender. A very realistic kill was enacted,
before appearing in popular print, he certainly including the bursting of a bladder ftiU of
rapidly became one. blood, carried by the stag. It was assumed that
the offending parties would leave the area
after such a public shaming. In one reported
spunky. A name for the *Will-o'-the-Wisp in
version the custom also included the noisy
some areas, for example Lowland Scotland
'band' of pots and kettles commonly found in
and Somerset, firom a dialect word for a spark.
In Somerset, spunkies were thought to be the rough music ceremonies, and there are also
reports that in former times it was the
souls of *unbaptized children doomed to wan-
offender himself who was chased and thrown
der the earth till Judgement Day (Tongue,
into the local pond or river. Most of the
1965: 93-5).
accounts refer to the period from the 1860s to
1880s, but the last known occurrences were
squirrel hunting. In a number of 18th- and just before the First World War. Sabine
19th<entury accounts, squirrel hunting is Baring-Gould's popular novel The Red Spider
mentioned as popular on a certain fixed day, hunt as a motif
(1887) includes the stag
in terms which make it sound more Uke a
Theo Brown, Folk-Lore 63 (1952), 104-9; Theo Brown, Folk-
calendar custom than an ordinary sport. In lore 90:1 (1979), 18-21.
only one or two places does it seem that the
actual kilUng or capturing of squirrels was the Stairs. There are four basic beliefs about
primary object of the exercise, and most stairs— crossing on, stumbUng up, stumbling
accounts stress the noise and merriment of down, and turning round on. The idea that it is
the party. In many instances the participants
unlucky to pass someone on the stairs is still
are only armed with noisemaking imple- current, being the ninth most often reported
ments, and claimed that the noise would belief in our * Superstitions Survey 1998/9, and
frighten the squirrels so much they would fall is reported from the mid-1 9th century onwards
from the trees. Each area seems to have had its from all over the country, simply given as 'bad
own special day for the sport, including: Der- luck'. Also reported in the 19th century is
first
byshire (first Sunday afl:er 1 November), Kent the idea that one should not change direction
and East Sussex (*St Andrew's Day, 30 Novem- on the stairs, but continue to top or bottom and
ber), Essex (*Good Friday and *Boxing Day), then turn. The two stumbUngs are older;
and Suffolk (*Christmas Day). It is possible that
stumbling upstairs means you (or the next per-
these are remnants of excursions to preserve son who walks up the stairs) will be married.
common wood-gathering, hunting, or other The first known mention is in the Connoisseur
forest access rights,and there seems also to for 20 February 1755, and the other references
have been a general notion that the game laws
through into the 20th century are unusually
were not in force over Christmas/Boxing Day. unanimous. Stumbling downstairs, however,
Gerald Lascelles, Thirty-Five Years in the New For- is bad luck and has been at least since Con-
est (1915), 242-5, gives details of proper
greve's time: 'But then 1 stumbled coming
squirrel-hunting techniques using weighted down stairs, and met a weasel; bad omens
sticks called 'squalls' or 'snoggs'. those' (Love for Love (1695), ii. i).

Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 136-7, 188, 261, 277. See also *stumbling.
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 375.
Stag hunt. A form of social disapproval cus-
tom noted only in Devon, but akin to the more Stamford (Lincolnshire), see bull-
widespread *rough music ceremony. In the running.
known instances, the hunt was prompted by
some form of sexual misconduct or deviancy standing stones. Erected in prehistoric
in the community, usually adultery or homo- times, whether solitary or in groups, these
 Stang, Riding the 342

Grinsell, 1976; S. P. Menefee, FoMore 85 (1974), 23-42;

frequently attract legends to explain either
FoMore 86 (1975). 146-66.
how they came to be there or what strange
powers they have: the same is true of natural
boulders and rock formations, if they are suf- Stang, Riding the see *riding the stang.
ficiently dramatic. A single stone is often said
to have been thrown or dropped by the *Devil, Stanton Drew (Somerset). The name of the
by *giants, or by some mighty hero such as standing stones near this village is recorded
*Robin Hood; occasionally, if the stone is near as 'The Wedding' in 1644, and more recently
a chiurch, it is said the Devil was trying to as 'The Fiddler and the Maids'. The account by
knock down, but missed. Alternatively, the
it Wilham Stukeley in 1723 explains: 'This noble
giant (or Devil) was carrying stones to build monument is ... a company who assisted a
something himself, but stupidly dropped one. nuptial solemnity, thus petrify'd. In an orch-
The very size of the stones inspired some ard near the church is a cove consisting of
storytellers to claim they were set up with three stones this they call the parson, the
. . .

astounding speed and ease. Rudston Stone bride, and bridegroom. Other circles are said

(Humberside), the tallest standing stone in to be the company dancing: anda separate
England, grew up in the churchyard in a single parcel of stones standing a little from the rest,
night,by its own power; a group of three large are call'd the fiddlers, or band of music' ('The
uprights and a capstone at Drewsteignton History of the Temples of the Ancient Celts',
(Devon) is called the Spinsters' Rock because unpublished MS).
three old maids set it up one morning before Other more recent writers explain that the
breakfast. party were dancing late on a Saturday, but at
Such stories are clearly frivolous, but there midnight their piper (or harper), a pious man,
are about a dozen others (*Long Meg and refiised to play on the Sunday, at which the
Stanton Drew are good examples) which tell bride angrily swore that 'she would find
how evil-doers were turned to stone for dan- someone to play if she went to hell to fetch
cing, playing sports, or working, instead of him'. The Devil then appeared, disguised as an
respecting the Sabbath, or for witchcraft. The old man, and played so wildly that the dancers
medieval name 'The Giants' Dance' for could not stop; by morning they had all turned
Stonehenge hints intriguingly that a tale of to stone. Similar legends are told of various
was once told there.
this type
groups of standing stones in Cornwall and
Another recurrent motif is that megaUths Devon. They are of medieval date, reinforced
cannot be counted correctly; both at *Stone- later by Protestant teaching.
henge and at *Stanton Drew anyone who gets S. p.Menefee, Folklore 85 (1974), 23-42; L V. Grinsell, The
the number right will meet misfortune, even Megdithic Monuments of Stanton Drew (1994).
death. Nor can they be shifted from their
place, or if they are, they return at once by Stars. Even apart from the complexities of
their own power— though do move vol-
they astrology, stars (which, in popular speech,
untarily, at certain times. L
V. Grinsell (1976: included planets, meteors, and *comets) were
58-60) listed 23 prehistoric megahths in Eng- thought to affect, or at least to indicate, the
land which walk, turn round, or go to a river character and destiny of individuals and
to drink, when they hear the clock strike nations. To doubt this seemed almost
twelve, or hear the church bells, or hear the immoral; in Shakespeare it is villains who
cock crow, and then return to their
places; deny the power of stars— Cassius {Julius Caesar,
there is a fiirther list in Janet and Colin Bord, I. and Edmund (King Lear, i. ii). Sirius, the
ii),
The Seaet Country (1978), 144-51, which was thought to have a particularly
Dog-Star,
includes natiural boulders such as the baleftil effect in July and August, when it rose
impres-
sive Cheesewring on Bodmin Moor (Cornwall). at day-break, causing heat-waves, fevers, and
The crucial phrase
is 'when
they hear', for no madness. To point at stars or try to count them
stone hears anything: several of the tales con- was reckoned unlucky, or even sinftil, in the
tain additional improbabilities, such as a cock 19th century; it was said people had been
crowing in the middle of Bodmin Moor, or a struck dead for doing so.
church clock striking thirteen. It is The Bible included among the signs of
possible
that the belief was once
seriously held, but it is Doomsday that 'the stars shall fall from
now merely the basis for a catch to tease heaven' (Matthew 24: 29), confirming a wide
children.
spread fear that shooting stars meant death or
343 Stonehenge

disaster. Comets were even more dreaded, and Stonehenge. Always this must have seemed
were interpreted in national and political a place of mystery. Whatever tales Britons and
terms; famously, one was seen in 1066, and Romans told about it are lost, but the name
another shortly before the Great Plague. itself is a clue to Anglo-Saxon storytelhng, for
it means 'The Stone Gallows'. Early antiquar-
ies tried toexplain the name as 'The Hanging
statues. It seems to be a widespread instinct
Stones', with reference to the way the Untels
for passers-by to touch statues, in greeting or
balance on the uprights, but this is grammat-
for luck, if they represent a popular personal- Old Enghsh adjec-
ically impossible, since in
as when Tory Members of Parliament rub
ity, tivesnormally come before, not after, their
the toe of Winston Churchill's statue at the
noun; 'stone' is an adjective here, quahfying
entrance to the Chamber, and Liberals that of
hengen, 'gibbet, gallows'. Clearly, the trilithons
Lloyd George. Animal images also attract this reminded the Saxons of the kind of gallows
affectionate gesture; the nose of a lion-faced
where several men at once are hanged from a
door-knocker at Durham Cathedral is well pol- crossbar held on two uprights; there must
ished by the constant touch of visitors, as is
have been some story explaining who hanged
the beak of a certain falcon in the Egyptian
whom there, and why—but it is forgotten.
Gallery of the British Museum. The other The earUest surviving *origin legend is the
recurrent piece of folklore about a statue is
Norman one given by * Geoffrey of Monmouth
the assertion that it gets down from its ped-
(c.1136): the stones were brought by sea from
estaland walks about, or sits down for a rest,
'Killaraus, a mountain in Ireland', on the
whenever it hears midnight strike; the lions at advice of *MerUn, to mark the graves of 460
the door of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cam-
British noblemen murdered by Saxons. In Ire-
bridge, either roar or drink from the gutter. land, the circle had been known as 'the Giants'
Such statements are a catch, for 'when it
Dance', having been brought from Africa by
hears* is an impossible condition (cf. *standing
giants; its stones had healing powers, as water
poured over them cured anyone who bathed
stones).
Tomb effigies are a striking feature in vil- in it. This may be one of the few occasions
lage churches, and a fruitful inspiration for
when a legend enshrines an ancient fact, since
storytelling, especially if damaged, or if the
Stonehenge does contain some stones which
accompan5dng heraldry is misunderstood. are not local, though they come from Wales,
One example among many is an Ehzabethan not Ireland. Even so, the story need not have
family memorial at Broad Hinton (Wiltshire) been passed on orally for millennia; the dif-
where several figures have their hands broken
ference between the local sarcen stones and
off; legend says this shows how the hands of
the intrusive 'bluestones' is obvious, so an
Sir Thomas Wroughton and his sons withered
observer at any period could have deduced
away after he wickedly hurled his wife's Bible that the latter were brought from elsewhere.
in the fire.
Geoffrey, however, is unaware of the distinc-
tion and makes Merhn responsible for the

Stir-Up Sunday. In the AngUcan Church, the transport and erection of the whole
Collect for the Sunday before Advent, or the monument.
twenty-fifth Sunday after Trinity,which The name 'Giant's Dance', which he does
occurs some time in late November, com- not explain, impUes an alternative legend
mences 'Stir up, we beseech thee, O Lord, the according to which the stones would them-
wills of thy faithftil people', and all over the selves have been the giants, turned to stone

country this has given the day the colloquial while dancing (cf * Stanton Drew), which
name of Stir-Up Sunday. Brand reports a verse matches the appearance of Stonehenge very
recited by children: 'Stir up, we beseech thee, neatly. The belief that the stones could heal
The pudding in the pot. And when we get persisted; Aubrey (in his unpubUshed Monu-
home, We'll eat it all hot'. The day was taken menta Britannica, c.1690) said local people
as a marker to advise the housewife to start dropped pieces or powder into their wells to
her Christmas preparations, and the grocer to drive toads away, while in the 18th century
see to the Christmas stock of his shop (Sussex water in which scrapings had been steeped
Archaeological Collections 33 (1883), 252-3). was used on wounds and sores.
Another folk beUef was that the stones
Brand, 1849: i. 414; Simpson, 1973: 141-2; 'Winter and
the London Poor', The Times (25 Nov. 1863), 12. could not be counted, since some magic power
stones 344

ensured that the total was never twice the five-ton boulder is a famous local marvel,
same, and that anyone who happened upon alleged to have grown from the size of a man's
the right total would be sure to die. Daniel two fists in the course of the 19th century; the
Defoe, in his A Tour through England and Wales Leper Stone outside Newport (Cambridge-
(1724). sayshe was told how 'a baker cany'd a shire) and the Hoston Stone at Humberstone
basket of bread, and laid a loaf upon every (Leicestershire) are said to be rising slowly
stone, and yet could never make out the same out of the ground; one tale about the huge
number twice'. In 1651. while fleeing to Rudston standing stone (Yorkshire) is that it
France. Charles II foimd himself forced to grew up in a single night (FLS News 26 (1997).
spend a day near Stonehenge, and passed the 13; 27 (1998). 8; 28 (1998), 6-7). Another theory
time by counting and recounting the stones, was that 'pudding-stone', a conglomerate of
to his own satisfaction. pebbles, was a 'mother-stone' or 'breeding-
The theory that *Druids built Stonehenge stone' from which a number of Uttle pebbles
was launched by Aubrey (c.l690) and elabor- would be bom and grow larger.
ated by Stukeley in 1740; at that time the Celts See also *turning the devil's stone,
were the only society known to have preceded hangman's stone.
the Romans in England, so the conjecture was
reasonable. Although most people are now storks. The whimsical idea that storks bring
aware that Stonehenge is far too old for this to babies, universally known in 20th-century
be Uterally true, it has become a sacred site of England, must have been adopted from north-
prime importance to most groups of Neo- em Europe, where storks nesting on roofs are
Pagans. including the various modem Druidic regarded as a sign of good luck and family
Orders dating from the late 18th and 19th cen- happiness.
turies, who have worshipped there at the
summer solstice (21 Jvme) throughout most of storms. The notion that great storms accom-
the 20th century. A larger Pagan gathering,
pany the passing of great persons was for-
the Stonehenge Festival, was held from 1974
merly widespread and generally accepted. The
until banned in 1985; access to the monument most widely mentioned instance was probably
for Midsummer worship was also forbidden in the death of *Cromwell in 1658, still remem-
1985. but was allowed again in 1998 for bered by Samuel Pepys in his Diary four years
selected groups.
later on 18 February 1662. while the following
L. 87 (1976), 3-20; Christopher Chip-
V. Grinsell, Folklore
year he was worried by another storm:
pindale, Paul Devereux, et ol.. Who Owns Stonehenge!
(1990). (19 Oct. 1663): Waked with a very highe winde, and
said tomy wife, 'I pray God I hear not of the death of

Stones. Large boulders and prehistoric stand- any great person, this wind is so high', fearing that
the Queene might be dead.
ing stones often attracted folklore; there were
also widespread beliefs about the protective It could apparentiy be the great evil of the

powers of small *holed stones, *hagstones. deceased or their great fame which caused the
snakestones, *thunderstones, and geodes disturbance (Denham Traas, 1895: ii. 29-30). On
From antiquity through
called *eaglestones. the other side of the coin, several references in
the Middle Ages and up to the 17th century, Opie and Tatem (1989: 432-3) indicate that
much was written on the medicinal and good people's deeds are often accompanied by
magical powers of *precious stones, though good weather.
naturally only the wealthy could make use of
them. storytelling. Until recentiy, folktales were
The only beUef concerning ordinary stones studied for their content only; scholars did not
in general was that they grew in the soil and think to enquire in what circumstances they
then rose to the surface. This was widely held, would normally be told, by whom, to whom,
as correspondents to N&Cl showed on several and why. They seemed hardly aware of story-
occasions in the 19th century; many country- telling as an art form or a social activity. Part-
men insisted it was no use having stones ly, this was because England had no formal
picked off one's fields, because the land pro- gatherings for story and song hke those of Ire-
duced them, and there would soon be as many land and Scotland, and only one group of pro-
as ever. This was still being said in Staf- fessional storytellers, the wandering Cornish
fordshire in the 1960s. At Blaxhall (Suffolk) a 'droll-tellers' of the 19th
early century.
345 Strutt, Joseph

described by Robert Hunt and William Bot- has led to a better awareness of storytelling as
trell. 'Stories were told as the occasion arose, artistic performance, and the interaction of
as a natural element of daily life, rather than teller and audience. Gillian Bennett has ana-
recited to an audience' (PhiUp, 1992: p. xiv); lysed rhetorical strategies and structures used
clues to the process can be gathered from by some individuals when telling personal
biographies, memoirs, and novels as well as experiences and contemporary legends
brief comments by some folklorists. (Bennett, 1989). Michael Wilson has collected
One major channel of transmission was some 500 stories from young teenagers and
from nannies and nursemaids to the middle- analysed their performative techniques, aimed
class children they looked after. Dickens as a at hortific or humorous effects (Wilson, 1997).
child was both and fascinated by
horrified The art of public storytelUng is currently
* *
grisly tales of robbers and murderers told by enjoying a professional revival, with clubs and
his nurse, and the Bronte children by tales of festivals flourishing; those taking part use
the 'wild doings' in old famihes of the district; material from many sources worldwide.
many folklore collectors cite old servants as See also *contemporary legends, *memor-
their informants. The stories were sometimes ATES.
used for moral instruction; a correspondent in See the introduction and commentaries in Philip, 1992;
N&Cl describes two tomb-effigies in Wick- Doris E. Marrant, Folklore 79 (1968), 202-16; Bennett,
1989a; 1989b; Wilson, 1997.
hampton Church (Norfolk) with oval stones in
their hands, and recalls:
Straw bears. A *Plough Monday *visiting cus-
When a child, having had an infantile quarrel with tom, confined to the Huntingdonshire and
my brother, we were taken by our nurse to see these
and were informed that they were two
Cambridgeshire area, in which a boy or man
figures,
was dressed in straw and led from house to
brothers named Hampton who had quarrelled, and
and torn each other's hearts out. After this
house acting like a performing bear. 'It was
fought,
Kilkenny cat proceeding. Divine vengeance turned great fun frightening servant girls and on one
their bodies to stone, and, with their hearts in their occasion a girl strange to the district fainted'
hands, they were placed in the church as a monu- (Tebbutt, 1952: 19). The custom was success-
ment to their wickedness. (N&Q.ls:12 (1855), 486-7) fully revived in Whittlesey in 1980, and has
been performed ever since.
There are widespread but scrappy refer-
ences to adults teUing one another stories George Frampton, Whittlesey Straw Bear (1989); FoDc-Lore
20 (1909), 202-3; Tebbutt, 1952: 19.
informally, as entertainment in pubs, at
* *
Christmas, at wakes, as after-dinner anec-
dotes, in prisons and workhouses; humorous Strutt, Joseph (1749-1802). Apprenticed to
an engraver, he later studied at the Royal
tales,*ghost stories, and *local legends are the
Academy. He became interested in antiquar-
types most often mentioned. Only one social
ian research and used his artistic skills to
group, the *Gypsies, had a repertoire of oral
embellish numerous books on the manners
fairytales; thesethey told among themselves,
and customs of past ages. His most successful
not as performances for outsiders. WiUiam
Hovidtt in The Rural Life of England (1837)
book, published right at the end of his Ufe,
was Glig-Gamena Angel-Deod, or The Sports and
describes knitting parties then common in the
Pastimes of the People of England (1801), sub-
Yorkshire and Lancashire dales; men, women,
and children would gather in a neighbour's sequently shortened to The Sports and Pastimes
. . . which went through numerous editions,
house, after the day's work was over, for a
inspired other antiquary-folklorists such as
knitting session, during which:
John *Brand and Henry *Ellis, and is stiU one of
all the old stories and traditions of the dale come up, the basic source-books for folklorists and
and they often get so excited that they say, 'Neigh- social historians. It brought to light a wealth
bours, we'll not part tonight', that is, till after twelve of material from manuscripts, including a
o'clock At Garsdale, the old men sit in companies
number of invaluable illustrations of games
round the fire, and because they get so intent on
culled from a range of rare sources. At the
knitting and teUing stories, they pin cloths on their
time of his death, he was writing a work of
shins to prevent themselves ft'om getting burnt.
fiction, which was completed by Walter Scott

Unfortunately, Howitt was interested in knit- and published as Queenhoo Hall in 1808 and
ting, not folktales, and we learn no more. which, although not successful in itself, was a
Recent interest in * contemporary legends major influence on Scott's developing ideas on
stumbling 346

the historical novel. Dorson refers to Strutt. 104, 212-13; 9s:6 (1900), 134; 181 (1941), 344; 182 (1942),
23; Forbes, 1971: 293-316; 'Queer West-Country
and not without justification, as the 'Father of
Remedies of To-Day', CasselVs Saturday Journal (17 May
English Antiquaries'. 1893).
Dorson, 1968: 30-1; DNB.

Sugar-and-Water Day, sugar-cupping. Two

Stumbling. The idea that it is a bad omen to of the names for a widespread children's cus-
stumble is one of the few superstitions which tom which entailed visiting a particular well
have sufficient documentary record to indi- or spring and mixing the water with sugar or
cate a clear lineage in EngUsh folk belief back
sweets to make a special drink, on a particular
to medieval times and beyond, with a rela-
day of the year. The day, the name, and the
tively unchanged meaning. The Ust of cita- other details vary from place to place. See
tions in England starts in 1180 with Nigel De
ascension day, *easter, *elecampane,
Longchamps, Mirror for Fools, and includes spanish sunday.
Spenser, Shepheardes Calendar (1579), *Scot
(1584), Shakespeare, Webster, *Aubrey, and
suicide. There is some confusion about the
many more right through to the 20th century.
burial of suicides, reflecting the fact that
Stumbling on the way out means your journey
or mission will go badly, stimibling on the way legally they were criminals if sane, but not if
*the balance of mind was disturbed'. Up to
in (e.g. at the threshold) means that danger or
ill luck lurks inside. Opie and Tatem provide
1823, those found guilty of the crime were
all the main references, and two much earUer given a degrading burial in the roadway, pos-
ones: Plutarch (c.llO ad) and Saint Augustine sibly at a *crossroads, and/or staked; after that

of Hippo (c.396 AD). Particularly ill-omened, date, and at all periods for the insane, it was
leftto the clergy to decide whether church-
however, is to stumble in a graveyard (Shake-
speare, Romeo and Juliet (1592), v. iii).
yard burial could be allowed or not. One solu-
See also *stairs. tionwas to lay the suicide on the * north side
(MacDonald and Murphy, 1990).
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 380-1.
See *BURIAL, IRREGULAR, *CROSSROADS,
*NORTH.
Sturbridge Fair. Generally agreed to have
been the greatest of all the fairs in England,
Sturbridge was founded by charter c.1211 and sun. One of the chief *origin theories pro-
continued into the 19th century. The last day posed by 19th-century scholars, especially
of the fair was devoted to a horse fair, at which Max MiiUer, was that numerous seasonal cus-
*
an interesting initiation ceremony took place, toms, from *bonfires to cheese rolling, ori-

at the Robin Hood Inn. A detailed account ginally celebrated, encouraged, or mimicked
appears in Hone's Year Book (1832). written by the solar cycle. Arguments for the solar inter-
someone who underwent the ceremony about pretation of fire festivals can be found in
1762. *Frazer's Golden Bough, though on balance he

Hone, 1827: 1299-1307; Hone, 1832: 769-74; William

thinks it UkeUer that they were designed to
Addison, En^ish Fairs and Markets (1953), 42-50; Daniel ward off evil.
Defoe, A Tour Through the Whole of Great Britain (1724-6). Actual English folk behefs concerning the
sun are few. It was said to be lucky to dance at

Styes. Two traditional cures for a stye which dawn on * Easter Day, when people would
do not have an obvious scientific basis are to cUmb hills in the hope of seeing this sight, or
rub the eye with a *gold ring or a *cat's tail,
try to catch its reflection in pails of water.
although in many cases there are further
Occasionally, children were told it was
stipulations, as some authorities insist on nine wicked to point at the sun, and you could be
strokes of the tail, a black cat, a full moon, and struck dead for doing so. More commonly,
so on. The ring cure at least is of some women maintained that direct sunlight on
antiquity, as shown by lines in Beaumont and the hearth would 'put the fire out', and would
Fletcher's play The Mad Lover (c.l622, v. iv): 'I draw curtains or place screens to prevent this;
have a sty here, Chilax; I have no gold to cure this developed from a medieval
may have
it, not a penny'. Forbes also quotes a Middle idea that if a house was on fire, sunshine
EngUsh verbal *charm to accompany the could extinguish the blaze (Opie and Tatem,
application of a lotion. 1989: 381).
Black, 1883: 151; N&Q_ ls:2 (1850), 37; 9s:5 (1900), See *RIGHTWARD MOVEMENT.
347 superstitions

Sunday, see *days of the week, sabbath- influenced, but not completely controlled, (c)

breaking. Do not transgress category boundaries, for

example wild flowers or open umbrellas (out-
sunwise, see *rightward movement. door items) should not be indoors, (d) To seem
too confident about the future is 'tempting
superstitions. Some recent folklorists shun fate' and attracts retribution— 'Don't count

the term 'superstition' as being too pejorative, your chickens before they hatch', (e) Some days
preferring the less value-laden 'belief. This, or times are lucky or (more usually) unluclQ^;
however, is too broad a term and, for con- they vary in frequency (*midnight, *Friday,
venience, we have kept the older word, Friday the thirteenth, *Holy Innocents Day),
emboldened by the fact that it is universally and can be individual— 'Tuesday is always my
understood, and that few 'believers* find its lucky day', (f) Something that begins well (or
normal use offensive. It only becomes so when badly) will probably continue that way. (g) As
used by adherents of one religion, or by athe- in *magic, things once physically linked retain
to viUfy the religious beliefs and practices
ists, a link even when separated (birds using your
of others— issues far outside the scope of this hair in their nests will give you a headache), (h)
work. Evil forces exist and are actively working to

Dictionary definitions of the word regularly harm you; these may be impersonal, or con-
invoke the ideas of fear, irrationality, ignor- centrated in humans (witches, ill-wishers) or
ance, groundless belief; folklorists can broadly other beings (devils, fairies), (i) Certain things,
accept this, while giving added emphasis to words, or actions have powerftiUy negative
the communal and traditional nature of the effects, and must be avoided or counteracted

genre. Its Latin etymology is somewhat (taboo). 0) Anything sudden, unexpected, or

obscure; numerous writers interpret its root unusual can be seen as an omen, usually of
('standing over') as implying survival from misfortune. However, many superstitions do
ancient times, but the OED declares this not fit these categories, and individuals can
unlikely. Victorian evolutionary *survivahsts invent their own (e.g. 'Must get back to bed
considered them the tattered remnants of before the toilet stops flushing').
archaic religious and scientific beliefs, made Many have wondered why superstition per-
obsolete by intellectual progress, though despite improvements in religion, logic,
sists

there is little real evidence for this. Neverthe- and science. For Gilbert White in 1776, it is
less it is asserted by popular
commonly because of habits formed when young and
authors and the general public that supersti- imbibed with our mother's milk (White, 1789:
tions date back for thousands of years, and are letter xxviii). For Melton (1620) and Igglesden
direct survivals of attempts by primitive (c.1932), it is because astrologers, fortune-
humans to explain and control their environ- tellers, and local cunning men/women delib-
ment. The from a
fallacy, as so often, arises erately foster credulity for profit; for Puritans
failure to distinguish form from content. Even of the 16th century onwards, it was due to
if it be agreed that the early human world- Roman CathoUc priests. Some maintain that
view was 'superstitious' in modem terms (a rationalism must not be allowed to remove all
point still debatable), it does not follow that the romance and mystery of life, and enjoy the
particular items of the modem repertoire date idea of 'more things in heaven and earth . . .'.

from that time. By analogy: we can be pretty Others point to the distress
superstition
sure early humans liked singing, but we know brings, for example the lifelong guilt felt by a
the song 'White Christmas' is not prehistoric. woman who believed she had caused her
Yet 'explanations' based on this assumption brother's death at sea by washing clothes on
are now so firmly fixed in the public mind as New Year's Day (Gill,1993: 105-6; cf Balleine,
to become traditional themselves (e.g. that 1939). At a general level, it is clear that the
touching wood dates from when people hold of superstition on people's minds has
believed in tree spirits). weakened over the centuries, and that it is

Even without adequate one can

definition, increasingly consigned to trivial areas of
identify some of the patterns, formulas, and everyday life.

basic principles controlling modem

supersti- In autumn
1998, the present authors sent
tions, (a) They aim to 'accentuate the positive/ out a questionnaire asking respondents to
ehminate the negative': do this for good luck, write down any superstitions they knew, in
avoid that to prevent bad luck, (b) Luck can be order to assess the current repertoire; we
Surrey Puma 348

made clear that we were not asking what they These dates suggest a fairly rapid turnover
believed, only what they knew of. Ten spaces in superstitions. Only one (spilling salt) can be
were provided, and respondents were told dated to the 16th century, via a vague allusion
they could add more items if they wished. Our to those 'that make great divinations upon the
hypothesis was that most Enghsh people now- spilling of salt' (Scot, 1584: book 11, chapter

adays know only a relatively small number of 15). Another (black cat) can be traced to the
superstitions, which will tend to be the same
17th century, four to the 18th, four to the
ones. The first 215 rephes received showed this 19th; one (Friday the thirteenth) to the 20th
was indeed the case; few of the items reported only. It is also instructive to compare this Ust

were uncommon, and many appeared time v^th that given by John * Melton in Astrologaster
and again. It seems unlikely that further (1620), reprinted in FLS News 32 (2000), 9-10.
results will change the basic pattern. The fol- Many of his items are still knov^m, but do not
lowing summary gives the number of times appear among our Top Ten (e.g. cat washing
the Top Ten' items were mentioned, the per- face,cheek/ear burning); conversely, only one
centage (of 215) this represents, and the date of of pur Top Ten (black cat) was reported by him.
the first known reference to the behef in Brit- Opie and Tatem, 1989; Igglesden, c.1932.
ain, taken from Opie and Tatem.

Surrey Puma, see *alien big cats.

1. 178 83% Unlucky to walk under a
ladder (1787) Survey of English Dialects, see *english
2. 144 67% Lucky/Unlucky to meet DIALECT SURVEY.
black cat (1620)
(More respondents said Survey of English Folklore. Founded in
'lucky' than 'unlucky'; 1955 as a new
research project directed by
commented
several 'don't Professor A. H. Smith, Head of the English
know which') Department at University College London, and
3. 117 54% Unlucky to break a mirror Honorary Director of the English Place Name
(1777) Survey, and fiinded by donations from Mrs
(Most specified 'seven Lake Bamett, stalwart of the * Folklore Society.
years' bad luck') The Survey's objective was 'To conduct a sur-
4. 102 47% Unlucky to see one mag- vey of English folklore', on a systematic basis,
pie, lucky to see two, etc. 'and to record it in an archive of folklore
(c.1780) material'. The Survey was the first of several
5. 94 44% Unlucky to spill salt attempts in post-war England to provide
(1584?) folklore studies v^th a presence in a higher
(Most mentioned throw- academicinstitution, although no teaching
ing a pinch over the programme was planned. However, during its
shoulder to counteract existence, and despite the shared institutional
bad luck) background at University College, and the
6. 85 39% Unlucky to open umbrella shared key figure of Mrs Lake Bamett, rela-
indoors (1883) tions between the Survey and the Folklore
7. 78 36% Thirteen unlucky/Friday Society were strained. In her Presidential
the thirteenth unluclqr Address for 1958 (Folklore 69 (1958), 73-92)
(1711/1913) Sona Rosa Burstein took a clear side-swipe at
(These related items were the Survey, which was answered by Dodgson
given in about equal in his Mmeums Journal piece later in the year,
numbers; some gave and the points at issue were primarily the fate
both) of the considerable sums of money involved,
8. 76 35% Unlucky to put shoes on and the slowness in seeing results. In retro-
table (1869) spect, it is clear that the University had no last-
(Most specified new ing commitment to the project and allowed it
shoes) to wither as the individuals involved moved
9. 45 21% Unlucky to pass someone on to other interests.
By the early 1960s, the
on the stairs (1865) Survey had faded away, and no ftirther work
10. 34 16% Lucky to touch wood was done. It must now be seen as one of the
(1877) great missed opportunities of post-war folk-
349 Swaffham Pedlar

lore studies in England. The Survey's collected with the similar customs and manners which exist
material can be accessed via the Folklore among the uncivilised and still retain their meaning.
It is not necessary for comparison of this sort that
Society.
the uncivilised and the civilised race should be of the
For other academic folklore programmes,
same stock, nor need we prove that they were ever in
AND FOLKLIFE STUD-
see *INSTITUTE OF DIALECT
contact with each other. Similar conditions of mind
IES, *NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ENGLISH CULTURAL
produce similar practices, apart from identity of race
TRADITION. or borrowing of ideas and manners. {Custom and
John McNeal Dodgson, Museums Journal 58:2 (May 1958), Magic (new edn., 1904), 21-2)
26-33.
As the 20th century progressed, the theory
survivals theory. One of the big ideas, pro- was gradually rejected by anthropologists and
posed by *Tylor and others, which helped other social scientists, although it held its
19th-century folklorists aspire to scientific ground for a considerable time in Folklore
respectability, although it has long been wide- Studies, and in watered-dovm form became
ly discredited. Its ultimate origin lies in accepted by popular writers as the basis of
attempts to apply the principles and insights almost all folklore commentary. It promotes
of evolution to human cultures and institu- the extremely widespread assumption that all

tions, and is based on the assertion that cul- our superstitions and customs are thousands
tures develop in a series of identifiable stages, of years old, and, as its basis is purely con-
from savage to civilized. As each culture jectural, it can be used to support any view
evolves, it is argued, certain aspects hve on which is fashionable at the time, whether sun
relativelyunchanged, gradually losing their or moon worship, fertility, phallic symbols,
original purpose and meaning, and thus female deities, or Freudian or Jungian psych-
become folklore in the care of the uneducated, ology.
conservative, and uncreative 'common
people'. Thus a serious reMgious behef may Swaffham Pedlar. When the parish church
become a superstition, a ritual become a cal-
of Swaffham (Norfolk) was rebuilt in the
endar custom, or a burial custom become a
1460s, one benefactor contributing to the
children's game. Given this knowledge, a folk-
costs was its churchwarden, a rich local mer-
lorist can examine recent or modem folklore
chant called John Chapman. His family pew
and use it to reconstruct the mind and prac- showed carvings of a pedlar Vidth his pack, and
tices of previous cultural stages, and thus elu-
a man and woman in a shop; these figures,
cidate both the past and the present. Indeed,
together with memories of John Chapman's
for many of the early writers such as George
wealth, inspired the following story, recorded
Laurence *Gomme and J. G. *Frazer, this eluci- first in 1653 and again in 1699:
dation was the main work of the folklorist. A pedlar living in Swaffham dreamed three
The researcher's task was considerably sim- times that if he went to London Bridge he
plified by the idea that the stages of cultural would hear very joyful news. So he travelled to
evolution were held to be relatively predict-
London and waited on the Bridge for three
able the world over, although they are not
days, and nothing happened, till on the third
synchronous. Thus, so-called primitive soci- day, a shopkeeper who had noticed him hang-
eties of the recent past such as Austrahan
ing about asked him what he was doing. So he
Aborigines or North American Indians can be told his story, and the Londoner laughed at
used as evidence for the study of, say, Celtic him for being such a fool as to beUeve in
Britons.
dreams. you, country fellow,' said he, 'I
'I'll tell
At crudest, survival theory takes a par-
its
dreamed only last night that I was at Swaff-
ticularly cavalier attitude to both history and ham, a place I don't know, and thought I'd
geography. Argument proceeds by pihng up find a vast treasure under an oak tree, in an
supposedly relevant examples from various orchard, behind a pedlar's house. But I'm not
cultures and periods until the sheer weight of
such a fool as to make a long journey because
numbers overwhelms the critical faculties of of asilly dream. Be hke me, good fellow— go
the reader. Indeed, writers such as Andrew
home, and see to your business.' So the pedlar
*Lang make a virtue of this 'comparative' went straight home, dug, and found the treas-
method: ure. In gratitude to God, he paid for the church
Our method, then, compare the seemingly
is to to be repaired, and had a statue of himself as
meaningless customs or manners of civilised races pedlar put up there.
swallows 350

The plot of this tale is international, and 1751 where the leader of a mob was hanged
variants were told of Lealholme Hall (York- for drowning a woman; public S5mipathy was
shire), and also in Somerset, Lancashire,
and on his side, and his wife and daughter assured
Cornwall (Westwood, 1985: 161-4). him he was dying in a good cause (Hone, 1827:
i. 1045-8; Sharpe, 1996: 1-5). Even in the 19th

swallows. To have swallows nesting on or century there are long reports in The Times of
near one's house is a sign of good luck. To des- 24 September 1863 and 10 March 1864 of a
troy or rob the nests would bring misfortune; prosecution arising from the death by pneu-
cows would give bloody *milk, or someone monia of a *deaf-and-dumb old * fortune-teller
would break a leg, or in one case a family was at SibleHedingham (Essex), who was repeat-
ruined when the bank they owned collapsed edly ducked in a river after a woman claimed
(Henderson, 1866: 91). he bewitched her (summarized in FLS News 25
(1997), 15-16; 26 (1997), 4-5).
sweeping. A handful of beliefs centre on the
act of sweeping, in addition to those con- sword dance. Those found in England are
nected with the *broom itself. Sweeping dust called 'linked' or 'hilt and point' dances to dis-
out of the house is ill-advised: 'A Lincolnshire tinguish them from other types of dance using
maidservant explained to me some years ago real swords. In the hnked sword dance, parti-
that it was v^nrong "to sweep out at the door, cipants hold the handle of their ovm 'sword'
'

for fear of sweeping luck away" (N&Ci 9s:6 in one hand, and the point of their neigh-
(1900), 393). On a different tack: 'In Suffolk, bour's sword in the other, thus making a
the people say that if after sweeping a room linked circle. The 'swords' are either long thin
the broom is accidentally left up in a comer, lathes of wood or strips of flexible metal with

strangers will visit the house in the coiurse of a swivelling wooden handle at each end. The
that day' (Dyer, 1881: 126). type of sword also distinguishes the two basic
types of dance, respectively: Longsword and

sweeps, see *chimney-sweeps. Rapper. Longsword is danced with a basic

walking step,while Rapper dancers execute a
special step which beats a staccato rhythm on
swifts. Because of their perpetual rapid flight
the floor, and as the Rappers are shorter than
and shrill cries, swifts were regarded as evil
the wooden swords their dance is much
birds,demonic counterparts to the benevolent and apparently faster.
tighter
martin and swallow; in some counties they
Examples of hnked sword dances have been
were called 'Devil birds' or 'screech devils'. In
widely documented over most of Europe since
Leicestershire, they were identified with the
the Middle Ages, v^th the earliest being found
Seven Whistlers (Swainson, 1885: 95). in the Low Countries in the late 14th century.
Excellent pictorial evidence exists in the form
'swimming' ordeal. One way of testing of paintings such as The Fair of St George's Day
people suspected of *witchcraft was to throw by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c.l560) (repro-
them into water with their hands tied to their duced in Corrsin, 1997: plate 1). Evidence from
feet.Those who sank were thought innocent, England, however, is extremely rare from
and hauled back to land; to float proved guilt, before the 18th century, and the earliest ref-
because water, the holy element of baptism, erences are ambiguous. In John Marston's play
would reject a witch. This form of ordeal The Malcontent (1604), a character claims he can
originated on the Continent; from the early 'doe the sword dance with any morris-dauncer
17th century it was widely but unofficially in Christendom', and the Lancashire gentle-
used in England, though it had no legal stand- man William Blundell recorded a
'Prologue to
ing and most judges disapproved of it (Davies, a sword dance, spoken at Lathom upon Ash
1999a: 86-100). Wednesday, 1638'. His grandson, Nicholas
After 1736, when witchcraft was
no longer a Blundell, recorded in his diary for July 1712
crime, 'swimming' persisted as a form of the preparations for events to celebrate the
lynching, in which the old ordeal was con- completion of a marl-pit on his farm, includ-
fused with ducking as punishment, often to ing garlands, maypole, and sword dance.
the point where life was endangered. Over a Blundell records making the costumes and
dozen cases are recorded from the 18th cen- teaching the dance to the men (all quoted in
tury, including one at Tring (Hertfordshire) in Corrsin, 1997: 93-4). These do not add up to
351 sword dance

strong evidence for an indigenous custom, some tantalizing references indicate possible
and more convincing references do not start dances in Cumberland. In these counties, the
appearing until much later in the 18th cen- dancers are mentioned frequently by 19th-
tury. Commenting on the paucity of evidence century folklorists and other writers as an
before that time, Corrsin writes: 'It is as essential part of *Christmas or *New Year cele-
*
though sword dancing suddenly blossomed in brations, visiting homes and farms and per-
the second half of the 18th century without forming in town and village streets. The 20th
antecedents' (p. 183). The fact that this could century found the traditions in definite
also be said of the *mumming play must at decUne. Many teams had ceased to ftinction
present be put down to coincidence, but may completely, and others performed intermit-
prove more significant after ftirther research. tently. It is certainly true that the interest
Sword dance scholarship on the Continent engendered by the work of Sharp and others
was marred by romanticism and extreme enthused by his example resulted in the sur-
nationaUsm, and although English conunen- vival or revival of a number of teams which
tators avoided the excesses of the latter they would have otherwise simply faded away.
had no qualms about the former. Until quite There are strong connections between the
recently, almost Mdthout exception, writers sword dancers and two other * calendar
have assumed that the dances are a *survival customs— *plough stots and *mumming plays.
of an ancient custom, concerned with fertility, In some areas the sword dancers accom-
midwinter sun worship, ritual death and res- panied, or were part of, the groups of farm-
urrection, and so on. Even on the Continent workers who carried round a plough at
there reason to believe that the sword
is little Christmas or * Plough Monday, collecting
dance is any older than the Middle Ages, and money to be used for a feast or dance, or sim-
in England, as has been seen, there is no evi- ply for drink for themselves. Terminology is
dence that it is much more than 200 years old. also confusing— the sword dancers could be
Attempts to prove a connection between the called morris dancers, plough stots, mum-
dances and early trade guilds have also proved mers, and so on. Some sword dance traditions
unconvincing. The first systematic collection included a dramatic element in their per-
of English sword dances was made by Cecil formance, and these are normally counted as
*
Sharp, whose books remain a key source of one of the three distinct tjqies of *mumming
information on the movements and music of play, in which a character is killed by having
the dances. Sharp was, however, primarily the swords placed around his neck. Even
interested in the dances as performance and where there is no developed play, sword
his publications are thus essential for practi- dance teams often included extra characters,
tioners but his speculations on history and such as a Fool and Female (a man dressed as a
development are now outmoded. Earlier woman) called Bessy or Besty, and many also
material was often vague and unsystematic, had 'calling-on songs' in which the dancers
but it is clear that the tradition was only active were introduced
in the north of England, in Yorkshire, North- Corrsin, 1997; Sharp, 1911-13; Helm, 1981; E. C. Cawte,
umberland, and County Durham, although EMJ4:2 (1982), 79-116.
taboos. Rules explicitly forbidding people to Unk Uttlefingers and make a wish. A complex
do some specific thing, oiEten petty in itself, on ceremony is reported from a 13-year-old girl
pain of serious ill luck, or failure in some from Bath, in 1935:
enterprise (as opposed to a mere belief that an When two people say the same thing at the same
action is unlucky). Current EngUsh examples moment without saying anything further, they hook
are the bans on saying 'pig', 'rat', or 'rabbit' at right-hand little fingers, say the name of a poet (not
sea, whistling at seaor in the *theatre, and Shakespeare or Bums (which spears or bums your
mentioning Macbeth. Until recently, there wish) silently make a wish, and then one says, 'I

were also taboos on doing seasonal things out wish, Iwish your wish come true', and the other
replies, 'I wish, I wish the same to you". But
if you
of season, for example putting up *Christmas
both said the same poet that invalidated the whole
decorations before Christmas Eve or eating
thing. (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 368)
festive foods on the wrong dates, but com-
mercial pressures have eroded many of these. Several other isolated beUefs about talking
Most people, however, still avoid singing have been recorded. According to Leather
carols except during a few weeks either side of (1912: 86) if you accidentally speak in rhyme
Christmas. you can expect a present before the end of the
A taboo on speaking often features in tales month. Igglesden (c.l932: 229) reports that it
about attempts to recover lost *bells and bur- was unlucky to talk when passing under a
ied *treasures, in *divination, and in magical railway bridge. To get your words in the wrong
procedures such as catching *femseed, all of order means a stranger on the way (Lean,
which must be performed in silence. 1903: ii. 318). In modem times it is common to
say that talking to yourself is 'the first sign of
tag, see *tig. madness', but according to N&(i it means you
will die a violent death (quoted Lean, 1903: ii.
talking. A sudden lull in the conversation is 305).
not random, some believe, but usually occurs See also *backwards, *dumb cake, *love
attwenty minutes past or to the hour, and is DIVINATION.
occasioned by angels passing by. Opie and
Opie and Tatem. 1989: 95, 367-8; Lean, 1903: ii. 305.
Tatem give several references to this idea, 318-20.

starting with one from Wales in 1909. They

also show that the Romans had a behef about tall Stories. These are anecdotes about aston-
sudden quoting Phny's Natural History
silences, ishing exploits and adventures, for example in
(ad 77). Some famiUes or communities had Ut- hunting, or about animals or objects of
tle rituals to cover sudden silences, such as astounding size— such as a sailing ship with
one reported from Durham: If silence sud- masts so tall that any lad sent up as a mid-

denly fell, someone would break it by sa5dng shipman will have grey in his beard by the
'silence in the pork shop', which had an time he comes back down. Tall stories are usu-
implied response— 'and let the old sow speak' ally told by men; the teller knows them to be
(FLS News 12 (1991). 7). It is also thought to be inventions, but presents them as truth, and
significant if two people say the same thing at sometimes as an alleged personal experience
the same time, or if one just anticipates the or boast, to test the creduUty of the hearers as
other. In the latter case the one who spoke will the realistic opening gradually leads to an
marry before the other (current since at least impossible (though not supernatural) climax.
1738), whereas simultaneous speakers should A fine example of the genre is a story told,
353 Teddy Rowe's Band

according to the Surrey Gazette of 7 November Advice is hereby given, that there is lately arrived in

1865, by 'a boy who was begging in the streets this City, the Famous Mrs. Cherry, the only Gentle-
of Plymouth the other day': woman truly Learned in that Occult Science of Toss-
ing of Coffee Grounds; who has ... for some time
He said he was a cabin boy on board an American past, practiced, to the General Satisfaction of her
liner,and for some of his mischievous pranks was Female Visitants . . .
(DiAlin Weekly Journal (11 June
headed up in a water cask, with only the bung-hole 1726), 4, quoted in Opie and Tatem, 1989).
to breathe through. On
the following night a squall
Several other 18th century vmters mention
came up, and the ship went down with all on board,
the custom, in terms of familiarity, and as a
except himself, the cask containing him having
on a sudden lurch of the ves-
rolled over into the sea predominantly female pastime: 'truelove-
sel. Fortunately, kept bung up, and after thirty
it knots lurked in the bottom of the teacup', as
hours floating he was cast on the coast, where after Oliver Goldsmith commented (Vkar of Wake-
he had made desperate eforts to release himself he Tea-leaf reading
field (1766), chapter 10).
gave himself up to die. Some cows stroUing along the became commonplace in the 19th and 20th
beach were attracted to the cask, and one of them
centuries and books devoted to the art were
accidentally slipped her tail into the bung-hole,
which the boy grasped immediately, and kept fast published, each putting forward a relatively

holding with admirable resolution. The cow started

simple but structured approach to reading the
off, and after running about three hundred yards the signs.
cask struck against a rock and broke to pieces. A different tea omen predicts a stranger on
the way if a tea-leaf or stalk is found floating
on the surface of the tea. This was reported
tankerabogus. A Somerset and Devon name
from the mid-1 9th century right through to
for an imaginary *bogey, used for threatening
the 1980s, in a relatively stable form. Another
children into good behaviour: 'Now, Polly,
sign of a stranger coming was to accidentally
yu've abin a bad, naughty maid, and ef yu be
leave the teapot Ud open, which was again
sich a wicked cheel again, I'll zend vor tanker-
reported from the 1850s until the 1980s and is
abogus tu come and car' yu away tu 'is pittee-
awl [pit-hole]' (Wright, 1913: 198). probably not dead yet. A few other items of
tea-lorehave surfaced over the years: 'To put
milk into one's tea before sugar, is to "cross"
Tendering, see *st Andrew's day. the love of the party so doing', as an item of
north of England folklore (Ndq_ 4s:2 (1868),
tansy. In the Cambridgeshire fens people 553), which is confirmed by a later cor-
held two oddly contradictory beliefs about the respondent (4s:10 (1872), 495). Two people
medical effects of this plant. Couples anxious should avoid pouring from the same pot, for
to have children ate tansy leaves as a salad, on varying reasons but usually concerned with
the theory that rabbits like the plant and are pregnancy, for example: 'one of them will
notorious breeders; but also, women wanting have ginger-headed twins within a year' (Folk-
to end a pregnancy chewed tansy leaves to lore 51 (1940), 117). Bubbles on the tea
provoke miscarriage (Porter, 1969: 10). denoted money, or kisses.
In northern counties, it is regularly men- See also *spoon.
tioned as an ingredient in cakes and puddings,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 390-3.
especially at *Easter in remembrance of the
'bitter herbs' of the Passover, and an infusion
Teddy Rowe's Band. In the morning of Old
of tansy could be drunk as tea. There are Michaelmas Day (10 October) in Sherborne,
numerous references to tansy cakes in the Dorset, the coming of Pack Monday Fair was
OED, dating back to the 15th century.
formerly signalled by Teddy Rowe's Band. The
Band was composed of young people who par-
tea, coffee. Samuel Pepys recorded his first aded the streets making as much discordant
cup of tea on 25 September 1660, and also noise as possible on horns, bugles, whistles,
reported that the apothecary told his v^e it tin trays, saucepans, and so on. The origin
would be 'good for her, for her cold and story explains that Teddy Rowe was the mas-
defluxions' (28 June 1667). The first known ter mason employed in the 15th century to
reference to reading coffee or tea grounds for build the great fan vault in the nave of the
a gUmpse of the future appears 60 years later, Abbey Church. When the work was com-
but if it is to be taken Uterally, it indicates that pleted, the workmen packed their tools and
this was not a brand-new idea: paraded in triumph around the town. This
tMth 354

neatly explains the procession and the name for this purpose, but it was far more common
'Pack Monday' for the fair itself. Teddy Rowe's for girls and young women to keep any of
Band was suppressed in the 1960s because of their own teeth which had been extracted, to
the potential for rowdyism it offered. The sig- help their babies later (Lovett, 1925: 25-6). In
naUing of a fair with a discordant band is not Herefordshire at about the same period, the
unique (see *Tin Can Band), and such a noisy bag held woodlice, or a few hairs from the
gathering is also a core feature of *rough cross on a *donkey's back (Leather, 1912: 70,
music ceremonies. 81); in Shropshire, a necklace of *rowan twigs
Hole, 1976: 291-2; Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 95-6. was worn (Bume, 1883: 195).
When a milk tooth fell out, was important
it

to dispose of it correctly. One method, known

teeth. Any departure from the normal pat- to Aubrey (1686/1880: 11) and still widely used
tern in the way a baby cuts its first tooth could
be significant. Teeth usually show through the up to the mid-20th century, was to throw it in
the fire at once, often after rubbing salt on it,
lower gums first; 'If a child tooths first in the
and sometimes sajdng a charm:
upper jaw, it is considered ominous of its
dying in its infancy' (Brand, 1849: ii. 87). The Fire, fire, bum a bone,
beUef was still remembered in Hahfax in 1957, God send me another tooth again;
when a man told lona Opie: 'They used to say A straight one,
that a child who cut the first tooth upward was A white one.
almost sure to live; if the first tooth was cut And in the same place.
downward was not so sure to live.' To cut
it

teeth unusually early was also thought mean-

ingfiil, but there were two interpretations. Black tooth, blue tooth.
One, recorded in 1659 in the proverb 'Soon Please God send me a new tooth —
todd [toothed], soon with God', was that the
which, as a correspondent from Sheffield
baby would soon be dead; the other, expressed
in a later proverb 'Soon teeth, soon toes', was noted in the Guardian (letters page, 20 Oct.
that the mother would quickly be pregnant 1988), 'never failed to work'. One traditional

again. explanation was that if the tooth was simply

discarded with other rubbish, a dog or pig
If any teeth were already showing at the
was taken to mean that he or
child's birth, this might gnaw it, in which case the child's new
she would grow up vicious. Richard III was tooth would be misshapen, like the animal's.

supposed to have been bom thus, according to Throughout the 20th century, an alternative
Shakespeare (3 Henry the Sixth, v. vi). In the way of treating a milk tooth has become ever
1950s, Christina Hole wrote: more popular: to hide it overnight under the
child's pillow, so that fairies, or the *Tooth
To be bom with teeth is
an extremely bad sign. The will take it away and leave a coin
Fairy,
usual theory is that it foretells death
by violence, instead. This playfiil gift-giving is pleasanter
but one midwife informed me a few years
ago that for all concerned.
the true meaning is even worse. 'I never
speak of it,' An
she said, 'and if anyone asks me I
idea current to the end of the 19th cen-
deny it, for the
sake of the mother; but it means the child will tury, but now obsolete, was that fallen or
grow
up to be a murderer.' extracted teeth (whether of child or adult)
It is possible that this is the
older form of the superstition. A milder version must either be immediately burned, or even-
it as a
gives sign of a very bad temper; and in some tually buried with their owner, ready for
districts it has been watered down to a
vague *Doomsday; otherwise, one would have to
prophecy of simple bad luck [Folklore 68 (1957), 413]. hunt for them in a bucket of blood in Hell.
By 1987, a correspondent writing to the Mirror
Daily In Derbyshire, people stored their teeth in
[28August 1987, p. 20] reports being puzzled by two
jars, tobe placed in their coffins eventually,
contrasting beUefs— one, that such a child will be
since 'when you go to heaven you will have
extremely clever, the other that he or she is bom to
be hanged. to account for all the teeth you have had
upon earth' (Addy, 1895: 125). Occasionally,
If a child was having malevolent magic was feared; at Westleigh
difficulty cutting its
first teeth, a little
bag containing animal's (Devon) in the 19th century, women kept all
teeth or adult human teeth be might hung their extracted teeth careftilly hidden 'to
round its neck as a *charm. In London around
prevent enemies or dogs getting hold of them'
1905 calf s teeth were sold in street markets
(Elworthy, 1895: 437).
 355 Thorns, William John

Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 336-9; Opie and sidered unlucky in various other contexts, for
Tatem, 1989: 393-5.
example as the number of a hotel room or a
house; as the beUef grew stronger in the 20th
theatre. Actors and theatre-workers appear century, such items were often renumbered as
to be one of the most superstitious of all occu- '12A' or omitted entirely. * Friday the thir-
pational groups, and indeed many seem to teenth came to be particularly dreaded. Fur-
regard being superstitious as a badge of the ther explanations now sometimes offered are
trade. Many of the superstitions are well that there are thirteen witches in a *coven,
known — *whistling anywhere in a theatre and that the Death card is the thirteenth tarot
being very unlucky, and *Macbeth being so trump. However, there is a counter-beUef that
unlucky as to be referred to as 'The Scottish thirteen is 'lucky for some' in bingo and other
Play' rather than by its real name. Others are games of chance.
less well known —
actors will not say the last
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 397-9.
lines of a play in rehearsal, to place an
umbrella on a table during rehearsals spells
thomasing. An annual custom which was
disaster, and some unlucky tunes— such as
found all over England on 21 December (St
'Three Blind Mice' and 'I dreamt I dwelt in
Thomas's Day) whereby the poor people of a
Marble Halls'— are studiously avoided. Knowl-
village visited thehouses of their better-off
son also devotes some paragraphs to the
behefs of 'front-of-house' staff such as ushers neighbours requesting food and/or provisions
to help them through the vdnter. What was
and box-office workers. Few of the reported
given varied considerably firom place to place,
superstitions can be traced back before 1900,
but was usually governed by local rules and
and most are considerably later. Some excep-
sanctioned by long custom— a measure of
tions are those printed in the Folk-Lore Record of
wheat, a stone of flour, a candle, some coal,
1879 which include a dislike of the colour blue
and so on. Unusually for a *visiting custom,
for costumes, unless counteracted by silver,
the dread of rehearsals on Sundays, and nothing was offered in exchange by the callers
in most areas, although there are occasional
the beUef that if the first customer to enter the
mentions of a rhyme being recited or a piece
auditorium on the first night is a woman the
of mistletoe or holly being given. Under the
play is doomed.
name 'Gooding', the earhest reference to the
Folk-lore Record 2 (1879), 203-5; Opie and Tatem, 1989: custom is in John Stow's Survey of London
228, 395-7; Knowlson, The Origins of Popular Superstitions
and Customs (1930), 225-9; J. B. Booth, Pink Parade (1933), (1560), and it was a regular feature of rural life
95-116; Roy Harley Lewis, Theatre Ghosts (1988). until it gradually decUned through the 19th

century as diffierent ways of helping the poor

thirteen. In medieval England, thirteen was were found, and the well-off turned against
not Ul-omened. It was associated either with 'begging'. In some parishes, the custom was
institutionalized into a regular dole organized
the 'extra' item customarily added to the
dozen when seUing certain produce, for by parson and squire. Thomasing lasted in a
few districts into Edwardian times. Also called
example buns or eggs (hence 'baker's dozen');
or with groups of twelve-plus-a-leader, mod- Mumping, Coming, and Doleing.
elled on Christ and the Apostles. By the end of Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 200-7; Brand, 1849: i. 455-7.

the 17th century, a beUef had developed that if

thirteen people sat down to a meal together, Thorns, William John (1803-85). His working
this meant one of them would die within a life was spent as a civil servant. He showed
year; the first known reference is in The Athe- early promise as a literary-antiquarian, and,
nian Mercury for June 1695, in an anecdote
encouraged by established figures such as
about a lady who was warned by the ghost of a Francis *Douce, was soon editing neglected
friend that she would shortly die in these cir-
Uterary materials, beginning with a three-
cumstances (reprinted by the editor of volume edition of Early Prose Romances (1827-
,j.
Aubrey's Miscellanies in 1857, pp. 207-8). The 8). Thoms was a key figure in the development
if explanation suggested, both then and now, is of British folklore; he invented the word itself,
',; that at the Last Supper one of the thirteen launched *Notes & Queries [N&Q], one of the
present, *Judas Iscariot. was the first to leave main vehicles for information exchange, and
the table and killed himself soon afterwards. was instrumental in the formation of the
From the 1890s onwards, thirteen was con- *FoIkIore Society.
Thread the Needle 356

By the 1840s, it was clear that a new field of

ket the right one, etc.). In folk rhymes there is
a fondness for groups of three ('triads'), with
enquiry was emerging from the activities of
the third often lengthened to form a climax:
antiquarians and historians, and a burgeoning
interest in what is now called folklore. Various Rub-a-dub-dub! Three men in a tub,
phrases had been suggested or used— 'popular The butcher, the baker, the candlestick-maker . . .

antiquities' being a front-runner— but when

One flew east, and one flew west.
Thorns wrote to the Athenaeum (under the
And one flew over the cuckoo's nest . . .

pseudonym 'Ambrose Merton') to suggest a

regular column which enthusiasts could
in There is a common saying that 'deaths come
exchange information, he coined the term in threes', or, less specifically, that 'all good/
'Folk Lore' to cover it. The column soon out- bad things come in threes'; another is 'third
grew the Athenaeum, and Thoms launched the time lucky', or 'third time pays for all'. In rit-
weekly Notes & Queries on 3 November 1849, uals of magic, luck, or healing, it is very fre-
which he himself edited until 1872. It was fit- quent to find words or actions being repeated
ting that, in the 1870s, when the need for a three times; the same is often true of prayers
society devoted to the collection and publica- and religious gestures. These features appear
tion of folklore was felt, it was a suggestion throughout European tiadition, for reasons
pubUshed in Notes & Queries in 1876, and the unknown.
subsequent correspondence on the subject,
which persuaded Thoms to give his backing to Three Bears, The. When Robert Sou they
the formation of the Folk-Lore Society and to included 'The Story of the Three Bears' in his
serve as its first Director. Thoms also gave con- miscellany entitied The Doctor (1837, iv. 327),
siderable time to other bodies, serving as sec- readers took it for granted that he had
retary of the Camden Society from 1838 to invented it himself, even though his narrator
1873, for example. In retrospect, his talents claims to have learnt it from an uncle. He tells
were as an editor and organizer, rather than as how a bad-tempered, dirty, thieving old
a theorist, and he was content to gather the woman gets into the bears' cottage, eats the
material which he knew to be important and little bear's porridge, and sleeps in his bed;
make it available—with annotations— for when discovered, she jumps out of a window
others to use, and at this level he was indeed and is seen no more, having perhaps broken

successfiil. her neck, or got lost in the woods, or been

DNB; Obituary, N&Q. 6s:12 (1885), 141; Dorson, 1968: 75- arrested as a vagrant. The story is delightfully
80; William J. Thoms, 'Gossip of an Old Bookworm", The told, with repeated phrases, and imitation of
19th Century 10 (1881), 63-79, 886-900.
the bears' different voices, and Southey's tell-

ing ensured its popularity.

Thread the Needle. A game which can exist But had he invented it? As early as 1849,
independently, as a dance movement, or as Joseph Cundall, retelling it in his Treasury of
part of other customs or festivities. The basic Pleasure Books for Young Children, said it was 'a
movement is a line of people holding hands, very old Nursery Tale', better known as 'Silver-
two of whom hold their hands up to make an Hair', because the intruder was a Uttle girl of
arch, and the leader goes through the arch that name. For the rest of the century the story
with everyone following. Often found in con- was told that way, with the nice little heroine
junction with *clipping the church, at *Easter, called Silver-Hair or Silverlocks; then, in an
and also as part of the *Midsummer cele- anonymous collection of Old Nursery Stories and
brations at Penzance, described in 1801 (R. Rhymes c.1904, she was renamed Goldilocks,
Polwhele, History of Cornwall (1816), i.
49-51). and this is now standard. Meanwhile, Joseph
J. B. Partridge, 'The Game of Thread the Needle and Cus- Jacobs, who had originally regarded the tale as
tom of Church Clipping', Folk-Lore 23 (1912), 196-203; invention, had come round to
Southey's
Gomme, 1898: ii. 228-32; Opie and Opie, 1985: 33-43.
agreeing that this was a genuine folktale,
since a variant had come to Ught in which the
three, third. By far the most widespread of intruder is neither an old woman nor a child,
the traditionally significant *numbers. It is a but a fox called Scrapefoot; there are also par-
commonplace in folktales that persons and tial foreign parallels such as Snow White's
events are triplicated, the third of the set arrival at the dwarfs' cottage. Final proof came
being often 'weighted' (the third brother the in 1951, with the discovery of a version writ-
best, the third ogre the fiercest, the third cas- ten down and illustrated by hand in 1831, as a
357 threshold

birthday present for a little boy. This predates breath, and marriage to a poor cobbler (Opie
Southey; like him, it has an old woman as the and Opie, 1974: 156-61; Philip, 1992: 48-52,
villain (Opie and Opie, 1974: 199-205). 55-6).

Three Blind Mice. Since the 19th century Three Wise Monkeys. Small statuettes of
known as a *nursery rh5mLie, Three Blind Mice three monkeys, one covering his eyes, another
was previously an adult round or catch, and his ears, and another his mouth, have been
the earliest known text, from 1609, is con-
popular in Britain since (probably) the 1900s;
siderably different from the modem version: they are known to have been carried as lucky
Three blinde mice, three blinde mice *charms by soldiers in the First World War.
Dame lulian. Dame lulian. They are identified with a proverbial saying,
The miller and his merry olde wife 'See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil', first
She scrapte her tripe licke thou the knife. recorded in 1926 and now generally used

See also *theatre. sarcastically against those who, through self-

ishness or cowardice, choose to ignore some
Opie and Opie, 1997: 360-1.
wrongdoing. A few figurines show the first
two monkeys peeping and listening, while the
three dishes. A cluster of related divinatory
third has a finger on his lips; these may reflect
customs, called 'three dishes' after one vari-
the proverb 'Hear all, see all, say nowt', known
ant, but better known in Scotland and Ireland
since the late Middle Ages.
(where it often took place at Halloween or at The Wise Monkeys originated in Japan,
than in England. In its simplest
ftinerals),
— where they have been known since the 16th
form, three basins are set out one with clean
century; statues of them are set at crossroads
water, one with dirty water, and the third
in honour of Koshin, the God of Roads, whose
empty. Participants are bUndfolded and place attendants they are. There, their slogan is
their hand into one of the bowls, which signi-
no hear-
Mi-zaru, kika-zaru, iwa-zani, 'No seeing,
fies their ftiture, as, for example, he or she will
ing, no speaking', with a pun on saru, Japanese
marry a maiden, a widow, or remain single, for 'monkey', and it is used seriously to teach
respectively. In a version reported from
prudence and purity.
Gloucestershire c.1890 34 (1923),
(Folk-Lore
Wolfgang Mieder, Tradition and Innovation in Folk Literature
155), three plates were out at Halloween,
set
(1987), 157-77; A. W. Smith, FoMore 104 (1993), 144-50.
containing gold, a ring, and a thimble, which
symboUzed a rich marriage, an early marriage,
and no marriage. Another variant from Devon threshold. SymboUcally, a threshold marks
the boundary between a household and the
(N&Q^ 3s:2 (1862), 62) had objects placed on the
outer world, and hence between belonging
floor of an otherwise empty room, including a
and not-belonging, and between safety and
turf, basin of water, ring, and so on.
danger. Guarding the doorway is an important
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 120-1.
aspect of magical *house protection, which
can involve the threshold. In Tudor and Stuart
Three Heads in the Well, The. This is a *fairy-
times this (rather than the door itself) was the
tale included in a *chapbook of 1764 entitled usual place to fix * horseshoes, and in some
The History of Four Kings, their Queens and Daugh-
cases the threshold itself was an *iron slab
ters; it was already popular in Elizabethan
(C. F.Tebbutt, Folklore 91 (1980), 240). Later,
times, as is shown by the partial incorporation
there was a custom in some areas of making
of its main scene into George Peele's The Old
patternson well-scrubbed doorsteps, which
Wives' Tale (1595). According to the chapbook,
some people regarded as simply decorative,
the King of Colchester's daughter, ill-used by
but others as defensive. Thus, in Herefordshire
her stepmother, goes off to seek her fortune,
a pattern of nine *crosses kept witches out
shows kindness to a beggar, and comes to a
(Leather, 1912: 18), and up to about 1900 every
well from which three heads rise one after
Shropshire farmhouse and cottage had its
another, singing 'Wash me, comb me, lay me
down softly'; she does so, and they give her doorstep and hearthstone decorated with pat-
terns made from the pigment produced by
such beauty that she marries a king. Her jeal-
ous hunchbacked half-sister tries to imitate squeezing elder or dock leaves, and some still
did in the 1930s.
her, but her meanness and rudeness to the
beggar and the heads bring her leprosy, bad [They] are for the most part very simple— a border of
 358
thumbs

crosses between two lines; a series of Vandykes with dates from Roman times, when the crowd
or without a circle in the wide part of each Vandyke; would signify the fate of a vanquished gladi-
two large crosses, divided by a vertical line. ... I can ator by thumbs up or down. What they did in
remember that when 1 was a child, one of our maids that context was either hide their thumbs in
used to decorate the back doorstep with a border of their hand, or extend them, although there
that these loops
loops, and it is an interesting point are other Latin sources which speak of other
had to be done straight round in an unbroken chain.
thumb gestures. In the absence of the spurious
It would have been 'unlucky' to do the top of the step
antiquity given the gesture by the
Roman .,

and then break off and do the bottom of it before the

sides These patterns were said to keep the Devil connection, all we can be sure of is that it
"
'M^

Nowadays they say the patterns are 'laid' existed in England in the mid-1 7th century, as
away. . . .

for luck; or a young woman may say that she does the earliest reasonably unambiguous refer-
'plaze granny, who ence to 'thumbs up' in England is found in
them to dotes on 'em. bein' as
H. Hayward, Folk-lore 49
they've alius bin laid John Bulwer's Chirologia (1644) 'To hold up the
'ere'. (L.

(1938), 236-7) thumbe is the gesture ... of one shewing his

assent or approbation. To hold up both
thumbs. A surprising number of gestures and thumbs, is an expression imparting a tran-
practices of past times involved
the thumb.
scendency of praise' (quoted in Morris, 1979:
The folding of the thumb into the palm of the
191). Another thumb gesture may
hold the key
hand, with the other fingers closed over it, was to further elucidation. In previous times, a
beUeved to be a protection against v^dtches, or
regular method for two people to seal a bar-
general evil:
gain was for them to wet their thumbs and
Some years ago, children in Northumberland
were press them together— summed up by the
taught to double the thumb within the hand
as a phrase 'Here's my thumb on it'. This certainly
preservative from danger, and especially to repel signifiesagreement, and Hazlitt (1905: 586-7)
sorcery. was the custom also to fold the thumbs of
It
provides a reference to the custom in a letter
dead persons within the hand for the same purpose in the Close Rolls of King John, dated 1208,
.'. (W. Hutchinson, View of Northumberland (1778),
. .
and it continues to be reported until at least
quoted in Lean, 1903: ii. 456) the late 19th century, although again most of
Opie and Tatem give a number of references the references are Scottish.
to this action, commencing with one dated The raised thumb could also be a form of
C.1350 and running up through the 19th cen- greeting: 'It is still the custom— or was fifty
tury, although on the strength of the available years ago in the North of England— for
information it would seem to have been a coachmen whose hands are occupied driving
mainly north country or Scottish practice. The to salute a comrade by raising the thumb'
idea that a part of the body itching signifies a (N&Q,160 (1931), 393).
future event well attested in English lore,
is Other thumb lore includes the 17th- and
and this combined with the protective thumb '
18th- century custom of widows signifying
in the hand presumably explains Shake- their status by wearing a thumb-ring (Hazhtt,
speare's Unes 'By the pricking of my thumbes. 1905: 586-7), andin the post-SecondWorldWar
Something wicked this way comes' (Macbeth period, the erect thumb has also become the
IV. i). Nineteenth- and 20th-century references international sign of the hitch-hiker, although
to holding or squeezing thumbs are more akin in some parts of southern Europe it is con-
in meaning to the modem crossing fingers for sidered an obscene gesture (see Morris, 1979).
luck. See also *fingers.
Another Shakespeare quotation, 'I will bite
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 404; Morris, 1979: 186-204;
my thumb at them, which is disgrace to them Hazlitt, 1905: 586-7; Chambers, 1878: i. 358-60; N&Q.160
ifthey bear it' (Romeo and Juliet, i. i) indicates (1931), 190-1,231,286, 393.

another gesture, meaning a challenge or

insult, which is well attested in Britain from thunder and lightning. There are numerous
the 16th to 18th centuries. Morris equates this traditional beliefsand significations attached
with the 'teeth flick' gesture current in many to thunder and Ughtning, although, according
parts of Europe. to the available evidence, earUer people were
The thumbs-up gesture, to signify assent or more worried about the effects of thunder
'OK' is so well accepted that few English than of lightning, although they must have
people would even question its meaning. The been aware of the real danger of Ughtning
popular, but incorrect, explanation is that it strikes. Certain trees were believed prone to
 359 Tichborne Dole

lightning, while others were apparently was considered unlucky to point to,
beliefs. It

immune. It was clearly a good idea to plant or otherwise draw particular attention to
some of the latter near a building, or to know thunder or lightning. This is reported as far
which to shelter under in a storm: back as Pliny (Natural History (ad 55) and
77), ii.

several times in Britain in the 19th and 20th

Beware of an oak
centuries. The interpretation of thunder and
It draws the stroke

Avoid an ash Ughtning as the voice or weapon of God is also

It courts the flash quoted from Pliny and Tacitus and in Britain
since at least the 16th century.
Creep under the thorn
It can save you from harm From at least the 15th to the 17th centiuies
it was common to ring church bells to make
(from Sussex: FoVc-Lore Record 1 (1878). 43,

similar in N&Q.168 (1935), 457) thunderstorms go away. Aubrey (1686: 22)

rhyme
mentions St Anselm's beU at Malmesbxuy
A long-standing belief regarded the *bay tree
Abbey in this context, and Camp (1988: 87)
as particularly safe records a reference to bell-ringers at Sandwich

. . . reach the bays (Kent), in 1464, being paid for ringing at 'the
I'll tiea garland here about his head great thuderying'. From Wiltshire and Lin-
Twill keep my boy from lightning colnshire, and probably elsewhere, the belief
is reported that sheet-lightning helps to ripen
(Webster, White Devil (1612))
the com (N&Q,175 (1938), 172, 214). It was also
while others swore by the *elder, laiu-el, or the firmly beUeved at one time that swans' eggs
*holly. cannot hatch without the help of thunder
J

It was believed that a particular problem in (N&Q. 162 (1932), 252-6, quoting a source pub-
storms was that thunder would spoil stored lished in 1583).

liquor unless prevented. John Aubrey (1686: Opie and Tatem, 1989: 405-6; Lean, 1903: esp. ii. 415-17;
22) reported as a practice to protect beer 'they Hazlitt, 1905: 622-6.

lay a piece of iron on the barrell to keepe it

from sowring', but according to the more sci- thunderstones. When a particularly loud
entifically minded editor of The Agreeable Com- crack of *thunder was heard, it was thought
panion (1742), 42, the 'violent motion and that something more than mere Ughtning had
uimatural fermentation' could be prevented buried itself in the ground; certain unusual
by any weight. objects found in the earth were popularly
For some, the day of the week mattered: A called 'thunderbolts' or 'thunderstones',
Prognostication Everlasting ofRyght Good Effecte, of including fossil belemnites, sea-urchins, and,
1556, gives a Ust of the days and those whose more rarely, ammonites, pointed quartz crys-
death the thunder prognosticated (quoted by tals, lumps of iron pyrites, and Neolithic stone
Nbd 12s:ll (1922). 24-5, which also gives axes. On the principle that Ughtning never
more elaborate verses from a Yorkshire farm- strikes the same place twice, their presence
er in 1875). was thought to protect a house. In Sussex in
A widely reported and long-standing protec- the early 20th century fossil sea-urchins were
tion for a house against lightning was to place set on the outside windowsiUs of kitchens and
some houseleek in the roof, quoted from 1562 milk going sour, because thun-
dairies to stop
and 1962 and often in between (Vickery, 1995; der was believed to 'turn' milk; ammonites
197-8; Porter, 1969: 69). Porter also reports a were used in the same way in Wiltshire and
number of other widespread items of storm- Gloucestershire in the 1860s, and it was
lore, collected in the 1960s: for example, leave noticed that mischievous village boys never
the doors open so that any Ughtning or thun- interfered with them, simply because they
derbolt will 'pass through the house', and were thunderbolts. Examples of all these
cover shiny metal objects and *mirrors in case objects could be found in London street mar-
they attract the Ughtning. If a thunderstorm kets in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
occurred during a marriage ceremony the on sale under this name (Lovett, 1925: 49-51).
couple would have no children, and nursing
mothers should never suckle their babies dur- Tichborne Dole. An annual dole of flour dis-

ing a thunderstorm as their milk would be tributed to the parishioners of Tichborne,

tainted with brimstone and sulphur. Opie and Cheriton, and Lane End, Hampshire, on Lady
Tatem report three more thunder/hghtning Day (25 March). The accompanying legend
Tiddy Men, Tiddy People 360

relates that in the 12th century one Lady is feared for a thing Great danger to
many m
Mabella, wife of Sir Henry de Tichbome, was such as be sick doth bring' (xiv, stanza 4);
it

much loved by the local people for her charity it is also mentioned by PUny (Natural His-

and kindness. When she was dying, she asked tory (ad 77), i. 128) quoting Aristotle. EngUsh
her husband to dedicate some land to support references continue well into the second half
a charity for the poor in her name. His reply of the 20th century.
was to pull a burning brand from the fire and Opie and Tatem, 1989: 406-7.
say that she could have as much land as she
could walk round, carrying the torch, before it
tig. The basic children's chasing game in
went out. As ill as she was, she still managed
which one child tries to touch one of the
to crawl around 23 acres of land, before the
others, and whoever is touched becomes the
firepetered out— the husband's reaction is not chaser and tries to touch another, is known by
recorded in this version. Her actions not only
various local names. The Opies present a map
secured the charity, but also prompted the
name 'the Crawls' by which those acres are showing that the main names as found in their
research in the 1950s and 1960s are markedly
still known. Lady Mabella was also sufficiently
regional, of which 'tig' is the most wide-
cautious to lay a curse on Sir Henry, and his
spread, but 'he', 'tag', 'tick', and 'touch' all
heirs, if they ever interfered with the charity.
have broad geographical areas in which they
The real origin of the charity is not known.
are dominant. The game is simphcity itself,
Nowadays, flour made from wheat groM^ on and can be used for a range of variants— 'chain-
the Crawls is distributed on the steps of the
tig' in which the chasers have to hold hands,
church, after a short open-air service. A gallon
'French-tig' in which the person 'tigged' has to
of flour is given to adults, and half a gallon to
hold the place he/she was touched while chas-
children.
ing the others, and so on. There are also variant
1977: 36; Shuel, 1985: 127-8; Rightly, 1986:
Sykes, words for the person who is doing the chasing,
218-19; Nicholas James, L&L 6:1 (1987), 59-64.
'it' or 'he' being common, which children use

as unselfconsciously as any dialect word —

'We
Tiddy Men, Tiddy People. In north Lincoln-
played He and 1 was had, so 1 had to be he', or
shire, *fairies were called Tiddy People
even 'If she hads a person when she is he the
because they were no bigger than a newborn
person she hads becomes he'. Of all the names
baby. Collecting in the 1880s, Mrs *Balfour noted by the Opies, 'tick' seems to be the
found one old woman who told a long, poetic
oldest, being found in Drayton's Poly-Olbion
story about one particular Tiddy Mun; he lived
((1622), p. xxx), whereas 'tag' is found from
'dovm deep in the green still water', but would
the 18th century, and 'tig' and 'touch' from the
come out at dusk, looking hke a small, white-
19th century.
bearded, hmping old man, and laughing in a
shrill voice like a peewit. 'To her, Tiddy Mun Opie and Opie, 1969: 20-3, 62-123.

was a perfect reahty, and one to be loved as

well as feared', but she was the last person time. The basic way of experiencing time is
who remembered him. He controlled the rise not as a succession of fixed units (e.g. hours),
and fall of fenland flooding; the story concerns but through three natural cycles: night and
his fury when Dutchmen drained the fens in day, the moon's phases, and the year. The first
the 17th century, which provoked him into is the most immediate, and the most charged
bringing disease on the fenmen till he was with sjnnbolic and emotional meanings;
appeased by pails of water poured into the dry darkness is equated with the unknown, evil,
dykes. and death, while light is equated with good-
M. C. Balfour, Folk-Lore 2 (1891), 149-56; summarized in ness, activity, the familiar world, life, and
Briggs, 1971-1: B. i. 277-8, and also in Briggs, 1976: ultimately God. Nevertheless, in mythic
395-7.
thought darkness precedes light, and night
precedes day, as can be seen both in Genesis 1
tide. The beUef that people at the coast vdll and in the Germanic and Celtic custom of
only die as the tide goes out is included in counting nights rather than days. In modem
Charles Dickens's David Copperfield ((1849), time-keeping, as in Ancient Rome, a day
chapter 30), and has been around a long time, begins immediately after midnight, not at
as shown by Thomas Tusser's Five Hundred dawn; in liturgical reckoning, a day begins at
Points of Good Hushandrie (1557): 'Tyde flowing sunset (e.g. the Jewish Sabbath includes Friday
 361 toads

evening, the first Mass of Easter Sunday is held long the custom has existed, but the villagers
on the Saturday night). have successftiUy fought off attempts to sup-
Within the night/day cycle, special import- press it. There are one or two stories to explain
ance was given to *midnight and *midday, and the custom— it was done to frighten off Gyp-

to certain transitional moments or periods— sies, or was done to express disapproval of

it

the first *cockcrov^^, dawn, and sunrise. Night, the birth of an illegitimate baby, and the latter
is possible because of the similarity between
especially the period around midnight,
belongs to ghostly, devilish, and uncanny the Tin Can Band and *rough musicking. How-
forces, which humans should not risk meet- ever, most vmters point to the fact that this is

ing; however, this taboo also makes it a time the eve of the town's *feast day (Old St
of power, suitable for *divinations and sinister Andrew's Day) andmay simply be a way of
magic, and those bom at midnight were starting the festivities attached to that cele-
thought to have occult abilities (see *chime bration. A very similar gathering, *Teddy

hours). Dawn (or cockcrow) drives away the Rowe's Band, formerly signified the coming of
evil spirits of night; sunrise is right for heaUng Pack Monday Fair, at Sherborne, Dorset.
rituals such as passing a child through a split Rightly, 1986: 219; Shuel, 1985: 71; Sykes,1977: 148.
*ash or a bramble arch, and for various luck-
bringing customs such as gathering *May dew. toadman. This is an East AngUan term, cur-
Sunset and tvdlight, though of course relevant
rent the mid-20th century, for a man with
till
to the routine of daily work, are not associated
an uncanny knack of controlUng horses, sup-
with customs or serious beliefs, though
posedly obtained by possession of a toad's
children were until recently threatened with
magical bone (see *horseman's word). The
various *bogeys if they stayed out late (see
term 'toad-doctor', however, as used by
*poldies, *hytersprites).
working<lass Londoners in 1939, meant
The *moon was mainly associated with agri-
someone who cures people of aches and pains
cultural and medicinal lore, since its waxing
and waning was thought to affect plants, ani- by selling them dried toad's legs, to be worn in
a leather pouch round one's neck (Balleine,
mals, and humans; there are customs Unking
1939: 6).
luck to the new moon, and magic to the full
moon.
Theoretically, the natural annual cycle toads. The toad features widely in English
repeats the night/day cycle on a larger scale, folklore, in beliefs, cures, and customs, but its
with *midwinter and *midsummer corres- roles are often contradictory, and in many of

ponding to midnight and midday, and the the foUowdng *frogs and toads are apparently
equinoxes to sunrise and sunset. In practice, interchangeable. One of the factors which
this pattern is lacking in EngUsh tradition: the contributed to the toad's evil reputation was
equinoxes are ignored and midsummer has its reputed connection wdth witchcraft, as

lost much of its significance, while the mid- watches were wddely believed to use them as
winter period of * Christmas and * New Year has famiUars and to turn themselves into toads
become overwhelmingly important. However, when they wished. A story reported from
its associations are now almost wholly cheer- Ashburton (Devon) in 1876 relates hov^^ a man
ful and benign; eeriness has been transferred who had no strength to work found a great
to *Halloween, leaving only a vague idea that toad in his house one evening. He killed it
telling ghost stories is a fitting amusement at with a pitchfork and threw it on the fire. The
Christmas. following evening he found another, which he
See *CALENDAR, *DAYS OF THE WEEK, *FRIDAY, dispatched in the same way and his strength
*MOON, returned (quoted in Opie and Tatem, 1989:
408).
Tin Can Band. Young people in Broughton, On the other hand, beliefs printed in several
Northamptonshire, gather at midnight on the 19th<entury folklore collections stress that
i
second Sunday in December for an hour's should you find a toad in the house you should
I worth of procession round the village making remove it carefully, precisely because it might
i
as much raucous noise as possible. To this end be a witch. Toads in the house are generally
they bring tins v^dth stones in, dustbin Uds, old reported as unlucky or dangerous, but the
f
metal containers vdth sticks to bang them, earUest known reference to this belief only
and so on. They do not know why, or for how dates from the 1830s. EarUer sources, from the
toadstones 362 I
12th century onwards, refer to meeting a toad times set free, and the disease or affliction will
in the outdoors, and in most cases this is, wither as it does. For the whooping cough,
paradoxically, regarded as lucky, although hold a live toad with its head in the mouth of
there is a hint that if it crosses your path from the afflicted person. The toad will thus catch
the left it is not so good. By the 19th and 20th the disease and take it away from the sufferer
centuries, however, as many reports say it is (N&Q.ls:3 (1851), 258).
unlucky as lucky. Another persistent motif, which stretches
For centuries, it was taken
for granted that back at least to the 12th century in England, is
toads were poisonous. Shakespeare refers to that toads can survive even when entombed
this, and the *toadstone: within rock or other impenetrable substance.
Similar stories circulated on the European
Sweet are the uses of adversity
continent. The eariiest known reference is by
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous. *
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head William of Newburgh (Historia Anglia (c.ll86)
book 1, chapter 28), but Robert Plot (1686:
(v^ You Like It II. I)

247-51) was the first English writer to devote

Another old notion, based on the beUef that real attention to the phenomenon, and refer-
both toads and * spiders were venomous, was ences have continued to appear to the present
that they had such an antipathy for each other day.
that they would fight if they met and would See also *toadstone.
both be kiUed in any encounter.
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 407-10; Black, 1883: 62-3; N&Q.
But it is in the realm of folk-medicine that 4s:7 (1871), 324, 399, 484, 540-2; 8s:8 (1895), 65-6, 217,

the toad becomes a valuable commodity. 312, 438; Bob Skinner, Toad in the Hole: Source Material on
the Entombed Toad Phenomenon (1986?).
Many of the older folklore collections report
remedies in which the toad figures strongly,
toadstones. A widespread medieval opinion
being used to cure, among many other ail-
was that a toad has a jewel embedded in its
ments, cancer, rheumatism, plague, abscesses,
nosebleeds, sprains, smallpox, the king's evil, head, which could detect and counteract poi-
and whooping cough. The methods of prepar- sons, heal bites and stings, and help women in
childbirth. Various semi-precious stones, and
ing the toad vary, but there are two main
also the teeth of certain fossil fish, were called
ways, depending on whether you want the
whole toad or only part of it. A number of toadstones and worn as pendants or rings. The
cures call for the toad to be powdered: 'Put the traditional way to get one was to bury a toad in

toads ahve into an earthen pot, and dry them a pot in an anthill for the ants to eat, till only
in an oven moderately heated, till they the bones and the stone were left. An
become fit to be powdered' (Paris's Pharmaco- anonymous treatise of the 1660s explains:

quoted in N&Q_10s:2 (1904), 325)

logia (1833), 6, It must bee a Toade that is very greate and old and
while others use the live toad whole, or a leg: hath Lived Long in hedges or diches or a fenne of
'In the neighbourhood of Reeds because it will be many years or ever the stone
Hartlebury (Worces-
tershire) they break the legs of a toad, sew it can come to any bignesse [It] is off CuUar e)^er

white or a Littel darkish Browne or Blacke haveing in

up in a bag alive, and tie it round the neck of a
the middest of the stone Like unto an Eye beeing of a
patient' (Gentleman's Magazine, part 11 (1855),
The wearing of something in a bag greenish CuUar. Especially if the stone bee taken
384-6).
from the Toade alive and so is off most vertue off
around the neck is a common element in folk-
operation Butt myself had one wch was black
medicine.
and spotted with redd spotts wch I did set in a ring
On occasion, the hve toad's back is rubbed off gold off 20/- vallew and I sold it ffor £6. Butt I
on the while other recipes caU
afflicted part, never since could meete with such another. (BM
for particular bones of the animal. The trad- Sloane 2539, fo. 34; cited in Evans, 1922: 150)
itional method here is to place a toad in an
anthill, and the ants will clean the skeleton off Tom Thumb. This is the Enghsh version of an
nicely for you. This is certainly no recent idea, international humorous *fairytale in which a
asPhny (Natural History (ad 77), xxxii. xviii) woman's vdsh to have a son 'even if he is no
recommends the use of such a bone to assuage bigger than my husband's thumb' is hterally
the ftiiy of dogs and as an aphrodisiac. See
granted— in this case, by *Merlin. Tom
under *horseman's word for another, related, receives magic gifts from his godmother the
use of toad's bones. Following a well-knovm
Fairy Queen, but his tiny size leads to many
principle in folk-medicine, the toad is some- mishaps, as when he falls into a pudding, is
363 tongues

carried off by a raven, swallowed by a graz-

is ure. Though belonging to the gentry class and
ing cow, a and so on. The earUest
fish, a giant, educated in music and drama, she was passion-
surviving version appeared in 1621 and is ately attached to country life and believed her-
self to have a special rapport with the crafts-
probably by a popular pamphleteer, Richard
Johnson 1573-71659); however, eariier refer-
(
men and labourers of Somerset, her native
ences to the hero by name show that he was county, and also with Gypsies. She claimed
already known
in the 1570s. Johnson's (incorrectly) that shehad been bom between
humour mildly coarse; Tom makes his exit
is midnight on a Friday and cockcrow on a Satur-
from the cow via a cowpat, and causes such day, that this gave her psychic gifts, and that
'rumbhng and tumbling' in the giant's guts therefore many people had confided tales,
that the latter vomits him 'at least three miles songs, and magical lore to her when she was a
into the sea'. Later versions were made more very young child. Her family moved to Hert-
'suitable' for children; some end with Tom fordshire while she was still a child. Much later,

dying heroically in battle with a spider. after the Second World War, she returned to
His name was used by eariy pubhshers of Somerset; from about 1950 she began giving
children's verses, for instance Tommy Thumb's talks on folklore to local groups, and also on

PrettySong Book (1744) and The Famous Tommy radio, enriched with vivid performances of
Thumb's little Story-Book (c.l760); at this period tales and songs. She impressed Katharine

'Tommy Thumb songs' was the usual EngUsh *Briggs and Theo *Brown, and the former
term for *nursery rhymes. helped her to organize her material and
The full text of the 1621 pamphlet, with a commentary, arranged for its publication. The result was four
is and Opie, 1974: 30-3;
in Opie it is also edited by C. F. books, Somerset Folklore (1965), edited by Briggs;
Buhler, The History of Tom Thumbe (1965). Folktales of England, written mainly by Briggs
but containing many of Tongue's stories; The
Tom Tit Tot. This, one of the most famous Chime Child, or Somerset Singers (1968); and For-
is an analogue to 'Rum-
EngUsh *fairytales, gotten Folktales of the English Counties (1970).
plestiltskin' in the * Grimms' collection. A The problem is that Tongue was a per-
peasant giri is taken as wife by a king, on the former, and that many years had passed since
understanding that she vdll spin five skeins of she had learnt these songs and tales; the uni-
flax per day for a month, as her mother had form style and recurrent themes and phrases
boasted she could; a 'small httle black thing make it virtually certain that they had been
with a long tail' performs the task for her, on reshaped, perhaps only half-consciously, to
condition that he will cany her off if she can- suit her personality. Some look like patch-
not guess his *name by the end of the month. works, built up round mere scraps of trad-
By chance he is heard boasting 'Niminy nim- itional beliefs or sayings. She should be
iny not. My name's Tom Tit Tot', so she is able regarded as a creative singer and storyteller
to 'guess' correctly, and the imp disappears. reworking fragments of tradition, not as a
The story was contributed to the Ipswich Journal reUable collector.
on 15 January 1878 by Mrs Anna Walter- The Chime Child contains sketches of her
Thomas, who recreated it in ftiU Suffolk dia- chief informants among country singers, but
lect from her memory of how her nurse had these are based on very early childhood mem-
told it has since
to her about 25 years before; it ories; in ForgottenFoMales she gives only the
been many times reprinted, usually with the vaguest hints as to where, when, and from
dialect reduced. whom she had obtained the stories; any notes
In 1992 Michael Wilson recorded an excel- she may have made at the time were lost in
lent variant from a 13-year-old girl in Ply- moves and fires. Somerset Folklore is the sound-
mouth, based on how her Liverpool grand- estof her books, in which much information
mother told it; the task is to spin wool into about local beliefs and customs is given
gold, which is done by 'a little green imp', who straightforwardly and reliably. The others
a year later takes the girl's baby as the forfeit, must be used with caution.
but has to restore it when she discovers the
Obituary, Folklore 94 (1983), 890. Robert and Jacqueline
name (Wilson, 1997: 255-8). Patten, 'Ruth Tongue', in Women and Tradition, ed. Hilda
R. E. Davidson and Carmen Blacker (forthcoming).
Original text in Briggs, 1970-1: A. i. 535-9; PhiUp, 1992:
111-17. Modified text in Jacobs, 1894/1968: 5-9.

tongues. The common remark to people who

Tongue, Ruth (1898-1981). A problematic fig- complain of having a pimple or spot on their
toothache 364

tongue, that they have been lying, is old coin.Between the wars, this was generally a
indeed. In England it goes back at least to the silver threepenny piece, and when these were
17th century— Shakespeare alludes to it (Win- withdrawn in the 1940s, some families still
ter's Tale (1611), ii. ii): 'If 1 prove honey- insisted on using them. A contributor to FLS
mouthed, let my tongue bUster', as do John News (15 (1992), 11) wrote: 'We kept a small
Aubrey (1686/1880: 28) and several other 17th- stock of silver threepenny pieces specially for
century writers. But this is nothing compared the occasion, always reclaiming them from
to Theocritus (Idylls (c.275 bc), xii) 'Nor midst the children and recompensing them. They
my song shall tell-tale bUsters rise, and gall my always maintained that the silver coin was far
tongue'. The same thing about falsehood is superior to their schoolftiends, who maybe
said of people who accidentally bite their received 6d.' Nowadays, the money given has
tongue when eating. The tip of a calf s tongue increased to 50p or even £1.
isregularly reported as a lucky charm, carried The only folklorists who have mentioned
in the pocket and called the 'lucky bit', this this custom in print are the Opies, who noted
was first mentioned in Northamptonshire in it as widespread in the 1950s (Opie and Opie,
itsmid-1 9th century (Sternberg, 1851: 172-3). 1959: 305); however, many people still living
Igglesden (c.l932: 127, 146) reports a surgeon can bear witness that it was common in the
who carried a tip of a human tongue, and a 1920s, which makes it probable that it was
Thames bargee who beUeved in the luck of a known in the previous century. There is an
cat's tongue. allusion in Kenneth Graham's The Golden Age

Opie and Tatem, 1989: 410-11; Igglesden, c.1932: 127, (1898: 133) to older boys being customarily
146; Lean, 1903: ii. 296. tipped half a crown when a tooth is extracted
by a dentist, which is a related idea.
toothache. The foUoMdng *charm was There is one early source which links fairies
collectedby M. A. Denham in the north of and children's teeth, namely Robert *Herrick's
England in the 1840s (Denham, 1895: 9-10): poem on 'Oberon's Palace' (1648); he describes
this as a grotto adorned with various small and
Peter was sitting on a marble stone
useless objects from the human world,
And Jesus passed by —
Peter said, 'My Lord! My God! 'brought hither by the elves'
How my tooth doth ache!' . . . and
for to pave
Jesus said, 'Peter art whole! The excellency of this Cave,
And whoever keeps these words for my sake, Squirrils and childrens teeth late shed
Shall never have the toothache!' Amen. Are neatly here enchequered
With brownest loadstones, and the gum
Others report similar stories, adding that to be That shines upon the blewer Plum,
effective the words should be written on a The nails fain off by Whit-flaws: Art's
piece of paper and worn round the neck. Opie Wise hand enchasing here those warts
and Tatem reprint a Latin version from c.lOOO Which we to others (from ourselves)
AD, and an East Anghan version from 1957. Sell, and brought hither by the Elves.

Aubrey (1686/1880: 164-5) reports a more (Hesperides (1648), no. 444)

gruesome cure: '1 remember at Bristow (when
Herrick's poem matches half the modem
I was a
boy) it was common fashion for the
tale, namely that fairies collect shed teeth; the
woemen, to get a Tooth out of a Sckull in ye
other half, the money left in exchange, may
churchyard, wch they wore as a preservative
have grown out of the old belief that fairies
against the Tooth-ach', and more prosaically,
willreward a hard-working servant by leaving
the use of ginger at the same period (he was
bom in 1626). sixpence in her shoe at night, a gift presum-
See also *teeth, *tooth fairy. ably placed there secretly by her employer;
the child too is being rewarded, for being
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 411-12; Forbes, 1971: 293-316. brave and not making a fuss.
Up to the 1950s, the tooth-takers were gen-
Tooth Fairy. When a child loses one of its erally referred to as 'fairies', in the plural, but
milk *teeth, this is put in a safe place (usually now people more often speak of the Tooth
under the child's pillow, but sometimes in an under American influence. A
Fairy, possibly
egg-cup or under a carpet), and the child is retired dental nurse in Lincolnshire recalls
told that *fairies will take it in the night, and how 'We kept special tiny envelopes for chil-
leave a coin instead— or actually turn it into a dren to take their teeth home in for the tooth
365 tourist lore

fairy; used to write on the envelope "For the

I where the lad saves himself by touching cold

fairy".' Unfortunately, this memory is not spe- Note again the children's game context.
iron'.

cifically dated; from the context, it could be Touching metal, and saying 'Cold iron' is out-
from the 1940s (Sutton, 1992: 125). The fan- wardly similar to 'touch wood' but is used
tasy can become more elaborate; in letters to nowadays in different contexts, although it is
the Guardian in October 1988, parents said that still protective. In normal use, it is enacted or

when their children asked why fairies wanted said when some taboo has been broken, such
human teeth, they replied that it was to make as superstitious fishermen hearing the forbid-
bricks for their houses, or to carve them into den word 'pig' or 'rabbit', or factory girls from
toys and ornaments— much the same notion the Staffordshire Potteries who would touch
as Herrick had {KS News 14 (1992). 4; 15 (1992), metal if they met a clergyman (Folk-lore 52
11-12). The picture
(1941), 237). is potentially much
more complex with 'cold however, than
iron',

topping out, see *building trade. with 'touch wood' discussed above. There is a
widespread, and ancient, belief that iron is an
touching iron, wood. The
archetypal super- effective protection against witches, fairies,
stition in modem England, in that even many the Devil, and other sorts of evil or trouble-
non-superstitious people will say 'touch some beings, and a range of other beliefs
wood', even if they do not actually carry out about iron are recorded in cures, taboos, and
the action of touching wood, after boasting or luck-bringing where it is not always easy to
making some statement which will 'tempt decide whether it is the object (the horseshoe,
fate'. It is one of the superstitions which
also the poker) or the material (the metal) which is
appear in almost all popular articles on the being invoked or is having the desired effect.
subject, with the confident assertion that the See under *Iron for further discussion.
belief goes back to the days when our ances- For other beUefs involving touching for luck
tors worshipped trees and believed in tree- see *SAILOR, TOUCHING, *STATUES.
alternative explanation is that we
An
spirits. Opie and Tatem, 1989: 213, 449-50; NEKl 10s:6 (1906),
invoke the protection of Jesus Christ, because 130, 174, 230-2.

the cross was made of wood.

Needless to say, there is no basis what- tourist lore. In recent decades, the increase
soever for these explanations, beyond guess- in tourism has provided a major new context
work. Despite considerable effort, no earher for the transmission of folklore. Guides lead-
reference has been found before 1805, as 'tig- ing conducted tours of ancient buildings and
touch-wood' in Anderson's Ballads in Cum-
R. historic towns diversify the historical infor-
berland Dialect (p. 35) as noted by Opie and mation with colourful titbits of legend, in
Tatem. The 1,200 year silence between the which murders, treasures, pirates, and ghosts
Christianization of England and that refer- are likely to figure; in some towns, there are
ence make it unlikely that the belief existed, specialist 'ghost tours' where visitors are led.
let alone was popularly held, in that time. It is after dark, to look at reputedly haunted sites

interesting to note that this, and the next and hear the tales attached to them. Hotels
quotation offered by Opie and Tatem (in and pubs may publicize their ghosts as an
1828), areboth to children's chasing games attraction to visitors, and innumerable book-
where you are safe while you are touching lets offer 'Tales and Traditions of X-shire',
wood. There are many other similar games where similar material is prominent. Some
where temporary safety relies on being in a comes, directly or indirectly, from older books
particular place or situation, with an of regional folklore, some from current
accompanjdng phrase (see also touching iron, rumour, speculation, and creative variation on
below). In the absence of ftirther evidence, we older themes. Naturally, it then feeds back
would suggest that 'touch wood', as a phrase into popular awareness and gets passed on.
and as an action, comes from a popular child- There is a lively market for traditional arte-
ren's game, of the late 18th century. facts, especially foods based on local recipes;
'Touching iron' is recorded earlier than pubs and restaurants in historic towns often
'touching wood', although still not nearly adopt menus and decor exploiting nostalgic
back into pre-Christian times. Opie and Tatem links, real or alleged, with past 'heritage'.
quote from The Craftsman of 4 February 1738, *Com dollies are on sale all the year round;
'In Queen Mary's reign, "Tag" was all the play. wishing wells raise money for good causes;
 Trash 366

*
Pearly Kings and Queens appear at events Simpson, 1982; fLS News 18 (1993), 7-8; 19 (1994), 5-6; 20
(1994), 4-6; 21 (1995), 11-12; 25 (1997), 12-13.
arranged by the Tourist Board. These items or
events are generally accompanied by printed
hand-outs briefly explaining their traditional treasure. Buried treasure is a favourite theme
basis. in popular lore; many, if not most, ancient
earthworks, barrows, standing stones, and
Tk'ash. A sinister Lancashire
*black dog, once similar sites are alleged to contain it (Grinsell,

widely feared in the Burnley area as a sure 1976), as are old churches and mansions,
*omen of the death of a member of one's fam- ruined castles, crossroads, and the ubiquitous
ily (N&(1 ls:2 (1850), 51). It was large and
secret *tunnels. Sometimes it is Unked to his-
shaggy, with 'eyes as big as saucers', and got torical persons and events; thus, in Hertford-
its name from the noise made by its feet, like shire there are tales of a lost Roman 'treasure
'that of a heavy shoe in a miry road'. It was city', the hidden gold of the Knights Templar,
also called Skriker, from the sound of its howl- the 'plate and monys' of St Albans Abbey, and
ing voice on occasions when it was invisible. the loot of Wicked Lady Ferrers, who lived by
highway robbery (Jones-Baker, 1977: 31-45).
treacle mines. In many parts of England cer- Legends such as these could be duplicated
tain small villages are jokingly said to have a from every county. Sometimes this wealth
secret treacle mine on their territory. 20th- takes on fantastic forms—a man buried in
centiuy examples have been reported from gold or silver armour, gold or silver coffins,
Cumbria, Devon, Essex, Gloucestershire, silver gates, even the Golden Calf of the Bible.

Hampshire, Kent, Lancashire, Leicestershire, However, it was not thought easy to find the
Norfolk, Surrey, Sussex, and Wiltshire: no treasure, or to keep it, for spirits were Ukely to
doubt there are others too. Similar jokes are be guarding In Lancashire, ghostly black
it.

made about porridge or toothpaste quarries, hens, cocks, horses, and dogs are mentioned,
snuff mills and jam mines, but they are less and also *boggarts and *bogles. In Sussex,
widespread and far less elaborate. legends of two huge snakes preventing
tell

Basically, the joke is about impossibility- access to a pot of gold in a tunnel; the *Devil
treacle is not found in mines, any more than deterring treasure-seekers with thunder<laps
money on trees— but it can work on many and/or shifting the Golden Calf underground
levels. Sometimes it is a taunt,
implying that
as soon as they approach it; a ghostly calf with
the people of X are such fools that they go fiery eyes; and an evil spirit in the form of a
dig-
ging for treacle, or too lazy to do honest work, black hen (Simpson, 1973: 23-5). In Cheshire,
or so poor they live only on bread and tteacle; it is said that demons
guard Richard II's gold in
sometimes it is a hoax, in which a child or a a well at Beeston Castle, and ensure that any-
newcomer is gulled or bewildered; sometimes one trying to reach it will go mad or be strick-
a put-off from mother to child ('Don't bother en dumb with horror (Hole,1937: 67). In other
me now, I'm off to the treacle mine'); some- tales, seekers the last minute by break-
fail at
times an emblem of local identity, ing a *taboo on speaking before the work is
proudly
used in the name of a pub or a sports team, or complete; they may compound their mistake
as a tourist attraction. by boasting, swearing, or blaspheming, as at
The treacle mine is a theme on which poker- *Willy Howe. In real Ufe, magical books gave
faced humorists play elaborate variations, the instructions for making 'Mosaical rods' to help
aim being to produce some plausible explana- in the search, and for invoking other spirits to
tion of what and where it is, defeat the guardians; magicians at all levels,
weaving in as
many local allusions as possible.
Perhaps the from village fortunetellers to Dr Dee,
treacle comes from an abandoned of claimed the ability to find treasure, and many
dump
army food dating from the Crimean War accounts of such attempts are on record
(Chobham, Surrey); or by the geological com- (Thomas, 1971:236-8).
pression of ancient sugar-cane forests
(Dunchidock, Devon); or it is waste oil from an trees. The characteristics traditionally ascrib-
American airbase (Tadley, Hampshire). The ed to various species of tree differ sharply, and
machinery for extracting it, and the docks will be found under the name of each species.
from which it is exported, are Certain themes, however, can be appUed to
lovingly
described (Corpusty and Fring,
Norfolk); one any that is locally famous (Thomas, 1983: 216-
mine employs *boggarts (Sabden,
Lancashire). 19). The most widespread is a claim that it is
367 truce terms

the tallest, largest, or oldest of its species in ers and parsons fried to *lay him by setting
the country; the great ages mentioned are him endless tasks: to empty the 'bottomless'
probably exaggerated, especially for *oaks and Dozmary Pool with a cracked limpet shell, or
*yews. *Origin legends are also common; weave ropes of sand in Gwenvor Cove, or
some claim the tree was planted by some fam- sweep all sand away from Porthcumo Cove,
ous personage, others that there was some- while demons harassed him. He is still strug-
thing sinister or miraculous about its growth. gling with these tasks, and his howls of fury
It may be supposedly sprung from a seed laid are heard in every gale.
in the mouth of a dead man, as is said of an Hunt, 1865: 131-45; B. C. Spooner. John Tregagle of
elm in the graveyard at Kingston-on-Sea in Trevorder: Man and Ghost (1935); A. L Rowse, History Today

and a sycamore growing out of a 15 (1965), 828-34.

Sussex (JS),
tomb from the stake
at Clavering (Essex); or
thrust through the corpse of a murderer or a trick or treat, see *halloween.

suicide, as is said of a beech called 'the Amy

Tree' at St MelUon (Cornwall), and certain truce terms. Words which are accepted
elms in Bedfordshire and Gloucestershire amongst a group of children as a valid way of
(Folk-Lore 56 (1945), 307; Palmer, 1994: 43). calling a temporary truce during the course of
Naturally, these are among the many trees a game or other activity, and thereby claiming
said to be haunted. In Hertfordshire, the immunity from being caught, touched, etc.
churchyards of Aldenham, Chesunt, Tewin, lona and Peter Opie were the first to attempt a
and Watford each contain (or formerly con- systematic look at this aspect of what they
tained) an old tomb spUt apart by one or more termed children's 'code of oral legislation',
trees, said to be that of an unbehever who and their fieldwork in the 1950s brought strik-
declared that was a God, or a life
if there really ing results. A range of words were found, but
*
after death, a tree would sprout from his or their use was markedly regional and they
her tomb (N&Q. lls:8 (1913), 425). were able to present a map showing the dom-
Some individual frees had an important inant words in each area (see Opie and Opie,
social and symboUc as landmarks,
role 1959: 149). The word with the widest distri-
assembly points, or boundary markers, since bution was 'barley', which has a very long
they 'were older than any of the inhabitants, hterary history, and others were 'fainites'
and they symbolized the community's con- (probably from Middle Enghsh), 'kings', 'kings
tinued existence' (Thomas, 1983: 216); large and crosses', 'skinch', 'scribs', and 'cree'. The
*oaks were, and are, particularly cherished, small survey reported by Beckwith and Shirley
and often served markers for *beating the
as confirmed and extended the Opies' findings
bounds. Links with real or imagined history for Lincolnshire in 1974, but an even smaller-
are numerous— the Boscobel Oak where scale survey by Kate and Steve Roud in 1988
Charles 1 hid, the New Forest oak from which, completely disagreed. Their research focused
allegedly, the arrow glanced off to kill William on the London Borough of Croydon—which in
Ruftis, *Heme's Oak in Windsor Great Park, the 1950s was firmly in the 'fainites' area-
the stump of one in Hatfield Park where EUza- and they discovered three widely used terms:
beth I heard news of her accession, the 'Rem- 'jecs' (previously unrecorded), 'pax' (previ-

edy Oak' at Wimbome St Giles (Dorset) where ously thought to be only used in private
it is said Edward VI used to sit to touch for the schools), and 'fainites' a definitely poor third.
*king's evil. Without further research, it is impossible to
See also *arbor day, *bawming the thorn, say whether the geographical pattern
*HOLY THORN. reported by the Opies has completely broken
dovm, or whether the Croydon area is anom-
Tregagle, John. A Cornish lawyer and magis- alous. It is quite conceivable that major
trate, John Tregagle (or Tregeagle), who died in changes have taken place in the nearly 30
1655, was remembered in tradition as an years between the Opies' and the Rouds'
utterly dishonest, unscrupulous man who had research, as seven or eight generations of
sold his soul to the Devil. Legend says his ghost schoolchildren have passed through the coun-
was called up from the grave by one of the try'sjunior schools in that time, which is the
parties in a lawsuit, sincehe alone knew the equivalent of over 140 years in adult genera-
truth of the disputed matter, but that it then tion terms.
proved hard to get rid of him. Various conjur- In most historical sources, it is taken for
tunnels 368

granted that the truce word is accompanied by of them: two men who had seen one end of a
crossing the fingers, and in many cases the tunnel wanted to know where it led to, or
truce only lasts while the fingers remain whether there was treasure in it. One of them
crossed. Again the Croydon survey revealed was a musician; at Richmond Castle (York-
several other gestures, although crossed fin- shire) he is said to have been a drummer boy,

gers was by far the most common. At some but at Grantchester (Cambridgeshire) and
schools, boys and girls made different ges- elsewhere, a fiddler or a piper. This musician
tures. Further work on truce terms is certainly entered the tunnel and walked along it, play-
needed. ing as he went, while his friend followed
above ground, tracking him by the sound;
Opie and Opie, 1959: 141-53; Ian Beckwith and Bob
Shirley, 'Truce Terms: A Lincolnshire Survey", Local His- suddenly the music ceased, and the musician
torian 11:8 (1975). 441-4; Kate and Steve Roud, 'Truce was never seen again. It has been pointed out
Terms in Croydon, Surrey, 1988', Talking FoDdore 7 (1989),
that in some places where this story is told
15-20.
thereis a small wood called Fiddler's Copse

midway along the supposed course of the tun-

tunnels. There is nothing more common in nel (Folk-Lore 34 (1923), 378-9).
local tradition than stories about secret tun-
nels; to give individual references is impos-
Turning the Devil's Stone. Just outside the
sible, but most books on local history and lore
churchyard in Shebbear, Devon, lies a large
include some. They are said to run firom cas-
stone, which was apparently accidentally
tles, inns,churches, manor houses, or virtu-
dropped by Satan, or perhaps brought deUb-
ally any old and notable building, and to lead erately from nearby Henscott to stop them
to another building, or dov^Ti to the sea, or
using it as a foundation for a new church.
occasionally into the depths of a hill. Most *
Every year, on the evening of November the
people who talk or write about them do so Fifth,the bell-ringers sound a jangled peal on
with belief, partly because sometimes short the church bells and then proceed to turn the
lengths of tunnelling are indeed found leading Devil's Boulder over, with crowbars. It would
off from the cellars of old buildings, though so be unlucky not to do so.
far these have always turned out, on investiga-
Hole, 1975:101; Shuel, 1985: 17, 19; Kightly, 1986: 222.
tion, to be merely ice-houses or drains. But the
tunnels of rumour and tradition are far long-
er, often running for impossible distances, Tutbury Bull-Running, see bull-running.
and through impossible terrain— under rivers,
through swampy or sandy ground, where they IWelfth Night (5/6 January). Still regarded by
*
would inevitably soon collapse or become many people as the end of the Christmas sea-
flooded. son, and this has a long-standing official sanc-
Most have some sort of explanation tion, as the Council of Tours of ad 567 ruled
attached, drawing on real or imagined history. that the twelve days from the Nativity to the
The tunnel may be said to have served as a Epiphany would constitute one religious festi-
secret passage for smugglers; or to enable val. For most of us nowadays the only practical
priests or monks to leave their buildings aspect of the date is that it is said to be the day
unobserved (in order to meet their mistresses, (or the last day) for taking dovm the Christmas
especially if these were nuns); or as a secret decorations, or bad luck will follow, but in the
entrance to a castle. A modem
variation is to past Twelfth Night had its own traditions,
allege the existence of deep civil or military which have largely been forgotten.
shelters, linked by a network of underground The overriding feeling of reports of Twelfth
passages. Such places do exist (the cliffs of Night celebrations in the 18th and 19th cen-
Dover are said to be honeycombed vdth them), turies that although substantial in their own
is

but it strains credulity to be told, 'When the right,they were somewhat quieter and more
new Pubhc Library was being built at X, they subdued that those at Christmas, but the other
put in a nuclear shelter for the Mayor at the recurrent feature is that there is invariably
same time.' mention of cake and alcohol. The Twelfth
Tunnels can also be places where *treasure Night cake was made the centre of a particular
is hidden, and where *ghosts walk, either in custom, by which a King and Queen were
the tunnel or above ground, following its chosen to preside over the festivities. A bean
track. A tragic story is told about eight or nine and a pea were baked in the cake, and when
 lyior, Edward Burnet

slices were handed out to the company, who- interest in ethnology, which developed while
ever got the piece with the bean in it became travelling in Cuba and Mexico, led to his three
King, while whoever got the pea was Queen. influential books. Researches into the Early His-
The custom was so well known that 'The King tory of Mankind (1865); Primitive Culture (1871);
of the Bean' was proverbial for someone tem- and Anthropology, an Introduction to the Study of
porarily in charge of celebratory fiin. In some Man and Civilisation (1881), which estabUshed
cases, coins were used instead of beans and him as an original and important thinker and
peas, while others adopted themore prosaic earned him the title 'Father of Anthropology'.
method of dravmig names from a hat, which He was appointed Keeper of the University
gave scope for widening the play-acting, by Museum at Oxford in 1883, Reader in Anthro-

giving everybody present characters as well. pology 1884, and served as the first ever
Samuel Pepys recorded using this method for Professor of Anthropology 1896-1909. Tylor
the first time in his Diary for 6 January 1669. was knighted in 1912.
Herrick {Hesperides, 1648) also devotes a whole Tylor was also hailed as the 'Father of Folk-
poem to the 'Twelfe Night King and Queene'. lore', as his theories were eagerly adopted by

Substantially the same bean-King custom all the early British folklorists— *Clodd,
existed on the European continent, and Gomme, *Lang, *Hartland, and many others.
Hutton believes that the custom was In his appUcation of Darwin's evolutionary
reintroduced to Britain from the Continent by theories to human cultures he constructed the
the late Tudor period. theoiy of *survivals (the idea that modem folk-
The drink was often in the form of a cere- lore is a survival from a previous stage of civil-
i|
If menial *wassail bowl— a large receptacle, ization and can thus be used to reconstruct
similar to the modem punch bowl, from that stage), which became the cornerstone of
which everyone was served. It contained a folklore thinking for generations. He was also

special drink, often called Lamb's Wool, made one of the first to use what became the 'com-
from roasted apples, sugar, and nutmeg in ale, parative method', drawdng on material from
or sometimes wine. By extension from the one all over the world in his attempts to correlate

Twelfth Night cake, the day had become by customs, and he identified 'animism' as the
the 19th century a great one for cakes and pas- universal primitive belief in the existence of
tries in general.Hone reports that every Lon- spiritual beings which he claimed provided
don confectioner made a point of displaying a the basis for all religions, and so a means
splendid windowful of cakes in all sorts of of comparing them. The new discipline of
shapes and sizes (Hone, 1827: 24-30). anthropology, while gratefiil for Tylor' s organ-
In agricultural areas, two interrelated cus- izational as well as theoretical work, soon
toms connected to Twelfth Night were *was- moved on from his theories, but the folklorists
sailing, and the lighting of fires in the wheat did not. They continued to couch their
fields, toensure a good crop for the coming investigations in terms of survivals well into
year. The latter was apparently confined to the the 20th century. Nevertheless, as Dorson
western side of England as reported from Her- clearly shows, Tylor's folklore followers were
efordshire, Worcestershire, and Gloucester- extremely selective in their readings of his
shire: '. they make twelve fires of straw, in a
. . books, as there is much that they should have
row. Around one fire, which they make larger disagreed with. Andrew Lang, for example,
than the rest, they drink a glass of cider to who was probably the most effusive in his
their master's health and success to the next thanks to Tylor, chose to ignore the latter' s
harvest. Returning home they receive car- obvious debt to Max Miiller and the solar

raway seed cakes and cider . . .'

(Thomas mythologists whom Lang himself had lam-
Rudge, History of the County of Gloucester (1803), basted a few years before. Even on the knotty
ii. 42). question of whether outwardly similar myths
See also *baddeley cake, *holy thorn, could be explained by transmission or by
wassailing. independent creation, Lang favoured coinci-
Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 50-91; Hutton. 1996: 15-16,
dent and multiple invention, whereas Tylor
110-11; Brand, 1849: i. 21-34; Hone, 1827: i. 24-30. leaned more towards the borrowing of m5^hs
between peoples.
Dorson, 1968: jpossim; Justin Wintle, Makers o/19th Century
lyior, Edward Burnet (1832-1917). His Culture (1982), 640-1; DNB.
Uffington, White Horse of (Oxfordshire, makes sense, as the figure's position did
formerly Berkshire). This famous *hill figure change slightly over the centuries.
certainly existed in the middle of the 12th Marples, 1949: 28-66; Stuart Piggott. Antiquity 5 (1931),
century, when it is mentioned in a legal 37-46; Diana Woolner, Folklore 78 (1967), 90-111; David
document as a landmark, but its true age and Miles and S. Palmer, Current Archaeology 12: no. 10 (1995),
372-8.
purpose have been hotly debated. Aubrey
asserted that 'the White Horse was made by
umbrellas. The fact that it is vmlucky to open
Hengist, who bore one on his arms or stand-
ard'; in 1738 the Revd Francis Wise said Alfred
an umbrella indoors is one of the most widely
the Great had it cut to celebrate his victory known superstitions in England today, achiev-

over the Danes at Ashdown in 871. Archaeolo- ing sixth place in our *Superstitions Survey
gists assigned it tothe *Celtic period c.lOO bc, 1998/9 Top Ten. Some go further to say it is
because of its style—a disjointed figure com- particularly bad if you hold it over your head.
There are other less well-known beliefs about
posed of single thin Unes, with a schematically
rendered head (Piggott, 1931). This argument umbrellas: unlucky to place an umbrella
it is

was challenged by supporters of Saxon dating, on a table, or a bed, and if you drop your
umbrella someone else must pick it up for you
arguing that traces of a more reahstic design
remained (Woolner, 1967). In the 1990s, (this is also said of walking sticks and *spoons).

excavation confirmed the Horse's disjointed Clearly, these beliefs cannot be particularly
outline; moreover, luminescent silt dating old, as the umbrella itself only became widely

produced the startlingly early date of c.lOOO accepted in England at the end of the 18th
BC, making styhstic arguments irrelevant century. Indeed, none of them has been found
earlier than the 1880s. There seems to be no
(Miles and Palmer, 1995).
The White Horse needed regular scraping, —
explanation rational or otherwise for these
—
and in 1677 a tourist noted that 'some that superstitions.
dwell herabout have an obligation upon their Opie and Tatem, 1989: 415; N&Q.8s:10 (1896), 196, 472;
lands to repair and cleanse this landmark, or 8s:ll (1897), 332,430.

else in time it may turn green'. Thomas Cox, in

his edition of Britannia (1720), said it was unbaptized babies. Until recent times, the
weeded annually, the workmen ending the Church of England and Roman Cathohc
day 'in feasting and merriment'. The Scouring of Church did not allow miscarried or stillborn
the White Horse, a novel by Thomas Hughes babies to be buried in consecrated ground, as
(1857), gives a Uvely description of the they had not been *baptized; it was thought
accompanying fair, with stalls, sideshows, and (exphcitly by Cathohcs, more vaguely by
games— including toboganning down the Anglicans) that they went neither to Heaven
on the jawbone of a horse.
steep hill nor Hell, but to Limbo, where they could never
Legends and beUefs concerning the White know God. Yet, being human, they deserved
Horse are few. It was sometimes said that *St some respect; the professional oath required
George killed his dragon on a nearby hill, and of midwives in 1649 instructed them:
that the White Horse is a pictiure of the saint's
Item, if any childe bee dead borne, you your selfe
horse (according to some), or the dragon itself
shall see it buried in such secret place as neither
(according to others). A wish made while Hogg nor Dogg, nor any other Beast may come unto
standing on the horse's eye would come true. it, and in such sort done, as it may not be found or

A tradition that it was 'creeping up the hill' perceived, as much as you may; and that you shall
 unicorns

not suffer any such childe to be cast into the Jaques Trinity, at which it ran off" joyfully (James,
(privy) orany other inconvenient place. (Anon., The 1922: 421).
Book of Oaths (1649), 289) an infant was not
Socially, ftilly integrated
into thecommunity before *baptism; in some
The lack of a proper *funeral was bitterly Yorkshire fishing villages, it was until recently
felt;in Gosforth (Lancashire) in the 1950s, a 'unthinkable' to take it into any house but its

village craftsman said 'If tha didn't get kiddy parents' (Clark. 1982: 116, 124).
baptised by t'parson, it would have to be put
in a box and stuck in t'ground like some sort o' undead, the. This modem term usefiilly dif-
animal ... It wouldn't be right like a proper ferentiates the reanimated corpse emerging
babby, it would be just like burying a dog or a physically from its tomb from the *ghost (a

sheep' (Clark, 1982: 117). spiritual entity). The former mentioned by

is

Various compromises were devised to soften several medieval writers; William of Malmes-
the rule. The baby might be laid on the bury says it is well known that the Devil

unpopular *nori:h side of the churchyard, or causes bodies of the evil dead to walk (Gesta
just inside its wall, without ceremony or Regum, ii, chapter 4). *William of Newburgh
gravestone, or it might be secretly placed in tells of three cases, at Alnwick and Berwick-
the coffin of an adult, to share the latter's on-Tweed and in Buckinghamshire (see *vam-
ftineral and grave. In 1859, when an under- pires). Walter *Map describes one in Hereford
taker was caught doing this, the Daily Telegraph which called people by night, so that they
denounced him as ignorant and ghoulish (10 sickened and died; it was laid by decapitation
Oct. 1859), but the practice remained common (De Nugis Curialium, ii, chapter 27).

throughout the 20th century, especially Some intriguing local stories about reve-
among the poor (Radford, Radford, and Hole, nants were jotted down in Latin by a monk of
1961: 346). As a hospital administrator Byland Abbey (Yorkshire) around 1400, as
explained in a letter to The Times (31 Mar. 1983) undoubted facts (James, 1922); one concerns a
it was hard to get permis-
after a similar case, certain Robert of Killibume, who used to come
sion for burying stillbirths in consecrated out of his grave at night and roam about, ter-
ground, and 'tandem disposal' eased the par- rifying the townsfolk and their dogs, until
ents' pain. Some Anglican clergy knew and some youths caught him in the churchyard
approved the custom; one said it was 'in order and held him there till the priest arrived to
that the little ghost may not torment its par- hear his confession and absolve him.
ents wdth reproachfiil lamentation' (Puckle, Post-medieval EngUsh folklore prefers
1926). ghosts to wandering corpses, but the older
The opposite attitude was expressed by a belief is implied when the bodies of suicides,
Devonshire man in 1852: 'When 1 wasa young criminals, and witches are said to be staked or
man was thought lucky to have a still-
it buried face down, to prevent them 'walking';
bom child put into any open grave, as it was in the case of suicides, staked burial in the
considered a sure passport to heaven for the roadway was required by law until 1823. In
next person buried there' (N&Ci ls:5 (1852), County Durham, it was thought that unless
77). In the last quarter of the 20th century, this was done, the Devil would enter the
social and reUgious attitudes have changed corpse and reanimate it (Brockie, 1886: 151-2).
greatly; it is now normal for the bereaved par- See also * burial, irregular.
ents, the medical staff, and the hospital
chaplain to arrange a ftineral (Walter, 1990: underground passages, see ^tunnels.
271-80).
In English folklore, ghosts of unbaptized unicorns. The unicorn's horn was credited
babies appear in various forms; in Devon, they with the ability to detect or neutralize poi-
become butterflies or moths; in
are said to sons, and to cure many diseases, including
Devon and Cornwall, *pixies; in Yorkshire, plague, epilepsy, and the bite of a mad dog.
nightjars; in many districts, *Will-o'-the- Various objects were sold as such, at very high
Wisps (Radford, Radford, and Hole, 1961: 346). prices; one kept in the Tower of London was
It was sometimes thought they would rest if officially valued at £600 in 1649, though one
given a name; a monk in medieval Yorkshire visitor in 1635 had estimated it at £18,000 or
recorded how a man met the ghost of his ovm £20,000 (Travels of Peter Mundy, iii, I, p. xx).
infant son and named it in the name of the Most were narwhal tusks; a slice from one,
urban legends 372

mounted in enamelled gold and dating from ning men continued doing so, especially for
about 1560, known as the Campion Pendant, suspected *witchcraft. It had an essential role
has been partly pared away on the reverse, in a common type of *counterspell to cure
presumably so that the parings could be taken such illness, based on the idea that the magic
as medicine. Walrus tusks and rhinoceros link between the witch and her victim could
horns were also used, for example sUced to be exploited to cause pain to the former, using
make cups and spoons. Less expensive were the victim's urine as the medium. It could be
medical powders and potions supposedly con- heated in a *witch bottle, or baked in a cake, as
taining scrapings of unicorn horn; these were *Herrick describes (Hesperides (1648), no. 891).
still being sold by EngUsh pharmacists in the The witch would hurry to her victim's house,
mid-1 8th century (Shepard, 1930/1996). begging for mercy, and would agree to lift her
spell (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 416-18).
urban legends, see *contemporary In folk *medicine, a lotion made from urine
LEGENDS. was thought good for chilblains; in the Fens, it
had to be 'the last urine passed by a dying per-
i. For centuries, diagnosing illness by son, mixed with beastUngs, the first milk
observing the patient's urine was standard given by a cow after calving' (Folklore 69 (1958).
medical procedm-e, and folk healers and *cun- 118).
Valentine's Day (14 February). For today's 1666, for example, include references to
adolescents and young adults, this is a highly drawing Valentines by lot, and complaints
popular festival, bolstered by the powerful about the expense of several presents he felt
greetings-card industry and huge media obliged to give the lady who had drawn him,
coverage. for example 'a dozen pairs of gloves and a
The custom of choosing sweethearts on Val- pair of silk stockings' as late as 10 March.
entine's Day arose in court circles in France More modest gifts, sometimes anonymous,
and England in the 14th century, supposedly are mentioned in 19th-century accounts;
because birds began mating on this date. thus, at Norwich, people laid packages on
Poems were composed for the event, the earli- doorsteps, banged the knocker, and rushed
est being Chaucer's Parliament of Fowls (c.l381), away (Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 137-8).
about rival bird-suitors quarrelling on Valen- Besides genuine presents there was a trad-
tine's Day. Some 30 years later, the poet John ition of sending joky ones, or worthless items

Lydgate used the word 'valentine' both for the grandly wrapped.
person loved and the poem sent, as in modem Sending special letters probably dates from
EngUsh ('A Valantine to Her That Excelleth the mid-1 8th century, and grew steadily more
All',and 'A Kalendare'); in 1477, Margery popular. Special writing paper was available in
Brews wrote to her fiance John Paston as her the 1820s; the commercially produced card
'right wellbelovyd Voluntjm'. Why
this par- appeared around 1840, and by the 1860s was
ticular date was chosen is uncertain. Most like- big business. Early examples are exquisite,
ly, counted as the first day of spring in
it expensive confections in lace and satin, but
whichever French region invented the custom more down-market printed cards gradually
(many medieval calendars reckoned spring became the norm— along with joke parodies
began in February, either on the 7th or the and spiteful anti-Valentines. These are often
22nd). There is nothing in legends about St held responsible for the decline of the custom
Valentine to link him with birds or lovers, nor around the turn of the century; it began to
any evidence supporting an 18th-century the- pick up again in the late 1920s, and mush-
ory deriving the festival from the Roman roomed after the Second World War. Cur-
Lupercalia (15 February). rently Valentine's Day is going from strength
Upper-class Valentine customs are well to strength; a recent development has been
documented, but there is little information whole pages of messages in newspapers and
about the rest of society before 19th-century magazines.
folklore collections; it is quite feasible that Other customs and beliefs include, natur-
most people took little notice of the day until love charms and *divinations, for
ally, girls'

quite late on. Emphasis has changed over example putting *yarrow under one's pillow
time, but the main elements have been: (1) or turning stockings inside out (Porter, 1969:
choosing someone to be your 'Valentine' by 106). It was widely said that the first person
lot, by accident, or deliberately; (2) gifts; (3) seen would be one's fixture spouse, and vari-
letters or cards, signed or anonymous; (4) love ous strategies were adopted to manipulate this
divinations. omen; in 1662, Mrs Pepys spent the day with
Pepys gives excellent descriptions of 17th- her hands over her eyes to avoid seeing some
century Valentines, rarely failing to mention painters working in her house. Children in
the day; the details varied from year to year, many areas took occasion to go from door
showing the custom was fluid. His entries for to door in the early morning, singing 'Good
 374
vampires

morrow, Valentine', and expecting cakes, fruit, ated with vampires in Europe— the link with
or money (Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 147). plague, and the need to destroy the uncor-

Jack B. Oruch, 'St Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in Feb- rupted bodies. In later folklore, a tradition!
ruary', Speculum 56:3 (1981), 534-65; Hutton, 1996:
146- persisted that suicides, criminals, or witches
50; Wright and Lones, 1938: ii. 136-57; Folklore Society should be staked 'to stop them walking'.
Cuttings File.
Full translations of the texts are in Joseph
Stevenson, The History of William of Newburgh
vampires. In East European folklore, a vam- (1856; reprint 1996), 656-61; and Montague
pire is a a bloated, blood-filled corpse which Summers, The Vampire in Europe (1929; reprint
leaves its tomb, bringing disease and death. It 1996), 80-8. The latter renders sanguisuga (Ut-
is often assumedconcept was
that the erally 'blood-sucker') as 'vampire', not 'leech';
unknown in England until imported (in glam- though tempting, this is too bold. For Euro-
orized form) by 19th-century noveUsts. How- pean vampire lore, see Paul Barber, Vampires,
ever, *WilUam of Newburgh in the late 12th Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality (1988).
century recorded several contemporary
accounts of active corpses, one of which cor- Vanishing Hitchhiicer, the. A common
responds perfectly to the folkloric vampire's international *contemporary legend, first so
appearance and behaviour (Historia Rerum named by American scholars in 1942; it
Anglicarum, book V, chapter 24). became famous as the title-story in Jan Brun-

appeared at Alnwick (Northumberland) in

It vand's The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban
1196, emerging nightiy from its grave to roam Legends and their Meanings (1981). It has two
the streets, corrupting the air with 'pestifer- basic forms, the first being as well known in
ous breath', so that plague broke out and England as America. A car driver picks up a
many died. When two bold men decided to girl who is hitching a lift home; she chooses
'dig up this baneful pest and bum it with fire', the back seat, but disappears while they are in
they found the corpse much closer to the sur- transit. He goes to her home anyway, where
face than they had expected; it had swollen to he learns she had died years before, in a car
a horrifying size, its face was
'turgid and suf- crash; sometimes in the cemetery he finds a
fiised with blood', and its shroud in tatters. jacket he had lent her draped over a grave. In
They gave it a sharp blow with a spade; from the second form (rare in England), the hitch-
the wound gushed 'such a stream of blood that hiker is male, and supernatural, not ghostiy;
it might have been taken for a leech (sanguis- he foretells some large-scale event such as
uga) filled with the blood of people' many war, and then adds a minor prophecy before
(trans. Stevenson, 1856/1996: 660-1). So they disappearing; the latter soon comes true, and
tore the heart out, dragged the body away, and the driver reahzes his passenger was an angel,
burned it; this put an end to the plague. or Jesus.
William gives three further accounts of Both versions are often told with full belief;
aggressive *undead (chapters 22-4), all recent the first draws on the widespread current
and vouched for by eyewitnesses. In Bucking- belief in *ghosts, while the second circulates
hamshire, a dead man returned to his widow's in more restricted groups where its reUgious
bed, almost crushing her with his weight, and implications are credible. How old the story is
then terrorized kinsmen and neighbours; the depends on how you define it; if the criterion
body was found uncorrupted, and a written is not car travel but the sudden appearance
pardon was laid on its breast, though some and disappearance of a spectral or super-
had advised burning it. At Berwick-on-Tweed, natural fellow traveller, parallels from the
a 'pestiferous corpse' roamed the city, 'pur- 19th century or earUer are easy to find (Ben-
sued by a pack of dogs with loud barkings'; it nett, in Bennett and Smith 1984: 45-63).
was cut to pieces by ten brave young men, and Hitching a Uft features in a tale of an allegedly
burnt. At Melrose (Scotiand) a monk who was true encounter in Lincolnshire in 1918: two
attacked by a corpse struck it with an axe and women in a gig take up a weary-looking man,
chased it back to its grave; next day it was dug who silently leaves once they reach an inn; it
up to be burnt, and observers noted its 'huge turns out it is the ghost of a drowned man,
woimd, and a great quantity of gore which had whose corpse is laid out in that very inn (N&Q_
flowed from it in the sepulchre'. 12s:5 (1919), 205-6).
Though blood is only mentioned in two of
these tales, all have features regularly associ- Vaughan Williams, Ralph (1872-1958). One
375 vervain

of the most important figures in the British necessarily national. (First published in 1934,
classical musical scene in the 20th century, reprinted in National Music and Other Essays (2nd edn.,

Vaughan Williams was also the one who made 1986), 63)

most use of a knowledge of folk-song in his ended in the

his collecting days
Although
compositions. By 1903, Vaughan Williams was 1920s, Vaughan Williams maintained an
already aware of folk-song, having access to active interest in traditional music for the rest
the pubUcations of Frank *Kidson, Sabine of his Ufe. He played an important part in both
*Baring-Gould, and Lucy *Broadwood, and the *EngUsh Folk Dance Society and the Folk-
indeed he was already lecturing on the sub-
song Society and was instrumental in
ject. A trip to Essex in December of that year
artanging their amalgamation in 1932. The
introducedhim to Mr Pottipher of Ingrave, *
Library at Cecil Sharp House, headquarters of
who sang him the song 'Bushes and Briars', the *English Folk Dance and Song Society, is
which immediately fired Vaughan Williams's named after him.
interest and enthusiasm, and opened his eyes
Some of the songs he collected were
to the real thing. On subsequent trips to Essex,
pubUshed in the *]oumal of the Folk-Song Society,
Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, Hampshire, Her-
Folk-Songs from the Eastern Counties (1908), Eight
efordshire,and elsewhere in the country, he Traditional English Carols (1919), Twelve Trad-
had amassed the bulk of his collection of 810
from Herefordshire {with E. M. Lea-
itional Carols
songs by 1913. Vaughan Wilhams was typical ther, 1920), and see
also, Roy Palmer, Folk Songs
of his generation when it came to collecting Collected by Ralph Vaughan WiUiams (1983); R.
procedures. He was primarily interested in Vaughan Williams and A. L. Lloyd, The Penguin
the tunes and often failed to note more than Book of English Folk Songs (1959); Percy Dearmer,
the first verse of a text. He did not try to note
Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Martin Shaw,
the whole repertoire of a singer, but concen- The Oxford Book of Carols (1928). Articles about
trated on those he found interesting, and nei-
Vaughan Wilhams appear in Folk Music Journal,
ther did he record any details of the singer's life 2:3 (1972), English Dance & Song, 34:3 (1972), and
or attitudes to singing beyond the bare name, 45:1 (1983). His own views are presented in
age, and occupation. Collecting songs at that National Music and Other Essays (1963; 2nd edn.,
time was an arduous business, getting to
1986).
remote villages (often by bicycle), spending
hours searching out singers, noting tunes and
words by hand in the open air or pub taprooms. Vaughan Williams Memorial Library
The fact that Vaughan WUhams, more than (VWML). The and archives service of
library
the *EngUsh Folk Dance and Song Society. The
any of his contemporaries, used the tunes he
collected in his own works has been labelled as original nucleus for the hbrary was the collec-
tion of books bequeathed by Cecil * Sharp on
a form of cultural theft, but there is no doubt
his death in 1924, and the collection was
that he felt this musical heritage was import-
ant for the future health of society and the
renamed after Ralph *Vaughan WilUams's
death in 1958. The collection has continued to
overwhelming importance of returning these
tunes to the people, and this was his way of grow and by a gradual process of professional-
ization the VWML has become the most
doing so— as a composer and musician. He felt
he was on a rescue mission, and, of course, he important concentration of material on trad-
itional song, dance, and music in the country.
was right. That Vaughan Williams was deeply
Address: Cecil Sharp House, 2 Regents Parks
affected, as a composer, by the songs he found
is well known. Their tunes turn up directly in
Road, London ^fWl 7AY(Tel.: 020 7485 2206).
over 30 of his pieces, made a direct impact on
his work on carols, and their more subtle vervain. Pieces of vervain root, or a sachet of
influence can be seen and felt in many others. its dried leaves, were hung round the neck to
He constructed a theory of 'national music' cure scroftila, prevent *nightmares, and make
based largely on his experience of folk-song: one immune to snakebite; it was also said to
staunch blood, because it grew at the foot of
Folk-song is not a cause of national music, it is a
manifestation of it. The cultivation of folk-songs is
Christ's cross.One Jacobean poet says it 'hin-
dreth vetches of their \mW (Drayton, Nimphidia
only one aspect of the desire to found an art on the
fundamental principles which are essential to its (1627),Une 391); this probably alludes to hag-
well-being. National music is not necessarily folk- riding, since it is nowhere mentioned as a
song; on the other hand folk-song is. by nature. house protection.
Virgins' Garlands 376

Virgins' Garlands, see *maidens' garlands. origin, but it is on its way to becoming
entrenched in the popular mind and becom-
visiting customs, see *calendar customs. ing folklore in itself It is possible that the V-
sign developed from the much older *homs
V-sign. The quintessential British offensive symbol, used to imply someone is a cuckold
gesture for most of the 20th century, formed since at least the 16th century, although this

by holding up a hand with the middle and gesture was traditionally made with littie fin-
index finger upright in a V shape, the thumb ger and index finger, and did not have the
and other two fingers ciu-led into the pahn; aggressive force of the V-sign. The American
the palm facing towards the gesturer. If asked, gesture, formed by holding up the middle fin-
most people would gloss the meaning as ger alone, which was roughly equivalent to
'F you' or something similar, and it was the V-sign, has been introduced to British cul-
certainly a very potent offensive gesture until ture by American films and other media, since
recent years when it seems to be losing its about the 1960s, and is now well understood
abihty to offend. Nevertheless, most British by most British people. It will be interesting to
people would still be carefiil, if they needed to note whether it replaces the V-sign in the
signify the number two in a gesture to some- offensive gesture vocabulary.
one else, to make the sign with pahn facing the The V-sign formed with the palm away from
recipient. The history of the gesture is the gesturerhas had a number of meanings. It
imcertain, and there is no evidence of its was used effectively during the Second World
existence before the first decade of the 20th War to signify 'Victory', especially by Win-
century. In recent years an explanation for the ston Churchill, and in this sense it can still be
origin of the V-sign dating it from the Battie of seen in news reports fi:om conflicts all round
Agincourt has appeared. This story maintains the world. In the 1960s, however, it was
that British archers were so effective and so annexed by American, and later British,
feared by their enemy that when the French youth as the 'Peace sign', and a further
captiu-ed an archer they chopped off the two change was signalled when in 1997 the pop
fingers he needed to draw a bow-string. group The Spice Girls used it to signify 'Girl
Bowmen who had not been thus disfigured power'.
took to holding up two fingers to taunt their See also: *fingers, *gestures, *cocking a
cowardly foes. Needless to say, there is no SNOOK, *HORNS, *THUMBS.
shred of evidence to support this unUkely Morris, 1979: 226-40; TaMngFoOdore 1:2 (1986/7), 25-42.
Wade. In Yorkshire, Wade was a *giant who cians in their own right; but there are also
builtMulgrave Castle, while his wife Bell built reports of drunkenness and disorderly
Pickering Castle; they also built 'Wade's conduct.
Causey' to link the two (it is actually a Roman Jonathan E. O. W^ilshere, Leicester Towne Waytes (1970);
road). Bell owned a huge cow; a whale's jaw- Chambers, 1878: ii. 742-4.
bone over a metre long was displayed as this
cow's rib at Mulgrave Castle in the 18th cen- wakes (1). Wakes, feasts,and revels are
tury. Wade was supposed to have been buried regional terms for the same type of event. In
*
atBamby, where two standing stones marked most parishes in pre-Reformation England,
the grave (only one now remains). The name is the day dedicated to the patron saint of the
that of an early Germanic hero, father of local church was set aside for major celebra-
*Wayland (Westwood, 1985: 343-6). tions, as most 'holidays' were Unked to
religious observance.The word 'wake' derives
waits. Originally bands musicians
of from the custom of sitting up and watching (or
employed by city corporations such as Nor- 'waking') in the church overnight, and then
wich, York, Chester, and Leicester, to parade spending the next day in revelry. In medieval
the streets at night playing music to soothe times, these celebrationswould have included
and reassure the inhabitants, and were thus processions led by images of the saint, as well
allied to the Watch who also policed the as general sports, games, and feasting. How-
streets in medieval towns. The waits also ever, the Reformation brought in different
played at civic ceremonial occasions and ideas and the festivities were gradually toned
offered their musical services to whoever down, although many places still kept them
needed them and were wilUng to pay. As city up as a day of jollification. Many parishes
employees they were provided with a livery whose patronal festivals occurred in winter
and badge of office and, at least in earher moved the celebration to *Whitsun or Sep-
periods, were granted a near-monopoly on tember, and the change of calendar in 1752
music-making within the city. The earliest also confused the pattern of feast days. When
references are to the 13th century at York some industrial towns adopted the system of
(1272) and Norwich (1288), and they lasted in closing down the factories or mills for a par-
many places well into the 19th century; at ticular week, the term 'wakes' was adopted.
Leicester they were only aboUshed by the 1836 Some wakes gradually turned into full-blown
Reform Act. Even then they did not disappear fairs, others faded away during the 19th cen-

completely in many places, as each year at tury, while the ones which still had a religious
Christmas they were given a Ucence to play base became attenuated into garden fetes or
during the festive season, collecting money at small-scale church celebrations.
houses that they had serenaded on Boxing In the industrial areas, such as the cotton
Day, which explains why many writers after belt of Lancashire, the wakes took on a much
the 1830s define the waits as specifically higher profile in the festival year, and became
Christmas visiting musicians. In most cases the major celebratory occasion for the semi-
they played wind instruments, hautboys, cla- rural communities and newly urbanized
rinets, bassoons, and so on, but there are also workers. They were often linked with the
mentions of violins and other stringed rushcarts (see *rushbearing), featuring *morris
instruments, and it is clear that the Waits dancers, fairground amusements and stalls,
could be accompUshed and well-known musi- and, by all accounts, a great deal of drinking
wakes (2)

and fighting. During the 19th century they ter cited by Walter Scott in his Minstrelsy of the

increasingly became the target of a combina- Scottish Border. This too describes women sing-
tion of reforming employers, local middle- ing round the corpse about the dead coming to
class citizens, and respectable working-class 'a great launde ftill of thomes and furzen',

leaders, who
argued that the workers' spare where an old man will meet them with the
time should be spent in rational and 'improv- very shoes they once gave away, so they can
ing' pastimes or healthy sport, rather than the cross unhurt (Scott, ed. T. F. Henderson (1902),
hard-drinking, fighting, and dancing for iii. 163-4).
which wakes had become infamous. Admit- This type of wake, mixing prayer-vigil, hos-
tedly, this roughness was only the more vis- pitahty, and entertainment, left no later trace.
ible part of the celebrations, and there were Occasionally, however, something similar was
plenty of other features which were less objec- reinvented for practical reasons; thus, Victo-
tionable, but their days were numbered and rianLondon costermongers wanting to raise
one by one they either faded away, were sup- money for a funeral would visit the widow's

pressed, or transformed. house in groups, make donations, and gather

J.K. Walton and Robert Poole, "The Lancashire Wakes in round the corpse in a dehberately jolly mood
the 19th Century', in: Storch, 1982: 100-24; Hole,1975: (Binder, 1975: 42-3).
154-7; Rightly. 1986: 113-14.

warts. There are more folk cures for warts

wakes (2). Until well into the 20th century, it than for any other ailment, featured in virtu-
was usual for the dead to be kept at home until ally every regional collection. Some simply
the ftineral. Since the body should never be advise rubbing them with a specified plant
left alone, family members would keep watch product, for example the inner skin of broad-
beside but the organized 'wake' attended by
it, bean pods, sUced potato, the juice of dan-
many relatives and neighbours, as in Ireland, deUon, spurge, or greater celandine. If the
virtually vanished from England soon after the wart is a large, fleshy one, it can be starved of
Reformation. Only two records of it remain. blood by tying a thread or hair tightly round
One comes from Aubrey, who noted the mix- the base, and will soon shrivel and drop off".
ture of prayer, drinking, and games so charac- But very often *magical actions are prescribed;
teristic of wake customs: the warts are touched with some object(s) such
At the fiineralls in Yorkshire, to this day they con-
as pebbles, pins, or knotted cord, or identified
tinue the custome of watching & sitting-up all night with them by counting, after which the
the body is interred. In the interim some kneel
till object(s) is/are thrown away or buried. Such
downe and pray (by the corps), some play at cards, methods have been recommended since the
some drink & take Tobacco: they have also Mimicall Middle Ages; recently recorded examples
playes and sports, e.g., they choose a simple young include: 'Rub wart with raw meat and bury
fellow to be a Judge, and then the Suppliants (having
meat afterwards' ('at a crossroads at mid-
first blacked their hands by rubbing it under the bot-
night', according to some); 'Tie as many knots
tome of the Pott), beseech his Lordship and smutt all
as there are warts in a piece of string, throw
his face. They play likewise at Hot-cockles. (Aubrey,
away the string'; 'Count warts, take the same
1686/1880: 30-1)
number of buds from an alder bush, bury
He
gives a glimpse of popular ideas about them'. Some older sources suggest rubbing
the ordeals awaiting the dead: 'The beUefe in the wart with a snail or slug, which is then
Yorkeshire was amongst the vulgar (perhaps is
impaled on a thorn bush and left to die.
in part still), that after the persons death the The underlying assumption is that the fate
soule went over Whinney-moore' (i.e. a moor of the object(s) determines that of the warts: as
of gorse). 'Till about 1616', some hired woman it rots or is lost, so will the warts be; as the
would come to the wake to sing the *Lyke- *snail dies, so does the wart. Sometimes, it is
Wake Dirge, about the soul's journey. It must thought they will be transferred to someone
pass Whinney-moor and the Bridge of Dread else; in 1807 Robert Southey wrote:
to reach Purgatory fire; those who have given
shoes to the poor can cross the moor unhurt, Stealing dry peas or beans, and wrapping them up,
one for each wart, he carries the parcel to a place
and those who have given 'milk or drink' can
where four roads meet, and tosses it over his head,
pass through the fire, but the uncharitable not looking behind to see where it falls; he will lose
will be pricked and burnt 'to the bare bone'. the warts, and whoever picks it up will find them.
The second reference is a late 16th-century let- {Letters from England, no. 50)
379 wasps

Less maliciously, they can be 'given' to the who was convinced she could not successfully
dead: kill anything (e.g. the chicken she was pluck-
ing) until she had washed her face, implying
Wait till you see a funeral then stroke the wart in the
that this was a well-known fact. Henderson
direction in which the funeral is going, saying at the

wart with (1879: 113) reports exactly the same beUef

same time: 'Corpse, corpse, take my
never but again secrecy is import-
fails,
from Durham.
you' [I]t

ant, for no one must see or hear what you are doing. Robert *Herrick has another admonition to
(N&Q.lls:3 (1911), 446) servant maids on the subject of washing
hands:
There were, and are, people credited with
the abiUty to charm away warts by 'buying' Unwasht hands, ye Maidens, know
Dead the fire, though ye blow
them, making the sign of the cross over them,
touching them, or merely looking at them; (Uesperides, 1648)

they sometimes also murmured a charm, but and also how far to throw the water out of the
its words are not recorded. Various rhymes are
door, the further the better to keep out the
known for self-administered charms, for
'evil spright'.
instance to stick a pin in an *ash tree and say:
More dangerous was to wash clothes at the
Ashy tree, ashy tree. wrong time. In fishing communities there was
Pray buy these warts off me, (and still is in some famihes) a strict taboo
against washing clothes on the day a family-
or cut a *cross in a potato, throw it away, and
member has set sail, or on certain other
say:
inauspicious days, because such an action
One, two, three. would 'wash him overboard' or even sink his
Warts go away from me.
ship (Gill, 1993: 15-20, 105-6). One of the most
One, two, three, four.
inauspicious days for washing was *Good Fri-
Never come back no more.
day. Clothes hung out on that day would be
(Tongue, 1965: 43) spotted with blood, and a story is told that
For samples of cures, see Opie and Tatem, 1989: 422-4; Jesus cursed a woman who was washing
Susan Drury, FoDdore 102 (1991), 97-100. For material clothes as he passed by on the way to Calvary
from the 1960s and 1990s, see Gabrielle Hatfield, Warts:
(Henderson. 1879: 82). Similarly, New Year's
SummaTy of the Wart-Cure Survey for the FoDdore Society
(1998). Day was another on which no washing should
be attempted, and washing blankets in May
was also considered unlucky. Good house-
washing. There are a number of beliefs about
was recommended in a rhyme
washing, either the person or clothes, some of wifely practice
which are still current. It was considered which was known in various versions all over
the country:
unlucky, all over the country, for two people
to use the same water to wash their hands. The They that wash on Monday, have all the week to dry
specific result usuallyquoted is that they will They that wash on Tuesday, are not so much awry
quarrel, and there are two remedies advised— They that wash on Wednesday, are not so much to
for one of them to make the sign of the cross blame
with their hand over the water, or for one or They that wash on Thursday, wash for shame
both to spit in the water. The belief is at least They that wash on Friday, wash in need
as old as the 17th century, as John Aubrey They that wash on Saturday, Oh! They're sluts
indeed.
(1686: 99) includesit, and Opie and Tatem

mention another reference fi-om 1652. For (Yorkshire, N&Q. 5s:7 (1877), 139)

19th-century examples, see NbQ_ 4s:8 (1871). See also *soap.

505; 8s:9 (1896), 425. At a much earher date,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 424-6; Henderson, 1879; N&Q.5s:7
washing hands with someone while reciting a (1877), 26, 108. 139. 378; 5s:8 (1877), 77.

particular psalm was pubUshed as a cure for

the ague (Scot, 1584). Presumably as an exten- wasps. These seem to have been little
sion to the shared washing rule, it was regarded by English folklore. Kill the first
reported from Devonshire that it was unlucky wasp you see and you will have good luck and
for two persons to wipe themselves upon a freedom from enemies all the year is reported
towel at the same time (N&<il0s:12 (1909). 66). from Northamptonshire in N&Q, in 1850, and
Cuthbert Bede. vmting in N&Q, (ls:12 (1855). occasionally since then, but this is more
489) reported a Worcestershire servant girl commonly said of *butterfUes and sometimes
wassailing 380

of *snakes. Lean records a proverb, 'If you kill Oiu- bowl it is made of a maplin tree
one wasp, three will come to his funeral' We be good fellows all, I drink to thee.

(Lean, 1902: i. 451), but this is said of other Successive verses salute the horse, the cow,
insects, such as *beetles. Cures for wasp-stings the maids, and the butler (Gloucestershire:
natiu-ally occur regularly in traditional medi- Time's Telescope (1814), 3).
cine, a raw *onion rubbed on the sting being a As an alternative or addition to the drink in
favourite cure. According to a correspondent the bowl, many wassailers carried a box with
from Stourport in N&Q, (4s:8 (1874), 547) it is one or two doUs inside to represent the baby
possible to handle wasps without being stung: Jesus and the Virgin Mary, decorated on the
'A small boy in this parish takes wasps' nests
outside with flowers, ribbons, evergreens, and
with impunity, and without the usual armour so on. Well-made examples had a glass lid for
of gloves and mask, by merely uttering a low the box, which was covered by a white cloth, so
whistle, keeping it up while he removes the that the contents could be 'shown' on each
comb.' visit.The song sung by these visitors was more
*
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 426; Lean, 1902: i. 451; ii. 32.
Ukely to be a Christmas carol, such as 'The
Seven Joys of Mary', and it could be carried out
wassailing. Amongst all the calendar cus- by a single individual or a small group. This
toms which popular folklore enthusiasts have custom seems to have become increasingly
claimed as remnants of luck-bringing rituals, rare during the second half of the 19th century.
The second form of wassailing was much
wassaihng is the only one that has a relatively
clear and undisputed claim to this hneage. more of a man's custom. Again, New Year was
The very name, wassail, comes from wses hseU the favourite time, but groups might be found

meaning 'Be healthy' which in Anglo-Saxon any time over the Christmas/New Year season.
was used as a salutation or toast in its own The custom involved visiting the local orch-
ards and wassaihng the trees to encourage a
right. There are two basic forms of this many-
faceted custom, and both are probably of good crop in the coming year. Songs would be
some considerable antiquity. The first is a sung, the trunks beaten with sticks or
house-*visitingcustom, wishing health to splashed with cider, cider-soaked toast might
be laid at the roots or placed in the branches,
neighbours, and the other is what could be
termed a 'field-visiting' custom, wishing there was much cheering, and, usually, guns
health to, usually, ftnit trees, but also some- were fired into the air. The verses were nor-
times other farm crops, animals, and so on. mally on the lines of:

The proper day for wassailing varied from Here stands a good old apple tree, stand fast root
place to place, but was always in midwinter, Every little twig bear an apple big
at * Christmas, or *New Year, and the name Hats full, caps full, and three score sacks full
also varies considerably, including vessel-cup, Hip! Hip! Hurrah!
waysailing, and howUng. (Edward Swanton, Bygone Haslemere (1914), 285)
In the house-visiting version, young women
This form of wassailing lasted much longer
went about the neighbourhood with a bowl of
than the house-visit custom, and can still be
drink, often spiced ale, dressed up with gar-
seen at Curry Rivel (Somerset) and has been
lands and ribbons, singing or reciting a set of
revived elsewhere. Many sources link wassail-
verses that wished luck to the inhabitants, and
ing with the West Country, but it was wide-
naturally they expected money or food in
return. The drink could be of any suitably fes- spread all over the country. In Sussex, for
example, it was called 'Apple Howling', a
tive sort, but was often described as Lamb's
name that goes back at least to the 17th cen-
Wool, made from spiced ale or cider and
baked apples. Later instances of the custom tury (Sussex Archaeological Collections 1 (1848),
involve men and women, but most of the earl- 110).The eariiest references to come to light so
ier references take it for granted that it was a
far are to c. 1486-93 for pa5nnents for wassails
female custom, and although the actual words
at New Year at St Mary De Pre Priory, St Albans
(Victoria County History: Hertford, iv. 431) and to
may vary, the basic structure and import of
1585 at Fordwich. in Kent (Hutton, 1996: 46),
the verses do not differ a great deal from place
and it is likely that more will be discovered as
to place:
research into early sources continues.
Wassail, wassail aU over the town Wright and Lones, 1940: iii. 223-4, 284-8; Hutton, 1996:
Our toast it is white, our ale it is brown 13-14, 45-63.
381 weather

Red
water-spirits. Several *rivers were said to be
at night.

inhabited by beings who dragged people Shepherd's delight;

Red in the morning.
(especially children) into the water to drown
Shepherd's warning.
them. These include the Ribble and the Tees
(both in Lancashire), homes of *Peg o' Nell and Alluding to high wispy clouds:
Peg Fowler (Henderson, 1866: 265). Several See in the sky the painter's brush.
northern and western counties used the name
The wind around you soon will rush.
Nelly Long-Arms; there was also *Jenny Green-
teeth in pools in Lancashire and Cheshire, and For January weather:
a male figure called Nicky Nye in Somerset
As the day lengthens.
(Tongue, 1970: 108-16). So the cold strengthens.

A rhyme found in many places uses the way

Wayland's Smithy. This megalithic chamber
tomb in Oxfordshire (formerly Berkshire) was low cloud hides hilltops as a sign of rain, nam-
identified in a charter of ad 855 as Welandes ing whichever hill is nearest:
smidde; the spelling 'Wayland', popularized by When wears a cap.
Scott and Kipling, is now the usual one. Way- We in the valley gets a drop.
land was a master-craiitsman in Germanic
sometimes described as an elf or a
In some cases, weather lore is parodied in
legends,
jokes which have themselves become trad-
giant, more often as human; he was lamed and
held captive by a king, but avenged himself by
itional: 'If you X from Y, there will be
can see
rain soon; if you can't see X from Y, it's raining
kiUing the king's young sons and raping his
already.'
daughter, and then escaped by magic flight.
Less rational ways of forecasting included
In folklore Wayland lost his individuahty
the idea that rain on *St Swithin's Day will
and was remembered merely as a fairy black-
continue for 40 days, and that the weather on
smith, of a type known in several European
each of the twelve days of Christmas shows
countries. The antiquary Francis Wise wrote in
what to expect for each month of the coming
1738: 'At this place Uved formerly an invisible
Smith, and if a traveller's Horse had lost a year. An unusual and dramatic form of wea-
ther divination was practised at Adderbury
Shoe upon the road, he had no more to do
than to bring the Horse to this place with a (Oxfordshire) in the latter part of the 19th cen-
tury;men would go out to the fields towards
piece of money, and leaving both there for
eleven o'clock on Martinmas Eve (10 Novem-
some little time, he might come again and
find the money gone, but the Horse new shod.' ber) and keep vigil till midnight, listening to
the wind, for they beUeved that 'the four
In the 19th century, local children used to visit
the Smithy and try to hear the clink of his Angels of the Earth' were flying round and
hammer. round, stirring up the v^dnds. At midnight this
ceased, and the watchers noted which way the
Hilda R. E. Davidson, Folklore 69 (1958), 145-59.
wind was then blowing, for that would be its
prevailing direction for the next three months
weapon salve, see *knives.
(Michael Pickering, Folklore 94 (1983), 252). In
Derbyshire, people would take a candle to the
weather. Lore about the weather consisted bottom of the garden on *Halloween to see
mainly of practical information and advice, which way the wind blew, for it would remain
based on observation of nature, and transmit- in that quarter for three months (Addy, 1895:
ted orally. Such expertise was essential to 118).
*
farmers and seafarers. For the hterate, there Notable storms could be seen as omens
were also other channels of transmission, not- accompanying a great man's death, or as signs
ably almanacs, which gave guidance on the either of the wrath of God or of the activity of
sowing this or that crop, begin-
right date for the Devil. Witches were believed capable of
ning hay-making, and so on. Some scraps of 'seUing' winds to sailors in the form of knot-
this lore are still remembered: that rooks, ted cords, and of mahcious storm-raising; the
or swifts flying high are a sign of fine
gulls, penalty of various unlucky actions, notably
weather, or that a good crop of berries fore- whistling and drowning a cat at sea, is that
tells a hard winter (which is probably not they cause fierce winds.
true). A few rhymed tags are well known: See also storms, thunder.
 382
weddings

weddings. Of all the *life<ycle points, get- worst. A widespread rhyme smns it up, here i

ting married is the most public.

The way a County Durham version:
couples celebrate their wedding has always Monday for wealth
depended largely on their class, relative afflu- Tuesday for health
ence or p>overty, religion, and the region Wednesday the best day of all
where they lived, but also on the dictates of Thursday for losses
fashion, which may vie strongly with those of Friday for crosses
tradition. The Victorian era was a major
And Saturday no luck at all

watershed in the way weddings were held, and (Henderson, 1879: 33)
E. M. Wright correctly identifies mobihty
Nowadays, the convenience of a weekend
(both social and geographical) and fashion as wedding outweighs any Ungering supersti-
the factors involved: tion. Saturday is by far the most popular day,
with 76 per cent of weddings in 1979 and 68
The bridegroom's friends and relations are often

complete strangers to the bride's kith and kin, their per cent in 1994; Friday is easily the second
ways and beliefs are unknown to each other. They choice, with 11 per cent and 14 per cent,
cannot join together in some time-honoured cere- nearly three times as many as any midweek
monial when the newly-wedded pair enter their new day. Similarly with the precepts noted in so
home; instead, they wave hats and handkerchiefs in many 19th-century sources, but now
the wake of a train or a motor which is canying the
disregarded:
couple to a distant dwelling-place. The bride, too, has
If you marry in Lent,
up-to-date ideas. She wants to make a sensation, like
You will live to repent.
Lady Dunfunkus Macgregor's daughter, a description
of whose marriage she has just read in the Daily Mail
Marry in May,
. Her dress and her doings, and all the wedding
. .
Rue for aye.
festivities, must as for as possible be modelled on a
fashionable pattern, till finally modem convention- The May proscription seems to have been
alities and not ancient customs rule the day. (Wright, stronger, and more long lasting, in Scotland
1913: 270) than in England. Victorian parsons' diaries
show Christmas Day as quite a popular day to
Weddings necessarily take place under the marry, but a down-to-earth northern farmer's
constraints of legal and ecclesiastical regula- view says:
tions, but these change over time. Medieval
He's a fule that marries at Yule
rules forbidding marriage during penitential
For when the bairn's to bear
seasons, on high festival days, and after mid-
The corn's to shear
day, are long gone; civil marriages came in in
(Denham Tracts, 1895: ii. 92)
1836; the 1994 Marriage Act allowed prem-
ises other than churches and registry offices The custom of throwing things over the
to host marriage ceremonies. By May 1998 bride and groom has a long history, though
there were over 2,000 newly approved the items thrown have changed. The earUest
venues, mostly hotels and stately homes, but reference is from 1486; when Henry VII
also museums, and halls, and
sports faciUties, brought his wife to Bristol 'a baker's wife cast
a new what might be called
industry of out of a window a great quantity of wheat, cry-
'genre weddings' sprang up almost over- ing "Welcome! and Good Luck!"' (S. Seyer,
night. In addition, many couples now choose Memoirs of Bristol, quoted in Folk-Lore Record 3
to go abroad to many, and members of (1880), 133). Wheat or com is mentioned regu-
*
alternative religions (*Wiccans, Druids, etc.) larly until the later 19th centiuy, and
hold 'handfasting' rituals at sacred sites occasionally flower petals and sugar plums. In
which, though not binding in law, are true 1874 Francis Kilvert recorded in his Diary (11
marriages to the participants. It is too soon August) the of rice, and this
throwing
to say how these major changes will affect remained common paper confetti was
till

the traditional aspects of weddings, and what introduced around the turn of the 20th cen-
compromises between old and new will tury. Almost at once there were complaints
evolve. thatit Uttered the aisle and spoiled the bridal

Numerous sources
since the early 19th cen- costume, and was merely 'a refined kind of
tury report that various days of the week were horseplay' (Surrey Gazette, (13 Sept. 1904), 3,
seen as lucky or unlucky for weddings, and reprinting ft-om a Coventry parish magazine).
virtually all say Fridays and Saturdays are Vicars and registrars regularly ban it, to Uttle
383 weddings

effect; a return to rice is often proposed as road; the groom would be expected to pay to
more environmentally somid. be allowed through, often by tossing coins to
Writers from the early 17th
century be ^scrambled for (Pahner, 1976: 31-2).
onwards often mention strewing of
the It is now almost universal at formal recep-

rushes, herbs, or flowers for the bride to walk tions to have an iced cake, the first cut being
on. A malevolent parody, using *rue, occurred made ceremonially by bride and groom
in Herefordshire (Leather, 1912: 115). The only together; this is first mentioned in the 1890s.
remnant of strewing is the custom of having Using pieces of wedding cake in *love divin-
Uttle girls throwing flower petals down the ations is reported regularly since the early

aisle, perhaps reimported to Britain via Amer- 18th century, often with complications such
ican films. An unusual variation was reported as passing the fragment nine times through a
from Cranbrook (Kent) in the 1850s; there, it wedding ring {Gentleman's Magazine (1832),
was customary to strew the path from the 492). Throwing pieces of cake (not usually the
church 'with emblems of the bridegroom's cake itself) over the heads of the bride and/or
calhng; carpenters walk on shavings; butchers groom was common in Yorkshire and North-
on the skins of slaughtered sheep; the follow- umberland; sometimes guests did this, some-
ers of St Crispin are honoured with leather times the bride herself; sometimes a plate was
parings; paper-hangers with strips of paper; thrown too. In all cases it was lucky for the
blacksmiths with old iron, rusty nails, etc' cake and plate to break, and usually the guests
(N&a ls:10 (1855), 181). The groom's occupa- tried to snatch a piece for themselves (N&(^
tion may be reflected in other ways, for ls:7 (1853), 545; Blakeborough, 1898: 96).

example a 'guard of honour' outside the A widespread modem feature is that all
church with raised swords, pohce truncheons, unmarried women (and sometimes men)
or tools of a trade. At a butcher's wedding in gather as the bride is about to depart; she
Croydon in 1902, other butchers greeted the throws her bouquet over her shoulder (to
couple by 'ringing the bells' on marrow-bones avoid favouritism), and whoever catches it will
and cleavers (Croydon Advertiser (21 June 1902); be married next. Opie and Tatem give the first
cf. Chambers, 1878: i. 360). reference for this as 1923, and in 1963 it could
Other long-standing but boisterous customs still be called 'American'. In past generations,

which are now obsolete include firing the other items were thrown, to similar purpose.
anvil, and horseplay during the walk to and The stocking is the missile in numerous Uter-
from church: ary references of the 17th and 18th centuries:
at the end of the day, when the couple are sit-
a wedding in the Dales of Yorkshire is indeed a thing

to see; nothing can be

ting up in bed, young men take the bride's
imagined comparable to it in
wildness and obstreperous mirth. The bride and stocking and girls the groom's, and throw it
over their shoulders. Whoever hits the bride
bridegroom may be a little subdued, but his friends
are like men bereft of reason. They career round the or groom ('on the nose', many sources say) will
bridal party like Arabs of the desert, galloping over many soon (Brand, 1849: i. 170; Balfour, 1904:
ground on which, in cooler moments, they would 97-8; Evelyn's Diary, 9 Oct. 1671). Another
hesitate even to walk a horse— shouting all the time,
regular custom of the 18th and 19th centuries,
and firing volleys from the guns they cany with which Brand thought 'bordered very closely
them. Next they will dash along the road in advance
upon indecency', was for young unmarried
of the party, carrying the whiskey-bottle, and com-
men to compete in a race for the privilege of
pelling everyone they meet to pledge the newly-
married pair. (Henderson, 1879:37)
removing and keeping the bride's garter. Earl-
ier references imply an indecent scramble
In Yorkshire villages, guns were often filled 'before the very altar'(Brand, 1849: ii. 139-40).
with feathers and fired over the bride's and Later, mere ribbons were raced for,
probably
groom's heads (Blakeborough, 1898: 95-6; as a decorous substitute (Henderson, 1879:
Nicholson, 1890: 3). A more dangerous custom 41-2; N&Q,146 (1924), 113-14, 163).
is revealed when a man tried for shooting at, There has been much comment on throw-
and damaging, the door of the motherbride's ing old *shoes after the departing couple,
at Pensham (Worcestershire) pleaded this was which has been done for 300 years at least, but
customary at weddings {Worcester Herald (22 little elucidation. It is important to realize that

Mar. 1845)). It was quite common to bar the merely one application of a practice first
it is

way of the party returning from church, for mentioned in Heywood's Proverbs (1546) of
example by a locked gate or a rope across the throwing shoes at people for luck when
weddings 384

leaving on a journey, or entering a new house; The general belief that meeting a chimney-
whatever the underlying symbolism, it cannot sweep is lucky, reported since the late 19th
be unique to weddings. A playful elaboration century, became specifically linked to wed-
reported from Kent in 1894 was for the chief dings during the 20th century; such meetings
bridesmaid to retrieve one of the shoes and are now dehberately arranged. For a bridal
throw it again for the bridesmaids to race for, party to meet a fimeral is very unlucky; one
and then again for the men (Lippincott's Maga- young bride told her vicar, in tears, that it
zine 54 (1894), 884). Nowadays shoes are tied to meant all her babies would be bom dead
the couple's car, along with tin cans, balloons, (Balleine, 1939: 5). Other bad omens were for
*
and streamers. the chiurch clock to strike during the cere-
There is a wide assortment of beUefs and mony (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 85-6); a thun-
taboos to ensure a happy marriage, beginning derstorm meant the couple would have no
well before the wedding day. Many are still children (Porter, 1969: 7). Various signs fore-
known, though not necessarily taken ser- told whether the bride or the groom would die
iously. Two sayings which are still quoted are first. In Yorkshire, 'them as speaks loudest
'Change the name and not the letter. Change dies (N&Q_ 6s:l (1880), 75); in Shropshire,
first'

for the worse and not the better' (reported whichever drops the *ring (Bume, 1883:
everywhere from the 1850s onwards), and 294-5); Herefordshire, whichever turns
in
'Happy the bride the sun shines on', known away from the altar first (Leather, 1912: 114);
already to *Herrick (Hesperides (1648)). Some in Lincolnshire, whichever kneels down first

rules seem to be based on 'not

tempting fate'. (N&a 4s:12 (1873), 44); in Yorkshire again,
That the couple should not hear their own whichever first falls asleep on the wedding

banns called, lest the firstborn child be deaf night (N&Q. ls:6 (1852), 312). The behaviour of
and dumb, was reported from all regions from bride and groom could also show which would
the 1850s onwards. The bride must not make be 'master' in the new home: whichever
her own dress; some small part— a thread, a stepped out of church first, left the bride's
bow, whatever— must be left off until the home first after the meal, crossed the thresh-
actual moment she leaves for church (Folk-lore old and so on (Wright. 1913: 273).
first,
68 (1957), 146); she should not look in a mirror Everyone now knows the groom 'should'
once it is all complete (N&Q,2s:12 (1861), 490); carry the bride over the threshold of their new
and, as everyone knows, the groom must not home, though it is not always actually per-
see her in her wedding dress before she arrives formed. The history of this is obscure; Brand
in church. calls it 'an ancient custom', but it is not regu-
Before white dresses became virtually uni- larly reported in 19th-century sources, though
colour was important. *Green was
versal, other threshold customs are— for example the
shunned as unlucky; *blue was favoured— widespread 'warming the doorstep' of the
except, according to Blakeborough, in 19th- bride's old home by pouring hot water over it
century Yorkshire, where it too was unlucky. once the bride and groom had left, and the
A weU-known rhyme ran: custom at Knutsford (Cheshire) that neigh-
bours made patterns in white sand outside the
Married in green, ashamed to be seen bride's and groom's doors (N&(1 2s:10 (1860),
Married in grey, will go far away
264; Folk-Lore Journal 1 (1883), 227). The inter-
Married in red, wish yourself dead
Married in blue, always be true pretation is even more doubtful. Herrick, who
does not actually mention lifting, has the Une
Married in yellow, ashamed of your fellow
Married in black, wish yourself back 'Now o'er the threshold force her in' (Hes-
Married in pink, of you he'll think perides (1648) ), implying that a show of modest
Married in white, sure to go right. reluctance was expected. Others speculate
that it is meant to avert the bad luck of stum-
The widest-known rhyme today is 'Some- bling, or that it ensures that as neither is first

thing old, something new, something bor- to enter, neither will be 'master'.
rowed, something blue', first recorded in Given the nature of the celebration, wed-
Shropshire only in 1883 (Bume, 1883: 290). dings can involve a fair amount of ribaldry
Many say the item borrowed should be some- from onlookers and guests, but this is under-
thing worn at a previous wedding, provided played in pubhshed accounts, and difficult to
the marriage turned out happily; the veil is document. One instance is the business with
often singled out as the luckiest. the stocking or garter detailed above, another.
385 wells

a trick of placing a bell under the bridal bed; a of the 19th century, evolving from the more
writer in 1543 complained that the couple widespread, but less picturesque, decoration
would be serenaded through the chamber of wells with ribbons and garlands. A visitor to
door, with 'vicious and naughty ballads' Tissington in 1758 commented that 'We saw
(Brand, 1849: ii. 173). In modem times, much the spring adorned with garlands; in one of
of this has been hived off to the stag and hen these was a tablet inscribed with rhymes'. One

nights, but echoes survive in the licence in

Ebenezer Rhodes, however, writing in 1818,
innuendo allowed to the Best Man in his reported 'newly-gathered flowers disposed in
various boards cut to the figures intended
speech at the wedding breakfast. . . .

to be represented, and covered with moist clay

into which the stems of the flowers are
weighing. On the same principle that it is
inserted' which sounds similar to how it is
tempting fate to *count things too closely,
today. Hone's Every-Day Book gives fiirther
there was previously a prejudice in many details. Well-dressing is still growing in popu-
people's minds about weighing newborn
larity and more villages are added to the Ust
babies. First noticed by Chambers (1878: ii.
nearly every year.
39), from Suffolk, although it was clearly well
Crichton Porteous, The WeU-Dressing Guide (1970); Stone,
entrenched already, the belief is reporiied a
1906: 73-5; Hone, 1827: ii. 318-20; Shuel, 1985: 93-102;
munber of times into the 20th century, and Kightly, 1986: 231-3; Charlotte A. Norman, 'Annual
was not even extinct in the 1950s (Folk-lore 68 Well-Dressing—Another Brilliant Success', in Buckland

(1957), 414). Opie and Tatem also record an and Wood, 1993: 137-46.
earUer reference to the weighing of adults
being considered unlucky, published in the Wellerisms. A form of verbal joke following
British ApoUo (7 Sept. 1709). the pattern
'

, as said when
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 437. ', or 'as said to The first part is a
'.

harmless cliche or *proverb. which is then

undermined by a mocking or vulgar addition.
well-dressing. The custom of well-dressing
takes place nowadays in dozens of villages,
Some examples of the genre are old, for

including Wirksworth, Belper, Youlgrave,

example 'Every little helps, as the wren said
when she pissed in the sea', recorded in 1602.
Barlow, Bradwell, Tideswell, Stoney Middle-
Itwas popular among 19th-century working-
ton, Hope, Ashford-in-the-Water, Wormhill,
BonsaU, Eyam, and Buxton, but Tissington is
classmen, some examples being respectable,
the best knov^nti and, most probably, the oldest.
and others coarse: 'Neat but not gaudy, as the
The well-dressing season runs from May to monkey said when he painted his tail sky-

blue'; 'You must draw the Une somewhere, as

September with each village having its own
the monkey peeing across the carpet'. In
said,
regular time. In some cases this is a Bank Holi-
the mid-20th there was a vogue for turning
day, while others are fortunate to have a con-
innocent phrases into innuendos by adding 'as
venient saint's day associated with their par-
the bishop said to the acfress', or vice versa.
ish church. Tissington is one of the earliest,
The genre is named after Sam Weller in
taking place on *Ascension Day.
Dickens's The Pickwick Papers (1836).
Dressing takes a similar form in most vil-
lages.A large (up to twelve feet long) shallow Archer Taylor, The Proverb (1962), 200-20; Florence E.

Baer, FoOdore 94 (1983), 173-83.

wooden tray is constructed, into which a base
of smooth soft clay is packed. Elaborate pic-
tures or patterns are made by pressing thou- wells. Healing or holy wells are rarer in Eng-
sands of flower petals into the clay, plus other land than in Scotland, Wales, or Ireland; even
natural materials such as moss, stones, or so, almost 200 are extant, and hundreds more
shells. The frays are mounted vertically on once existed, as indicated on old documents.
scaffolding erected across, behind, or round Those that remain are often regarded as wish-
the well. The pictures are most often bibUcal ing wells. They are the latest phase in a long
scenes, with an appropriate short text or cap>- tradition of ritual activity, traceable archaeo-
tion,but other subjects can be presented and logically through Roman and *Celtic culture to
views of the local church used to be popular. prehistoric times;its present form was shaped

Many have a single panel, others have two or by medieval CathoUcism, where wells were
three. often dedicated to a saint— sometimes a local
The custom probably arose around the turn one. Thus, St Oswald's Well at Winwick
Welsh 386

(1970); J. Meyrick, Holy Wells of Comwdl (1982); Mark

(Cheshire) reputedly marks the place where
Valentine, The Holy Welb of Northamptonshire (1984).
he was killed; St Withburga's Well at East
Dereham (Norfolk), the place where she was
Welsh, see *st david's day.
buried; St Chad's Well at Uchfield (Staf-

fordshire) was sanctified by the fact that he

werewolves. Although *Gervase of Tilbury
baptized converts there. wrote in 1211 that werewolves were common
Medieval *pilgrimage centres often had holy in England, the examples he then gave are all
wells; the water of one in Canterbury Cath-
French; there are no werewolf tales in English
edral (now blocked up) allegedly turned red
folklore, presumably because wolves have
when dust stained with Thomas a Beckett's
been extinct here for centuries.
blood was thrown into it, and little flasks of it
were sold to pilgrims and drunk as medicine. Westminster School Pancake Greaze. A
The ailments most often mentioned in con-
unique custom which takes place every
nection with medieval wells were sore eyes, *
Shrove Tuesday at Westminster School,
skin diseases, epilepsy, and insanity. Some London. The school cook makes a substantial
were said to enable barren women to conceive
pancake which he takes in a ftying-pan to the
after drinking the water, for example Bore
school hall, and tosses over an iron bar which
Well near Bingfield (Northumberland), and runs across the room, about twenty feet above
Child's Well at Oxford. During the vogue for
ground. In a mad scramble, representatives
spas in the 18th and 19th centuries, the medi- from each form in the school try to grab hold
cinal value of some ancient water-sources was
of a piece of the pancake, and whoever suc-
recognized, notably at Bath (Somerset) and ceeds in getting the largest piece wins a
Malvern (Herefordshire).
guinea from the Dean of the school. The cus-
Medieval ritual usually involved making an tom has been in existence since at least the
offering, while folk customs include dropping mid-1 8th when Jeremy Bentham
century
*pins or *coins in, and tying strips of cloth to mentioned it, and William Hone (1827: 130)
nearby trees. The latter had become rare by
quotes a 1790 reference. Fancy dress for parti-
the 19th century, though a few 'rag-trees'
cipants is now common.
remained in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Corn-
Shuel, 1985: 151-2; H. Barton Baker, The Graphic (3 Feb.
wall. Currently, there seem to be three: one at
1894), 130; Stone, 1906: 85-8; Thomas Staveley Oldham,
St Helen's Well at Walton, the second at St Strand Magazine 12 (1896), 186-96.
Helen's Well at Eshton (both in Yorkshire), the
third at a unnamed well at Madron (Cornwall) whistling. Regarded as at least unwise and
which is still much visited. The modem pil- unlucky in a number of professions, including
grimages to Walsingham (Norfolk) also sailors who maintain that it conjures up a
involve drinking from a holy well, and there is wind, miners, and actors. This latter has been
a cult of the 'Chahce Well' at * Glastonbury. rationalized by some as the fact that in old
From the 17th century onwards, certain theatres certain sounds carry so readily that
wells were credited with prophetic powers. anyone whistling backstage can ruin a per-
One at Oundle (Northamptonshire) emitted formance. However, many less logical reports
noises like a drum beating a march. Richard state that whistUng in the dressing-room
Baxter, in The Certainty of the World of Spirits causes the person nearest the door to be ill or
Fully Evinced (1691), 157, says he heard it him- sacked. Anyone guilty of whistUng has to go
self as a boy when a Scottish invasion was outside and turn round three times and, in
expected, and that it was also heard at the some cases, cannot come back into the
death of Charles II. St Helen's Well at Rushton dressing-room until invited to return
Spencer (Staffordshire) would dry up, and St (reported since 1910). Whistling after dark, in
Nipperton's Well at Ashill (Somerset) would any situation, has been regarded as unwise
ebb and flow, before national calamities. since at least the beginning of the 18th cen-
Others offered *omens for individuals; if the tury. Often no particular reason is given, but it
of a sick person floated when
shirt or shift is probably again based on the idea that whist-
thrown into a certain well dedicated to St ling summons spirits or draws attention to
Oswald, he or she would recover, but if not, oneself Similarly, whistUng should be par-
not. ticularly avoided by women; it was typically a
See also *well-dressing, *wishing wells. skill with which men and boys entertained

Hope, 1893/1968; A. Lane-Parker, Holy Welb of Cornwall themselves, so a woman or girl attempting it
 Whitsun

would be labelled unfeminine. The rhyme times to people who used heaUng spells and
quoted to reinforce this has a constant first performed other useful services. Bishop
but varied second line: Latimer complains in 1552 that 'A great many
of us, when we be in trouble, or sickness, or
A whistling woman and a crowing hen
lose anything, we run hither and thither to
Is enough to make the Devil come out of his den
witches, or sorcerers, whom we call wise men
Versions of this rhyme have been regularly .
seeking aid and comfort at their hands'.
. .

reported from all over Britain since at least Reginald *Scot notes in 1584 that 'At this day,
1721. it is indifferent to say in the Enghsh tongue,

See also *seafaring customs and beliefs. "she is a witch" or "she is a wise woman*".
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 440-2. This usage seems rare in later folk-speech,
where healers were politely called 'blessers',
white. The primary symbohsm of this colour 'charmers', or 'wise women'. Nevertheless,
is iimocence, beauty, and virtue, for which Brand and some other folklorists adopted the
reason it is favoured for bridal dresses and term 'white witch', so it is now widely known.
babies' clothes.However, it also has strong It is sometimes suggested that women tried

associations with shrouds and the pallor of for malevolent witchcraft were in fact healers,
death, and hence with spectral apparitions but trial records show this was very rarely so
and death *omens. A blacksmith's wife at (Hester, 1992: 116; Sharpe, 1996: 174-5).
Ashington (Sussex) said in 1868:
Whitsun. The English name for the Church
I hear bad news before the day is over; for late
shall
last night, as I was sitting up waiting for my hus-
festivalotherwise called Pentecost, held on
band, who had gone to Horsham, what should I see, the seventh Sunday after Easter as the com-
on looking out of the window, lying close under it, memoration of the descent of the Holy Spirit
but a thing like a duck, yet a great deal whiter than it and the inspiration of the Apostles. The deriv-
ought to have been, whiter than any snow. I was all ation of the word Whitsun is still unclear, des-
of a tremble and cried out quite loud, and off went
pite a great deal of discussion and argument
the thing, faster than 1 ever saw anything run before
by experts and others for well over a hundred
(Latham, 1878: 54).
years. The first mention of the word in English
She could not accept that it might have been a is foimd in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1067,

cat in the moonlight, for 'those white things as 'hwitan sunnan daeg'. Whitsun was one of
were sent as warnings'. the festivals in the pre-Reformation Church
Most of the *flowers which should not be when the biblical story was dramatized to
brought indoors are white ones, though white educate the parishioners.
heather is lucky. A correspondent in N&Cl In Enghsh tradition, Whitsun has long been
wrote in 1931: a day of feasting and merrymaking, as befits
its time of year as well as its reUgious origins.
Ihave heard from a social worker in London that it is * *
— Medieval church ales, wakes, feasts, and
most unlucky— almost offensively unlucky, in fact
to give any white flowers, even those not native to
revels survived in the fetes, sports days, fairs,

England, like white chrysanthemums, to sick people.

and other convivial meetings of later periods,
Apparently some implication that, being white, they for which Whitsun was well known, but, in
would be suitable for the fiineral, is involved. The the secular sphere, Whitsun finally lost all

people to whom these particular white chrys- meaning when its *Bank Hohday status was
anthemums were given were quite young, moder- taken away in the 1970s, and the Spring Bank
ately well educated, typical Londoners, and yet
Holiday created to replace it.

superstitious on this point— which they said was

Whitsun merrymaking had a long-standing
well known to everyone. (N&Q. 160 (1931), 195)
and proverbial connection with the *morris
The strongest current taboo is against having dance, as evidenced in Shakespeare's Henry V
*red and white flowers in the same vase with- (II. iv). Another widely reported custom,
which
out any of another colour; this portends death, apparently died out in the late 19th century,
especially if given to a sick person. The colours was the decoration of churches with boughs of
are said to stand for 'blood and bandages'. placed in holes at the
trees, especially birch,
ends of pews and elsewhere, and another dec-
white witch. This term, together with the orating custom, *WeU-dressing starts at Whit-
equivalent 'good witch', or even 'witch' on its sun in some villages, and other customs and
own, might be applied in Tudor and Stuart behefs have also clustered aroimd the season.
Whitsun ales 388

Whitsun was one of those times (the others which ale was specially brewed and sold by
being *New Year and *Easter) when it was the organizer for profit, and from the 15th and
important to wear new *clothes if you could. 16th centuries *church ales were regularly
Opie and Tatem Ust the eariiest reference to held to raise money for repair and upkeep of
this in 1626, and the latest from 1985. This the parish church. Ales could also be held for
developed into a sort of *visiting custom in other purposes, and could be at any time of
south Yorkshire, where children would visit year, but Whitsun was a favoured time as
neighbours and relatives to show off their new being aheady a hoUday and a time when the
clothes and hope to get a Uttle money in weather was normally improving. Ales
return (L&I 1:3 (1970), 15). The desire for new included the whole range of popular
clothes was also Unked to another strong trad- activities— food, drink, sports and games,
ition, particularly popular in, but not music, and dancing— and as the Church
exclusive to, the Lancashire/Yorkshire area, authorities gradually turned against, first,
the custom of Whit Walks. These were organ- clerical involvement in the celebrations, and
ized primarily by churches (of various later the festivities themselves, there was an

denominations) and involved the faithful pro- inexorable move towards the estabUshment of
cessing around the neighbourhood, in their church rates as a more reliable and respect-
best clothes and if possible wearing white, led able method of ecclesiastical funding, and
by a local band. At key points there would be church ales slowly disappeared from the
mass open-air hymn singing, and an outdoor scene, to be completely suppressed by the Pur-
tea at the end of the day. In many cases it was itans in the 1640s. After the Restoration, the
the Sunday Schools who organized the walks Church was content to leave matters as they
for children, and they could be large affairs stood, but others sought to revive the ales, for
indeed, with thousands taking part on the day: a combination of profit and community
goodwill, usually with the agreement or sup-
Whit-Monday, as usual in Manchester, was a great
gala day for Sunday scholars. A procession of all the port of the local landowners or gentry, and
school children in connection with the Established again many of these were held at Whitsun.
Chiu-ch, numbering about 16,000, took place in the The post-Reformation ales retained some of
morning through all the principal streets of the the features of their predecessors, in particu-
town. Each school was headed by its band of music lar the semi-formal ceremonial aspects of
The remaining days of the week will be given up
electing a Lord and Lady, a Fool, and other
. . .

to processions by the children of other denomin-

'
office-holders to organize and preside over the
ational schools {Croydon Chronicle (6 June 1868)).
event. A greenery bower, and *morris dancers
. . .

There have been numerous attempts to revive were also prominent features.
the custom (e.g. Dalesman (Nov. 1982), 616-8), The following account summarizes the
and the massed singing has continued in the mock solemnity and humour of a Whitsun ale
form of Whit Sings. at Woodstock, Oxfordshire:
A child bom on Whit Sunday is doomed
either to kill or be killed. This fate can be The Woodstock Whitsun Ale was held every seven
averted by going through a ceremony of a years; it began on Holy Thursday, and was carried on
the whole of Whitsun week The day before Holy
mock funeral of the child, or alternatively by . . .

Thursday the maypole was set up, provided by the

squashing an insect in the child's hand. Duke of Marlborough, which remained up for the
See also *cheese rolling, *corby pole fair,
rest of the feast. It was a bare pole ornamented with
*LICHFIELD BOWER, *RAM ROASTING, *ST BRIA-
ribbons and flowers. Near it was as drinking booth,
VELS, *WHITSUN ALES. and opposite this a shed some fifty feet long with
Wright and Lones. 1936: i. 148-71; Hutton, 1996: 277-80; benches round the sides, decorated with evergreens,
N&Q. 5s:l (1874), 401-3; 5s:9 (1878), 441-2; Dyer, 1876: also provided by the Duke, known as 'The Bowery". A
278-92; Opie and Tatem. 1989: 445; Steve Fielding, 'The 'Lord' and a were chosen, who were attended
'Lady'
Catholic Whit-Walk in Manchester and Salford 1890-
by a 'waiting-man* and 'waiting-maid'. Both 'Lord'
1939', Manchester Region History Review 1:1 (1987), 3-10;
and 'Lady' carried 'maces', which were short sticks
Olive M. Philpott, 'Whitsimtide in our Village', Dorset
stuck into small squares of board; from the four cor-
YearBook (1961/2), 173-7.
ners of which semicircular hoops crossed diagonally,
the whole being covered with ribbons. The lord and
Whitsun ales. The term 'Whitsim ale' is
lady were also attended by two men carrying a paint-
somewhat ambiguous, being used in both a ed wooden horse, to which was fastened two stout
general and specific way. The 'ale' part signi- poles that stuck out in front and behind. This was
fies a festival or celebration; originally one in followed by a band of morris dancers. The procession
389 Widow's Son Bun Ceremony

would then go round the town, the 'Lord' and 'Lady' for a huge price to an African king whose pal-
carrying in the centre of their maces a small cake ace was overrun with rats. There are similar
like the modem Banbury cake, called the 'Whit stories in Europe, often adding that the grate-
cake', and these were offered to people to taste in ful hero devoted part of his wealth to good
return for a small payment. A man carrying a basket
works; presumably Whittington's charitable
of these cakes for sale also followed. In front of the
bequests led to the story being told of him.
'Bowery' was hung up an owl and a hawk in cages,
and two threshing flails, which went by the names of See Jacobs, 1890/1968: 104-10, for the best-known text,
"The Lady's Parrot' and 'The Lady's Nut-crackers'. combined out of older chapbooks; it is reprinted in

Briggs, 1970-1: B. ii. 139-45.

Anyone who misnamed them (i.e. called them by
their real names) had to forfeit a shiUing, or else be
carried behind the lady, shoulder high on the wood- Wicca. This Old English masculine noun
en horse, round the may pole. If they still refused to meaning 'male witch, wizard' was curiously
pay the forfeit, their hats were taken in heu of pay- misinterpreted by Gerald *Gardner's followers
ment. Many University men would come over from as an abstract noun meaning and
'witchcraft',
Oxford to ride the wooden horse for the fun of the
is now the title of a modem pagan movement
thing, and frequent fights took place between them
which is both religious and magical. It was
and the morrice-dancers, when they would not pay
forfeit 14 (1903), 171-5)
foimded by Gardner in the 1950s, who claimed
. . .
(Folk-lore
it was an ancient cult preserved secretly by

This account goes on to describe a young persecuted but benevolent witches (see "^Mur-
Oxonian and his problems at the ale, quoting ray); it combined worship of a homed and
from Thomas Little, Confessions of an Oxonian phallic god such as Murray described, with
(1826: i. 169-73). The punishment of riding the that of a universal goddess, who is now the
horse has strong echoes in other customs, chief deity. There are now many independent
notably *rough music, and *Riding the Stang. groups within the movement; most are poly-
Church ales had been common all over the theistic, revering gods and goddesses from
southern half of the country, but the later many mythologies as aspects of a sexual pair
Whitsun ales were concentrated in the south of deities, but some feminist covens worship
Midlands, and particularly in Oxfordshire. the goddess only. Rituals are Unked to the sea-
Many lasted into the first half of the 19th cen- sonal cycle and the phases of the moon; pre-
tury, but the rough-and-ready ways in which historic sites and places of natural beauty are
the working classes enjoyed themselves
greatly respected. A wide variety of magical
inevitably led to withdrawal of support and and meditational techniques are learnt; altars,
later downright opposition by local elites
magic circles, consecrated tools, and ritual
across the country, and the ales were invocations are used (Hutton, 1999).
suppressed— to be later replaced by more con- The foundation texts for Wicca are Charles Leland, Ara-
trolled village fetes or local club feast days. Margaret Murray, The
dia or the Gospel of the Witches (1899);
See also *church ales, *whitsun. Wttch-Cult in Western Europe (1921); and Gerald Gardner,
Witchcraft: Today (1954). Accounts from within the move-
Chandler, 1993: 59-79; Hutton, 1996: 244-61; Hazlitt,
ment include Margot Adler, Drawing Down the Moon
1905: 631-2; Wright and Lones, 1936: i. 150-7.
.

(1981); Doreen Valiente, The Rebirth of Witchcraft (1989);

Janet and Stewart Farrar, Eight Sabbatsfor Witches (1981);

Aidan Kelly, Crafting the Art of Magic, Book I (1991).
Whittington, Dick. Sir Richard Whittington,
who died in 1423 after being three times Lord
Mayor of London, was the youngest son of a widdershins, withershins. This word, a
Scottish and northern English term meaning
prosperous Gloucestershire family, who began
his career by going to London at thirteen to be 'against the sun, counter-clockwise', is used
for "^leftward circling movement, especially in
apprenticed to a merchant whose daughter he
later married. He died childless, leaving the context of magical action, where such

money to rebuild various churches and alms- movement is thought unlucky, or malevolent.
houses, Newgate Prison, and St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital. Widow's Son Bun Ceremony. Hanging
The traditional account of his life, first from the ceiUng of the Widow's Son pub in
recorded in the 17th century, stresses his sup- East London is a bundle of about 200 dust-
posed early poverty and suff"erings; his luck covered, shrivelhng *hot cross buns. Every
changed when he sent a cat which he had year, on *Good Friday, a sailor adds another.
bought for a permy as his stake in a trading The story is that a widow's house previously
voyage, and the captain sold it on his behalf stood on the site. Expecting her sailor son
wife-selling 390

home one Easter, she naturally baked him a Wild Edric, see *edric the wild.
hot cross bun but, unfortunately, he did not
return. The widow lived in hope and next year Hunt. This is the general term for any
made another bun, and so on. The house ghostly or demonic huntsman or group of
became famous for its collection of buns, and huntsmen, accompanied by phantom hounds,
when the pub was built on the same site it was seen— or, more often, simply heard—
naturally called the Widow's Son and the cus- galloping across the sky by night. Local terms
tom continued. It was commonly believed that include *Dando's Dogs in Cornwall, Wish
bread or buns baked on Good Friday would Hounds on Dartmoor, *Gabriel Hounds in
never grow mouldy and had a marked medi- northern England, *Seven Whistlers in
cinal value, and it was also not unknown for Worcestershire. They were thought to be
such items to be hung up. F. K. Robinson, for either demons pursuing dead sinners, or
example, in his Glossary of Words Used in the damned souls themselves. They were an
Neighbourhood of Whitby (1876), writes of seeing *omen of disaster; Henderson was told in the
Good Friday biscuits with holes in the centre, 1860s that 'Sometimes they appear to hang
hanging from the ceiling, and this is likely to over a house, and then death or calamity are
be the origin of the custom, to explain which sure to visit it, 'as had been noted when a child
the story was later concocted. The Widow's was burned to death in Sheffield' (Henderson,
Son custom still continues, although the 1879: 97-106). In Cornwall, the leader was
official involvement of the Royal Navy in sometimes said to be the * Devil himself (Hunt,
recent years (because it was getting difficult to 1865: i. 247), sometimes a notorious local
find a sailor) has brought it more of an air of landowner who had defied God by going hunt-
*
the conscious publicity stvmt than it used to ing on a Sunday. Stories of this type have
have. been recorded in Cleveland (Atkinson, 1891:
Kightly, 1986: 235; Shuel, 1985: 16; E. B. H., London lore 70) and Oxfordshire (Briggs, 1970-1, B. i. 602-
3). The earliest description comes from the
1:2 (1978), 15-16.

Peterborough Chronicle, teUing how after the

wife-selling. For at least 300 years, according appointment of a wicked abbot in 1127:
to popular belief a man could get rid of his
Then soon afterwards many people saw and heard
wife, and, more importantly, get rid of any
many hunters hunting. The hunters were big and
responsibihty for her future upkeep or black and loathsome, and their hounds all black and
actions, by her to another man. The
selling wide-eyed and loathsome, and they rode on black
sale normally hadits formalities— it would horses and black goats. This was seen in the very
take place in the market or at a fair, the deer-park in the town of Peterborough, and in all the
woman would be led by a halter, and any tolls woods that there were between this town and Stam-
ford, and the monks heard the horns blow that they
or fees usually payable for the sale of animals
were blowing at night.
would be carefully paid and recorded. Most
importantly, the sale would take place in Such apparitions, however, were not neces-
front of witnesses. For her part, the wife had demons and lost souls. Walter *Map
sarily
normally given her Consent and in many cases describes King *Herla's phantom riders as
the deal had already been agreed privately, under enchantment, while *Gervase of Tilbury
and the purchaser was someone of her choice. had heard of others who were *Arthur's
The first definite recorded instances come
knights. Many keepers in the royal forests of
from the 16th century, with the diary of Britain and Brittany, says Gervase, would tell
Henry Machyn being the earliest: 'The xxiiij how: '. . . about noon, and in the first part of
day of November [1553] dyd lyde in a cart the following night if there is a full moon,
Cheken, parsun of sant Necolas Coldabby, they have frequently seen a host of knights
abowt London, for he sold ys wyff to a bow- with hunting dogs and heard the sound of
cher'. Wife-selling is reported regularly in horns. To those who challenge them, they
early folklore collections and local news- answer that they belong to the fellowship and
papers until the late 19th century, and is used household of Arthur.'
in Thomas Hardy's novel of The Mayor of Caster-
Westwood, 1985: 32-4, 155-7; Petry, 1972.
bridge (1886).
S. p. Menefee, Wives For Sale: an Etiinographic Study of Popu-
lar Divorce (1981); E. P. Common Wild Man, Woman. Medieval art included
Thompson, Customs in

(1991), 404-66. Wild Men (and occasionally Women) among

391 willow

its grotesques. They were a race of primitive legend of *Willy Howe. The History of William of
sub-humans covered in shaggy hair, Newburgh translated by Joseph Stevenson
immensely strong, and hving in forests; the (1856) has been reissued in paperback (1996).
males were usually shown wielding a branch,
or even a whole tree, as a club, and sometimes Williams, Alfred (1877-1930). As 'the Ham-
crovmed and belted with leaves. Their reality merman Poet', he published a number of
was confirmed by respected classical writers books, but his main contribution to English
and by references to 'hairy creatures in desert folklore was his Folk Songs of the Upper Thames
places' in the Latin versions of Isaiah 13: 21 (1923) in which he presented the texts of
and 34: 14; they were often identified with material collected in Oxfordshire, Wiltshire,
satyrs and fauns. and Berkshire from 1914 to 1916. Williams did
In Uterature, Wild Men could symboUze not develop his interest in folk-song any fiir-
savagery, lust, and uncontrolled passions, or, ther, and the book contains no evidence of
alternatively, a natural innocence which could wider reading on the subject, but, paradoxic-
easilybe brought to virtue; both aspects can ally, this is what gives the collection its main
be seen in Spenser's Faerie Queene (1596). In value, even today. WiUiams was much closer
Book IV, canto vii, there is a monstrous speci- to his informants, in terms of background,
men, grotesquely ugly and hairy, naked than most other song collectors, and he clear-
except for a girdle of ivy, and carrying a young ly had less exclusive definitions of the subject.
oak as a club, whose delight is to rape and eat He thus noted a wider range of songs than
women; in Book VI, however, there is one who most of his contemporaries, and gives a more
acts as a stupid but loyal protector to one of complete picture of the singing tradition of
Spenser's heroines. the time. He did not, however, note down the
Wild Men are found among the costumed tunes of the songs. His song manuscripts are
performers at courtly masques. At a Twelfth preserved in Wiltshire Record Office.
Night entertainment for Henry VIII in 1515 Leonard Clark, Alfred WiTliams: His Life and Work (1969);
'eight wyldemen, apparayled in green
all
special issue of FMJ 1:5 (1969).
mosse with sieved sylke, with ugly weapons
and terrible visages' fought against eight Will-o'-the-Wisp. This is the commonest
knights; at Kenilworth in 1575 a poet cos- EngUsh name for faint, flickering lights seen
tumed as a Savage Man draped in moss and ivy in marshy areas. implies a supernatural
It

emerged fi-om a wood to greet Elizabeth I; at being, carrying a burning bundle of straw as a
Cowdray Park (Sussex) in 1591 the Queen was torch, to lead travellers astray; there are many
addressed by a Wild Man 'cladde in ivy'. They other local names (Wright, 1913: 200-1;
also appeared in civic pageants, clearing the
Briggs, 1976: 231). Tradition varies as to their
way for the main procession, where they were nature; some informants spoke of them as
referred to as Savages or * Green Men. They
*ghosts, others as *fairies. If ghosts, they were
were common in heraldry, and Aubrey notes
usually said to be *unbaptized infants, unable
that a Wild Man or Green Man (he uses the to enter Heaven yet not deserving Hell; if fair-
terms interchangeably) was 'not uncommon'
they were usually regarded as a specialized
ies,
as an inn sign in and about London, and was but sometimes an individual trickster
species,
drawn as 'a kind of Hercules with a green club Uke *Puck or *Robin Goodfellow, or a local
and green leaves about his pudenda and head' *
group such as the pixies, will be credited with
(Aubrey, 1686/1880: 134-5, 177). this role.
Richard Bemheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages (1952).

willow. Vickery (1995: 399-401) points out

the biblical basis of the sadness and grief
William of Newburgh (1135/6-71198). A associated with the tree in England:
monk at Newburgh Priory (Yorkshire), Wil-
Uam wrote a chronicle covering the period By the rivers of Babylon we sat down and wept
from 1066 to 1197. He was a careful historian,
when we remembered Zion
There on the willow trees
rejecting the 'idle lies' of *Geoffrey of Mon-
we hung our harps
mouth concerning * Arthur and *MerUn. He
included accounts of some *vampire-like (Psalm 137)
*undead (on the authority of reputable clerics but continues by saying that these would not
who claimed first-hand knowledge) and the
actually have been willows at all, but poplars.
Willy Howe 392

and deposited for many years among the

It ispossible that the original translators of Scotland,
treasures of his kingdom; and, a few years since, as
the King James Bible were led to use the word
willow by already existing English traditions
we have heard from authentic relation, it was given
up by William, king of the Scots, to Henry the Sec-
connecting willows and weeping. Certainly
ond, on his desiring to see it. (Trans. Joseph Steven-
the shape of the tree is sufficient to explain its
son (1856/1996). 438)
epithet. Two poems by *Herrick {Hesperides
(1648)) confirm the willow as a symbol of sad- Clearly, the cup was real, even though the
ness and lost love. See also Lean (1903: ii. 638) tale is an international legend. *Gervase of Til-
and Hazhtt (1905: 621-2) for numerous similar bury knew a similar story about a mound in
quotations from 16th- and 17th-century liter- the Forest of Dean where thirsty travellers
ary soiu-ces. were offered drink in a jewelled horn 'such as
Willow also features in a number of other was used among the old Enghsh', by a silent
beliefs, recorded in the 19th and 20th centur- servant; eventually, a knight stole the horn
ies only: it is unlucky to bum its wood, willow and gave it to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, who
blossom must not be brought into the house, then gave it to Heniy 1 (Westwood, 1985: 25-6,
except on May Day, and no animal or child 350-2).
should be hit with a willow twig or stick There is yet a third version allegedly
because that would stop them growing after- attached to Rillaton Barrow in Cornwall, and
wards (Opie and Tatem, 1989: 446-7; Leather, purporting to explain a prehistoric gold goblet
1912: 19). The willow stick is a central feature found there (now in the British Museum, after
having been used by George V as a shaving
of a traditional song called 'The Bitter Withy',
collected a number of times in England in the
mug). However, the goblet was found in 1837
early years of the 20th century, in which Jesus and the story first appeared in 1 899 in A Book of
as a boy tries to play with other children but the West: Cornwall by the Revd Sabine Baring-
they refiise to have anything to do with a car- Gould, who was famiUar with medieval
penter's son. He builds a rainbow and runs material; its authenticity is more than
across it and when the others try it they fall dubious.
and are injured or Mary beats Jesus
killed. Stories of fairy treasure continued to be told
with a willow stick (or 'sally twig') and Jesus about Willy Howe. A man once found a chest
curses the twig. The main elements of the of gold there, so heavy that it took a train of
story have been traced to the Apocryphal Gos- horses a quarter of a mile long to drag it out,
pel of Pseudo-Matthew, but the willow motif but lost it at the last minute by blasphemously
is a later addition (Leather, 1912: 181-6; Folk-
exclaiming, 'Whether God's will or not, we'll
lore 19 (1908), 190-200). have this ark'. Another man used to find a
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 446-7; Lean, 1903: ii. 638. guinea on the mound
every morning, left for
him by but boasted of the gifts, after
fairies,
Willy Howe. The fullest Enghsh version of which they ceased (Hone, 1827: 92).
the 'stolen fairy cup' legend is localized at See also *edenhall.
Willy Howe, a large round *barrow near Wold
Newton Humberside (formerly East York-
in
shire); was recorded as a real event by
it
Wilmington, the Long Man of. This '^hill
*William of Newburgh (died c.1198), who had figure on the Sussex Downs shows a naked
been bom nearby and had known about it standing man, grasping two poles taller than
since childhood. A village man, riding home himself Originally formed by cutting turf
late one night and rather drunk, heard singing away to expose the white chalk, it became so
and laughter coming from the mound; then overgrown as to be almost lost, and was
he saw an open door, and people feasting restored in 1874. The earhest record is a
inside. When a servant came out and offered sketch made in 1710; this differs from the
him a cup, 'he wisely forebore to drink, but, present figure in the placing of the feet, and in
pouring out the contents, and retaining showing vague facial features, and possibly a
the vessel, he quickly departed,' pursued by hat (Farrant, 1993). Its actual age is unknown;
the furious guests. one plausible theory compares it to figures of

Itwas a vessel of an unknown material, unusual col- helmeted, spear-canying warriors (often
our, and strange form. It was offered as a great pres- naked) on Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian
ent to Henry the Elder, King of England, and then helmets and buckles, implying a link with the
handed over to the Queen's brother, David, King of cult of a war-god (Hawkes, 1965). In 1874, and
393 wishing wells

again in 1969, splinters of Roman tiles were they still do. At some point, presumably in the
found under the outline; these could have late 17th century, the custom was moved from

been used at any post-Roman period. Whit Tuesday to Oak Apple Day. On that day,

According to local legend, the Long Man was the inhabitants of the village rise early, and set
a *giant who died there on the hillside; some out for Grovely Wood to cut branches to dec-
said he was killed by a shepherd boy, others orate their houses and to carry in the proces-
that he just fell down the steep slope and sion later in the day, and help themselves to
broke his neck, others that he was killed by a any other wood they need. Later, a party led by
rival giant when
they were hurling stones at the rector proceeds to SaUsbury Cathedral
each other, and the figure was drawn around where four women in 19th<entury costume,
his corpse. There is also said to be *treasure carrying bundles of wood, dance on the Green.
buried nearby. In the Cathedral, on the steps to the High Altar

J. ElmsUe, FoTk-Lore 26 (1915), 162-4; C. Hawkes,

P. parts of the charter are read out and those
Antiquity 39 (1965), 27-30; J. H. Farrant, Sussex Archaeo- present shout their 'Grovely, Grovely, Grovely
lo^al Collections 131 (1993), 129-38. and All Groveley' to assert their rights for
another year. The custom has quite naturally
wise men, women, see *cunning men, acquired other trappings such as a procession,
WOMEN. *May Queen, fancy dress, and marching band.
The whole affair is organized by the Oak Apple
wishbone. The forked jurcula bone which lies Club which was formed in 1892 specifically to
between the breast and neck of a chicken, or ensure the continuance of the local rights and
other fowl, is popularly called the wishbone to ward off periodic attempts to remove them.
being the much The Club's motto is 'Unity is Strength'. A fur-
or Merrythought— the latter
older term— named after the custom which ther part of the day is the hoisting of a large
has incorporated it since at least the 17th cen- oak bough, decorated with coloured ribbons,
tury. Two people take hold of either side of the to the top of the parish church tower. This is
bone, some insist they must use their little called the Marriage Bough, and brings good
fingers only, and pull until it breaks. Whoever luck to those married in the church in the
gets the largest piece can make a wish which, coming year.
if not told to anyone, will come true. Now- The History of Oak Apple Day in Wishford Magna (c.l972);

adays mainly done by children, the custom is George Frampton, Grovely.' Grovely.' Grovely.' And All Grovely!
first described by John *Aubrey in 1686, The History of Oak Apple Day in Great Wishford (1992).

although the word 'Merrythought' appears in

earlier 17th-century contexts (see OED). wish(t) hounds, wight hounds. Devonshire
names for the dogs of the *Wild Hunt, some-
Aubrey, 1686: 92-3; Opie and Tatem, 1989: 448; N&Q,
5s:ll(1879), 86.
times said to be headless.

Wishford Magna. A unique *manorial cus- wishing wells. A popular custom nowadays
tom takes place in Great Wishford, Wiltshire, is to throw *coins into water, making a wish. It

every *Oak Apple Day (29 May). Under the is obviously related to offerings at holy and

terms of a charter of 1603, the inhabitants of heaUng *wells, and may well be equally old,
Wishford are allowed to take wood ft"om near- though documented; in 19th<entury
less ftiUy

by Grovely Wood as well as various other Shropshire and Herefordshire there were
rights as regards access and such
and duties wells into which people dropped pebbles or
things as pawnedge for 'all their hogges and *pins while making a wish in a ritualistic
pigges'. The charter states that it is merely way— in silence, or at midnight, or drinking

confirming rights and privileges existing from water from one's hand and tossing the rest at a
'time out of mynde'. It is further stipulated particular stone (Bume, 1883: 422-9; Leather.
that to perpetuate these rights the inhabitants 1912: 13). The OED's first record for the term
should, as they had done in 'auntient tyme', 'wishing well' is from 1792.
'go in a daunce to the Cathedral Church of our This behaviour is often actively pubUcized
blessed Ladie in the Cittie of new Sarum on and encouraged, to amuse tourists and/or raise
Whit Tuesdaie in the said countie of Wiltes, money for charity or for the upkeep of a
and there made theire clayme to their cus- museum, beauty spot, etc. In most cases, the
tome in the Forrest of Grovely in theis wordes: water is clear and shallow, showing the offer-
Groveley Groveley and aU Groveley'. And so ings of previous visitors, and the 'well' is often
witch balls 394

a man-made fountain or artificial pool. the victim's body-products; the witch would
Among innumerable and very varied have to break the Unk to save herself, and the
examples may be mentioned the ancient hot victim would recover.
springs at Bath, an old mill at Bibiuy (Glouces- The recipe was still known in a Norfolk vil-

tershire), the cascades at Gatwick Airport, and lage in 1939:

a former baptismal pool in a church con-
Take a stone bottle, make water in it, fill it with
verted to a pub in Worthing (Sussex) [JS]. At
your own toe-nails and finger-nails, iron nails and
Bibury, a notice offers two *origin stories: anything which belongs to you. Hang the bottle
first, that whenever ancient Romans crossed over the fire and keep stirring it. The room must
water, they threw silver coins in; secondly, be in darkness; you must not speak or make a
that 'It is told that a poor mill worker dropped noise. The witch will come to your door and make
his meagre wages into a millstream. He was a lot of noise and beg you to open the door and let
unable to find his money, but on looking for her in. If you do not take any notice, but keep
his money next day he found a purse of gold silent, the witch will burst. The strain on the mind
of the person when the witch is begging to be let
sovereigns. Every time he passed the stream
in is usually so great that the person often speaks
again he threw in a coin, and his luck con- and the witch is set free. (E. G. Bales, Folk-lore 50
tinued to improve.'
(1939), 67)

witch balls. Large, heavy glass balls coated In London, 17th-century pottery jugs of the
with glossy reflecting silver, gold, or brightly kind called 'greybeards' or 'bellarmines' have
colovu'ed paint, first made about 1690, and been found buried in ditches or streams, con-
popular in the 19th century; or a smaller type taining such things as bent nails and felt
fi-om the late 18th century, with swirUng hearts stuck with pins; in Essex and Suffolk
multi-coloured patterns. Both were meant to many others have been found, but under the
hang in cottagewindows; their purpose was hearths or thresholds of houses. Later, cheap
and neutrahze the *evil eye of a pass-
to attract glass bottles were used in the same way; one
ing witch, either by reflecting it back upon holding over 200 bent pins was found under
her or by puzzling her with the pattern. Plain the hearth of a Sussex cottage in the 1860s, as
with bright tangled threads
glass balls filled was common in the county. A friend of Char-
were thought to have the same effect. Alter- lotteLatham actually saw one being heated, to
native names are 'wish ball' and 'watch ball'; cure a girl of epilepsy supposedly caused by a
the latter is sometimes explained by saying witch (Latham, 1878: 25-6). An example dat-
that the ball grows dull if there is infection 'in ing from the early years of the 20th century
the air', and so should be watched for a was found in a shop at Padstow (Cornwall);
warning. urine was put in a cod-hver-oil bottle which
had its cork pierced with eight pins and one
witch bottles. A conunon *counterspell needle, and was bricked up in a chimney. In
against illness caused by witchcraft was to put Cambridgeshire, a three-sided iron bottle held
the sick person's *urine (and sometimes also hen's blood and feathers mingled with the
*hair and *fingemail clippings) in a bottle with usual human urine, salt, hair, and nail-
*nails, *pins, or threads, cork it tightly, and chppings; also (for protection rather than
either set it to heat by the hearth or biuy it in cure) small bottles of greenish or blueish glass
the ground. This, as Joseph Blagrave wrote in filled with coloured silk threads were dis-

1671, 'will endanger the witches' life, for . . .

played beside doors or windows, to divert the
they will be grievously tormented, making witch's power by confusing her gaze (Porter,
their water with great difficulty, if any at all' 1969: 169, 180).
(The Astrological Practice ofPhysick (1671), 154-5; According to the East London Advertiser on 1
cited in Merrifield, 1987: 169). Blagrave's con- August 1903, a barber in Bishop's Stortford
temporaries Aubrey and Joseph Glanvil record (Herts.) had recently been asked to save some
instances of this causing the deaths of those hair-clippings from a customer's neck in order
responsible for a horse's bewitchment and for that someone who wanted revenge on the
a woman's languishing illness (Aubrey, Miscel- man could put them in a bottle and heat it
lanies, 1696/1857: 140; Glanvil, Sadducismus Tri- until it burst at *midnight, to bring sickness
umphatus (1681), part 2, 169-70). The theory on him (N&Q. 9s:3 (1903), 187). This is no defen-
was that the witch had created a magical fink sive counterspell, but an active magic attack,
with her victim, which could be reversed via via the intended victim's hair; sometimes.
395 witchcraft

witch bottles were similarly used (Porter, stressed the importance of *familiars as evi-
1969: 179). dence; yet in practice trials still centred on the
Merrifield, 1987: 163-83; Opie andTatem, 1989: 416-17. harm allegedly done.
Witchcraft accusations arose occasionally
witchcraft. No topic in folklore has caused among the ruUng classes, but more frequently
more argument than witchcraft. However, the among minor gentry and lower orders; almost
work of historians over the past 30 years has 90 per cent of those charged were women,
disentangled various levels of meaning within often elderly ones. The accusations were
the word itself, and analysed the social con- sparked off by some previous quarrel or ven-
text for accusations.The phenomenon is seen detta; frequently, conflict arose when the
as essentiallyone of belief-systems, stereotyp- alleged witch and her victim were neighbours,
ing, rumour, and social pressures; debate now
but not equals, the victim being relatively well
centres on the interaction of upper-class and off, the witch poor, and sometimes having a

popular attitudes, and of prejudice against bad reputation. The latter requested some
women. There is no longer any scholarly sup- small gift or friendly service, and showed
port for theories that witches formed a secret anger when this was refused. The better-off
society, whether political, as the French his- neighbour, aware of having failed in charity,
torian Michelet proposed, or pagan, as would later interpret any sickness or mis-
claimed by Margaret *Murray; the equally fortune as magical revenge; he or she often
simplistic idea that witch-hunts were a cynical consulted a *cunning man, who identified the
estabUshment plot has also been abandoned. cause by *divination, confirming the diag-
The Old EngUsh word 'witch' meant 'one nosis. The eventual court-case might involve
who casts a spell'. Intrinsically neutral, it charges brought by several families, the fhiit
could be appUed to those using *magic help- of years of accumulating suspicions.
fully (see *white witch); in most contexts, Almost all EngUsh witch-trials arose in this
however, 'witchcraft' means using magic to spontaneous way. There was no pressure from
harm humans, farm animals, or property. Fear centralChurch or State to prosecute witches,
of permeates folklore of all periods, but it
it though locaUy some justices of the peace were
was not until the late 15th century that it was more vigorous than others in rounding up
perceived in Europe as a threat grave enough suspects; Matthew *Hopkins is the only indi-
to require systematic prosecution, on the vidual known to have initiated a systematic

assumption that it implied a pact between the campaign. Moreover, since witches were
witch and Satan. It was first declared a crime thought to operate singly or in very small fam-
in EngUsh law in 1542; the number of English ily groups (*covens and *sabbaths being rarely
trialspeaked in the 1580s and again in the mentioned), interrogations were not aimed at
1640s, but fell off sharply after 1660. The last, forcing the accused to incriminate others.
in 1717, ended in acquittal, and in 1736 the Hence EngUsh 'witch-hunts' were smaU scale,
Witchcraft Act was repealed and the crime by European standards, with marked vari-
officially ceased to exist (though people claim- ations between one region and another. FuU
ing magic powers could still be prosecuted for statistics are lacking because court records in
fraud). Thereafter, fear and hatred of witches, many areas are missing or incomplete; those
though still common, was frowned on by the of the Home Assize Circuit between 1559 and
elite as mere 'superstition'. 1736 show 513 persons charged, of whom 200
Witch-trials in England differed from those were convicted, 109 of them being hanged.
in Scotland in highlighting charges of material Estimates of the total number executed have
harm, not devil-worship, though reUgious recently been revised from 'under 1,000' to
writers and preachers were naturally pre- 'probably less than 500' (Thomas, 1971: 450;
occupied with the latter issue. The first two Sharpe, 1996: 125).
Witchcraft Acts (1542, 1563) made hanging Contemporary pamphlets describing the
the penalty for murder through witchcraft, trialsoccupied a borderUne between repor-
and the pillory, imprisonment, or loss of tage and Active narrative; they sought to
goods the punishments for lesser injuries. The convince, but also to 'entertain' readers by
Act of James I (1604) added another capital shocking them. They drew upon tiaditional
offence, to 'consult, covenant with, employ, stereotypes and anecdotes, reinforced them,
feed or reward any evil or wicked spirit', and a and spread them. The beliefs they reveal are
handbook for judges published in 1618 more elaborate and dramatic than the actual
witch ladder 396

charges. They include accounts of witches witch ladder. In 1886, during repairs to an

feeding their *familiars with their blood; old house in WelUngton (Somerset), a blocked-
meeting Satan in the form of a black man (or off roof space was found to contain broom-
black dog), making a covenant with him, or sticks and a length of rope interwoven with

having sexual intercourse with him; changing goose and rook feathers. The workmen who
themselves into *hares; changing others into found it called it 'a witches' ladder', but other
horses and riding them to a sabbath, to feast local informants thought it was used in curs-
there with the Devil. These beliefs seem to ing, and would have been hidden in the vic-
have grown steadily more common and more tim's house. Sabine Baring-Gould describes
complex over the two centuries of the trials; this procedure in his novel Curgenven (1893),
all except the sabbath continue to appear fre- but the details are probably his invention.
quently in later folklore, plus the motif of Other informants, in the early 20th century,
magic *flying. said the object must have been a 'wishing
Fear of witchcraft was still widespread in rope', or that the maker would have hung it
the 19th century. Folklore of this period is rich outside, either 'to draw the milk from her
in anecdotes about local witches and stresses neighbours' cowsheds' or to summon some-
the importance of defending oneself against one magically (Tongue, 1965: 67-8).
them. There were charms to guard the home Abraham CoUes, Folk-Lore Journal 5 (1887), 1-3, and cor-
and farm against potential witchcraft (e.g. respondence, 81-4, 257-9, 354-6.
*hagstones, *horseshoes, *rowan), and *coun-
terspells to use if it had already occurred. As witch of Bericeiey, see Berkeley.
law no longer offered redress to people believ-
ing themselves bewitched, the help of cun- Witch of Scrapfaggot Green, see scrap-
ning men was still in demand; mob violence, faggot GREEN.
*
including swimming witches, still occurred.
As late as the 1970s, in Hertfordshire:
witch posts. In North Yorkshire farmhouses
of the 17th and 18th centuries, hearths were
Many now living, even in market towns, can
remember being told by parents not to cross or
screened by partitions ending in posts of
trouble certain dangerous men or women and thus rowan wood carved with X-shaped patterns,
invite their displeasure and revenge. Nor can the called 'witch posts'. Lancashire farms had
name of the last witch in many villages be dis- similar rowan posts, but without the decor-
covered, the truthful reply from those who will talk ation. BeUef in their protective power con-
about this forbidden subject being that 'the time has
tinued intothe 1920s, when Yorkshire
not yet come". (Jones-Baker, 1977: 114)
builders made new ones when old houses
See also *counterspells, *cunning men, were being rebuilt. A modem stonemason
familiars, flying, hag-riding, image explained:
MAGIC, shape-changing, sV^MMING The witch, in order to gain power over a dwelling
WITCHES, white WITCHES, wiTCH BOTFLES. house, must go through the house and past the
For 'witchcraft' in the sense of modem pagan- hearth. The door and chimney were the only means
ism, see wiccA. of access, but she could not pass the witch post with
its cross. Hence it was a defence at the hearth ... a
Macfarlane, 1970/1999; Thomas, 1971: 435-585; Sharpe,
1996; Hester, 1992; Gilbert Geis and Ivan Bunn, A Trial of crooked sixpence was kept in a hole at the centre of
Witches (1997). Parallel Scottish material will be found in the post. When the butter would not turn you took a
Christina Lamer, Enemies of God: The Witch-Hunt in Scotland knitting needle, which was kept for the purpose in a
(1981). Briggs, 1962, discusses witchcraft in Elizabethan groove at the top, and v^dth it got out the sixpence
and Jacobean literature. and put it in the chum. (Brears, 1989: 31)
For witchcTaft in later English belief, see Davies, 1998
and 1999a and b; Maple, 1960, 1962, 1965. Relevant
material occurs in most regional collections and in wittan, see rowan.
Briggs, 1970-1: B. ii.609-761.
Introductory surveys to the European background wizards. A late medieval term, derived from
include Jeffrey B. Russell, A History of Witchcraft (1980); and
Brian Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Modem Europe (1987). 'wise' and always implying arcane knowledge
A brief outline of recent scholarship is Jacqueline Simp- and mysterious authority, generally derived
son, EoMore 107 (1996), 5-18. Two important collections from written symbols and designs, and sacred
of essays are Early Modem European Witchcraft: Centres and
words in ancient languages. It is used of
Peripheries, ed. Bengt Ankarloo and Gustav Henningsen
(1990); and Witchcraft in Early Modem Europe, ed. Jonathan MerUn; of local heroes such as *Jack o' Kent,
Barry, Marianne Hester, and Gareth Roberts (1996). who could outwit the Devil and command his
 wrens

services; but also, in real life, of village the young man his sister was engaged to appeared

charmers and *cunning men. The latter were before them in the bedroom, as plainly as anything,
in his uniform. He said it was just as if he was almost
also sometimes called *conjurers.
there! And he'd been killed just at that time in the
War! (Bennett, 1987: 55)
Women's Morris Federation, see *morris
FEDERATION. There was a vddespread idea that once a
year, usually on St Mark's Eve but sometimes
woodwose. An alternative name for the at All Souls or Midsummer Night, anyone
Wild Man; from Old English wudu wasa who watched in the church porch from mid-
= 'woodland being', but with the meaning night till one o'clock would see those fated to
modified through the influence of Middle Eng- die that year entering the church, usually in
lish wood = 'mad, furious'. the order of their deaths. An account of 1634,
from Burton in Lincolnshire, describes a pro-
wooset, husset. A form of rough music, cession of figures in vending-sheets led by the
from the curate, and sounds of a burial service.
reported Berkshire/Wiltshire/
Somerset area, under a variety of variant spell- However, keeping this watch was disap-
ings and pronunciations—wooset, husset, proved of and could bring its ov^oi punish-
housset, hooset, and so on. The main dis-
ment. It was said of a certain Jonny Joneson,
sexton of Middleton (near Manchester) around
tinguishing feature was the 'Wooset'— a
horse's head with snapping jaws and added 1800, that he kept watch on All Souls' Eve.
horns, carried in procession on a pole. counting the wraiths and gloating to think
Compare also hobby horses, ooser. how many burial fees he would earn, until one
Wiltshire Archaeolo^cal and Natural History Magazine 1
appeared which he recognized as himself He
EDD fell ill. and was dead within a year (Samuel
(1854), 88-9; (1902), iii, under 'Hooset'; Major B.
Lowsley, A Glossary of Berkshire Words and Phroses (1888), Bamford, Autobipgrophy (1848-9), i. 160-2).
Similarly at Dorstone (Herefordshire) on All
92.

Souls' Eve a man saw wraiths gathering in the

Word-Lore. Subtitled The 'Folk' Magazine and church, where the Devil, dressed as a monk,
pubUshed by the Folk Press Ltd., edited by called out the names of those fated to die; he
Douglas Macmillan. It ran for twelve numbers, heard his own name, and died shortly after
January 1926 to December 1927, and included (Leather, 1912: 107). For fiirther examples, see
short pieces on many aspects of language and St Mark's Eve.
folklore, including dialect poems and stories,
Opie and Tatem, 1989: 80-1; Bennett, 1987: 55-64; S. P.
song-texts, place-names, word-
word-lists, Menefee, in The Seer, ed. Hilda ElUs Davidson (1989). 80-
puzzles, and notes and queries. Word-Lore had 99. Some Victorian accounts of wraiths are in Briggs,

an amateur, homemade feel, and some of its 1970-1: B. ii. 489-93, 505-6, 518-19, 525-6, 549, 576, 595.

content was of dubious authority, but it is a

wrens. In folk tradition, the wren is regarded
product of its time, and there is much valuable
as always female ('Jenny Wren'), and as wife to
material to be found in its pages.
the robin; Uke the latter she is a sacred bird
and must not be harmed, nor should her eggs
wraiths. This can be a s5mon5mi for ghost,
be taken, otherwise someone close to the
but generally means the spectral double of
taker will die:
someone still alive. Usually, it appears at or

near the time of the person's death, as a sign The robin redbreast and the wren
for close friends or relatives; sometimes it is a Are God Almighty's cock and hen.
more long-term warning; occasionally it Nevertheless, there exists a calendar cus-
means the person is in danger or disttess. To tom called 'Hunting the Wren' which was
see one's own wraith (also called a 'fetch') is a
widespread in Ireland, Wales, and the Isle of
sure sign of death. The apparition of a des- Man. and not unknown in England. The usual
tined husband summoned by some love div- time for the custom is St Stephen's Day (26
inations is also a wraith. The beUef is old, and December), when groups of young men hunt-
still strongly held; a Manchester woman in ed and killed wrens and then paraded them
1981 said: around the neighbourhood with much singing
Some years ago, it was at the end of the First World and music. Hunting the Wren is thus normally
War. My husband was quite young, and he was away disregarded in discussions of Enghsh customs,
—
with his older sister, on holiday or something. And but there have been sufficient reports to
Wright, Arthur Robinson

indicate a reasonably strong presence in this working life was spent as a civil servant in the
country. In some instances, the custom may Patent Office. He was an active member of the
well have been performed by Irish or Welsh Folklore Society, serving for many years as
immigrants, as a writer from Pl5nnouth, Editor of the journal *Folk-Lore (1909-31) and as
Devon, confirms: 'I have often known the Irish President (1927-8). Wright was a great gath-
boys Uving in Stonehouse Lane, the St. Giles of erer of information. His personal Ubrary
Plymouth, go round the town with sticks and (donated to the Folklore Society on his death)
garlands, singing the well-known song of the numbered some 5,000 folklore volumes, and
Wren Boys from door to door, on St Stephen's he was an inveterate cutter of items from
Day, in order to get money, but I am happy to newspapers. He was unusual in the inter-war
say I never could find either a living or dead generation for being equally interested in the
wren among them' {Land and Water (30 Oct. 'modem' as in the ancient, and in numerous
1880)). But there are too many references for letters to Folk-lorehe commented on topics
them all to be explained in this way, as Arm- such as vehicle mascots (in 1913), confetti, the
strong, for example, lists fifteen EngUsh coun- three fights superstition, the number thirteen,
ties in which he found traces. One description and the burial of amputated Umbs, and his
includes the rhyme that is commonly used in small book English Folklore (1928) is packed
Ireland: 'At Christmas-tide, boys are accus- with material on a wide variety of topics and
tomed in Essex to kill wrens and cany them can still be useful as an introduction to folk-
about in furze bushes, from house to house, lore. In his second Presidential Address,

asking a present in these words: entitled 'The Unfinished Tasks of the Folk-Lore
Society' (Folk-lore 39 (1928), 15-38), he
The wren, the wren, the king of the birds
St. Stephen's Day was killed in the furze
commented:
Although he be little his honour is great folklore is very much a thing of Ufe and growth
And so. good people, pray give us a treat' and not a mere 'survival' from the smelly and
today,
(Henderson, 1879: 125) fear-haunted days of 'primitive' man, no more cap-
able of development or growth than a fossil bone or
The picture is slightly obscured by an stone axe.
occasionally reported custom which may or
may not be related. Several reports state that Wright's other Ufelong folklore interest was
at Christmas time it was customary for vil- in * calendar customs,and he laboured long to
lagers to go out into the woods to 'hunt', gather material for what he saw as a new ver-
which often turned into an indiscriminate sion of *Brand's Popular Antiquities. He died
before it was completed, but his material was
orgy of killing anything that moved, including
wrens and other small birds (see *St Stephen's edited into shape by T. E. Lones, and published

Day, and *squirrel hunting). by the Folklore Society under their joint
Another strand in our wren lore is a wide- names as British Calendar Customs: England (3
spread song which has excited folklorists' vols., 1936-40), which still serves as a standard
imagination for many years, 'The Cutty Wren' work on the subject.
or 'Richat to Robert', which has been collected Obituary by M. Gaster and A. A. Gomme: Folk-Lore 44
all over the British Isles and North America, (1933), 116-20; Who Was Who.

with a first-known pubUcation date of 1744. In

a hypnotic, repetitive chant, the song details
Wright, Elizabeth iVIary (b. 1863). Bom EUz-
how we are to go hunting to kill a wren, in abeth Mary Lea, eldest daughter of an East
terms of how huge the bird is, how difficult to London and Herefordshire clergyman; after a
kill,and the prodigious amount of meat there conventional schooling, she enrolled at Lady
will be to share out. It has been claimed that it
Margaret Hall, Oxford, in 1887, where she
has ancient ritual origins, which may be true, attended classes in Old EngUsh given by Pro-
but there is no evidence and it is also possible fessor Joseph Wright, under whose supervi-
that it belongs to the genre of hyperbolic com- sion she prepared a grammar of the dialect of
edy songs such as 'The Wonderful Crocodile', Northumbria, and whom she later married.
'The Derby Ram', and so on. She assisted Joseph with his books on gram-
Armstrong, 1958: 141-66; Swainson, 1886: 35-43; Opie mar and worked closely with him on his
and Opie, 1997: 437-40. monumental English Dialect Dictionary (1896-
1905). She had, in fact, already encountered
Wright, Arthur Robinson (1862-1932). His this sort of material— 'My father was greatly
399 Wroth Silver

interested in folk-lore and dialect, and would the British Museum (1856), Political Poems and
expound to us superstitions he had come Songs Relating to English History from Edward III to
across in his pastoral visits'—and she pub- Richard III (1859-61), and Songs and Ballads with
lished, in her own right. Rustic Speech and Folk- other ShortPoems Chiefly of the Reign of Philip and
lore (1913),an excellent book packed full of Mary Other works of his with import-
(1860).
astute personal observation and knowledge ant folklore elements were: Narratives of Sorcery
and unusual for its time as not being confined and Magic (1851), and Essays on Subjects Con-
to one particular region. After her husband's nected with literature, Popular Superstitions and
death in 1930, she published a two-volume History of England in the Middle J>^es (1846).
biography. The of Joseph Wright (1932),
Life Unfortunately, Wright does not have a very
which also gives many details of her own life. good reputation as far as accuracy of tran-

scription is concerned.

Wright, Joseph (1855-1930). Bom in poverty DNB; Dorson, 1968: 61-6.

in Thackley, Yorkshire, Joseph Wright taught
himself to read and write and educated him- Wroth Silver. Early in the morning of 11
self to university level. He studied for a Ph.D. November (St Martin's Day), representatives of
at Heidelberg, and served as Deputy Professor various Warwickshire parishes— along with a
(1891-1901) and later Professor of Compara- large crowd of onlookers—gather on Knight-
tive Philology at Oxford University (1901-25). low pay money, or Wroth Silver, to the
Hill to

Wright published numerous standard texts on agent of the Duke of Buccleuch, Lord of the
the grammar of various languages, and an Hundred of Knightlow. As each person is
interest in English dialects resulted in his called, they step forward and throw their
Windhill Dialect Grammar (1893), which was, he money into a square hollow stone, which was
claimed, 'The first grammar of its kind in Eng- previously the base of a stone cross, saying
land: as scientific study of a living dialect 'wroth silver'. In much earlier days they were
intended to be useful to philologists' (Wright, required to walk round the stone first. Having
1932: 138). In 1887 Wright accepted the pos- paid their dues, which only takes a few min-
ition of editorof the long-planned English Dia- utes, the company then set off to the Dun Cow

Dictionary, which was finally published in

lect where they all sit down to breakfast. Now-
sixvolumes between 1896 and 1905, mostly at adays, the breakfast is by ticket only (the col-
Wright's own expense. He was also the insti- lected Wroth Silver usually amounts to less

gator of the Yorkshire Dialect Society. Joseph than 50p), and includes a glass of hot milk and
Wright married EUzabeth Mary Lea (see E. M. rum which is traditional to the occasion.

*Wright) in 1896. Defaulters could be fined £1 for every penny

Elizabeth Mary Wright. The Life ofJoseph Wright (1932); F. owed, or the Duke could demand from them a
Austin Hyde, 'Yorkshire Remembers Dr. Joseph Wright', 'White bull, with red nose and ears of the
The Dalesman (Oct. 1955), 335-7; DNB. same colour'. The ceremony is clearly a relic of
the payment of dues or rents to the Lord of the
Wright Thomas (1810-77). After showing Manor, although the exact nature of the
early promise in the literary-antiquarian field, rights or privileges paid for is not known. As
settling in London in 1836, he served as Sec- several neighbouring parishes are Uable for
retary of both the Camden and Percy Societies, pajnment, it is likely that the fees were for
and for many years worked in collaboration access or movement by locals and their cattle
with fellow antiquarian *Halliwell-Philhpps. over the Duke's land. The name Wroth is of
Most of Wright's prodigious output was con- unknown meaning, and not unique to this
is

cerned with hterary or topographical matters, custom. There was, for example, Wrather
but his interest in early poetry led him to pub- Money, paid by New Forest tenants to their
Ush collections of songs and ballads which the Lords of the Manor.
folklorist can still find useful, including: Songs WiUiam Waddilove and David Eadon, Wroth Silver Today:
and Carols from a Manuscript of the 15th Century in An Ancient Warwickshire Custom (1983); Stone, 1906: 23-4
Xerox-lore, see *Photocopy-lore.
Yaiiery Brown. This Lincolnshire tale is man's love, they would push a yarrow leaf up
a sinister variationon the *brownie theme. their nose, sajdng:
The man who told it, a farm labourer, claimed
Yarroway, yarroway, bear a white blow [blossom].
that had happened to himself in his
it
If my love love me, my nose will bleed now.
youth. day, he had freed a httle man
One
(Wright, 1913: 258)
with yellow hair and brown skin, trapped
under a large flat stone. The creature The plant was actually called 'Nosebleed' in
asked what reward he would hke; the man some areas; some said this was because to
asked for help with his work, and Yallery smell its flowers stopped a nosebleed, others
Brown agreed, on condition he was never because a leaf up the nostril caused bleeding,
thanked. Things turned out badly, for which reUeved headaches. Medicinal uses in
though the man's work was magically done East AngUa in the 20th century include yarrow
for him the others found theirs spoiled and tea for measles and fevers, ointment for cuts
their tools blunted, so they accused him of and grazes, and an infusion of its roots for
being a wizard. So he was sacked, and raged at rheumatism (Hatfield, 1994: 33, 43, 46). A
the fairy: 'I'll thank thee to leave me alone, I bunch tied to a cradle was said to calm a baby
want none of thy help!' It screeched with and make it sweet-tempered; a pillow stuffed
laughter because it had been 'thanked', and with it brought happiness; yarrow sfrewn on
told him he would be poor now to his dying the doorstep kept witches out (Porter, 1969:
day. 17, 49). However, it was unlucky to bring its

M. C. *Balfour (Folk-lore 2 (1891), 264-71) flowers into the house as decoration.

gives the original version in full dialect.

Jacobs (1894/1968: 163-7) turned it into a yell-hounds, yeth-hounds. In Somerset,

third-person story in Standard English, and Devon, and Cornwall, a name for the dogs of
called the workman Tom Tiver; it is this ver- the *Wild Hunt (Wright, 1913: 196).
sion which is usually reprinted.
yellow. This coloiu- carries few meanings in

yarrow. In Devon and Cornwall, girls want- EngUsh and no beUefs are attached to it.
lore,
In the Middle Ages it stood for jealousy and
ing to dream of their future husbands would
pick this plant at night— some said, from a treachery, and in the 19th and 20th centuries
young man's grave— and put it under their pil- for cowardice; 'yellow-belly' is a mocking
lows, saying: nickname for people of marshy districts, com-
paring them to frogs. In America a yellow rib-
Good night, fair yarrow. bon indicates loyalty to an absent soldier or
Thrice good night to thee,
prisoner; this symbolism is spreading in
I
hope before tomorrow
Britain.
My true love to see.
East Anglian girls pinned yarrow to their yew. Yew trees symbohze both death and
dresses todraw the attention of the lads they immortahty, being poisonous but long-
fancied; or, barefoot and with their eyes shut, lived, and able to re-root their branches to
they picked a bunch at midnight by the Ught produce fresh saplings. Until the 18th century,
of the ftill moon and kept it overnight, for if at was laid in coffins and graves
their foliage
dawn it was still wet with dew they would at *funerals.The custom of planting yews
soon be courted (Porter, 1969: 3); to test a in churchyards seems to have come with
Yorkshire Dialect Society 402

Christianity to Ireland and Wales, in imitation tions was launched in 1898 and is still being
of Mediterranean cemeteries with cypress and pubhshed.
laurel; it then spread to England, probably as V^. J. Halliday, The Yorkshire Dialect Society: History and Aims
early as the 12th century. (c.1942); Peter Anderson, Yorkshire at Work: a Selection of
Articles Reprinted from the Yorkshire Dialect Society (1980).
Later generations, however, found church-
yard yews puzzling. Two practical explan-
ations are often put forward, namely to pro- Yule. This word, in various spellings, means a
vide wood for longbows, and/or to ensure loosely defined midwinter period (not a single
farmers did not let cows graze among the day) in the early languages of most Germanic
graves. Both lack dociunentary support, and and Scandinavian countries. Bede, writing of
the slow growth of yews makes the first pagan England, mentions two months, 'early
implausible; naturally, the branches of an Yule' and 'later Yule', corresponding to Roman
already mature tree could be cut for bows, but December and January; after the Conversion,
existing trees show no sign of having been 'Yule' was narrowed to mean either the

lopped, nor do parish records note sales of yew Nativity (25 December), or the twelve days of
staves (N&Q, 5s:12 (1879), 112-13). festivity beginning on this date. The word
The age of large yews is hard to assess, but Christmas replaced 'Yule' in most of England
1,000 years is not impossible, suggesting that in the 11th century, but not in north-eastern
some were planted soon after their church areas of Danish settiement, where it survived
was built. When a large one at Selbome strongly till modem times as the normal dia-
(Hampshire) collapsed in a gale in January lect term for Christmas. Nineteenth-century
1990, medieval graves were found beneath its writers took up the word as a way of denoting
roots, the oldest being from around ad 1200 the 'Christmas of olden times', with its lavish
(Harte, 1996: 6-7). However, some have food and secular joUity, situated in a largely
claimed that large churchyard yews are ft-om invented *'Merrie England'.
2,000 to 5,000 years old and were sacred to The medieval hking for pageantry and sym-
*Druids or earlier peoples, implying that the bolism sometimes led to Yule being imper-
church was built because the tree was there, sonated (cf. *Father Christmas). In 1572 the
not vice versa. This is improbable, both botan- Archbishop of York ordered the Mayor and
ically and archaeologically, and lacks support- Aldermen to suppress an annual parade on St
ing evidence. Thomas's Day (21 December) called 'The Rid-
Round the church at *Painswick (Glouces- ing of Yule and his Wife', because it drew
tershire )
are many clipped yews, traditionally 'great concourses of people' away from
said to number was alleged that every
99; it church-going, and involved disguising. The
attempt to plant a hundredth would fail— and man representing Yule carried a shoulder of
so it did! At length the mystery was solved, lamb and a large cake of fine bread; he was
when a lady wrote to The Times (7 July 1963), accompanied by his 'wife', carrying a distaff,
explaining that her father, a scientist and and by attendants who threw nuts to the
practical joker who lived beside the church- crowd (Duffy, 1992: 581-2).
yard, 'used to pour acid or poison on the roots The Yule Log (or Clog, or Christmas Block) is
of the hundredth yew tree whenever they mentioned in folklore collections from most
planted a new one. It's highly hkely that he parts of England, but especially the West
started the legend himself.' Country and the North. It would be the largest
Vaughan Comish, The Churchyard Yew and Immortality piece of wood which could fit on the family
(1949); Jennifer Chandler, FLS News 15 (1992), 3-6; Jeremy hearth, and was usually brought in on Christ-
Harte, At the Edge 4 (1996), 1-9. mas Eve with some ceremony, and put on the
fire that evening; many writers, including
Yorkshire Dialect Society. Founded in 1897, *Herrick, say it was kindled with a fi:agment
although it had its roots in a committee kept from the previous year's log (Hesperides
formed in 1894 to assist Joseph * Wright in the (1648), no. 785;N&Q,lls:l (1910), 129-30). It
compilation of his English Dialea Dictionary. was also generally believed that it would be
Since its inception, the Society has acted as a very unlucky for the family if the log was
focus for dialect studies in the area, prompting allowed to go out on Christmas Day. It is not
research, encouraging the writing of dialect clear when the custom arose, since the first
verse and prose, sponsoring lectures and definite references are only from the 17th cen-
meetings, and pubhshing. Its annual Transac- tury, for example Aubrey's 'In the West-riding
403 Yule

of Yorkshire on Christmas Eve at night they custom is reported chiefly from the north of

bring in a large Yule-log, or Christmas block, the country, but its wider range is indicated by
and set it on fire and lap their Christmas ale Parson Woodeforde's diary entries, in Norfolk,
and sing "Yule, Yule, a pack of new cards and a such as: 'I lighted my large wax-candle being
Christmas stool"' (Aubrey, 1686/1880: 134). Xmas day during tea-time this afternoon for
Victorian illustrations of a medieval Christmas abt. an hour' (25 December 1790). The pre
often show several men hauling huge trees or Reformation Church made a particular feature
stumps in with ropes, but the antiquity of the of candles at Christmas, and strong connec-
word 'Yule' cannot prove the custom's age. tions between the season and candles persist
Less well known is the custom of Ughting a to this day. It was thought unlucky to Ught the
Yule candle on Christmas Eve, first recorded Yule candle before dusk on Christmas Eve, and
by this name in 1817. These were taller than once alight it was not moved. As with the log.
usual candles ('half a yard in length'), and a small piece was kept 'for luck' in the coming
there was a tradition of chandlers and grocers year (Wright and Lones 1940: iii. 215; Opie and
giving them to their regular customers. The Tatem, 1989: 75).
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I
i
I
I
 ENGLISH
FOLKLORE
Reference books
Folklore is connected to virtually every aspect of
from Oxford
part of the country, age group and
life,
are renowned occupation. From the bizarre to the seemingly
the world over for mundane, folklore is as much a feature of the
their quality,
modern technological age as the ancient world.
With more than 1,250 entries, this reference
authority, and
work is an entertaining and accessible guide to
reliability.
English folklore. It covers the enormous variety
and distinctive features of traditions throughout
England and indicates links with British and
European folklore.

Oral and Performance Genres - Cheese

rolling, Morris dancing. Well-dressing . . .

Superstitions - Charms, Rainbows,

Wishbones . . .

Characters - Cinderella, Father Christmas,

Robin Hood, Dick Whittington . . .

Supernatural Beliefs - Devil's hoofprints.

showers
Fairy rings. Frog . . .

Calendar Customs - April Fool's Day,

Helston Furry Day, St. Valentine's Day . . .

c c
o g 'It becomes at once a new standard
2 ^ reference book in its field'
J5 Library Review
Uo ^
Q.

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