SIPEOMA-OF ASSOCIA rea aatals SSS SS pees i = SSS ee A TEXT BOOK OF REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE ‘OF _ ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT.ET-363 eC A TEXT BOOK OF ET 363 Repair & Maintenance of Electrical Equipment DAE 3"° Year ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY NAVEED IQBAL MALIK (senior instructor) GCT MULTAN Convener / Reviewer ABDUL KHALIQ (Instructor) GCT BUREWALA Member / Compiler ENGR. FAISAL RIAZ (instructor) GCT BAHAWALPUR Member / Compiler Published by: TEVTA PUNJAB (ACADEMICS WING)ET-363 ——___??.??.... ._—_——— es ET-363 REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT (CONTENTS / UNITS) No. UNIT DESCRIPTION PAGE # 1_| FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE 01 2 | common FAULTS OF STARTERS AND SPEED 41 CONTROLLERS 3 | FAULTS, THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF A.C. 3 64 PHASE MOTOR 4 | FAULTS THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF 95 SINGLE PHASE A.C. MOTORS 5 | DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS; THEIR FAULTS, 115 CAUSES AND REMEDIES 6 | DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS THEIR FAULTS, 134 CAUSES AND REMEDIES 7 | FAULTS, THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF 153 ALTERNATORS 8 | FAULTS THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF 189 |__| TRANSFORMERS 9 | FAULT THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF HOUSE 218 HOLD APPLIANCES 10 | BATTERIES, THEIR FAULTS, CAUSES AND THEIR 256 REMEDIESET-363 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCECs 11 12 13 14 15 1.6 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 wy COURSE CONTENTS i renance Scheduled maintenance and preventive maint Minor repairs Major repairs ' Tools and Equipment's used for repair work . Safety rules to be observed during repair wor Risk Assessment 7 Role of AVR in fault prevention INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE Compare routine maintenance, preventive maintenance and general "om haul. ' ee the terms associated with maintenance e.g., breakdown, n i" P MTTR (Mean Time to Restore) MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure), Downtime percentage. | : Explain maintenance schedule and differentiate between minor and major repair. / Enlist the tools and instruments necessary for an electrical maintenance shop ; ‘Sketch the single line diagram of maintenance shop. Enlist & discuss methods of Risk Assessments. Discuss the role of AVR in fault prevention. £T-363 oo 1.1 Scheduled Maintenance andPreventive Maintenance 1.1.1. Scheduled Maintenance Scheduled maintenance refers to the routine maintenance tasks that are performed on a regular schedule to ensure that equipment and system are operating on thelr optimal level. This includes task like oil changes, replacements and inspections. The purpose of scheduled maintenance is to Prevent equipment failure and increase its useful life. Maintenance of a plant machinery or equipment can also be divided into the following categor filter Daily inspection and maintenance, Weekly inspection and maintenance. Monthly inspection and maintenance. Annual inspection and maintenance, Three yearly inspection and maintenance, yawn, Dally inspection and maintenance 1. Check for any signs of damage such a frayed wires or broken equipment, Clean the equipment and remove any debris or dust. Check for proper functioning of electrical switches and ensure that they are in the correct position. Check the equipment for any unusual sounds or smells. Check for loose connections and tight them. Observe of bearings ofall generators, turbines and engine, According to their need lubrications should be done. Weekly inspection and maintenance Check for any signs of wear and tear such as cracks, rust or corrosion. Test the backup power supply if present. Clean air filters and ventilation systems if applicable. Check the condition of circuit breakers and replace if necessary. Verify that equipment is working correctly such as alarms or switches, yawn —_—Monthly inspection an 6. \d maintenance rate voltage and current measuring eau! ment. te voltage 1g equipme! of equipment. or electrical equipment. erheating in electrical panels. fas fuses of circuit breakers are Check and calib' Check for proper grounding Inspect and clean any outdo Check for any hotspots or ov Verify that protective devices suc correctly sized and functional. ee Overheating of all starters, controllers and magnetic switche: Annual inspection and maintenance Conduct a thorough inspections of all electrical equipment’s and wiring ‘oni systems. ee a load analysis of the equipment to ensure that it is not overloaded. Replace or repair any equipment that is no longer functional or safe to use. Conduct a protective device co-ordination study to ensure that protective device is working correctly. Check all the safety equipment’ such as grounding systems and safety switches. Three Yearly inspection and maintenance 1 5. Test all electrical connections to ensure that they are secure and correctly installed. : Verify that all electrical systems are in compliance with the latest safety codes and standards. ightnit ly. Check and test lightning arrester proper! : ' Conduct a detailed inspection of all electrical equipment’s including internal components. Inspect and test all emergency and backup systems. 1.1.2 Preventive Maintenance i e Preventive maintenance refers to maintenance tasks that ar performed to prevent equipment failure before it occurs. This includes tasks ee £T-363 SE like cleaning, lubrications and adjustments. Preventive maintenance is usually based on a set of guidelines or procedures that are designed to Prevent equipment failure and ensure that its operating is at Its best. 1) Routine maintenance Routine maintenance refers to the regular maintenance tasks that are performed on a daily, weekly, monthly basis to keep the equipment or machinery in good working condition. These tasks may include cleaning lubrications inspections and minor repairs. Routine maintenance is to Prevent breakdowns and ensure that the equipment operates at optimal efficiency. 1.1.3 General overhaul General overhaul refers to a complete maintenance overhaul of piece of equipment or system. This includes disassembling, inspecting, cleaning, repairing and replacing components as needed. General overhaul is usually performed when a piece of equipment has reached at the end of his useful life or when its experiencing significant performance issues that can’t be addressed through routine maintenance or repairs. 1.1.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN ROUITNE MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND GENERAL OVERHAUL ROUITNE PREVENTIVE GENERAL OVERHAUL MAINTENANCE | MAINTENANCE Regular and Proactive measures | Comprehensive restorations scheduled tasks. | to prevent failures | process. or breakdown. Basic Comprehensive | Dismantling, inspecting, inspections, approach beyond ~ | repairing and replacing cleaning, routine components, lubrications and_| maintenance. adjustments.€T-363 a F_—VCO)8 OOOO Om [Performed at | Planned schedule of | Performed after a specific] regular intervals | inspections, umber of operating hours or (weekly, monthly | replacements and _| based on conditions. or annually). repairs. ‘Aims to identify | Based on ‘Aims to address major issues _| and address manufacturer and ensure performance and minor issues or | recommendations, | safety. potential industry standards problems early _ | and data. on. —— Examples: Examples: system | Involves disassembling, changing filters, | diagnostics, inspecting, replacing critical checking fluid | replacing worn-out | parts, reassembling. levels, tightening | parts, software connections. updates. Objective is to Followed by performance test minimize to ensure functionality. unplanned downtime and increase reliability. 1.2. MINOR REPAIR Minor repair refers to a process of fixing small issues or faults in Electrical systems that do not require major component replacement or extensive troubleshooting, typically involving simple repairs or replacements of faulty electrical components or connections to restore normal functioning of systems. Following are the faults which occur in this system: Defective capacitor. Drying of grease in bearing. Looseness of nut bolts of side cover. Looseness of earthing connection. errr eo ET-363, -oo 5. Belt breakage. 6. Melting of fuse. 7. Loose connection in connection box. 8. Sparking on motor due to brush not being on neutral axis. 9. Tightness of belt. 10. Cooling fan not working properly. 11. Battery discharge. 12. Improper ventilation duct. 13. Air gap not being correct. 1.2.1 Break down A breakdown is an unexpected failure of a machine or equipment. It can happen due to several reasons. Such as wear and tear, faulty components or operator error. Breakdown can result in significant downtime and repair costs which can negatively impact productivity and profitability 1.2.2 MTTR MTTR stands for Mean Time to Repair. It is average time taken to repair the machine or piece of equipment after it has broken down. MTTR is an important metric for maintenance teams because it helps them understand how quickly they can get a machine back up and running after a failure. 1.2.3 MTBF MTBF stands for Mean Time Between Failure. It is the average time that a machine or piece of equipment can run without experiencing a breakdown. A high MTBF is desirable as it indicates that the equipment is reliable and not prone to frequent breakdowns, Maintenance teams can use MTBF to help them plan preventative maintenance tasks and optimize the maintenance schedule. 1.2.4 Downtime percentage Downtime percentage is the percentage of time that a machine or piece of equipment is not available for use due to maintenance or repair. Its a critical metric for maintenance teams, as Excessive downtime can lead to o.oo. ae 7e. To calculate downtime percentage, lost of productivity and PAO erating time and multiply by 100. total tal downtime by the there Total downtime 499 = Downtime percentage = Toray operating time 1.3 MAJOR REPAIR repair refers to a significant and extensive restorations or fixing Major r ‘ fa rrget or malfunctioning object, system or structure. It involves of daressing significant issues or damages that cannot be easily or quickly a resolved. Major repairs are typically performed when the extant on deterioration Is beyond the capabilities of routine maintena he : repairs. This can include substantial damage to buildings, vel les machinery, appliances, or any other complex systems. Major repairs often require specialized skills, equipment, and materials to successfully restore the object or system to its optimal functioning state. The scope of major repairs can vary depending on the specific situation. it may Involve replacing or repairing large components, conducting extensive diagnostic tests, performing structural repairs, addressing electrical or mechanical failures, or any other substantial tasks necessary to restore the functionality, safety, or performance of the object or system. Major repairs can be time-consuming, costly, and may require professional expertise or specialized technicians, depending on the complexity of the repair. The goal of major repairs Is to return the object or system to a fully ‘operational and functional condition, minimizing the risk of further damage and ensuring its longevity. 1.3.1 Overhaul An overhaul refers to a comprehensive and extensive process of inspecting, repairing, and refurbishing an object, system, or structure to bring It back to its original or optimal condition. It involves a thorough examination and replacement or restoration of worn-out or damaged ET-363 -_ components, addressing performance issues, and conducting necessary maintenance activities. Overhauls are often performed on complex machinery, engines, vehicles, or systems that require periodic restoration or renewal due to wear and tear, performance degradation, or obsolescence. This process is typically more comprehensive and extensive than routine maintenance or minor repairs. During an overhaul, the object or system is disassembled, and each component is thoroughly inspected, cleaned, repaired, or replaced as needed, This can involve replacing worn-out parts, updating obsolete technology, addressing structural issues, and restoring or upgrading the Performance and functionality of the object or system ‘The overhaul process aims to extend the lifespan of the object or system, improve its reliability and efficiency, and ensure compliance with safety standards and regulations. It may involve specialized tools, equipment, and expertise to perform the necessary tasks effectively. Overhauls can be time-consuming, costly, and require skilled technicians or Professionals with expertise in the specific object. or system being overhauled. The extent and frequency of overhauls vary depending on the nature of the object or system, recommendations, 1.3.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN MINOR REPAIR AND MAJOR REPAIR its usage, and the manufacturer's Minor repair Major repair Purpose | Address minor issues, Resolve significant damage, malfunction, or failures that have @ noticeable impact on operation and performance. Involve comprehensive components or areas _| troubleshooting, identification of that require repair or | root causes, and repair or routine wear and tear, or small-scale malfunctions, Scope | Focus on specific replacement due to replacement of multiple minor damage or components or systems. malfunction. eeMajor repair More complex tasks, such as extensive rewiring, circuit board replacements, or repair of critical components. Minor repair Relatively simple tasks, such as replacing a single component, fixing small wiring issues, oF adjusting settings. Extent of work Impact on Typically targeted at May result in longer operations restoringimmediate | downtime and disruption functionality with to the operation of the equipment or system. Aim to resolve significant minimal impact on overall operation or performance. issues and restore optimal performance. 1.4 Tools and Equipment’s used for Repair Work 1.4.1 Testing Instruments 1) Multimeter Multimeter is a device used to measure voltage current and resistance. A typical multimeter consists of a display unit, a dial or buttons to select different measurement functions, and two or more probes for making electrical connections. The probes are typically equipped with sharp tips or clips to securely attach to the test points of the circuit or component being measured. ET-363 oe 2) Test lamp It is also known as a voltage tester or test pen. It is a simple electronic tool to check the presence of voltage in electrical circuit. It consists of a handle or body, a probe or tip, and a visual indicator. The test lamp typically contains a small incandescent bulb or LED connected to a pair of insulated wires. One wire is connected to the bulb or LED, and the other is connected to a metal probe or tip. The probe is used to make contact with the circuit being tested. Fig.1.4.2 (Test Lamp) 3) Growler A growler is an elect | testing device used to check the continuity and quality of a ferromagnetic core in an electrical motor or generator. It consists of a cylindrical coil of wire wound around a soft iron core with a handle of ease to use. Fig.1.4.3 (Growler) 1163 s 1.4.2 Measuring Instrument: 1) Ammeter ) Jo known as amperemeter. It Is 2 measuring A tires re the electric current flowing through the circuit easul instrument ea hee connected in series with the circuit, allowing current Itis typically des n be analog or digital, with eter itself. Ammeters cal Oa ee hat shows the current reading. Analog ammeters have a one a ne that indicates the current value on a aiibrered scale, while me i readings. Shea! omeneters use digital displays to provide numerical reading: Fig.1.4.4(Ammeter) 2) Voltmeter A voltmeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the voltage and potential difference between two points in an electrical “reat s specifically designed to measure voltage in volts (V), which 's e ent ‘ electric potential. Voltmeters can be analog or digital, and they i ne numerical reading or indication of the voltage being measured. Analog voltmeters use a moving pointer and a calibrated scale to display the voltage H value, while digital voltmeters use digital displays to show the numerical voltage reading. 12 Fig.1.4.5 (VOLTMETER) 3) Clamp ON-Meter 4 clamp-on meter, also known as a clamp meter or current clamp, isa versatile electrical instrument used to measure current flowing through a conductor without the need for direct electrical contact. It is specifically designed to measure alternating current (AC) and, in some cases, direct current (DC) as well. The key feature of a clamp-on meter is its built-in Current transformer or current clamp. This clamp is designed to be opened and closed around a conductor, allowing the meter to measure the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the conductor. This non. contact measurement method makes clamp-on meters convenient and safe touse. Fig.1.4.6 (CLAMP ON METER) 134) Ohm Meter a resistance meter or simply @ meter, is used comet the resistance of * noah ahi i a an electrical instrument use ned to measure resistance in ohm: i, : is circuit. ts spect vance. Ohmmeters can be analog or digital, the unit of electrical a vc indication ofthe resistance belng measured, providing a numerical reading coving pointer and a calibrated scale to ters typically have 2 ™ igital displ Analog eee value, while digital chmmeters use digital displays to display the show the numerical resistance reading. ‘An ohmmeter, also kent Fig.1.4.7 (OHM METER) 5) A.V.O Meter Aan Avo meter typically provides measurement capabilities for voltage, current, and resistance. It usually consists of a rotary selector switch that allows the user to choose the desired measurement function, a moving pointer or needle indicating the measurement value on a calibrated analog scale, and probes or test leads for making electrical connections. ET-363 Fig.1.4.8 (A.V.O METER) 1.4.3 TOOLS 1) Reamer Areamer is a cutting tool used in machining and metalworking processes to enlarge and shape holes with high precision and surface finish. It is primarily designed to create smooth and accurate holes that meet specific dimensional requirements. Reamers typically consist of a cylindrical body with a series of Cutting edges, called flutes, along its length. The flutes may be straight or helical, depending on the type of reamer. At the front end of the reamer, there isa pilot or chamfer that guides the reamer into the hole and helps center it.2) Bench Vice asa bench vise, Is 2 mechanical device useg Abench eek during various types of work, such as tno woe aie rking, and other crafting oF repair task. Iti typically woodworking, Oth ora similar sturdy surface. A bench vice consists of attached to 2 wor de of metal, that can be opened or closed using a two jaws, typically made .d and attached to the bench, while the hanism. One jaw is fixe ; I ties eee movable and can be adjusted to accommodate different sizes of o workpieces. The movable jaw is connected to a threaded screw, which is turned by a handle or lever, allowing the user to open or close the jaws as needed, Fig.1.4.10 (BENCH VICE) 3) Pipe Vice A pipe vice, also known as a pipe vise or pipe clamp, is a specialized type of vice designed specifically for holding pipes securely during cutting, threading, or other pipe-related tasks. It is commonly used in plumbing, Pipefitting, and metalworking applications. A pipe vice typically consists of two jaws that can be opened or closed using a screw mechanism. The jaws are specifically designed to accommodate pipes of various diameters. One jaw is fixed, while the other jaw is movable and can be adjusted to grip the pipe tightly, Fig.1.4,11 (PIPE VICE) 4) Hand Dri ing Machine A hand drilling machine, also known.as a hand drill or manual drill, is a portable tool used for drilling holes in various materials. It is operated by hand power rather than being powered by electricity or a motor. Hand drilling machines are versatile tools used for various applications, including woodworking, metalworking, DIY projects, and general maintenance tasks. They are particularly useful in situations where electrical power is not readily available or for tasks that require precision and control. Fig.1.4.12 (HAND DRILL) 175) Ratchet Brace imply a brace, is a hand brace or simpl Iso known a5 2 A ratchet brace, 2! sll driving screws. It is 2 manual for drilling holes or cree i es the modern power drill and is still used ining for nt ventions Ratchet braces are known for their versatility and bl oe are particu 1 woodworking tasks, as they allow reliability. They larly useful fo yale lint fe ecise control and are less likely to cause damage or splintering for pr ean compared to power drills. They are also commonly .d in traditional and hand tool woodworking practices. Fig.1.4.13 (RATCHET BRACE) 6) Twist Drill ‘A twist drill is a commonly used cutting tool for drilling holes in various materials. It is one of the most widely used types of drill bits due to its versatility and efficiency, Twist drills are typically designed for use with power drills or drill presses, but they can also be used with hand drilling machines or ratchet braces. Twist drills are available in various sizes and materials, such as high-speed steel (HSS) or carbide. They come in standard sizes, with diameters ranging from fractions of a millimeter to several centimeters. The appropriate size of the twist drill should be chosen based on the desired hole diameter. Fig.1.4.14 (TWIST DRILL) ET-363 7) Rawl Plug Tool A rawl plug tool, also known as a wall plug tool or raw! plug setter, is a tool used for installing raw! plugs or wall anchors into masonry, concrete, or other solid surfaces. Rawl plugs are plastic or metal inserts that provide additional support for screws or bolts when fastening objects to walls or other surfaces. To use a rawl plug tool, the user selects the appropriate raw! plug for the size and type of screw or bolt being used. The rawl plug is inserted into the hollow shaft of the tool, ensuring a secure fit. The user then positions the rawl plug against the desired location on the wall or surface and strikes the plunger with a hammer. The force from the hammer drives the rawl plug into the material, creating a secure anchor point. Fig.1.4.15 (RAWL PLUG) 8) Stock and Die A stock and die tool, also known as a stock and die set or simply a die set, is a tool used in metialworking and machining processes. It is used to cut or shape materials, such as metal, by applying pressure and forcing the material to conform to the shape of the die, The tool consists of two main components: the stock and the die. The stock is the material being worked on, while the die is a specialized tool with a specific shape or profile. The die is typically made of hardened steel and has a cavity or impression that matches the desired shape or cut. 19Fig.1.4.16 (STOCK AND DIE) 9) Centre Punch o create a small indentation or mark on Itis primarily used to provide a starting ‘ing that the drill bit or ining operations, ensuring for drilling or other machi " erent tool remains centered and does not wander off-course, The a nek ned steel point, often with a conical or pyramid haft at the other end. The steel point is the force applied when striking it ‘Acenter punch Is 2 tool used tt a workpiece, typically made of metal. center punch has a harde shape, at one end and a handle or s typically sharp and designed to withstand with a hammer or mallet. 17 (CENTRE PUNCH) Fig. 10) Nut Driver Nut drivers are hand tools used for tightening or loosening nuts and bolts. They are similar to screwdrivers but specifically designed for working with hexagonal or square-shaped nuts. Nut drivers typically consist of 2 handle and a socket at the end, which securely fits over the nut. The socket of a nut driver Is usually hexagonal in shape, matching the standard sizes of £T-363 —— nuts commonly used in various applications. The handle can be made of materials such as plastic, rubber, or metal, providing a comfortable grip for the user. Fig.1.4,18 (NUT DRIVER) 11) Open End Wrench ‘An open-end wrench, also known as an open-end spanner or open-end wrench, is a hand tool used for tightening or loosening nuts and bolts. It consists of two U-shaped or C-shaped jaws, with each jaw having an opening at one end. The openings are of different sizes to accommodate nuts or bolts of various dimensions, To use an open-end wrench, you select the appropriate size of wrench that matches the nut or bolt you want to tighten oF loosen. Then, you slip the open jaws of the wrench onto the nut or bolt, ensuring a snug fit. By applying force to the wrench handle, you can either tighten or loosen the fastener, Fig.1.4.19 (OPEN END WRENCH) 21i french: . oe wn as a Stillson wrench OF plumber's wrench, no ipping and turning pipes, fittings, and other designed to provide a strong grip on roung monly used in plumbing, construction, ang pipe wrench, you adjust the to fit the working with. Position the wrench's diameter of he erated teeth BPBNE the sua, The, oe voce soe deshed direction, either to tighten or loosen the pipe or apply force fitting. A pipe wrench, also ki is a hand tool designed for Br cylindrical objects. It's specifically surfaces, such as pipes, and Is com mechanical applications. To use 2 4.20 (PIPE WRENCH) 13) Adjustable Wrench An adjustable wrench, also known as a crescent wrench or an adjustable spanner, is a versatile hand tool used for gripping and turning nuts, bolts, and other fasteners of various sizes. It is a menetave tool in many industries, including automotive repair, plumbing, construction, anc general household use. To use an adjustable wrench, you first adjust the Jaw opening to fit the size of the nut or:bolt you need to work on. Hold the wrench with the movable jaw facing the fastener. Place the jaws around the fastener, ensuring a snug fit. Then, apply force in the desired direction to either tighten or loosen the fastener. 1-363 Fig.1.4.21 (ADJUSTABLE WRENCH) 14) Socket Wrench A socket wrench, also known as a ratchet wrench or socket set, isa versatile hand tool used for tightening or loosening nuts, bolts, and other fasteners. It consists of a ratcheting mechanism and a set of interchangeable sockets that attach to the wrench. To use a socket wrench, you select the appropriate size of socket that matches the nut or bolt you want to tighten or loosen. Attach the socket to the wrench by inserting it onto the square drive and ensuring a secure fit. Place the socket onto the fastener and apply force in the desired direction while holding the wrench handle steady. The ratcheting mechanism allows you to continue turning the fastener without having to reposition the wrench. c= Fig.1.4.22(SOCKET WRENCH) 2315) Caliper we ed to accurately determine the is a measuring tool ust di ‘ aa object, particularly its outer and inner dimensions, such a; imens| ” i come in different types, includin, length, width, oat _— one ae crc bundy at edie a e vn feat measurement. To use calipers, you first adjust the jaws to igh aoe measured. The jaws should be snug but not overly tight nee ong se ind Jaws on the object and read the measurement on the ste or sly. Some calipers also have additional features such as depth gauges or step measurement capabilities. 23(CALIPER) 16) Feeler Gauge A feeler gauge Is a precision measuring tool used to measure the gap or clearance between two parallel surfaces. It typically consists of a set of thin metal strips or blades of various thicknesses, each marked with its measurement. The strips are usually bound together in a holder or folded into 2 handle for easy use. Feeler gauges are commonly used in automotive, engineering, and machining applications. They are especially useful for checking and setting gaps in spark plugs, valve clearances, and other critical measurements where precise spacing is required. ET-363 Fig.1.4.24(FEELER GUAGE) 17) Bearing Puller A bearing puller is a tool used to remove bearings or other pressed components from a shaft or housing. It is commonly used in automotive, industrial, and mechanical applications where bearings need to be replaced oF repaired. It's important to note that bearing pullers come in various sizes and designs to accommodate different types and sizes of bearings. It's essential to select a puller that is suitable for the specific bearing or component you are working with. Fig.1.4.25(BEARING PULLER)wrench: 18) Allen Key ‘ch, also known as a hex key or hex wrench, is , ‘An Allen key “— “sve screws and bolts with hexagonal sockets o, small handheld too! used the Allen Manufacturing Company, which fi;<) heads. It is named . tool in the early 20th century. The typical Allen key Introduces oe shaped design, with one end being a hexagonal-shapoy ere eer 1d being a handle or grip. The key end is inserted into the ae a the screw or bolt, providing leverage for turning o, one rates key wrenches are available in various sizes, with each size sanding to a specific measurement of the hexagonal socket or heay The most common sizes are typically measured in metric (millimeter) o, imperial (inch) units. Fig.1.4.26(ALLEN KEY WRENCH) 19) Standard Wire Gauge The Standard Wire Gauge (SWG) is a system of measuring the diameter of wire used primarily in the United Kingdom and other Britis! Commonwealth countries. It Is also known as the British Standard Wirc Gauge (BSWG). The SWG assigns a specific number to each wire size, wil lower numbers representing thicker wires. The SWG is based on a series o! geometric progressions, where each step in the gauge corresponds (0 9 specific increase or decrease in wire diameter. However, it's important Note that the gauge numbers themselves do not directly represent the actus diameter of the wire in millimeters or inches. -_ SSS Fig.1.4.27(STANDARD WIRE GUAGE) 20) Electric Soldering Iron An electric soldering iron is a handheld tool used for soldering electronic components, wires, or other materials. It consists of a heating element, a handle, and a metal tip or bit that is heated to melt solder. Safety precautions should be followed when using an electric soldering iron, including wearing appropriate protective eyewear and avoiding contact with hot surfaces. Additionally, it is important to choose the correct soldering iron for the specific application and to use it in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling fumes from the solder. Fig.1.4.28(ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON) SSS 27