Standard form of Boolean expressions

• Boolean expressions which consist of a single variable or its complement are

known as literals. The standard form of a Boolean expression is the
configuration to express the Boolean function and each term may contain one,
two or any number of variables (literals). All Boolean expressions can be
expressed into either of the two following standard forms:
• Sum of Product (SOP) form
• Product of Sum (POS) form
Sum of Product (SOP) form:
• The Sum of Product expression consists of products (AND) terms that are
logically added (Ored). For example, AB+CD is a sum of product expression in
which AND (product) terms AB and CD are Ored (added)
• A product term may be a product of many variables, which may or may not be
complemented. For example:

(i) 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵

(ii) 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐵𝐶

(iii) 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴. 𝐵𝐶𝐷

• Figure shows the logic circuit which represents a sum of product form:

Product of Sum (POS) form:

• A sum term consists of the sum (Boolean addition) of literals. When two or more
sum terms and logically multiplied (ANDed) the resulting expression is called
the Product of Sum (POS).
• A sum term may be a sum of many variables, which may or may not be
complemented. Following are some examples of POS form:
(i) (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐵)

(ii) (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

(iii) (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷)

• Figure shows the logic circuit which represents a product of sum form:

Canonical form of a logic expression: SOP

• When each term of a logic expression contains all variables (or their
complements) then it is called a canonical form.
• Moreover, when SOP form of logic expression is in canonical form, then each
product term is called a minterm. For example:

(i) 𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐵, where minterms are 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐵and 𝐴. 𝐵

(ii)𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴. 𝐵𝐶, where minterms are 𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴. 𝐵𝐶

Canonical form of a logic expression: POS

• In a similar manner, when POS form of logic expression is in canonical form,
then each sum term is called a maxterm. For example:

(i) 𝑌 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐵), where maxterms are (𝐴 + 𝐵) and (𝐴 + 𝐵)

(ii) 𝑌 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ), where maxterms are (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶),

(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) and (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 )

Conversion of SOP form into canonical form:

• Any given SOP form of Boolean expression can be converted into canonical
form:
 • Let Y=𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵

Then Y=𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴. 1 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐵) + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐵

• Therefore 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐵 is in canonical form

• Here minterms are 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴. 𝐵

Conversion of POS form into canonical form:

• Any given POS form of Boolean expression can be converted into canonical
form:
• Let Y=(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐵 + 𝐶 )

• Then Y=(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶. 𝐶)(𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐴. 𝐴) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ). (𝐴 +

𝐵 + 𝐶). (𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐴). (𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐴)=(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ). (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

• Therefore(𝐴 + 𝐵). (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ). (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶). (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) in in

canonical form

• Here maxterms are (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ), (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) and (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

Designation of minterm:
• Let us consider a Boolean expression in SOP form

Y= 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶

• In this expression the term 𝐴𝐵𝐶 appears in every minterm.
• To avoid of writing the letters again and again, a notation is used to denote
minterms. In this notation, a 𝟎 is written for a letter with a bar and a 𝟏 is for
a letter without bar. Then decimal equivalent of resultant binary number is
found and written as subscript of 𝑚.
• For example the minterm designation for the term ABCD is

A B C D

1 1 1 1

=15 (decimal equivalent) and therefore 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝑚15

• So we can write the Boolean equation given above as

• Decimal number 0 = 000 → 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶

• Decimal number 3 = 011 → 𝐴𝐵𝐶

• Decimal number 5 = 101 → 𝐴𝐵𝐶

 • Decimal number 7 = 111 → 𝐴𝐵𝐶

• Therefore 𝑌 = ⅀𝑚(0,3,5,7) = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶

Designation of maxterm:
• Let us consider a Boolean expression in SOP form

• 𝑦 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 )(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

• In this expression the term 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 appears in every maxterm.

• In this notation, a 𝟏 is written for a letter with a bar and a 𝟎 is for a letter
without bar. Then decimal equivalent of resultant binary number is found and
written as subscript of 𝑀.
• For example the maxterm designation for the term 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷 is

A B C D

0 0 0 0

=0 (decimal equivalent) and therefor 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷 = 𝑀0

• In the above expression:
• Decimal number 0 = 000 → (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 )

• Decimal number 2 = 010 → (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

• Decimal number 4 = 100 → (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

• Decimal number 7 = 111 → (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

• Therefore 𝑌 = ∏𝑀(0,2,4,7) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 )(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)

Minterm and maxterm notations are complementary:

• A logic equation (and therefore a logic circuit) can easily be constructed from
any truth table by applying the rules presented below.
• For SOP circuits:
• A circuit for a truth table with N input columns can use AND gates with N inputs,
and each row in the truth table with a '1' in the output column requires one N-
input AND gate.
• Inputs to the AND gate are inverted if the input shows a '0' on the row, and not
inverted if the input shows a '1' on the row.
• All AND terms are connected to an M-input OR gate, where M is the number
of '1' output rows.
• The output of the OR gate is the function output.

• For POS circuits:

• A circuit for a truth table with N input columns can use OR gates with N
inputs, and each row in the truth table with a '0' in the output column requires
one N-input OR gate.
• Inputs to the OR gate are inverted if the input shows a '1' on the row, and not
inverted if the input shows a '0' on the row.
• All OR terms are connected to an M-input AND gate, where M is the number
of ‘0' output rows.
• The output of the AND gate is the function output.
There are following two methods of minimizing or reducing the Boolean
expressions:

Karnaugh-Map (K-map):
The K-map method of solving the logical expressions is referred to as the
graphical technique of simplifying Boolean expressions. K-maps are also referred
to as 2D truth tables as each K-map is nothing but a different format of
representing the values present in a one-dimensional truth table.
K-maps basically deal with the technique of inserting the values of the output
variable in cells within a rectangle or square grid according to a definite pattern.
The number of cells in the K-map is determined by the number of input variables
and is mathematically expressed as two raised to the power of the number of input
variables, i.e., 2n, where the number of input variables is n.
Thus, to simplify a logical expression with two inputs, we require a K-map with
4 (=22) cells. A four-input logical expression would lead to a 16 (=24) celled-K-
map, and so on.
Two Variable K Map-

•Two variable K Map is drawn for a Boolean expression consisting of two

variables.
•The number of cells present in two variable K Map = 22= 4 cells.
•So, for a Boolean function consisting of two variables, we draw a 2 x 2 K-
Map.
Two variable K Map may be represented as-
Here, A and B are the two variables of the given Boolean function.
Three Variable K Map-

•Three variable K Map is drawn for a Boolean expression consisting of three

variables.
•The number of cells present in three variable K Map = 23 = 8 cells.
•So, for a Boolean function consisting of three variables, we draw a 2 x 4 K-
Map.
Three variable K Map may be represented as-
Here, A, B and C are the three variables of the given Boolean function.
Four Variable K Map-

•Four variable K Map is drawn for a Boolean expression consisting of four

variables.
•The number of cells present in four variable K Map = 24= 16 cells.
•So, for a Boolean function consisting of four variables, we draw a 4 x 4 K-
Map.
Four variable K Map may be represented as-

Here, A, B, C and D are the four variables of the given Boolean function.
Karnaugh Map Simplification Rules-
To minimize the given Boolean function,

•We draw a K-Map according to the number of variables it contains.

•We fill the K-Map with 0’s and 1’s according to its function.
•Then, we minimize the function in accordance with the following rules.
Rule-01:

•We can either group 0’s with 0’s or 1’s with 1’s but we cannot group 0’s and
1’s together.

Rule-02:
•Groups may overlap each other. You are allowed to use the same 1 more than
once.
Rule-03:

•We can only create a group whose number of cells can be represented in the
power of 2.
•In other words, a group can only contain 2n i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16 and so on number
of cells.
•A pair is a group of two 1s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent, a quad
is a group of four 1s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent, and an octet is
a group of eight 1s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent. A pair
eliminates one variable and its complement, a quad eliminates two
variables and their complements, and an octet eliminates three variables
and their complements.

Rule-04:
•Groups can be only either horizontal or vertical.
•We cannot create groups of diagonals or any other shape

Rule-05:
•Each group should be as large as possible.
•After drawing the K-map, one should try to identify the largest group (octet)
first, and then the quads in second and then pair in the last.
Rule-06:
•Opposite grouping and corner grouping are allowed i.e., rolling the map is
allowed.
Rule-07:
•In some digital systems, certain input conditions never occur during normal
operation; therefore, the corresponding output never appears. Since the output
never appears, it is represented by X in the truth table. X representing don’t care
can be grouped with 0’s as well as 1’s.
•If all 1s of a group are used by some other groups then that group is known as
redundant group. Redundant groups must be avoided.

PROBLEMS BASED ON KARNAUGH MAP-

Problem-01: Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules. Then, we
have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ) = 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷
Problem-02:
Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ) = 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐷

Problem-03:

Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15) + Σd(0, 2, 14)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ) = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐷

Problem-04:

Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C) = Σm(0, 1, 6, 7) + Σd(3, 5)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 3 variables, so we draw a 2 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized
Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶

Problem-06:

Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C) = Σm(0, 1, 6, 7) + Σd(3, 4, 5)
Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 3 variables, so we draw a 2 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 + 𝐵

Problem-07:

Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 2, 8, 10, 14) + Σd(5, 15)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ) = 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷

Problem-08:

Minimize the following Boolean function-

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15)

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean

expression is-

𝐹 (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ) = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶

It is important to note that we are not considering the quad group because we
have to consider the duets anyhow.
Problem-09:

Consider the following Boolean function-

F(W, X, Y, Z) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14)

This function is independent ________ number of variables. Fill in the blank.

Solution-

•Since the given Boolean expression has 4 variables, so we draw a 4 x 4 K

Map.
•We fill the cells of K Map in accordance with the given Boolean function.
•Then, we form the groups in accordance with the above rules.
Then, we have-

Thus, minimized Boolean expression is-

𝐹 (𝑊, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) = 𝑋𝑍 + 𝑋𝑍 = 𝑋 ⊕ 𝑍

Clearly, the given Boolean function depends on only two variables X and Z.

Hence, it is independent of other two variables W and Y.

Problem-10:

Simplify the Boolean function:

𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶

Solution: 𝑌 = 𝐶
Problem-11:

Simplify the Boolean function:

𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

Solution: 𝑌 = 𝐵𝐷

Problem-12:

Simplify the Boolean function:

𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶

Solution: 𝑌 = 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶

Problem-13:

Simplify the Boolean function:

𝑌 = 𝑚(0,1,2,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14)

Solution: 𝑌 = 𝐶 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷

Problem-14: Simplifying Boolean Equations with Karnaugh Maps

Solution:
The Boolean equation for the output has four product terms. Map four 1’s
corresponding to the p-terms. Forming groups of cells, we have three groups of
two. There will be three p-terms in the simplified result, one for each group. The
gate diagram of the result is reproduced below.

Below we repeat the Boolean algebra simplification of the toxic waste

incinerator for comparison.
Advantages of K-map are showing below

1.K-map simplification does not demand for the knowledge of Boolean algebraic
theorems.
2.Usually it requires less number of steps when compared to algebraic
minimization technique.

Disadvantages of K-map are showing below

1.Complexity of K-map simplification process increases with the increase in the
number of variables
2.The minimum expression obtained might not be unique