Revised

Edition

Encycl pedia of

General
Sc ence
FOR GENERAL COMPETITIONS

Siddharth Mukherji
Supported By
JK Jha (Physics)
Purnima Sharma & Preeti Gupta (Chemistry)
Hema Batra & Shikha Sharma (Biology)
Neetu Gaikwad (Computer & IT)

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Preface
Analyzing the recent pattern of competitive exams like SSC, UPSC & State
Level PSCs, etc, it is evident that general science has taken an important
dimension. General Science has always been a problematic section for
aspirants they find it difficult to prepare for this section because it has no
prescribed syllabus and coverage area. Also there is a good number of
students preparing for general competitions who are not from science
background and they find it even more difficult.
So, the need arises for a book that can give the whole contents of General
Science in an organized and in-complex manner which can be studied by all
the students even by non-science background students too and can make
them ready to face the questions on General Science.
The book Encyclopedia of General Science has been prepared keeping
the importance of the subject in mind. It covers all the sections of General
Science like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Space Science, Agriculture &
Animal Husbandry, Environment, Health , Computer & IT, etc.
In this book, we have tried to simplify the complexities of some of the topics so
that the non-science students feel no difficulty while studying general science.
As NCERT books are considered to be most important & foundation books for
general competitions, so NCERT books have been kept as the base books for
this book.

Some of the Special Features

Ÿ Only book based on NCERT Textbooks of Science
Ÿ In-line with Analysis of Competitive Exams' Papers
Ÿ Explanation to Everyday Science Phenomena
Ÿ Coverage of Previous years' Questions in Chapterwise manner (upto 2020)
Ÿ With Appendices covering; Glossary, Branches and other important
information of each section

However, we have put our best efforts in preparing this book, but if any error
 or whatsoever has been skipped out, we will by heart welcome your
suggestions. The role of Arihant DTP Unit and Proof reading team is
praiseworthy in the making of this book.

Best of Luck

Contents
PHYSICS 1-272
1. Units, Measurements and Errors 1-11 Physical Quantities (1) Units (2)
System of Units (2-4) Conversions of Units (5) Dimensional Formula and
Dimensional Equation (6) Important Scientific Instrument and their Use (7-8) Error
in Measurement (8-9) Significant Figures (9)

2. Motion 12-26 Rest and Motion (12) Types of Motion of a Body (12) One, Two
and Three Dimensional Motion (13) Some Basic Terms Related with Motion
(13-16) Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion (16-17) Graphical Representation of
Motion (17-19) Equations of Motion (19-20) Freely Falling Objects (20) Motion in a
Plane : Projectile Motion and Circulatory Motion (21-23)

3. Force and Laws of Motion 27-39 Force (27) Fundamental or Basic Forces
in Nature (27-28) Inertia (28) Newton's Laws of Motion (29) Momentum (29-31)
Impulse (31) Friction (32-33) Centripetal and Centrifugal Force (34)

4. Work, Power and Energy 40-57 Work (40-41) Power (41) Energy (42)
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy (42-43) Work-Energy Theorem (43) Law of
Conservation of Energy (43) Einstein's Mass-Energy Equivalence (44) Sources of
Energy : Renewable and Non-Renewable (45) Conventional Sources of Energy :
Fossil Fuels, Thermal Power Plants, Hydro Power Plants (46-47) Improvements in
the Technology for Using Conventional Sources : Bio-mass, Bio-gas, Wind Energy
(47-49) Non-Conventional Sources of Energy : Solar Energy, Solar Heating
Devices, Solar Cooker, Solar Cell (49-52) Energy from the Sea : Tidal Energy,
Wave Energy, Ocean Thermal Energy (52) Geothermal Energy and Nuclear
Energy (53)

5. Gravitation 58-67 Universal Law of Gravitation (58) Acceleration Due to

Gravity (59) Variations of g (59-60) Mass and Weight (60) Planet and Satellite (61-62)
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion (62) Orbital Velocity (62-63) Escape Velocity or
Escape Speed (63)

6. Centre of Mass and Rotational Motion 68-74 Centre of Mass (68)

Torque (69) Couple and Equilibrium (69) Centre of Gravity (70) Rotational Motion
(70) Moment of Inertia (70-71) Angular Momentum (71-72) Simple Machine (72)
Lever (72-73)

7. Mechanical Properties of Solids 75-79 Matter (75) Elasticity (75-77)

Hooke's Law (77-78) Classification of Materials based on the Property of Elasticity
(78)

8. Mechanical Properties of Fluids 80-94 Thrust and Pressure (80) Density

(81) Pressure of Liquid (81-82) Pascal's Law (82) Atmospheric Pressure (82-83)
Buoyancy (83) Archimedes' Principle (83) Floatation (84) Surface Tension (85)
Surface Energy (86) Angle of Contact (86) Capillarity (86-87) Flow of Liquids (87)
Bernoulli's Theorem (88-89) Torricelli's Theorem (89) Viscosity (89-90) Stoke's
Law (90) Terminal Velocity (90)
9. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 95-100 Periodic Motion (95) Oscillatory
Motion (95) Simple Pendulum (96-97) Free and Forced Oscillations (97-98) Damped
Harmonic Motion (98) Resonance (98)

10. Heat, Temperature and Thermodynamics 101-116 Heat (101)

Temperature and Temperature Scales (101-102) Humidity (103) Thermal
Expansion of Solids, Liquids and Gases (103-105) Specific Heat (105) Water
Equivalent (105) Transmission of Heat : Conduction, Convection and Radiation
(106-107) Thermal Conductivity (107-108) Newton's Law of Cooling (108) Thermal
 Radiations (108) Kirchhoff's Law, Stefan's Law and Wien's Displacement Law
(109) Thermodynamics : Laws and Processes (109-110) Heat Engine (110-111)

11. Wave Motion and Sound 117-135 Waves and its Types (117) Type of
Mechanical Waves : Longitudinal &
Transverse (117-118) Sound Waves (119-120) Speed of Sound in Different
Media (120-122) Reflection of Sound (122-123) Refraction of Sound (123)
Range of Hearing (123) Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Sound (124-125)
Superposition of Waves (125-129) Electromagnetic Waves (129)
Electromagnetic Spectrum (129-130) Earthquake Waves (130)

12. Optics 136-165 Properties of Light (136-137) Reflection of Light (137) Mirror
: Types of
Mirror (137-139) Image (139) Image Formation by Spherical Mirror (139-141)
Mirror Formula and Linear Magnification (141-142) Refraction of Light
(142-143) Atmospheric Refraction (143-144) Scattering of Light (145) Total
Internal Reflection (TIR) (145-146) Lens : Types, (146-147) Image Formation
by Lenses (148-149) Lens Formula and Linear Magnification (149) Prism
(150) Human Eye (151) Optical Instruments : Camera, Microscope, Telescope
(152-154) Interference of Light (155) Diffraction of Light (155) Doppler's
Effect (155) Polarisation (156)

13. Electrostatics 166-174 Electric Charge (166) Coulomb's Law (167) Electric
Field and Electric Field Intensity (167) Electric Field due to a Hollow Conductor
(167) Electric Field Lines (168) Electric Dipole (168) Electric Flux (169) Gauss's
Theorem (169) Electric Potential and Potential Difference (169-170) Potential
Inside a Hollow Conductor (170) Equipotential Surface (170) Electrostatic Potential
Energy of a System of Charges (170) Conductors and Insulators or Dielectrics
(171) Capacitance (172)

14. Current Electricity and its Effects 175-188 Electric Current (175-176)
Ohm's Law (177) Resistance and Combination of Resistances (177-180) Conductance
and Conductivity (180) Electric Cell (181) Heating Effect of Electric Current (181-182)
Electric Power (182-183) Alternating Current (183)

15. Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism 189-206 Magnetic Field and
Magnetic Field Lines (189-190) Direction of Magnetic Field (190) Magnetic Effects
of Electric Currents (191) Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field (191)
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Uniform Magnetic Field (192)
Magnetism and Earth Magnetism (193-194) Magnetic Intensity (195) Magnetic
Substances : Diamagnetic, Ferromagnetic and Paramagnetic (195-196)
Electromagnets and Permanent Magnets (196-197) Magnetic Flux (197)
Electromagnetic Induction : Laws and Types (197) Eddy Currents (198) Electric
Motor (198) AC and DC Generators (199) Domestic Electric Circuits (200-201)
Transformer (201)
16. Modern Physics (Atomic and Nuclear Physics) 207-227 Photoelectric
Effect (207-208). Planck’s Photon Hypothesis (208) Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation (208) Matter waves (209) X-rays (209-210) Atomic Model (210) Nuclear
Force (211-212) Nucleus Stability (212) Mass Defect and Binding Energy (212- 213)
Radioactivity (213) Radioactive or Becquerel Rays (213-214) Radioactive
Disintegration or Decay (214-215) Units of Radioactive, Half-Life and Average Life or
Mean Life (215-216) Effects of Emission on the Nucleus : α-decay, β-decay and
γ-decay (216- 217) Soddy-Fajan's Group Displacement Law (217) Radioactive
Series (217) Artificial Radioactivity (218) Applications of Radioactivity (218-220)
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion (220-223)

17. Semiconductors 228-234 Types of Semiconductor (228) Extrinsic

Semiconductor : n-type and p-type (228-229) p-n Junction (229) Some Types
of Junction Diode (229-230) Transistor or Bipolar Transistor (230) Integrated
Circuit, Digital Circuit and Logic Gate
(230-231) LASER, MASER and RADAR (231-232)

18. Communication 235-244 Communication System (235-236) Transmission

Medium or Communication Channel (236-237) Antenna : Hertz and Marconi (237)
Modulation and Demodulation (237-238) Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves
(238-239) Behaviour of Atmosphere towards Electromagnetic Waves (239)
Satellite Communication (240) Indian Space Programmes (2005 to 2014)
(240-242)
19. Nanotechnology 245-246 Concepts of Nanotechnology (245)
Applications of Nanotechnology : Solar Cells, Fuel Cells, Accessible Medical
Testing, Removal of Toxic Elements, A Better Cancer Treatment, Nanotechnology
and Aerospace, Nano Robots (245-246) Nanotechnology in India (246) Future
Prospects of Nano Mission (246)

20. Our Universe 247-257 Structure of Universe (247) Origin and Evolution of
Universe : The Big-Bang Theory, Red Shift Theory, Steady State Theory, Pulsating
Theory (247-248) Age of Universe (248) Celestial Bodies (249) Galaxy (250) Stars
(250-251) The Solar System : The Sun, The Planets—Mercury, Venus, The Earth,
The Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (251-255) Boundary of the
Solar System : Asteroids and Comets (255-256) Meteors, Meteorites and Meteor
Showers (256)

Appendix 258-272

CHEMISTRY 1-210
1. Matter and its States 1-13 Matter (1) Particles of Matter : Atoms and Molecules
(2) States of Matter : Solid, Liquid and Gas (2-3) Two More States of Matter :
Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) (3) Diffusion (3-4) Interconversion of
States of Matter (4) Effect of Change of Temperature and Pressure (5) Chemical
Classification of Matter : Element, Compound and Mixture (5-8) Mass Terms
Related to Matter : Atomic Mass, Average Atomic Mass, Molecular Mass, Formula
Unit Mass, Equivalent Mass or Equivalent Weight (8-9) Physical and Chemical
Changes (9) Laws of Chemical Combinations : Law of Conversion of Mass, Law of
Definite Proportions, Law of Multiple Proportions, Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining
Volumes (9-10) Mole Concept (10)
2. Atomic Structure 14-25 Dalton's Atomic Theory (14) Sub-atomic Particles
and their Properties (14) Fundamental Particles : Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
(15) Non-Fundamental Particles : Positron, Antiproton, Neutrino and Antineutrino,
Pi-mesons, Quarks and Bosons (15-16) Earlier Atomic Models : Thomson Model,
Rutherford Model and Bohr Model (16-18) Characteristics of an Atom : Atomic
Number and Mass Number (18) Different Atomic Species : Isotopes, Isobars,
Isotones and Isodiaphers (18-19) Structural Features of an Atom : Shell and
Subshell, Orbitals (19-20) Electronic Configuration : Bohr Burry Scheme and nl
Type Scheme (20-21) Rules for Filling Electrons in the Orbitals :
x

Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule (21) Quantum Numbers : n, l, m and

s (22) Pauli Exclusion Principle (22)
3. Bonding and Chemical Reactions 26-39 Chemical Bond (26) Valency (26)
Electronic Theory of Chemical Bonding (Octet Rule) (26-27) Types of Bonding :
Ionic or Electrovalent, Covalent, Coordinate or Dative, Hydrogen Bond and van der
Waals' Forces (27-30) Chemical Formula : Empirical, Molecular and Structural (31)
Chemical Reaction and Chemical Equation (32) Types of Chemical Reactions :
Combination, Decomposition, Displacement, Double Displacement, Neutralisation,
Isomerisation or Rearrangement, Reversible and Irreversible, Hydrolysis,
Photochemical, Exothermic and Endothermic, Oxidation and Reduction (33-35)
Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent (35) Oxidation State or Oxidation Number
(36) Corrosion, Fermentation and Rancidity (36-37)

4. Acids, Bases and Salts 40-51 Acids: Types , Properties and Uses (40-42)
Bases: Types, Properties and Uses (42-43) Modern Concepts of Acids and Bases :
Arrhenius Concept, Bronsted-Lowry Concept and Lewis Concept (43-44)
Dissolution of an Acid or a Base in Water (44) Salts: Types and Uses (44-45) pH
Scale (45-46) Importance of pH in Everyday Life (46-47) Indicators (47) Buffer
Solution and its Types (47-48) Hydrolysis of Salts (48) Types of Salts on the basis
of Hydrolysis (48)

5. Solutions and Colloids 52-59 Solution or True Solution (52) Components,

Properties and Types of Solutions (52-53) Concentration of a Solution (53-54)
Solubility (54) Colloidal Solution (54-55) Classification of Colloids (55-56)
Properties of Colloidal Solutions (56) Emulsions (56-57) Suspension (57)

6. Gaseous State 60-64 Gas Laws : Boyle, Charles, Gay Lussac, Avogadro,
Combined Gas Law, Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and Graham's Law of Diffusion
 (60-61) Perfect Gas or Ideal Gas (61)
Ideal Gas Equation (62) Real Gases (62) Kinetic Theory of Gases (62-63)
Pressure of an Ideal Gas (63) Different Speeds of Gaseous Molecules (63)
Degree of Freedom (63-64)

7. Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium 65-71 Chemical Kinetics (65) Slow and
Fast Reactions (65) Bond Energy, Heat of Reaction, Heat of Formation and Heat of
Combustion (65-66) Rate of a Reaction (66-67) Activation Energy (67) Catalysis
and its Types (67-68) Types and Uses of Catalyst (68) Order and Molecularity of a
Reaction (68-69) Chemical Equilibrium (69) Law of Chemical Equilibrium &
Equilibrium Constant (69) Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria (70)
Le-Chatelier's Principle (70)
8. Electrochemistry 72-79 Electrolysis (72) Components Required for
Electrolysis : Electrolyte, Electric Current and Electrode (72) Arrhenius Theory of
Electrolytic Dissociation or Decomposition (73) Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
(73-74) Products of Electrolysis (74) Applications of Electrolysis (74-75) Electrolytic
Cell (75) Galvanic Cell or a Voltaic Cell (75) Electrochemical Series (75) Batteries
(76) Primary Batteries : Dry Cell and Mercury Cell (76) Secondary Batteries : Lead
Storage Battery, Nickel-Cadmium Cell, Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) and
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell (77) Cell Efficiency (77)

9. Classification of Elements 80-87 Periodic Classification (80) Mendeleev's

Periodic Table : Characteristics, Advantages and Limitations (80-81) Modern
Periodic Table (81-82) Characteristics of Periods and Groups (83) Types of
Elements : s-Block, p-Block, d-Block and f-Block (83-84) Trends in Modern
Periodic Table (Periodic Properties) (85)

10. Hydrogen and Its Compounds 88-94 Hydrogen : Occurrence, Isotopes

and Preparation (88) Special Forms of Hydrogen (88-89) Properties and Uses of
Dihydrogen (89-90) Water (90) Structure of Water Molecule (91) Hard and Soft
Water (91) Temporary and Permanent Hardness (91) Heavy Water (92) Hydrogen
Peroxide and its Uses (92)

11. Metals and Their Compounds 95-116 Physical and Chemical Properties of
Metals (95-96) Sodium and its Compounds (97-98) Magnesium and its Compounds
(98-99) Calcium and its Compounds (100-101) Aluminium and its Compounds
(101-102) Manganese and its Compounds (102-103) Iron and its Compounds
(103-104) Heat Treatment and Surface Treatment of Steel (104) Copper and its
Compounds (105-106) Silver and its Compounds (106-107) Gold and its
Compounds (107-108) Zinc and its Compounds (108) Mercury and its Compounds
(109-110) Lead and its Compounds (110-111) Uranium, Thorium, Platinum and
Plutonium (111-112)

12. Extraction of Metals 117-122 Metallurgy (117) Minerals, Ores and Gangue
(117-118) Steps Involved in Metallurgy (118) Concentration of Ores (119)
Extraction of Crude Metals from Concentrated Ores (119-120) Refining (120)

13. Non-Metals and Their Compounds 123-142 Physical and Chemical

Properties of Non-metals (123) Carbon : Occurrence and Properties (124)
Allotropes of Carbon : Diamond, Graphite, Graphene, Fullerene, Lamp Black,
Charcoal, Coke and Coal (124-126) Oxides of Carbon (127-128) Silicon :
Properties, Uses and Compounds (128) Nitrogen : Occurrence, Preparation,
Properties and Uses (128-129) Nitrogen Fixation and Denitrification (129)
Ammonia (129) Oxides and Oxoacids of Nitrogen (130) Phosphorus : Occurrence
and Uses (130-131) Allotropic Forms of Phosphorus : White/Yellow, Red, Black,
Scarlet and Violet (131-132) Oxides of Phosphorus (132-133) Oxygen :
Occurrence, Properties and Uses (133) Ozone (133) Sulphur : Occurrence and
Extraction (134) Allotropic Forms of Sulphur : Crystalline and Non-crystalline
(134) Oxides and Oxoacids of Sulphur (135-136) Halogens : Fluorine, Chlorine,
Bromine and Iodine (136-137) Inert Gases and Noble Gases : Helium, Neon,
Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Redon (137-138) Metalloids (139)
14. Fuels, Combustion and Flames 143-153 Fuels and its Types (143)
Calorific or Fuel Value (143-144) Fossil Fuels : Coal and Petroleum (144-145)
Composition and Uses of Some Fuels : Coke, Coal Gas, Water Gas, Producer Gas,
Oil Gas, Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Bio Gas or Gobar Gas,
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Petrol, Diesel, Biodiesel, Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG) and Brent Crude Oil (145-147) Cracking (147) Advancement in the Direction
of Fuels (148) Combustion and its Types (148-149) Propellants (Rocket Fuels)
(149) Types of Propellants : Solid, Liquid and Hybrid (149-150) Flame (150) Solar
 Jet (150)

15. Organic Compounds 154-169 Petroleum as a Source of Organic

Compounds (154-155) Classification of Organic Compounds : Acyclic or Open
Chain, Alicyclic or Closed Chain and Aromatic (155-156) Functional Group
(156-157) Homologous Series (157) Isomerism : Structural Isomerism and
Stereoisomerism (158) Hydrocarbon : Saturated, Unsaturated and Aromatic
(158-160) Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids and
Esters (160-164) Some Other Important Organic Compounds (164-166)

16. Food Chemistry 170-179 Carbohydrates (170) Classification of

Carbohydrates : Monosaccharides,
Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides, Sugars, Non-sugars, Reducing and
Non-reducing (170-171) Some Common Carbohydrates : Glucose, Fructose,
Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen (171) Importance of
Carbohydrates (171) Proteins (172) Classification of Proteins : Fibrous, Globular,
Simple, Conjugated and Derived (172) Functions of Proteins (172) Denaturation of
Proteins (172) Fats and Oils (173) Types and Functions of Fats (173) Waxes (173)
Vitamins (174) Types of Vitamins : Fat Soluble and Water Soluble (174-175)
Enzymes (176) Food Preservatives (176) Artificial Sweetening Agents : Saccharin,
Aspartame, Alitame and Sucrolose (177) Antioxidants (177)

17. Chemistry in Everyday Life 180-194 Soaps (180) Manufacture

(Saponification Reaction) and Types of Soaps (180-181) Detergents (181)
Classification of Synthetic Detergents : Anionic, Cationic and Non-ionic (181-182)
Dyes and its Classification (182) Polymers (182) Polymerisation : Addition and
Condensation (182-183) Plastics : Natural and Synthetic (183-184) Rubber :
Natural and Synthetic (184) Vulcanisation of Rubber (185) Fibres : Natural,
Semisynthetic and Synthetic (185) Ceramics (186) Drugs : Antipyretics,
Analgesics, Antibiotics, Antiseptic, Disinfectants, Sulpha Drugs, Anaesthesia and
Antacids (186-187) Cosmetics (188) Glass: Types, Properties and Uses (188)
Annealing of Glass (189) Coloured Glass (189) Glass Wool (189) Cement (189)
Fertilizers (190-191) Explosives (191)

Appendix 195-210

BIOLOGY 1-320
1. Diversity in Living World 1-34 Classification : Basis, Objectives, History and
Hierarchy (1-2) Binomial System of Nomenclature and Categories of Classification
(3-4) Kingdom Monera : Bacteria, Economic Importance of Bacteria,
Actinomycetes, Cyanobacteria, Rickettsia and Archaebacteria (4-7) Kingdom
Protista : Groups of Protista – Photosynthetic Protists, Protozoan Protists and
Consumer-decomposes Protists, Economic Importance of Protists (7-9) Kingdom
Fungi : Types of Fungi – Saprophytic, Parasitic and Symbiotic, Economic
Importance of Fungi (9-11) Kingdom Plantae : Thallophyta – Cellular Structure of
Algae, Types of Algae (Green, Brown and Red), Reproduction in Algae, Economic
Importance of
Algae; Bryophyta – Characteristics and Economic Importance of Bryophyta;
Tracheophyta – Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (12-18) Kingdom
Animalia : Sub Kingdom Protozoa; Sub-Kingdom Metazoa – Phylum Porifera
(Sponges), Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria), Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms),
Phylum Aschelminthes/ Nematoda (Round/Ringworms), Phylum Annelida, Phylum
Arthropoda, Phylum Mollusca, Phylum Echinodermata, Phylum Hemichordata,
Phylum Chordata (18-23) Protochordates (23) Vertebrates : Class Pisces, Class
Amphibia, Class Reptilia, Class Aves and Class Mammalia (23-27)

2. Cell : Structure and Functions 35-47 Discovery, Shape and Size of Cells
(35) Number of Cells in Living Organisms (35) Cell Theory (36) Types of Cell
(36-37) Cell Structure : Cell Wall, Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane, Nucleus
(Nuclear Membrane, Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus and Chromosomes), Cytoplasm –
Cytosol; Cell Organelles – endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, centrosomes, vacuoles;
Inclusions (38-43)

3. Cell Cycle and Cell Division 48-52 Cell Cycle (48) Phases of Cell Cycle :
Interphase (Undividing Phase), M Phase or Mitosis Phase (Dividing Phase) (48-49)
Cell Division (49) Modes of Cell Division : Amitosis; Mitosis – Prophase,
 Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis; Meiosis – Meiosis I and
Meiosis II (49-51)

4. Tissue 53-64 Plant Tissue : Meristematic Tissue – Apical Meristems,

Intercalary Meristems and Lateral Meristems; Permanent Tissue or Mature Tissue –
Simple Permanent Tissue (Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma), Complex
Permanent Tissue (Xylem, Phloem) (53-55) Animal Tissue : Epithelial Tissue or
Epithelia – Simple Epithelial Tissue (Squamous Epithelium, Cuboidal Epithelium,
Columnar Epithelium, Glandular Epithelium, Ciliated Epithelium and
Pseudo-Stratified Epithelium); Compound Epithelia (Multilayered Epithelia) –
Stratified Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium (56-59) Connective Tissue :
Vascular Connective Tissue, Connective Tissue Proper and Skeletal Connective
Tissue (58-60) Muscular Tissue: Striated (Striped) Muscle, Non-Striated (Smooth)
Muscle, Cardiac Muscle (61-62) Neural Tissue (62)

5. Nutrition 65-75 Nutrients : Macro, Micro, Essential and Non-essential (65)

Nutrition in Plants (65) Types of Nutrition in Plants : Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
(66-67) Mineral Nutrition in Plants (67-68) Nitrogen Fixation (68-69) Nutrition in
Animals (69) Types of Nutrition in Animals : Holozoic, Parasitic and Saprozoic
(69-70) Nutrients in Animals : Water, Roughage and Minerals (Inorganic Salts)
(70-72)
Balanced Diet (72)

6. Plant Morphology and Physiology 76-97 Plant Morphology (76) Different

Parts of the Plant : Root, Stem, Leaf (76-82) Plant-Water Relations (82) Processes
Concerned with Plant-Water Relation : Imbibition, Osmosis and Plasmolysis (83)
Transport System in Plants : Transport of Water, Transport of Minerals,
Translocation of Organic Solutes (84-85) Photosynthesis (85) Process of
Photosynthesis : Photochemical Phase (Light or Hill Reaction), Biosynthetic Phase
(Dark or Blackman's Reaction) (85) Factors Affecting Photosynthesis : Carbon
Dioxide, Light, Water, Temperature and Oxygen (85-86) Plant Growth and
Development (86) Plant Growth Hormones : Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins,
Ethylene and Abscisic Acid (87-88) Plant Diseases : Abiotic or Non-Parasitic, Viral,
Fungal and Bacterial (88-92)
7. Reproduction 98-115 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction (98) Events in
Sexual Reproduction :
Pre-Fertilisation, Fertilisation and Post-Fertilisation (99) Reproduction in Lower
Plants : Asexual Reproduction – Fragmentation, Spore Formation; Sexual
Reproduction (99-100) Reproduction in Higher Plants : Asexual Reproduction –
Apomixis, Vegetative Propagation, Tissue Culture; Sexual Reproduction (100-102)
Pollination and Fertilisation (102-103) Fruit and Seeds (104) Reproduction in
Animals : Asexual and Sexual (104-105) Reproduction in Humans : Male and
Female Reproductive System (105-108) Mechanism Involved with Human
Reproductive System : Gametogenesis, Fertilisation, Embryonic Development,
Parturition and Lactation (108-109) Reproductive Heath (109-110) Birth Control
(Contraceptive) Methods : Barrier Methods, Hormonal Methods, Intra Uterine
Devices (IUDs), Natural Methods of Family Planning, Surgical Methods and
Termination (110-111) Disorders in Human Reproductive System : In Male and
Female (111-112) Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) (112) Acquired Immuno
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (112)

8. Systems of Human Body 116-170 Human Digestive System : Alimentary

Canal – Mouth, Vestibule, Buccal Cavity, Tongue, Pharynx, Oesophagus, Stomach,
Intestine; Digestive Glands – Salivary or Mouth Watering, Gastric, Liver, Pancreas,
Intestinal; Mechanism of Digestion of Food; Disorders of Digestive System
(117-124) Human Respiratory System : Types and Phases of Respiration – Aerobic
and Anaerobic; Various Organs of Human Respiratory System; Movement of Air
through Respiratory System; Mechanism of Respiration; Cellular Respiration;
Disorders of Respiratory System (125-129) Human Circulatory System : Blood
Vascular System – Blood, Plasma, Blood Cells, Blood Clotting, Blood Groups,
Lymph; Heart – Parts and Functions of Human Heart, Working and Pumping Action
of Heart, Heart Beat and its Regulation; Electrocardiograph – Blood Vessels, Blood
Pressure, Lymphatic System; Disorders of Circulatory System (130-139) Human
Excretory System : Modes of Excretion; Functions of Different Excretory Organs –
Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra, Artificial Kidney; Disorders of Excretory
System (140-144) Human Skeletal System : Types and Functions of Skeletal
System; Bones; Cartilages; Joints – Fibrous, Fixed or Immovable, Cartilagenous or
Slightly Movable, Synovial or Freely Movable; Disorders of Skeletal System
(145-150) Human Nervous System : Neurons; Parts of Human Nervous System;
 Central Nervous System – Brain, Spinal Cord; Peripheral Neural System;
Autonomic Neural System – Sympathetic and Parasympathetic; Sensory Reception
and Processing – Eye, Ear, Nose, Skin (151-158) Human Endocrine System :
Glands – Pituitary and Adrenal, Hormones; Disorders of Endocrine System
(159-161)

9. Genetics 171-178 Mendel's Experiment (171-172) Mendel's Law of Inheritance

: Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment (172-173)
Exceptions of Mendelism ; Incomplete Dominance, Codominance, Multiple Allelism
(173-174) Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance (174) Linkage and Recombination
(174-175) Sex Determination in Human Beings (175) Mutation : Gene Mutation and
Chromosomal Mutation (175-176) Genetic Disorders (176)

10. Heredity and Evolution 179-186 Packaging of Hereditary Material in

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes : DNA and RNA (179-180) Central Dogma (180)
Evolution (180) Origin of Life (180-181) Biological Evolution (181) Theories of
Organic Evolution (181-182) Agents of Evolution (182) Evidences of Organic
Evolution : From Morphology and Comparative Anatomy, From Connecting Links,
From Genetics, From Embryology (183) Fossils (183) Origin and Evolution of Man
(183-184)
11. Health and Diseases 187-211 Health (187) Diseases (187) Congenital
Diseases (187-188) Acquired Diseases : Communicable or Infectious Diseases –
Viral, Fungal, Protozoan, Bacterial and Helminths; Preventive Measures of
Infectious Diseases; Non Communicable Diseases – Degenerative, Deficiency,
Genetic and Mental (188-201) Immunity : Innate and Acquired (202) Antibodies
(202) Monoclonal Antibodies (203) Immune Response (203) Immunisation (203)
Allergies (203) Autoimmunity (204) Biomedical Techniques : Invasive – Angioplasty
and Organ Transplantation; Non-Invasive – X-Ray Radiography, Angiography,
Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT Scan), Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI),Ultrasound Imaging (Sonography); Electroencephalography (EEG);
Immunotherapy; Hormone Therapy; Positron Emission Tomography (PET);
Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery; Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA);
Pregnancy Test Kits (204-205)

12. Introduction to Biotechnology 212-222 Definitions of Biotechnology

(212) Old Biotechnology and Modern
Biotechnology (212-213) Principles of Biotechnology : Genetic Engineering and
Chemical Engineering (213) Tools of Genetic Engineering : Vector, Enzymes and
Host Cell (213-214) Techniques of Genetic Engineering : Polymerase Chain
reaction (PCR), Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Restriction
Fragment Length Polymorphism (RELP), DNA Fingerprinting, Gene Therapy and
Cloning (214-217) Human Genome Project (HGP) (217) Applications of
Biotechnology : Medicine, Vaccines and Drugs, Antibiotics, Transgenic Animals,
Agriculture, Reproduction and Embryology (217-220) Environmental Biotechnology
(220-221)

13. Environment and its Effects 223-242 Environment and its Types (223)
Atmosphere of Earth (223-224) Pollution and Pollutants (224-225) Air Pollution :
Sources and Effects on Plants and Human Health, Smog, Acts to Control Air
Pollution (226-228) Water Pollution : Sources and Effects on Plants and Human
Health, Acts to Control Water Pollution, Bioremediation, Oil Zapper (228-232) Soil
and Land Pollution : Sources and Effects, Control of Soil Pollution, E-Waste or
Electronic Waste (232-233) Sound or Noise Pollution : Sources, Causes and
Effects, Control of Noise Pollution (234) Radioactive Wastes (234-235) Climate
(235) Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gases (235) Global Warming (235-236)
Acid Rain (236) Stratospheric Pollution (236-237) Impacts of Ozone Layer
Depletion (237-238) Environment and the Health (238) Green Chemistry (238)

14. Ecology and Ecosystem 243-261 Ecology : Autoecology and Synecology

(243) Ecosystem : Types, Components and Functions (244-246) Energy Flow in
Ecosystem : Food Chain, Ten Per Cent Law, Food Web (246) Trophic Level (247)
Ecological Pyramids (247) Ecological Succession (247) Ecological Adaptations in
Plants (247-249) Ecological Relationship (249) Nutrient Flow in Ecosystem :
Nitrogen Cycle, Carbon Cycle, Oxygen Cycle, Phosphorus Cycle, Sulphur Cycle,
Water Cycle (249-251) Biosphere (251) Biomes (251-252) Biodiversity :Mapping
Species Biodiversity, Importance of Biodiversity, Factors Affecting Biodiversity,
Effects of Loss of Biodiversity, Conservation of Biological Diversity, Biodiversity
Hotspots – Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas (252-254) Forest Conservation
in India : REDD, REDD+, Wetlands, Ramsar Convention, Mangroves (254-255)
 National and International Conventions on Wildlife : CITES, The Tiger Summit, The
Coalition against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT), World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature,
Trade Records Analysis of Fauna and Flora in Commerce, UNESCO-WHO, CMS,
CBD, BGIR, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, IUCN (255-257)
15. Agriculture Science 262-272 Crop (262) Classification of Crops : Kharif,
Rabi and Zaid (262-263) Improvements in Crop Yields : Crop Variety Improvement
– Cereal Crops, Pulse Crops, Oil Seed Crops, Fibre Crops, Forage Crops, Sugar
Crops, Root and Tuber Crops; Crop Production Management – Nutrient
Management, Biofertilisers, Irrigation, Cropping Patterns, Intensive Cropping,
Intercropping, Terrace Farming; Crop Protection Management (263-269) Seed
Science, Agroforestry and Blanching (269-270) Indian Council of Agriculture
Research (ICAR) (270)

16. Economic Zoology 273-286 Animal Husbandry (273) Breeding (273) Artificial
Insemination and Embryo Transfer (274) Cattle Farming : Cow, Buffaloes (274-276)
Poultry Farming : Birds, Sheeps and Goats, Pig (Swine) or Hog, Camels (276-279)
Animal Diseases : Caused by Fungi, Caused by Bacteria, Caused by Virus and
Caused by Parasites (279-281) Apiculture : Social Organisation of Honey Bees,
Honey Making and Products of Apiculture (282-283) Sericulture : Types of Silk and
Silk Production (283-284) Aquaculture (284) Pisciculture : Food Fishes and
By-products of Fishes (285)

17. Economic Botany 287-298 Major Cereals : Wheat, Rice, Maize, Oats
(287-289) Vegetables : Earth Vegetables, Herbage Vegetables and Fruit
Vegetables (290) Some Important Plants for Drugs (290-291) Sugar Yielding
Plants (291) Some Economically Important Flowering Plants : Aloe Vera, Neem,
Tulsi, Turmeric, Lemongrass, Banyan Tree (292-293) Non-Alcoholic Beverages
Plants : Coffee, Tea, Cocoa and Chocolate (294) Spices and Condiments
(294-295) Oil Obtained from Plants (295) Fibre Plants (296)

Appendix 299-320

COMPUTER & IT 1-30

1. Introduction to Computer 1-5 History and Generations of Computer (1-2)
Classification of Computer : Based on Size – Microcomputer, Mainframe
Computer, Minicomputer and Supercomputer; BSNL Penta Tablet;
Aakash/Sakshat Tablet; Aakash 2 (Ubirlate 7Cl); Based on Working of System –
Analog, Digital and Hybrid (2-4)

2. Computer Architecture and I/O Devices 6-11 Components of a Computer :

Input/Output, Central Processisng Unit (CPU) and Memory Unit (6-7) Instruction
Cycle (8) Input and Output Devices (8-10) Input/Output Ports (10)

3. Data Representation 12-13 Number System (12) Types of Number System :

Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexadecimal (12) Computer Codes : Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD), American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) (12-13)

4. Computer Software 14-17 System Software : Operating System – Microsoft

Windows, BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions), Apple Macintosh, Android,
Symbian, iOS, BlackBerry, Windows Phone 8-Apollo; WhatsApp Messenger;
Device Drivers; System Utilities; Language Translator (14-16) Application
Software (16)
5. Data Communication and Networking 18-22 Communication Channel
(18) Communication Media : Guided or Wired Technologies – Ethernet Cable or
Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Fibre Optic Cable; Unguided or Wireless
Technologies – Radiowave Transmission, Microwave Transmission, Satellite
Communication, Infrared Wave Transmission and Bluetooth (18-19) Computer
Network (19) Types of Computer Network : LAN, WAN and MAN (19) Network
Devices (20) Network Topology : Bus, Ring or Circular, Star, Mesh and Tree (20)
Generations of Mobile Phone : 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G (21) Video Scape (21)

6. Internet and Computer Security 23-30 Internet Connection: Dial-Up,

Broadband and Wireless (23) Hyperlink and Hyper Text, Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP), Internet Telephony of VOIP and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6)
(23-24) Internet Related Terms : World Wide Web (WWW), Web Page, Website,
Web Browser, Web Server, Web Address and URL, Domain Name, Web Search
Engine – Google, Google+, Google Earth, Gmail, Youtube, Yahoo, Laicos, Altavista,
Hot Bot, Bing (25) Services of Internet: Chat, E-mail, Video Conferencing, Social
Networking – Facebook, Linkedin, Myspace, Twitter and Tumbler (25-26)
Information Technology (26) Artificial Intelligence (27) Computer Security (28)
Antivirus Software (29)

PHYSICS
1 Units,
Measurements and
Errors
Physical Quantities
Anything which can be expressed in numbers is called quantity. Different events in
nature take place in accordance with some basic laws. Revealing these laws of nature
from the observed events, we need some quantities which are known as physical
quantities. e.g., length, mass, temperature, time, force, speed, distance, acceleration,
velocity, momentum, current, etc.

Types of Physical Quantities

I. On the basis of units and their measurement
(i) Fundamental or Base Quantities The physical quantities which do not depend
on the other physical quantities are known as fundamental (or base) physical
quantities. e.g., length, mass, electric current, time, temperature, luminous intensity,
amount of substance, etc.
(ii) Derived Quantities All the physical quantities which are not the fundamental
physical quantities but are derived from it are known as derived physical
quantities. e.g., work, force, pressure, area, volume, energy, etc.
(iii) Supplementary Quantities There are also two physical quantities which are
neither fundamental nor derived. These quantities are called supplementary
quantities. These are plane angles and solid angles.
II. On the basis of direction and their magnitude
(i) Scalar Quantity A physical quantity which has only its magnitude but no
direction is called a scalar quantity. e.g., distance, energy, power, time, speed,
volume, density, pressure, work, charge, electric current, temperature, specific heat,
frequency, mass, etc.
(ii) Vector Quantity A physical quantity which has magnitude as well as direction is
called a vector quantity. e.g., displacement, velocity, torque, position, acceleration,
force, weight, momentum, impulse, electric field, magnetic field, current density,
angular velocity, etc.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
2

Units
To measure a physical quantity, a standard value of same physical quantity is used,
which indicates that, how many times the standard physical quantity is used to measure
the whole physical quantity. This standard value of the physical quantity is known as its
unit and when any given quantity is measured in the term of this unit, the process is
called measurement.
e.g., F = 10 N
Here, 10 indicates the unit of force (1 N) is ten times used to measure the force of
10 N. Units are also divided into the following parts

Fundamental Units or Base Units

The units of fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units. There are
seven fundamental units i.e., metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and
mole. These units are used as standards for the concerned physical quantity and are
independent of each other.
Initially, only metre, kilogram and second were considered to be fundamental but later
on units of ampere (electric current), kelvin (temperature), candela (luminous intensity)
and mole (amount of substance) were added to fundamental units.

Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities except fundamental physical quantities which
are obtained with the help of fundamental units are called derived units. e.g., units of
area, volume, density, speed, power, work, force, energy, acceleration, momentum, etc.

Supplementary Units
The units used for the supplementary quantities are known as supplementary units.
e.g., units of plane angle and solid angle.

System of Units
A complete set of units having both the base units and derived units is known as the
system of units.
The common systems of units are
(i) MKS System (Metre Kilogram Second) In this system, the units of length, mass and
time are respectively metre, kilogram and second.
(ii) CGS System (Centimetre Gram Second) In this system, the units of length, mass
and time are respectively centimetre, gram and second. It is also called Gaussian
system.
■
The MKS and CGS system are called metric or decimal system.
(iii) FPS System (Foot Pound Second) In this system, the units of length, mass and time
are respectively foot, pound and second. It is also called British system. (iv) SI System
(International System of Units) SI was adopted and accepted in the International
Conference of Weights and Measures held at Geneva in 1960, on the basis of
comprehensive consensus. SI system is extended and modified form of MKS system.
UNITS,MEASUREMENTSANDERRORS
3There are following seven
fundamental units and two supplementary units in SI system. Fundamental Units

and their Symbols in SI System

Name of Quantity
Name of Unit Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 of a
second. (1983)
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of international prototype of the
kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder) kept at International Bureau of Weights and
Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
Time second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding
to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium-133 atom. (1967)
Electric current ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart
in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 10 ⋅−7newton per metre of length.
(1948)
Thermodynamic temperature
Amount of
substance in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (1917)
candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in
Luminous a given direction, of a source that emits
intensity monochromatic radiation
kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the of frequency 540 1012 ⋅ Hz and that has a radiant
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
water. (1979)
(1967)
mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a
system, which contains as many elementary entities
Supplementary Units and their
as there are atoms Symbols in SI System
Name of Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Definition
Plane angle radian rad The radian is the plane angle subtended at the centre by an arc of a circle
having a length equal
to radius of the circle. All plane angles are
measured in radian.
Solid angle steradian Sr The steradian is the solid angle which has the vertex at the centre of the
sphere, and cut off an
area of the surface of sphere equal to that of
square with sides of length equal to radius of
sphere.

4E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
Important Formulae and Units of Derived Units
Physical Quantities Formulae SI Units Area of rectangle Length ⋅
Breadth ( ) l ⋅ b m2
Area of square (Side)2 m2

Area of triangle 1
2
2⋅ Base ⋅ Height m
−3 −2
Density Mass/Volume kg m Acceleration Change in Velocity /Time ms Pressure
Force/Area (F/A) Nm−2or pascal
Work or energy Mass ⋅ Acceleration due to N-m or joule
Gravity ⋅ Height ( = PE ) mgh

Power Work/Time Js −1or watt Impulse Force ⋅ Time N-s Volume of cuboid Length ⋅

Breadth ⋅ Height ( ) l ⋅ ⋅ b h m3 VelocityDisplacement

−1
Time ms
−2
Force Mass ⋅ Acceleration kg ms or newton Linear momentum Mass ⋅ Velocity kg ms −1
Time Period
Magnetic fieldForce Electric Current Displacement
N amp m − − 1 1 or tesla or weber /m2
⋅
s− 1or hertz
Frequency 1

Practical Units of Length, Mass and Time

Practical Units of Length Practical Units of Mass Practical Units of
Time 1 Angstrom (Å) =−
10 10 m 1 Microgram (∝g) =−
10 9kg 1 Picosecond (ps) =−
10 12 s
1 Nanometre (nm) =−
10 9 m 1 Milligram (mg) =−
10 6kg 1 Nanosecond (ns) =−
10 9s
1 Micrometre (∝m) =−
10 6 m 1 Gram (g) =−
10 3kg 1 Microsecond (∝s) =−
10 6s
1 Millimetre (mm) = 10−3 m 1 Quintal = 102kg 1 Millisecond (ms) =−
10 3s
 1 Centimetre (cm) = 10−2 m 1 Metric tonne =103kg 1 Minute = 60 s 1 Kilometre (km)
=+
10 3 m 10 12 m 1.66 10 27 kg
1 Terametre = + 1 Atomic mass unit 1 Hour = 60 min = 3600 s 1
=⋅− Day = 24 hours = 1440 min

1 Light year = ⋅ 9 46 1015 . m or 1016 m 1 Pound = 0 4537 . kg = 86400 s 1 Astronomical unit (1AU)
1 Chandrashekhar limit 1 Week = 7 days
= ⋅ 1.5 10 m 11 = ⋅ 1.4 Mass of sun = ⋅ 2 8 1030 weeks 1 Solar month = 30 or 31
. kg days
1 Parsec = 3.26 light year
1 Lunar month = 28 days = 4
15 1
= ⋅ 3.083 10 m 16 1 Slug = 14 59. kg = 28 or 29 days (feb) 10 m 1 Year = 365 4days
1 Mile = 1.6 km
1 Fermi =−
1 Moon month = 27.3 solar day
1 Solar day = 86400 s
1 Leap year = 366 day (There are
29 days in feb of leap year)
1 Shake =−
10 8s
UNITS,MEASUREMENTSANDERRORS
5

Conversions of Units
Some conversions of units are given below

Conversion of Mass
10 milligram (mg) = 1 g = 15.43 grains =−
10 3kg
3
1000 (10 ) g = 1 kilogram (kg) = 2 205 . pounds
1000 kg = 1 tonne

Conversion of Length
10 millimetre (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm) = 0 394 . inch
100 centimetre = 1 metre (m) = 39 4. inch = 1 094 . yard
1000 ( ) 103 metre (m) = 1 kilometre (km) = 0 6214 . mile
1 foot = 0 3048 . m

Conversion of Area
4046 square metre ( m2) = 1 acre
100 hectare = 1 square kilometre ( km2)

Conversion of Volume
10 millilitre (mL) = 1 centilitre (cL) = 0.018 pint (0.021 USpint)
100 102
( ) centilitre (cL) = 1 litre = 1 76. pint
10 litre = 1 decalitre (daL) = 2 2. gallon (2.63 USgallon)

Metric Prefixes for Power of 10

The physical quantities whose magnitude is either too large or too small can be
expressed more compactly by the use of certain prefixes (in accordance with power of
10) are given in the table.
Prefix Symbol Power of 10
yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
 deca da 101
deci d 10−1
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3
micro ∝ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
femto f 10−15
atto a 10−18
−21
zepto z 10
yocto y 10−24

6E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E

Dimensions of Physical Quantities

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the units of base
quantities are raised to represent a derived unit of that quantity.
Use of square bracket [ ] around a quantity means that we are dealing with the
dimensions of the quantity.
In dimensional representation, the magnitudes are not considered i.e., dimension of both
10 m of length and 100 m of length will be [L].

Dimensional Representation of Physical Quantities In

mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the dimensions of
fundamental (or base) physical quantities such as
[M] for Mass, [L] for Length, [T] for Time, [A] for Electric current, [K] for Temperature
[cd] for Luminous intensity, [mol] for Amount of substance.

Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equation The

expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represents a physical
quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity. e.g., [M L T ]
−2
is the dimensional formula of force. It reveals that unit of force depends on [M],[L]
and [T].
Further, if we represent force by [F], then [F] =−
[M L T ], 2is called the dimensional
equation of force.
For example,
(i) Speed =Distance
[L] −
Time= [T]=
[LT ] 1

Force ⋅
(ii) Pressure = = Area Area
Mass Acceleration
− 2
⋅
==
[ ] [ ] −−

[ ][ ] M LT
12

LML T
2

Some Physical Quantities and their Dimensional

Formulae Physical Quantity with Formula Dimensional
Formula Area = Length ⋅ Breadth [L L] [L ] [M L T ] 2 0 2 0 ⋅ = = Volume =
Length ⋅ Breadth ⋅ Height [L L L] [L ] [M L T ] 3 0 3 0 ⋅ ⋅ = = Velocity =
 Displacement/Time [L]

01
[T][M LT ]
−
=

Acceleration = Velocity/Time [LT ] / [T] [M LT ] − − 1 0 2 =

Force = Mass ⋅ Acceleration [M][LT ] [MLT ] − − 2 2 =

Work = Force ⋅ Displacement [MLT ][L] [ML T ] − − 2 2 2 =

1
2 [M][LT ] [ML T ] − − 1 2 2 2
2Mass ⋅ (Speed)
Kinetic energy = ⋅ =

Potential energy = Mass ⋅ [M][LT ][L] [ML T ] − − 2 2 2 =

Acceleration due to gravity ⋅ Height
UNITS,MEASUREMENTSANDERRORS
7

Dimensionless Quantities
The physical quantities which have zero dimensions are called dimensionless quantities.
The dimensionless quantities are angle, solid angle, relative density, specific gravity,
Poisson’s ratio. A dimensionless quantity has same numeric value in all system of units.

Uses of Dimension
There are mainly three uses of dimension
(i) To check an equation whether it is homogeneous or not.
(ii) To establish the relation among the physical quantities.
(iii) To convert the units from one system to another system.
Important Scientific Instruments and their Use
Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts.
Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in ampere). Audiometer It
measures intensity of sound.
Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.
Binocular It is used to view distant objects.
Burette It is used to deliver any required volume of a liquid upto its maximum capacity.
Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat.
Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph. Cinematography It is an
instrument used in cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged image of photograph.
Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Dynamometer It
measures electrical power.
Electrometer It measures electricity.
Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.
Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body.
Electroencephalogram (ECG) It is a test used to evaluate the electrical activity in the brain.
Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean.
Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low magnitude.
Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.
Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.
Hydrophone It measures sound under water.
Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.
Manometer It measures the pressures of gases.
Mariner’s compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction. Microphone It
converts the sound waves into electrical vibration and to magnify the sound.
Microscope It is used to obtain magnified view of small objects. Odometer An instrument by which
the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured.
Phonograph It is used for producing sound.
Photometer It compares the luminous intensity of the source of light. Periscope It is used to view objects
above sea level (used in sub marines). Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an
approaching plane by means or radio microwaves.
Pyrometer It is a remote - sensing radiation thermometer used to measure the high temperature of the
surface.
Pyrheliometer It is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance. Radiometer It
measures the emission of radiant energy.
Screw gauge It is used to measure thickness of a thin glass plate and diameter of a thin wire or a small
 sphere.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
8
Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.
Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.
Sonometer To measure frequency of a tunning fork.
Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.
Speedometer It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.
Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure.
Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces.
Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse the heart and lung
sounds.
Straboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats. Telescope It
views distant objects in space.
Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures. Thermostat It
regulates the temperature at a particular point.
Voltmeter It measures the electric potential difference between two points. Vernier callipers To
measure lengths accurately.

Error in Measurement
The difference between true value and measured value of a quantity is called error of
measurement. The error cannot be eliminated totally, however it can be minimise.
Resolution It is the least count of output of an instrument.
Accuracy An instrument is said to be accurate, if the physical quantity measured
by it resembles very closely to its true value.
Precision An instrument is said to have high degree of precision, if the measured
value remains unchanged, howsoever large number of times it may have been
repeated.

Classification of Errors
I. On the basis of nature of errors

1. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or
negative. The causes of these errors are known, so these can be minimised. Some of the
sources of systematic errors are
(i) Instrumental Errors These errors arise due to defect in the manufacturing or in
design of the measuring instrument.
(ii) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.
(iii) Personal Errors These errors arise due to inexperience of the observer.

2. Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with
respect to sign and size. Errors due to external causes arise due to external factors such
as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, etc.

3. Least Count Errors

The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least
count errors. All the readings or values measured by any measuring instrument are
good only upto its least count. This error is associated with the resolution of the
instrument.
UNITS,MEASUREMENTSANDERRORS
9
This type of error can be minimised by using the instruments of higher resolution and
by improving experimental techniques.
■
The errors as a whole is termed as gross error.
II. On the basis of mathematical calculations of measurement

1. Absolute Error
In the measurement of a physical quantity, the difference between true value and an
individually measured value of the quantity is known as absolute error.

2. Mean Absolute Error

The arithmetic mean of absolute errors in all the measurement of the quantity is known
as mean absolute error.

Mean absolute error =Sum of absolute errors in each observation

Number of observations

3. Relative Error
The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity is called relative
error or fractional error.
If this ratio is expressed as percentage, then the error is called percentage error.

Significant Figures
The digits that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures.
e.g., suppose a measured distance is 574.5 m. It has four significant figures 5, 7, 4 and 5.
The digits 5, 7 and 4 are certain and reliable while the digit 5 is uncertain.

Common Rules for Counting Significant Figures

(i) All non-zero digits are significant.
(ii) All zeroes occurring between two non-zero digits are significant no matter, where
the decimal point is, if at all.
(iii) If the number is less than one, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point and to the
left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
(iv) In a number without a decimal point, the terminal or trailing zeroes are not
significant.
(v) In a number with a decimal point, the trailing zeroes are significant. (vi) Change of
unit does not change the number of significant figures. (vii) The digit 0 conventionally,
but on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 is never significant.

Arithmetic Operation with Significant Numbers

(i) Addition and Subtraction In both addition and subtraction, the final result should
retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal
places.
(ii) Multiplication and Division In multiplication and division, the final result should
retain as many significant figures as are there in the original number with least
significant figures.

10 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C

E
Assessment
(a) Frequency (b) Energy
1. Identify the unit of measuring intensity
(c) Heat (d) Quality
of sound [SSC CGL 2018] (a) Knots (b)
Ampere 5. Which one of the following physical
(c) Candela (d) Decibel quantities has the same unit as that
of pressure? [NDA 2017] (a) Angular
2. What is the unit of the physical
momentum
quantity, Momentum? [SSC (10+2) 2017] (b) Stress
(a) Newton second (b) Joule second (c) Erg (c) Strain
second (d) Pascal second 3. Frequency is (d) Work
measured in 6. Angstrom is a unit of [BPCS (Pre) 2018]
[BPSC (Pre) 2018] (a) wavelength (b) energy
(a) hertz (b) metre/second (c) radian (c) frequency (d) velocity
(d) watt
7. What is the unit of pressure?
4. What is measured in hertz? [BPCS (Pre) 2018]
[BPSC (Pre) 2019] (a) Newton/sq metre
 (b) Newton-metre (a) kgms2(b) kgms–1
(c) Newton (c) kgms (d) kgms–2
(d) Newton/metre 16. Which of the following quantities does
8. The unit of pressure is [BPSC (Pre) not have any unit? [SSC 2017] (a)
2019] (a) kg/cm2(b) kg/cm Speed (b) Density
(c) kg/mm (d) None of these 9. Which (c) Relative density (d) Acceleration 17.
one of the following quantities does not Maxwell is the unit of which one of the
have unit? [BPSC (Pre) 2019] (a) Stress (b) following? [SSC 2017] (a) Magnetic flux
Force (b) Permeability
(c) Strain (d) Pressure (c) Magnetic susceptibility
(d) Intensity of magnetisation
10. Which one of the following is not the
unit of heat? [UPRO/ARO (Pre) 2017] 18. The SI unit of radioactivity is ……… .
(a) Centigrade (b) Calorie [SSC
(10+2)2019]
(c) Erg (d) Joule
(a) Ampere (b) Becquerel
11. Which of the following is the SI unit of (c) Decibel (d) Cobolt
temperature? [SSC (10+2) 2019] (a) Kelvin 19. The SI unit of weight is [RRB 2018] (a)
(b) Reaumur scale (c) Candela (d) Ampere kilogram (b) newton
12. Which one of the following is the unit (c) gram (d) dyne
of force? [SSC (10+2) 2019] (a) Pascal 20. Hertz is the SI unit of [SSC 2019] (a)
(b) Watt frequency (b) force
(c) Joule (d) Newton (c) pressure (d) energy
13. Light year is a unit for measurement of 21. The SI unit for electrical resistivity is
(a) very large distances. [NDA 2019] (b) [RRB
time interval in years. 2019]
(c) amount of light received on earth in a (a) ampere/metre (b) volt/metre
year. (c) tesla (d) ohm metre
(d) mass of atoms. 22. Which of the following quantities have
14. Light year is the unit of ……… . [RRB its SI unit named after Blaise Pascal?
2019] (a) Energy [SSC 2019] (b) Pressure
(a) length (b) mass (c) Work
(c) time (d) area (d) Power
15. The unit of momentum is [RRB 2018]
ASSESSMENT
11
[CDS 2018] (a) 10−7cm (b) 10−6cm
23. Newton-metre (N-m) is the SI unit of (c) 10−4cm (d) 10−3cm
which of the following physical quantity? 28. 1 dyne (a unit of force in CGS system)
[SSC 2017] equals to [NDA/NA 2019] (a) 103g- cm /s 2(b)
(a) Acceleration (b) Torque 10−3g- cm /s 2 (c) 10 kg- cm /s 5 2 (d) 10−5kg- m
(c) Power (d) Force
/s 2
24. Match the following. [SSC 2017]
29. Match the List I with List II and select
Quanity SI Unit the correct answer using the codes
A. Frequency 1. Ohm given below:
B. Force 2. Hertz
List I List II
C. Resistance 3. Newton
A. Acceleration 1. Joule
Codes
B. Force 2. Newton-second C. Work
ABCABC
done 3. Newton
(a) 2 3 1 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 3 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 D. Impulse 4. Metre per second2 [UPPCS
25. Light year is [WBCS 2019] (a) light 2005]
emitted by Sun in one year. (b) time
taken by light to travel from Sun to Codes
Earth. ABCDABCD
(c) the distance travelled by light in free (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
space in one year. (c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 3 4 1 2
(d) time taken by Earth to go once around
30. If a physical quantity has the units-
the Sun.
ampere meters per second squared,
26. A nautical mile is equal to ……… . then what are it’s dimensions? [SSC
[SSC CGL (10+2) 2018] (a) [I LT-2] (b) [ALT-2]
2019] (c) [I MS-2] (d) [AMS-2]
(a) 2000 metres (b) 1852 metres (c) 1672
31. Which instrument is used to measure
metres (d) 2450 metres 27. Which one of
humidity? [BPCS 2018] (a) Hydrometer (b)
the following is the value of 1 nanometre?
 Hygrometer (c) Pyrometer (d) Lactometer Pyrheliometer is used for measuring (a)
32. Electroencephalogram (ECG) is used sun spots [UPPCS 2015] (b) solar radiation
in monitoring [BPCS 2018] (a) heart (b) (c) air temperature
liver (d) temperature of plants
(c) pancreas (d) brain 36. The density of milk is measured by (a)
33. Which one of the following loctometer [MPPCS 2015] (b)
thermometers is known as hydrometer
(c) barometer
pyrometer? [UPPCS 2016] (a) Thermo -
(d) hygrometer
electric thermometers
(b) Radiation thermometers 37. A student measures certain lengths
(c) Gas thermometers using a meter scale having least
(d) Liquid thermometers count equal to 1 mm. [NDA/NA 2019]
34. Which one of the following devices is Which one of the following
used to measure extremely high measurement is more precise?
temperature? [UPPCS 2016] (a) 0.50 mm (b) 29.07 mm
(a) Pyrometer (b) Photometer (c) (c) 0.925 mm (d) 910 mm
Phonometer (d) Pycnometer 35.

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (a) 31.
(b) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (a)

2 Motion
In our daily life we see some objects in motion e.g., walking men, moving cars, running
trains, and some objects at rest e.g., furnitures, houses, trees, etc. In both the cases, we
see that in motion, the position of objects change with time while at rest, the position of
objects do not change with time.

Rest
If an object does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then
it is called at rest. e.g., a book lying on a desk is at rest, because its position with respect
to the desk does not change with time.

Motion
If an object changes its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then it is
called in motion. e.g., fish swims in water, car or bus moves on a road, train moves on
the track, bird flying in air, etc.
■
Rest and motion are relative terms i.e., an object in one situation can be at rest
but in other situation same object can be in motion.
e.g., if two cars are going side by side with the same velocity, then with respect
to each other, they are in a state of rest, but with respect to trees and persons
going on the road, they are in a state of motion.

Types of Motion of a Body

Generally, the motion of a body can be of the following three types
(i) Rectilinear and Translatory Motion The motion in which a particle moves along
a straight line, is called rectilinear motion. If a body (or a particle) moves along a
straight line, then the motion is called translatory motion.
e.g. Motion of sliding body on an inclined plane.
(ii) Circular and Rotatory Motion The motion in which a particle moves along a
circular path, is called circular motion. e.g. A string whirled in a circular loop. If a
 body rotates about a line (axis) passing through it then the motion is called rotatory
motion or rotational motion. e.g. Fan moving in the house.
(iii) Oscillatory and Vibratory Motion The motion in which a body moves to and fro
or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point, is called oscillatory motion (the
extent to which the body moves on either side of the fixed point is called the
amplitude). If in oscillatory motion, the amplitude is very small, then the motion is
said to be vibratory motion. e.g. Simple pendulum.
MOTION
1 3 One, Two and Three Dimensional Motion
One-Dimensional Motion When the The motion of a car on the road or an
position of the object changes only in one a
direction, then the motion of an object is object falling freely under gravity is the
example of one-dimensional motion.
called one-dimensional motion.
or The motion of a planet around the
a
When a body moves along a line, then the sun and projectile motion are the
motion is called one-dimensional motion. example of two-dimensional motion.
Two-Dimensional Motion When the The motion of a bird in the sky and
a
position of the object changes in two
motion of a flying kite in the sky, etc
direction, then the motion of an object is are the examples of
called two-dimensional motion. three-dimensional motion.
or
Everyday Science
When a body moves on a plane, then the motion is called two-dimensional motion.
Three-Dimensional Motion When the position of the object changes in three
direction, then the motion of an object is called three-dimensional motion. or
When a body moves in a space, then the motion is called three-dimensional motion.

Some Basic Terms Related with

Motion The various terms required to describe motion are
Reference Point
A fixed point or a fixed object with respect to which the given body changes its position
is known as reference point or origin.
■
An object is said to be in motion, if its position changes continuously with respect
to a fixed reference.

Position
It is the point in space where an object is present with respect to the reference point.

Distance
The distance travelled by a body is the actual length of the path covered by a moving
body irrespective of the direction in which the body travels. It is a scalar quantity. Its SI
unit is metre.
■
Distance can never be negative.
■
Odometer is a device used to measure the distance travelled by the vehicle.

Path Length
It is the length of the curve joining the initial and final positions along which the
particle has actually moved. Its SI unit is metre.

Speed
The time rate of change of position of the object in any direction is called speed of the
object.
Speed ( )v =Distance travelled ( )
s
Time taken ( )
t
It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is m/s and its dimensional formula is [M LT ]. 0 1−
For a moving body, speed is always positive and can never be negative and zero.
 14 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
Types of Speed
There are four types of speed
(i) Uniform Speed or Constant Speed If an object covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time, then its speed is called uniform speed or constant speed. (ii)
Non-uniform Speed or Variable Speed If an object covers unequal distances in
equal intervals of time, then its speed is called non-uniform speed or variable speed. (iii)
Average Speed The ratio of the total distance travelled by the object to the total time
taken is called average speed of the object.

i.e., Average speed =Total distance travelled

Total time taken
moving along a
If a particle travels distances s1, s2, s3....
with times t1, t2, t3...., then
Everyday Science a A motorcycle
+++ straight line path such that it
Average speed =s s s
ttt covers equal distance in
+++ 123
123
..... .....
x
Example 1 A car travels first half
distance between two places with a speed 2 x
of 40 km/h and the rest half distance with = h
a speed of 60 km/h. What is the average 60 120
speed of the car? ∴ Average speed =Total distance Total time
Sol Let the total distance travelled be x km. equal time intervals, then it is said to be uniform
Then, the time taken to travel the first half speed.
distance is x A motorcycle moving through
a a crowded market
has
2x
=h non-uniform speed because
40 80
Time taken to travel the rest half distance is
x
xx+
80 120
= 48
km/h

(iv) Instantaneous Speed The speed of a particle at any instant of time is known as its
instantaneous speed.
∆ speed = lim =
s
Instantaneous ds

t
∆
→
dt
t
∆
0
Displacement
When a body moves from one position to another, the shortest distance i.e., straight line
between the initial position and final position of the body along with direction is known
as displacement. It is a vector quantity directed from initial position to final position. Its
SI unit is metre.
■
The magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be zero
when the corresponding distance covered is not zero.
■
Displacement of the object can be positive, negative or zero.
MOTION
15
■
Displacement of a moving object can never be greater than the distance
travelled by it. Displacement ≤ Distance

∴Displacement
Distance≤ 1
i.e., the ratio of displacement and distance is always less than or equal to 1.

Velocity
The time rate of change of displacement of a body is called its velocity. It is a vector
quantity. Time

Velocity =Displacement
The SI unit of velocity is m/s and its dimensional formula is [M LT ]. 0 –1 ■ Velocity of an
object can be changed by changing the object’s speed or direction of motion or both.
■
Velocity of an object can be positive, negative and zero.
■
The velocity of an object is taken to be positive if the object is moving towards the
right of the origin and is taken to be negative if the object is moving towards the left
of the origin. ■ For an object in a time interval (t)
| | velocity speed ≤
i.e., the magnitude of velocity of an object is always equal to or less than its speed.

Types of Velocity
There are four types of velocity
(i) Uniform Velocity or Constant Velocity If an object covers equal displacement
in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a uniform velocity or
constant velocity.
(ii) Non-uniform or Variable Velocity If an object covers unequal displacement in
equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a non-uniform or variable
velocity.
(iii) Average Velocity The ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken is
called average velocity.

Average velocity =Total displacement

Total time
If velocity of the object changes at a uniform rate, then

Average velocity =Initial velocity Final velocity

+ uv+
= 2
2
(iv) Instantaneous Velocity The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is known
as its instantaneous velocity. Its unit is m/s.
■
Speed and velocity have the same units i.e., m/s.
■
If a body is moving in a single straight line, then the magnitude of its speed and
velocity will be equal.

Relative Velocity
The relative velocity of one object with respect to another is the velocity with which
one object moves with respect to another object. Hence, relative velocity is defined as
the time rate of change of relative position of one object with respect to another. If two
objects a and b are moving with velocities va and vbrespectively, then
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
16
Relative velocity, v v v ab a b = − (if objects are moving in same direction) v v v
ab a b = + (if objects are moving in opposite directions)

Acceleration
The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration. It is a vector
quantity, denoted by a and its SI unit is m/s2.
velocity
∴ Acceleration =Change in ( )
Time ∆ v
interval ( )
∆ t

If in a given time interval t the velocity of a body changes from u to v, then acceleration
a is expressed as
Final velocity Initial velocity − v u −
a= t= t
When the velocity of a body increases with time, acceleration is positive (i.e., the body is
said to be accelerated) and when the velocity of a body decreases with time (i.e., u v > ),
then acceleration becomes negative (i.e., the body is said to be retarded). Negative
acceleration is also called deceleration or retardation.
Types of Acceleration
There are four types of acceleration
(i) Uniform Acceleration or Constant Total time taken
Acceleration If the velocity changes Everyday Science
uniformly at equal intervals of time, then
A body falling down from a height
acceleration is said to be uniform a or a body
acceleration. rolling down on a smooth inclined plane, has
uniform
(ii) Non-uniform Acceleration or
acceleration.
Variable Acceleration If the velocity of The acceleration is created by
the particle does not change equally in a accelerator of the
equal intervals of time, then the vehicles and the applications of breaks give the
acceleration is said to be non-uniform uniform deceleration to the
vehicles.
acceleration.
The acceleration produced in
(ii) Average Acceleration When an object a spring-block
is moving with a variable acceleration, thensystem is non-uniform acceleration.
the average acceleration of the object for If a car travelling along a straight
a road increases
the given motion is defined as the ratio of its speed by unequal amounts in equal intervals of
the total change in velocity of the object time, then the car is said to be moving with
during motion to the total time. non-uniform acceleration.
Average acceleration

=Total change in velocity

■
The average acceleration can be positive or negative depending upon the sign of
change of velocity. It is zero if the change in velocity of the object in the given interval of
time is zero. (iv) Instantaneous Acceleration The acceleration of the object at a given
instant of time or at a given point during the motion, is called its instantaneous
acceleration.

Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

An object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform
motion. e.g., a car moving along a straight line path such that it covers equal distances in
equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
 MOTION
17
On the other hand, if an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is
said to be in non-uniform motion. e.g., when a car is moving on a crowded street or a
person is jogging in a park, these are said to be in non-uniform motion.
■
The direction of motion changes at every point of motion in uniform circular
motion. This direction is given by that of a tangent drawn at that point.
■
For uniform motion along a straight line in given direction, the
magnitude of the displacement is equal to the actual distance covered
by the object.
■
No force is required for an object to be in uniform motion.
■
The velocity in uniform motion does not depend upon the time interval.

Graphical Representation of Motion

Motion of a point or body or a particle in all aspects can be shown with the help of the
graph, such as displacement-time graph, velocity-time graph, displacement-velocity
graph, acceleration-time graph, etc.

Displacement-Time Graph
Case I When an object is at rest
Then the (s-t) graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.
s

AB

Ot

From the graph, it is clear that with the passage of time, there is no change in the
position of the body, it remains at point A, i.e., the body is stationary.
Case II When an object is moving with zero acceleration
Then the (s-t) graph is a straight line with positive slope and the object is
initially at some distance from the origin.
A
s
B

O t

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time, the body covers equal
distances, so the motion is uniform and graph is a straight line.
Case III When an object is moving with uniform positive acceleration Then the (s-t)
graph is a curve with positive slope and the object is initially at some distance
from the origin.
s B

x
t
O

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is
covering unequal distances and this distance goes on increasing. That means, with
the passage of time, the body is covering more and more distance in equal time i.e.,
the speed of the body is increasing. Hence, the slope of graph is positive.
18 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
Case IV When an object is moving with negative acceleration
Then the (s-t) graph is a curve with negative slope and the object is initially at
some distance from the origin.
s

x
B
O t

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is
covering unequal distances and this distance is goes on decreasing. That means,
 with the passage of time, the body is covering lesser and lesser distance in equal
time i.e., the speed of the body is decreasing. Hence, the slope of the graph is
negative. ■ Slope of displacement-time graph gives average velocity.

Velocity-Time Graph
Case I When an object is moving with constant velocity (zero acceleration)
Then the (v t- ) graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.
v

AO
a=0 t
B

From the graph, it is clear that with the change of time, there is no change in the
velocity. Hence, the slope of the graph is zero.
Case II When an object is moving with positive constant acceleration having some
initial velocity
Then the ( )v t- graph is a straight line.
v

u
t
O where 0 u
≠
B

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal
amount. Case III When an object is moving with constant positive acceleration having
zero initial velocity
Then the ( )v t- graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
v

Ot
where u = 0

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal
amount.
Case IV When an object is moving with canstant negative acceleration having some
positive initial velocity
MOTION
1 9 Then the ( ) v t- graph is a straight line and slope is negative.
v

From the graph, it is clear that velocity is decreasing uniformly with time.
Case V When an object is moving with increasing acceleration having zero initial
velocity
Then the ( )v t- graph is a curve.
v B

Ot

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, the change in velocity are
unequal. That is the reason, the graph is curve shaped.
Case VI When an object is moving with decreasing acceleration
Then the ( ) v t- graph is a curve.
v
B
 Ot

From the graph it is clear that velocity is decreasing non-uniformly with time.
■
Slope of velocity-time graphs gives average acceleration.
■
Area of speed-time graph gives distance.

Equations of Motion
When a body is moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration, we can establish
the relation between velocity of the body, acceleration of the body and the distance
travelled by the body in a particular time interval by a set of equations. These equations
are known as equations of motion.
The three equations of motion on a straight line are
1. v u at = + 2. s ut at = + 1 2 2
/ 3. v u as 2 2
−=2
where u is the initial velocity of the body, a is the uniform acceleration of the body, v is
the final velocity of the body after t second and s is the distance travelled in this time.
Distance travelled in nth second
1
s u a n n= + −

2( ) 2 1
where, sn = distance covered by a body in nth second.
Example 2 A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s2for 6 s. Find
the velocity acquired by car and the distance it covers during this time. Sol Given,
initial velocity (u) = 0, acceleration (a) = 4 m/s2and time (t) = 6 s
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
20
Now, using first equation of motion, v u at = +
= + ⋅ 0 4 6 = 24 m/s
Again, using second equation of motion,
1
1 22
20 24 6 ( ) = + ⋅ 0 2 36
s ut at t = + = ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅

s = 72 m
Example 3 A train is travelling at speed of 90 km/h. Brakes are applied so as to
produce a uniform acceleration of – 0.5 m/s2. Find how far the train will go before it is
brought to rest.
5
Sol Given, initial speed = 90 km/h = 90 18
⋅ m/s = 25 m/s

Acceleration, a = −0.5 m/s2

Train brought to rest, so final speed, v = 0
From third equation of motion,
v u as 2 2 = + 2
( ) ( ) ( . ) 0 25 2 0 5 2 2 = + ⋅ − ⋅s
0 625 1 = − ⋅s
s = 625 m

Freely Falling Objects

The objects falling towards the earth under the gravitational force alone, are called
freely falling objects and such fall is called free fall.
Whenever an object falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved, this
acceleration is due to the earth’s gravitational pull and is called acceleration due to
gravity. The value of acceleration due to gravity near the earth surface is 9.8 m/s2.
Though the value of g is independent of freely falling mass, a feather falls much slowly
than a coin when released from a height. This is due to the resistance offered by air to
the falling mass. If both the bodies were released at the same time in vacuum, they
would reach the earth surface within the same duration of time.
The three equations of free fall of an object near the surface of the earth
are 1. v u gt = + 2. h ut gt = + 1 2 2
/ 3. v u gh 2 2 = + 2
where h is the height from which the object falls, t is the time of fall, u is the initial
velocity and v is the final velocity when the body accelerates at g.
■
The only difference between the equations of motion for object moving in straight
line is that in place of acceleration a , we take acceleration due to gravity g.

Cases of Free Fall

● If an object falls vertically downward then acceleration due to gravity is taken as
positive (since its velocity increases while falling).
● If an object is thrown vertically upward then acceleration due to gravity is taken as

negative (since its velocity decreases as it moves upward).

● If an object is dropped freely from a height, its initial velocity u is zero.

●If an object is thrown vertically upwards, its final velocity v becomes zero. ● Time taken by
an object to fall from a height is same as that taken by it to rise the same height.
MOTION
21

Motion in a Plane
If an object is in the motion such that its position at any time can be given with
reference axes (two mutually perpendicular lines passing through the origin) then the
motion of object is said to be motion in a plane. Projectile motion, circular motion, etc
are the examples of this motion.
parabolic path is known as Y
Projectile Motion projectile motion and path
followed by the object is u cosθ
When an object is thrown H
obliquely near the earth’s called trajectory.
surface, its motion on a
u
one-dimensional direction with gravity umax
Projectile motion motion i.e., constant velocity
u sinθ O
can be motion along a and the other u cos θ
considered as straight line; one along vertical R (Range)
combination of along horizontal direction under X
two independent θ

effects. e.g., Point of projection

■
The motion of bullet fired through the firing tank shows the projectile motion. ■
The motion of a rocket after burn out.
■
The motion of a bomb dropped from an aeroplane.
■
The motion of a ball thrown in a horizontal direction.
■
The motion of a ball after hitting the bat, etc.

Formulae for Projectile Motion

(i) Component of Velocity The horizontal component of initial velocity, u u x = cos θ,
where θ is the angle by which object is projected near the earth’s surface called
angle of projection and u is velocity of projection also called muzzle velocity. The
vertical component of initial velocity u u y = sin θ
The equation of trajectory of the projectile is given by

y xg
1
2
θ
= − (tan ) x θ
 22 2
u cos
(ii) Time of Ascent The time for which the projectile is ascending up is termed as time
of ascent. It is denoted by ta.
u
Time of ascent, ta = gsinθ
(iii) Time of Descent The time for which the projectle is descending down is termed as
time of descent. It is denoted by td.
u
Time of descent, td = gsinθ
It is clear that time of ascent is equal to time of descent and it can also easily be
interpreted by symmetrical motion of projectile under the earth’s gravity effect. (iv)
Time of Flight The total time for which the projectile is in motion is termed as time of
flight. It is denoted by T.
u sinθ u sinθ 2 u
Time of flight, T t t = +a d = g + g = gsinθ
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
22
(v) Maximum Height The maximum value of vertical displacement of projectile
during its course of motion is termed as the maximum height. It is denoted by H. 2 2
u
Maximum height, H = g
sin θ
2
(vi) Range The horizontal displacement of projectile during its motion is termed as
range of the projectile. It is denoted by R.
2
sin2θ
u
Range, R g
=

2
u
Maximum range of projectile, R g max = (when sin 2θ is maximum i.e., θ = ° 45 )

When range of projectile is maximum, then maximum height of projectile,

u
H gR
max ==
2 max

44
■
Horizontal distance or range for a projectile would be maximum at an angle of
projection 45° for a particular speed of projectile.
■
For the angles of projection θ and ( ) 90° − θ , the horizontal ranges are same. ■
In projectile motion, horizontal component of the velocity of projectile always
remains constant. ■ Speed of the projectile is minimum at the topmost point on the
trajectory and it is equal to u u x = cosθ.
■
Acceleration of projectile during its motion always remains constant.

Everyday Science
In base ball game, a player adjusts the speed and angle of projection so that ball covers
a
the desired distance in minimum time.
An athelete, taking part in javellian throw (or long jump) runs along a track fastly for
a
some distance to acquire high velocity before reaching the marking point and then
throws the javellian (or takes long jump), making an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
The horizontal range of javellian throw (or long jump) is maximum.

Circular Motion
The motion in which a particle moves along a circular path, is called circular motion.
When a particle moves on a circular path with a constant speed, then its motion is said
to be a uniform circular motion in a plane. In this motion, velocity of particle change
continuously (due to direction of particle changes). That is, these is an acceleration in
circular motion whose magnitude remains constant, but direction change continuously.
Some terms related to circular motion are given below
(i) Time Period In circular motion, the time period is defined as the time taken by the
particle to complete one revolution on circular path. It is denoted by T and its unit is
second.
(ii) Frequency The frequency is defined as the number of revolutions completed by
the object on its circular path in a unit time. It is denoted by n and its unit is s−1or
Hertz.
MOTION
2 3 (iii) Angular Displacement The angular displacement of the object
in a given time, moving around a circular Arc
path is defined as the angle swept by the θ
radius of the circular path in the given Radius (r)
time. It is denoted by θ and its unit is
radian.
Angular displacement =Arc

Radius

(iv) Angular Velocity The angular velocity of an object moving around a circular path
is defined as the time rate of change of its angular displacement. It is denoted byωand
its unit is radian/second. Its direction is normal to the plane of circle. Angular velocity

=Angular displacement

Timeorωθ
=
t
If θ π = 2 , then t T =
∴ ω π ω π = = 2 2 / T n or ( = / ) Q n T1 When a particle performs uniform circular
motion, then along with angular velocity it also has linear velocity (v) along the tangent
of the circular path.
(v) Angular Acceleration The angular acceleration of an object moving around a
circular path is defined as the time rate of change of its angular velocity. It is
denoted by α and its unit is radian/second2.
It occurs due to change in direction of angular velocity. So, its direction is also
normal to the plane of circle in accordance with the direction change of angular
velocity. (vi) Centripetal Acceleration
Acceleration acting on the particle centripetal acceleration.
undergoing a uniform circular motion ■
Relation between time period and
towards the centre of the circle is called
centripetal acceleration. It always acts on frequency, time period = 1
the particle along the radius and given
by
Everyday Science
22 While going in a bus from plane
ω a to hill station
v on a road with slopes and curves, one feels
Centripetal acceleration, a r
vomiting because on a sloppy and curved road
==r
of the hills, the tangential and centripetal
where, r is the radius of the circular path accelerations of the bus are not constant. It
and v is linear velocity of particle. Thus, causes uneven vibrations in the stomach of the
a particle describing circular motion with passengers sitting in the bus, resulting in
constant (uniform) linear speed vomiting.
experiences two types of acceleration;
angular or tangential acceleration and
 =1
T
frequencyor n
■
Relation between angular velocity and linear
velocity, v r = ω
■
Relation between angular acceleration and linear
acceleration, a r = α
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENC
24

E
Assessment
can change when its acceleration is
1. For an object, the state of rest is
constant.
considered to be the state of ………
speed. [SSC CGL 2017] (a) increasing (b) 7. A car starts from Bengaluru, goes 50
decreasing km in a straight line towards South,
(c) inverse (d) zero immediately turns around and returns
2. Match the following lists.
to Bengaluru. The time taken for this
round trip is 2h.
List I List II
(d) The direction of the velocity of a body
2. Two-dimensional motion (d) cannot be calculated
A. Motion of billiards ball
without knowing acceleration
3. Three-dimensional motion
B. Motion of flying insect 8. As the object covers
The magnitude of the
C. Motion of freely falling body average velocity of the car unequal distances in equal
for this round trip [NDA 2019] intervals of time, it is said to
Codes
(a) is zero (b) is 50 km/h be in
1. One-dimensional motion
(c) is 25 km/h
ABCABC speed.
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 2 2 (c) A body can have a constant speed
(c) 2 3 1 (d) 3 2 2 and still have varying velocity.
3. An object travels 20 m in 6s and then ……… motion. [SSC (10+2) 2018] (a)
another 30 m in 4s. What is the uniform (b) linear
average speed of the object? [RRB (c) non-uniform (d) equilibrium
Group D 2018] (a) 8 m/s (b) 6 m/s 9. The rate of change of displacement
(c) 5 m/s (d) 7 m/s with time is called as ...... . [SSC 2017]
4. After meeting with an accident, a train (a) force (b) acceleration
2 (c) retardation (d) velocity
starts moving at 3its speed. Due to 10. During ........... motion of an object
this, it is 45 min late. Find the original along a straight line, the change in velocity
time of the journey beyond the point of the object for any time interval is zero.
of the accident. [RRB Group D 2018] [SSC (10+2) 2018]
(a) 90 min (b) 120 min
(a) linear (b) translational (c)
(c) 45 min (d) 135 min equilibrium (d) uniform
5. If the distance s covered by a moving 11. Which one of the following does not
car in rectilinear motion with a speed
match the group? [RRB NTPC 2016] (a)
v in time t is given by s vt = , then the Speed (b) Time
car undergoes [NDA/NA 2014] (a) a (c) Mass (d) Acceleration 12. In negative
uniform acceleration
acceleration, the velocity of a body ............
(b) a non-uniform acceleration
(c) a uniform velocity . [RRB Group D 2018] (a) is zero (b) increases
(d) a non-uniform velocity (c) decreases (d) remains constant 13. ……… is
6. Which of the following statements is the change in velocity per unit time. [RRB
false? Group D 2018] (a) Acceleration (b) Momentum
(a) A body can have zero velocity and (c) Force (d) Inertia
still be accelerated. 14. For a body moving with uniform
(b) A body can have a constant acceleration its final velocity equals
velocity and still have a varying
 ........... . [SSC (10+2) 2018] (a) average velocity (c) 2 × average velocity +
velocity − initial velocity initial velocity (d) average velocity +
(b) 2 × average velocity − initial initial velocity
ASSESSMENT
25
23. In a vacuum, a five-rupee coin a,
15. Find the acceleration (in m/s2) of a feather of sparrow bird and a mango
body which accelerates from 10 m/s are dropped simultaneously from the
to 20 m/s in 4 seconds. [SSC (10+2) same height. The time taken by them
2018] (a) 7.5 (b) 5 (c) 15 (d) 2.5 to reach the bottom is t t 1 2 , andt3,
16. If an object moves with constant respectively. In this situation, we will
velocity, then which one of the observe that [NDA 2017] (a) t t t 1 2 3 > >
following statement is not correct? (b) t t t 1 3 2 > >
[NDA 2018] (a) Its motion is along a
(c) t t t 3 1 2 > >
straight line.
(d) t t t 1 2 3 = =
(b) Its speed changes with time.
(c) Its acceleration is zero. 24. The distance - time graph for the
(d) Its displacement increases motion of an object moving with a
linearly with time. constant speed is a [SSC CGL 2018] (a)
17. A passenger in a moving train tosses dot (b) circle
a five rupees coin. If the coin falls (c) straight line (d) curve
behind him, then the train must be 25. If an object is at rest, then the time
moving with a uniform [NDA/NA 2014] (X-axis) versus distance (Y - axis)
(a) acceleration (b) deceleration graph (a) is vertical [CDS 2019] (b) is
(c) speed (d) velocity horizontal
18. The speed of a car travelling on a (c) has 45° positive slope
straight road is listed below at (d) has 45° negative slope
successive intervals of 1 s. 26. The figure shown below gives the time
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 Speed (m/s) 0 2 4 6 ( )t versus position ( ) x graph of three
objects A B, and C. Which one of the
8
following is the correct relation
Which of the following is/are correct? between their speeds v v A B , and vC,
The car travels [NDA 2017] I. with a respectively at any instant ( ) t > 0 ?
uniform acceleration of 2 m/s2. II. 16 m [NDA 2019]
in 4 s.
B motion gives the relation
III. with an average speed A between [RRB ALP 2018]
of 4 m/s. (a) Only I (b) I and (a) position and time
II
(c) II and III (d) All of these represents ........... . O
[SSC (10+2) 2018] (a)
19. In the equation of (a) v v v A B C < < (b) v v v A
initial velocity (b) final
motion v u at = + , u velocity (c) kinetic energy B C > > (c) v v v A B C = = ≠ 0
Time ( )t (d) potential energy (d) v v v A B C = = = 0
C 20. The first equation of Position ( ) x
(a) non-uniformly (b) uniformly
(c) uniquely (d) specially
27. The slope of a velocity-time graph
represents [SSC CHSL 2018] (a)
(b) velocity and time acceleration (b) displacement (c) distance
(d) speed
(c) position and velocity
(d) velocity and acceleration 28. An object is moving with uniform
21. The second equation of motion gives
acceleration a. Its initial velocity is u
and after time t , its velocity is v. The
the relation between [RRB 2018] (a)
velocity and time equation of its motion is v u at = + .
(b) position and time The velocity (along Y-axis)-time (along
(c) position and velocity X-axis) graph will be a straight line
(d) velocity and acceleration [NDA 2018] (a) passing through origin
(b) with X-intercept u
22. The motion of a freely falling body is
(c) with Y-intercept u
an example of ........... accelerated
(d) with slope u
motion. [SSC (10+2) 2018]
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
26
motions are respectively represented
29. In the given velocity ( ) v versus time ( by line segments [NDA 2019] (
)
v

)t graph, accelerated and decelerated AD

y
t
 (c) velocity (d) acceleration
i

35. If an object moves in a circular path with 36. A car undergoes a uniform circular
uniform ……… its motion is called motion. The acceleration of the car is
uniform circular motion. [SSC CGL 2017] [CDS 2019 (II)]
(a) speed (b) time
o
le V

B C Time ( )t
(a) zero
(b) a non-zero constant
(c) non-zero but not a
constant
 (a) CD and BC (b) BC and AB (d) None of the above
(c) CD and AB (d) AB and CD 37. If an object undergoes a uniform circular
30. If an object moves at a non-zero motion, then its [NDA/NA 2013] (a)
constant acceleration for a certain interval acceleration remains uniform
of time, then the distance it covers in that (b) velocity changes
time [NDA 2019] (c) speed changes
(a) depends on its initial velocity (d) velocity remains uniform
(b) is independent of its initial 38. A motor vehicle is moving on a circle
velocity (c) increases linearly with with a uniform speed. The net
time acceleration of the vehicle is [NDA/NA
(d) depends on its initial displacement 31. 2013] (a) zero
Which of the following equations (b) towards the centre of the circle
represents the velocity - time relation? (c) away from the centre along the radius of
[RRB Group-D 2018]
2
(a) s ut at = +1 2 (b) 22 2 as v u = − (d) perpendicular to the
the circle radius and along
(c) v u at = + (d) v u at = − 39. A person standing at the middle point of a
32. An iron ball and a wooden ball of the wooden ladder which starts slipping
same radius are released from the between a vertical wall and the floor of a
same height in a vacuum. The time room, while continuing to remain in a
taken by both of the these to reach vertical plane. The path traced by a
the ground is person standing at the middle point of
(a) roughly equal (b) zero the slipping ladder is
(c) exactly equal (d) unequal (a) a straight line (b) an elliptical line (c) a circular
33. During the motion of a projectile fired path (d) a parabolic path 40. An object moves
from the earth surface, [SSC CGL in a circular path with a
2016] (a) its kinetic energy remains constant speed. Which one of the
constant (b) its momentum remains following statement is correct? [NDA
constant (c) vertical component of its 2017] (a) The centripetal acceleration of the
velocity remains constant object
(d) horizontal component of its is smaller for a gentle curve (i.e. curve of
velocity remains constant larger radius) than that for a sharp
34. A body moving in a circular path with a curve (i.e. curve of smaller radius).
constant speed has a [SSC CGL 2016] (b) The centripetal acceleration is greater
(a) constant velocity for a gentle curve than that for a sharp
(b) constant acceleration curve. (c) The centripetal acceleration is the
same for both the gentle and sharp curves.
(c) constant kinetic energy
(d) The centripetal acceleration causes
(d) constant displacement
the object to slow down.
the velocity

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (d)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (a) 31.
(c) 32. (c) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (a)

3
Force Laws
and
of Motion
Force

Any action which causes pull or push on a body is called force. Forces are used in our
everyday actions like pushing, pulling, lifting, stretching, twisting and pressing.
Force is a vector quantity, its SI unit is newton and the CGS unit is dyne.
1 newton = 1kg-ms −2
1 newton = 105dyne
e.g., a force is used when we kick a football, we lift a box from the floor, we stretch a
rubber band, etc.

Fundamental or Basic Forces in Nature

Mainly there are four types of forces occurring in nature
(i) Gravitational Forces Every object in this universe attracts each other, this force
of attraction is called gravitational force. It is the weakestforce among all existing
forces and is negligible for all lighter and smaller bodies but becomes significant and
considerable in all celestial bodies.
(ii) Weak Nuclear Forces These forces were discovered during the study of the
phenomenon ofβ-decay, in radioactivity. These are the forces of interaction
between elementary particles of short life times. The weak nuclear forces are 1025
times stronger than gravitational forces.
(iii) Electromagnetic Forces The electromagnetic forces are the forces between
charged particles. When the charges are at rest, the forces are called electrostatic
forces. The forces between unlike charges are attractive and the forces between
like charges are repulsive. These forces are governed by Coulomb's law.
Matter consists of elementary particles like electrons and protons. The electrons
and protons are charged. Electromagnetic force is much stronger than the
gravitational force, it dominates all phenomena on atomic and molecular scales.
(iv) Strong Nuclear Forces The forces that bind the neutrons and protons together in
a nucleus are called the strong nuclear forces. These forces act between two
protons or two neutrons or a proton and a neutron, but only if the particles are
very close together. These are the strongest forces in nature. These are 1038 times
stronger than
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
28
gravitational forces, 102times stronger than electrostatic forces and 1013 times
stronger than the weak forces.

Fundamental Forces in Nature

S. No. Name Relative

Strength Range Operates Among

1. Gravitational force 1 Infinite All objects in universe
2. Weak nuclear force 1025 Very short Some elementary particles like electron and
neutrino
subnuclear size (≈−

10 16 m)
3. Electromagnetic force 1036 Not very large Charged particles
4. Strong nuclear force 1038 Very short nuclear
size (≈− 10 15 m)
 There are two types of force
Types of Force Nucleons, heavier elementary particles

(i) Balanced Forces When the net effect produced by a number of forces acting on a
body is zero, then the forces are said to be balanced forces. Balanced forces can
only bring a change in the shape of the body. e.g., If the block is pulled from both
the sides with equal forces, the block will not move, such forces are called balanced
forces.
(ii) Unbalanced Forces When the net effect produced by a number of forces on a
body is non-zero, then the forces are said to be unbalanced forces.
■
An object moves with a uniform velocity when the force acting on the object are
balanced and there is no net external force on it.
■
If an unbalanced force is applied on the object, there will be a change, either in its
speed or in the direction of its motion. Thus, to accelerate the motion of an object,
an unbalanced force is required.

Contact Forces and Field Forces

Force by the virtue of bodies in contact is called contact forces while force
between the two body which is not in contact is known as field force such as
gravitational force, electric force, etc.

Inertia
The property of an object to resist any change in its state of motion along a straight line
or rest is called inertia.
There are three types of inertia
(i) Inertia of Rest If an object resists the change in its state of rest, its inertia is called
inertia of rest.
(ii) Inertia of Motion If an object resists the change in its state of motion, its inertia is
called inertia of motion.
(iii) Inertia of Direction If an object resists the change in direction of its motion, its
inertia is called inertia of direction.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Laws of motion was propounded by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, in his book Principia.
There are three laws of motion
FORCEANDLAWSOFMOTION
29

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Every body retains its state of rest or state of motion along a straight line until an
external force is applied on it. This law is also known as law of inertia.

Some Common Phenomena based on

Newton’s First Law of Motion
■
A person standing in a bus falls backward when bus starts moving suddenly. This
happens because the person and bus both are in rest while bus is not moving. As
bus starts moving, the legs of the person start moving alongwith bus but rest
portion of his body has tendency to remain in rest.
■
If a moving bus suddenly stops, then the passenger falls in forward direction,
because the passengers who had inertia of motion, oppose a change in their state.
However, the lower portion of their body comes to rest with the bus. So, they fall
forward.
■
When we shake a tree vigorously, its fruits and leaves fall down. This happens
because the fruits and leaves were at rest initially and as tree is shaken vigorously,
the tree moves to and fro but the force is not acting on leaves and fruits, and they
try to maintain their states of rest due to inertia and hence fall.
 ■
The seat belts are used in car and other vehicles to prevent the passengers being
thrown, in the condition of sudden stopping of the vehicles. This is because in that
condition passengers may be thrown in the direction of the motion of vechicle due
to the tendency to remain in the state of motion (i.e., inertia of motion).
■
If we suddenly and rapidly pull the table cloth on which dishes are placed, then
dishes remain on the table and the cloth comes out from the table. This is because
of the fact that dishes were initially at rest and due to their inertia, they try to
maintain their state of rest and force exerted by us on table cloth is not transmitted
to the dishes.

Momentum
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product of its mass and its velocity. It
is a vector quantity having SI unit kg-m/s.
If a body of mass (m) moves with a velocity (v), then momentum (p) is given by p mv =

Everyday Science
A much greater force is required to push a truck than a car to bring them to the same
a
speed in the same time, because due to higher mass heavy body requires higher
momentum. Similarly, a greater force is required to stop a heavy body than a light body in
the same time.
A bullet fired from a gun can easily pierce through a target but a stone of same thrown
a by
hand can be easily stopped, because bullet fired from gun has much higher velocity than
stone so due to its higher momentum it pierces the target easily.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

If no external force acts upon a system of two (or more) bodies, then the total
momentum of the system remains constant. This is called the law of conservation of
momentum.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
30
If m1 and m2 be the two masses of colliding particles, u1 and u2 are the velocities of the
respective particles before collision and v1 and v2 are the velocities of the particles after
collision, then by the law of conservation of linear momentum.
Total linear momentum before collision = + m u m u 1 1 2 2
Total linear momentum after collision = + m v m v 1 1 2 2
Thus, m u m u m v m v 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 + = +

Some Common Phenomena based on

Law of Conservation of Momentum
■
When a man jumps out of a boat to the shore, the boat is pushed slightly away from the
shore. The momentum of the boat is equal and opposite to that of the man in
accordance with the law of conservation of momentum.
■
Rocket Propulsion The conservation law of momentum can be applied to study the
motion of the body.
In a rocket, the fuel burns and produces gas at high temperature. The gas is ejected out
of the rocket from a nozzle, at the back side of the rocket.
The ejecting gas exerts a forward force on the rocket which helps in accelerating.
Though the mass of gas escaping per second is very small and its momentum is very
large due to its tremendous velocity of escape, an equal and opposite momentum is
imparted to the rocket which despite its large mass builds up a high velocity.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force. According to
Newton’s second law,
Force, F ∝ Rate of change of momentum
dp
F dt
 ∝

where, dp = change in momentum and dt = change in time.

On further calculation, F ma =
where, m = mass of the body and a = acceleration of the body.
If acceleration a = 0, then F = 0 (mass of the body can never be zero) It means that in the
absence of external force the body either moves with constant velocity or comes to rest.
By Newton’s second law F ma = , here if m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s2, then F = 1 N. Thus, 1
N is the force required to produce an acceleration of 1 m/s in a body of mass 1 kg.

Some Common Phenomena based on

Newton’s Second Law of Motion
■
During the game of table tennis if the ball hits a player, it does not hurt him. On the other
hand, when a fast moving cricket ball hits a spectator, it may hurt him because the
speed of cricket ball is higher due to which its acceleration is also higher.
FORCEANDLAWSOFMOTION
31
■
In a high jump athletic event, the athletes are made to fall either on a cushioned bed or
on a sand bed. This is to increase the time of the athlete’s fall to stop after making the
jump. This decreases the rate of change of momentum and hence the force.
■
A cricket player moves his hand backwards on catching a fast cricket ball, because the
cricket player increases the time during which the high velocity of moving ball
decreases to zero. Thus, the acceleration of the ball is decreased and therefore, the
impact of catching the fast moving ball is also reduced. If the ball is stopped suddenly
then its high velocity decreases to zero in a very short interval of time. Thus, the rate of
change of momentum of the ball will be large. Therefore, a large force would have to be
applied for holding the catch that may hurt the palm of the player.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts on two different
bodies. So, this law is also known as law of action and reaction.

Some Common Phenomena based on Newton’s Third Law of

Motion While walking a person presses the ground in the backward direction (action)
■

by his feet, the ground pushes the person in forward direction (reaction), with equal force
making the person to walk.
■
A swimmer pushes the water backwards (action) with a force. The water pushes the
swimmer forward (reaction) with the same force. Hence, the swimmer swims. ■ It is
difficult to walk on sand, because on pushing, sand gets displaced and reaction from sandy
ground is small.

Impulse
If a large force is acting on a body for a very short time, then the product of this large
force and time is known as impulse and large force itself is called impulsive force.
Impulse = Change in momentum = Force ⋅ Time
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.

Some Common Phenomena based on Impulse

■
Chinawares are wrapped in paper or straw pieces while packing. In the event of fall,
impact will take a longer time to reach the glass/chinawares through paper or straw.
Due to which the force on the chinawares is small and chances of their breaking reduce.
■
Bogies of a train are provided with the buffers, due to which they avoid severe jerks
during shunting of the train. The presence of buffer increases the time of impact, so
force during jerks decreases, hence the chances of damage decrease.
■
An athlete is advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast race, so that time to
stop increases and hence force experienced by him decreases.

Reference Frame
In study of various physical activities the position of a system or body is made to be
fixed and distances of other bodies are measured called reference frame.

Inertial and Non-inertial Frame of Reference

■
A frame of reference is know as an inertial frame if all acceleration of any particle in
it are caused by real forces. On the other hand, a frame of reference is called a
non-inertial frame, if the accelerations are caused by fictitious forces or pseudo
forces.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
32
■
In inertial frame of reference Newton’s law of motion holds good, while Newton’s
law of motion are not applicable in non-inertial frame of reference.

Apparent Weight of a Person in a Lift

Suppose a person of mass m is in a lift, then the actual weight of the person is mg,
which acts on the lift floor in downward direction, due to which the floor offers the
reaction (R). This reaction is called apparent weight of the person. Relation between
R and mg in different situation is discussed below in different cases
Case I When the lift is at rest
When the left or elevator is at rest then the apparent weight of the person
is equal to the actual weight of the person.
Case II When the lift is moving uniformly in upward/downward direction
In uniform motion, the apparent weight of the person is equal to the actual
weight of the person.
Case III When the lift is accelerating upwards
If lift is accelerating upwards, then the apparent weight of the person is
more than the actual weight of the person.
Case IV When the lift is accelerating downwards
If the lift is accelerating downwards, then the apparent weight of the
person is less than the actual weight of the person.
Case V When the lift is falling freely
If chord of the lift breaks then it is said to be falling freely. In this case, the
apparent weight of the person becomes zero i.e., the person feels the
condition of weightlessness.

Friction
When a body slides or rolls over another body or on a surface, then a force opposing the
motion acts between those surfaces of the body which are in contact, this force is called
force of friction. Actually, whenever the surface of a body slides over the surface of another
body, each body exerts a frictional force on the other which is parallel to the surface in
contact.
Types of Friction
There are three types of friction which are discussed below

1. Static Friction
The force of friction that comes into play between two surfaces in contact before the actual
motion starts, is called static friction. Static friction is a self adjusting force which increases as
the applied force is increased.
∴ Static friction ( )f R s s = ∝
where, ∝s = coefficient of static friction and R = normal reaction.
If angle of friction is θ, then coefficient of static friction ∝ θ s = tan .
2. Limiting Friction
The maximum force of static friction which comes into play before a body just begins to slide
over the surface of another body, is called limiting friction.
∴ Limiting friction ( )f R l l = ∝
where, ∝l = coefficient of limiting friction and R = normal reaction.
Limiting friction does not depend on area of contact surface but depends on their nature, i.e.,
smoothness or roughness.
FORCEANDLAWSOFMOTION
33
3. Kinetic Friction
When a body moves over the other body, then the force of friction acting between two
surfaces in contact in relative motion is called kinetic friction ( )fk.
 Kinetic friction, f R k k = ∝
where, ∝k = coefficient of kinetic friction and R = normal reaction.
The kinetic friction does not depend on the magnitude of relative speed but for very
high speed it drops to zero.
Kinetic friction is of two types
(i) Rolling Friction When one body rolls over the other body, then the frictional force
acting between the two is called rolling friction. Rolling friction is negligible in
comparison to the static or kinetic friction which may be present simultaneously.
(ii) Sliding Friction When a body slides over the other body, the frictional force between
the two is called sliding friction. Sliding friction is always more than rolling friction.

Friction is a Necessary Evil

Friction is called necessary evil. It is a necessity, because we cannot do without it and at the
same time, it is evil because it involves unnecessary wastage of energy.
Friction is a Necessity
(i) Walking will not be possible without friction. If there is no friction, then our foot
pressing the ground for walking will slip.
(ii) No two bodies will stick each other if there is no friction.
(iii) Brakes of the vehicles will not work without friction.
(iv) Nuts and bolts for holding the parts of machinery together will not work without
friction. (v) Writing on black board or on paper will also not be possible without friction.

Friction is an Evil
(i) Friction causes wear and tear of the friction are
parts of the machinery in contact,
thus their life time reduces.
Everyday Science
(ii) Frictional forces result in the When the forces causing the rocks to slide
a
production of heat, which causes exceed the force of friction, the rock will tend
damage to the machinery. to move with the consequent release of
tremendous amounts of energy causing the
Methods of Reducing earthquake.

Friction Some of the ways of reducing

(i) By Polishing the surfaces can be made smoother, therefore friction reduces. (ii)
Lubricants like oil, grease etc., fill up the irregularities of the surfaces, making them
smoother. Hence, friction decreases.
bearings
(iii) Ball Bearing To reduce the respect to the other, the balls Fixed part
wear and tear and energy loss roll on between two parts. No
against friction, small steel kinetic friction is involved and
balls are kept between the rolling friction being very Rotating
rotating part of machines small, causes much less energy part
which are known as ball loss.
bearings. In a ball bearing
Ball Bearing
system, one part moves with Ball

34 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E

Centripetal Force
A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a force directed along the radius
towards the centre of the circle. This force is called the centripetal force.
Q Centripetal force = Mass ⋅ Centripetal acceleration
2
mv ⇒ F mr
F r=
= ω2

where, v = linear velocity of the body on circular track.

Some Phenomena based on Centripetal Force

(i) Circular Motion in Nature The earth moves round the sun under a centripetal
 force directed towards the sun. This force is provided by gravitational attraction on
the earth by the sun. Similarly the moon moves around the earth under the
centripetal force provided by the gravitational attraction exerted on the moon by
the earth.
(ii) Circular Motion in Atom In an atom, electrons continue to revolve around the
nucleus in circular orbits. The centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force
of attraction between the negatively-charged electron and positively-charged
nucleus.

Centrifugal Force
It is a force that arises when a body is moving actually along a circular path, by virtue of
tendency of the body to regain its natural straight line path. It is regarded as reaction of
centripetal force. It acts along the radius and away from the centre of the circle.

Everyday Science
When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires some centripetal force. So, to provide the
a
necessary centripetal force, outer edge of the curved road is raised above the inner edge. By
doing so, a component of normal reaction of the road provides the centripetal force. This
phenomenon of raising other edge of curved road is called banking of roads.
Centrifuge A device by means of which light particles and heavy particles are separated to each
a
other.
Cream Separator It is a device working on the principle of centrifugal force. It is a vessel
a
containing milk. On rotating fast, the lighter particles of cream collect in a cylindrical layer around
the axis and the skimmed milk is drained through an outlet fitted on the wall of the vessel. The
particles, whose density is less than those of the liquid are driven towards the axis of rotation and
those whose density is greater than that of the liquid are driven away from the axis.
Washing Machine Drier In washing machine or in laundries, wet clothes are dried by packing
a them
in a cylindrical vessel with perforated walls which are rotated with a very high speed. Due to
centrifugal force, the water particles move through the walls of the vessel and escape through the
holes.

ASSESSMENT
35 Assessment
(a) Velocity (b) Acceleration (c) Mass
1. The displacement-time (s-t) graph of a (d) Weight
particle acted upon by a constant 5. The tendency of undisturbed objects
force is (a) a straight line [NDA 2015] (b) to stay at rest or to keep moving with
a circle the same velocity is called [RRB 2018]
(c) a parabola (a) velocity (b) force
(d) any curve depending upon (c) momentum (d) inertia
initial conditions 6. Which one of the following has
2. Which one of the following is not a maximum inertia? [NDA 2018] (a) An atom
contact force? [NDA 2016] (a) Push (b) A molecule (c) A one rupee coin (d) A
force (b) Gravitational force (c) Frictional cricket ball
force (d) Strain force 7. The inertia of an object tends to
3. The known forces of nature can be cause the object
divided into four classes, viz, gravity, (a) to increase its speed
electromagnetism, weak nuclear (b) to decrease its speed
force and strong nuclear force. With (c) to resist any change in its state of
reference to them, which one of the motion (d) to decelerate due to friction
following statements is not correct? 8. When a running car stops suddenly,
[UPSC 2013] (a) Gravity is the strongest the passengers tend to lean forward
of the four because of [SSC (10+2) 2012] (a)
(b) Electromagnetism acts only on centrifugal force (b) inertia of rest
particles with an electric charge (c) inertia of motion (d) gravitational force
(c) Weak nuclear force causes 9. An athlete runs before long jump to
radioactivity get advantage on
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons (a) inertia of motion
and neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom (b) frictional force
4. Which of the following quantity is a (c) moment of a force
measure of inertia? (d) principle of moments
[SSC 2017, Delhi Police SI 2017] 10. A passenger falls in the direction
 when a moving bus applies brakes to (d) keep it moving with uniform velocity 14.
stop and falls backwards when it A batsman hits a cricket ball which than
accelerates from rest. This is rools on a level ground. After covering a
because of [RRB Group-D 2018] (a) short distance, the ball cames to rest. The
force (b) displacement ball slews to a stop because
(c) inertia (d) momentum 11. Newton’s [MPPCS 2017]
first law is also known as …… . [SSC (a) the batsman did not hit the ball
CHSL 2017, Chhattisgarh PCS 2019] (a) law hard enough
of friction (b) law of momentum (c) law of (b) velocity is proportional to the
force exerted on the ball
inertia (d) law of motion 12. Newton’s laws
(c) There is a force on the ball
of motion do no hold good for objects opposing the motion
(a) at rest (d) There is no unbalanced force on
(b) moving slowly the ball, so the ball would try to come
(c) moving with high velocity to
(d) moving with velocity comparable rest
to velocity of light
15. Linear momentum is equal to [RRB
13. A particle is moving with constant 2018] (a) mass × velocity
speed along a straight line path. A (b) speed × weight
force is not required to (c) force × height
(a) increase its speed (d) mass × volume
(b) decrease the momentum
(c) change the direction

36 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
(c) any direction with unequal speed (d)
16. When a ball bounces off the ground, opposite direction with unequal speed 21. A
which of the following changes metal ball and a rubber ball of the same
suddenly? mass are dropped from the same height.
(Assume no loss of energy to the After hitting the floor, the rubber ball
floor) (a) Its speed [NDA 2019] (b) Its rises higher than the metal ball, why?
momentum (a) Momentum is not conserved
(c) Its kinetic energy when the metallic ball hits the floor
(d) Its potential energy (b) The rubber ball hits the floor
17. A body of mass 8 kg is moving with a with greater velocity
(c) Momentum is not conserved
velocity of 4 m/s. Find its momentum.
when rubber ball hits the floor
[SSC (10+2) 2018]
(d) None of the above
(a) 2 (b) 64 22. A shell of mass 0.04 kg is fired by a
(c) 32 (d) 4 gun of mass 120 kg. If the muzzle
18. Two bodies A and B are moving with speed of the shell is 90 m/s. What is
equal velocities. The mass of B is the recoil speed of the gun?
doubled that of A. In this context, (a) 3 102
which one of the following ⋅ m/s (b) − ⋅ −
statements is correct? 3 10 2 m/s
[NDA 2016] 3
(c) 0.3 m/s (d) 3 10
(a) Momentum of B will be double
⋅− m/s
that of A.
(b) Momentum of A will be double 23. The product of mass of a body and the
that of B. acceleration produced it equals the
(c) Momentum of B will be four ……… acting on it. [SSC (10+2) 2018]
times that of A. (a) force
(d) Momentum of both A and B will (b) impulse
be equal. (c) torque
19. On which one of the following (d) kinetic energy
conservation laws, does a rocket 24. Definition of force can be stated from
work? (a) Mass [CDS 2008] (b) Energy [RRB ALP
(c) Linear momentum 2018]
(d) Angular momentum (a) Newton’s First Law of Motion
20. A body lying at rest suddenly (b) Newton’s Second law of Motion
breaks into two parts of equal (c) Newton’s Third Law of Motion
masses which start moving. The (d) Newton’s Law of Gravitation
two parts will 25. Acceleration is [SSC (10+2) 2017] (a)
move in inversely proportional to force
(a) opposite direction with equal (b) inversely proportional to mass
speed (b) same direction with equal (c) directly proportional to mass
speed (d) directly proportional to force
 2
26. When an object is stationary, then the 1 m/s
force is still acting on it is [RRB 2018] (c) speed of 1 m/s
(a) acceleration (b) momentum (d) acceleration of 1 km/s 2
(c) impulse (d) weight 29. The rate of change of momentum of a
27. In SI unit of force ‘newton’ (N) is given body is equal to the resultant [CDS
by (where, ‘kg’ stands for ‘kilogram’, 2016] (a) energy (b) power
(c) force (d) impulse
‘m’ stands for ‘metre’ and ‘s’ stands
for ‘second’) [NDA 2018] (a) 1 N = 2 30. According to the second law of motion,
kg-ms−2(b) 1 N = 1 kg-ms−2 for a given force, acceleration is inversely
(c) 1 N = 4 kg-ms−2(d) 1 N = 3 kg-ms−2 28. proportional to the …… of an object. [SSC
CGL 2017]
When a force of 1 N acts on a mass of 1
(a) density (b) volume
kg, which is able to move freely, the object (c) force (d) mass
moves in the direction of force with a/an (a)
speed of 1 km/s [NDA 2016] (b) acceleration of
ASSESSMENT
37
2017] (a) the resultant would be zero
31. Two persons are holding a rope of (b) the body would not move at all
negligible mass horizontally. A 20 kg (c) body will start moving
mass is attached to the rope at the (d) Both (a) and (b)
mid point, as a result, the rope 38. Why does a cannon recoil after firing?
deviates from the horizontal direction. [SSC CGL
The tension required to completely 2016]
(a) Conservation of energy
straighten the rope is (g = 10 m/s2)
(b) Backward thrust of gases
[CDS 2018] (a) 200 N (b) 20 N produced (c) Newton’s third law of
(c) 10 N (d) infinitely large 32. When a force motion
of 100 N is applied on a body of mass 50 (d) Newton’s first law of motion
kg, then acceleration produced in the 39. Rocket works on the principle of (a)
Newton’s third law [IAS 2018] (b)
body is [RRB Group-D 2018] (a) 2 m/s2(b) 0.2
2
Newton’s first law
m/s (c) Newton’s second law
(c) 0.2 m/s (d) 2 m/s (d) Archimedes principle
33. A body of mass 4 kg accelerates from 40. If is difficult to fix a nail on a freely
15 m/s to 25 m/s in 5 seconds due to suspended wooden frame. Which law
the application of a force on it. supports this statement? [SSC CGL
Calculate the magnitude of this force. 2017] (a) Law of inertia
[SSC CHSL 2018] (b) Newton’s second law
(a) 32 (b) 8 (c) 16 (d) 64 34. The second law (c) Newton’s third law
of motion states [RRB 2018] (d) Pascal’s law
(a) every object will move in a uniform 41. A person is standing on a frictionless
motion when a net force is applied. (b) horizontal ground. How can he move
the rate of change of momentum of an by a certain distance on this ground
object is proportional to the net force [CDS 2017]
applied on the object in the (a) By sneezing (b) By jumping (c)
direction of net force. By junning (d) By rolling
(c) every object will remain at rest or in
42. The movement of a horse lawn
a state of uniform motion unless
carriage is an example of which
compelled to change its state by the
action of a net force. principle of physics. (a) Newton’s Third
law [SSC 2018] (b) Ohm’s Law
(d) the rate of change of speed of a body will
(c) Archimedes Principle
change with the net force applied. 35. ‘For
(d) Avogadro’s Law
every action, there is an equal and
43. In cricket match, while catching a fast
opposite reaction’. The law was given by
moving ball, a fielder in the ground
[UPRO/ARO 2017]
gradually pulls his hands backwards
(a) Newton (b) Albert Einstein (c) Bohr
(d) Oersted
with the moving ball to reduce the
velocity to zero. The act represents
36. Action and reaction ……… [CDS 2014] (a) Newton’s first law of
[SSC CAPFs ASI and Delhi Police SI motion
2017] (a) always act on same body (b) Newton’s second law of motion
(b) are equal in magnitude (c) Newton’s third law of motion
(c) are in same direction (d) Law of conservation of energy
(d) always act independently
44. A bullet of mass 10 g is fired with a
37. If action and reaction were to act on velocity of 20 m/s from a gun of mass
the same body [SSC Multitasking Staff 2 kg. Find the recoil velocity (in m/s)
 of the gun. [SSC (10+2) 2018] (a) 1 (b) (b) Newton’s second law of motion
0.2 (c) 0.1 (d) 2 (c) Both Newton’s second law of
motion and Newton’s third law of
45. Conservation of momentum in a
motion
collision between particles can be
(d) conservation of energy
understood on the basis of [NDA
2015] (a) Newton’s first law of motion

38 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
(a) central force
46. A man is at rest in the middle of a (b) centrifugal force
horizontal plane of perfectly smooth (c) inertia
ice. He can move himself to the (d) friction
shore by making use of Newton’s 54. We slip on a muddy road due to [SSC
[NDA 2011] (a) first law (b) second law Multitasking 2013]
(c) third law (d) All of these 47. A person (a) gravitational forces
throws an object on a horizontal (b) relative velocity
frictionless plane surface. it is noticed (c) lack of friction
that, there are two forces acting on this (d) excess of friction
object (i) gravitational pull and (ii) normal 55. Angle of friction and angle of repose
reaction of the surface. According to the are [SSC Multitasking
third law of motion, the net resultant force 2010]
is zero. Which one of the following can be (a) equal to each other
said for the motion of the objects? [CDS (b) not equal to each other
2017] (a) The object will move with (c) proportional to each other
acceleration. (b) The object will move with (d) None of the above
deceleration.
56. Consider a vehicle going on a
(c) The object will move with
horizontal road towards east. Neglect
constant speed but varying direction.
any force by the air. The frictional
(d) the object will move with
constant velocity. force on the vehicle by the road
(a) is zero if the vehicle is moving with
48. The impulse on a particle due to a a non-uniform velocity
force acting on it during a given time (b) is towards east if the vehicle is
interval is equal to the change in its accelerating
[NDA 2016] (a) force (b) momentum (c) must be towards east
(c) work done (d) energy (d) must be towards west
49. A goalkeeper in a game of football 57. A person is sitting in a car which is at
pulls his hands backwards after rest. The reaction from the road at
holding the ball shot at the goal. This each of the four wheels of the car is
enables the goalkeeper to R. When the car runs on a straight
(a) exert larger force on the ball level road, how will the reaction at
(b) reduce the force exerted by the ball either of the front wheels vary?
on hands (a) It will be greater than R
(c) increase the rate of change of (b) It will be less than R
momentum (c) It will be equal to R
(d) decrease the rate of change of (d) It shall depend on the materials of
momentum
the road
50. The quantity ‘weight’ is measured by
[SSC Multitasking Direction (Q. No. 58 to 60) In each of the
2013] following questions, a statement of
(a) beam balance (b) common balance (c) Assertion is given followed by a
spring balance (d) balance wheel 51. A man corresponding statement of Reason just
weighing 70 kg is coming down in lift. If below it. Of the statements, mark the
the cable of the lift breaks sudden, the correct answer as
weight of the man would become (a) 70 kg Codes
(b) 35 kg (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true
(c) 140 kg (d) zero and Reason is the correct explanation of
52. Rough surfaces have [SSC 2017] (a) the Assertion.
high friction (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but
(b) very low friction Reason is not the correct explanation of
(c) no friction the Assertion.
(d) None of these (c) If Assertion is true but Reason is
53. On applying brakes, the car stops, false. (d) If Assertion is false but Reason
due to ……… . is true.
ASSESSMENT
39
 is (a) to increase friction [SSC CGL 2011]
58. Assertion (A) On a rainy day, it is (b) to convert kinetic friction into rolling
difficult to drive a car or bus at high friction
speed. (c) to convert static friction into
kinetic friction
Reason (R) The value of coefficient
(d) just for convenience
of friction is lowered due to wetting of
the surface. 63. Ball bearing are used in bicycles, cars,
etc because [UPSC (Pre) 2013] (a) the
59. Assertion (A) When a bicycle is in actural area of contact between the wheel
motion, the force of friction exerted by and axle is increased
the ground on the two wheels is (b) the effective area of contact
always in forward direction. between the wheel and axle is
Reason (R) The frictional force acts increased
only when the bodies are in contact. (c) the effective area of contact
between the wheel and axle is reduced
60. Assertion (A) Pulling a lawn roller is (d) None of the above
easier than pushing it.
64. Railway tracks are banked on curves
Reason (R) Pushing increases the so that [SSC Stenographer 2011] (a)
apparent weight and hence the force of necessary centrifugal force may be
friction. [CDS 2012] 61. Match the following obtained from the vertical
lists. component of the weight of the train
(b) no frictional force may be produced
List I List II between the tracks and the wheels
A. Static friction 1. is slightly less than of the train
limiting friction. (c) necessary centripetal force may
B. Dynamic friction 2. is maximum value of be obtained from the horizontal
static friction. component of the weight of the
C. Limiting friction 3. is equal to tangent of train (d) the train may not fall down
angle of repose. inwards
62. The function of ball bearing in a wheel
D. Coefficient of friction 4. is self-adjusting. separator because of [SSC
65. Fat can be separated CHSL 2013] (a) cohesive force
Codes
from milk in a cream
A B C D A B C D (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 (b) gravitational force (c) centripetal
3 (c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 4 1 3 2 force (d) centrifugal force

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31.
(a) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (c)
46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (b) 49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (a ) 59. (b) 60.
(a) 61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (c) 65. (d)

4
Work, and
Power
Energy
Work
When a body is displaced by applying a force on it, then work is said to be done. e.g., a
girl pulls a trolley and the trolley moves through a distance. In this way, she has exerted
a force on the trolley and it is displaced. Hence, work is done. If a body is displaced by a
distance (s) on applying a force ( )F on it, then the work done W F s = ⋅
Thus, work can be defined as ‘work done by a force on an object is equal to the
magnitude of the force multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of force.’ The
SI unit of work is newton-metre (N-m) or joule ( J) and its CGS unit is erg. It is a scalar
quantity, it has only magnitude and no direction.
If F = 1 N and s = 1 m, then work done by the force will be 1 J.
1 joule = 107erg

Work Done by a Force Acting at an Angle

When force F acts on an object in such a direction that it
makes an angle θ with the direction of There are three types of work
displacement s, then work done by the
force, 1. Positive Work
W Fs = cosθ Force

θ
Value of work will be maximum at θ = ° 0
and minimum at θ = ° 90 , Displacement

Types of Work

When the force and displacement are in the same direction, then work done will be
positive (i.e., work is done by force).
e.g., a boy pulls an object towards himself.
WORK,POWERANDENERGY
41
2. Negative Work
When the force and displacement are in opposite directions, then work done will be
negative (i.e., work is done against force).
e.g., a body is made to slide over a rough horizontal surface, then frictional force acts in
the direction opposite to the direction of displacement, so work done by friction will be
negative.

3. Zero Work
When the force and displacement are in perpendicular direction, then work done is
zero. e.g.,
■
If a coolie is moving forward carrying load on his head, in this case force is acting
vertically downward (weight of load) and displacement is along horizontal direction, so
work done is zero.
■
If a body is moving on circle, then after completing one circle work done is zero, because
of zero displacement.

Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces

Conservative Forces
A force is said to be conservative, if the work done by the force (or against the force) in
moving a body depends only upon the initial and final position of the body and is
independent of the path followed between the initial and final positions. e.g.
Electrostatic force, gravitational force, elastic force, magnetic force etc and all the
central forces are conservative in nature.

Non-Conservative Forces
A force is said to be non-conservative, if the work done by the force (or against the
force) in moving a body from are positions to another, depends upon the path followed
between the two positions.
e.g. Frictional force, viscous force, air drag etc.

Power
The time rate of work done by a body is called its power.
W
Time⇒ P t
Q Power =Work =

It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is J/s or watt

(W). Some Other Units of Power

1 kilowatt = 103 watt; 1 mega watt = 106 watt; 1 horse power = 746
watt 1 kilowatt hour = ⋅ 3 6 106
. joule = 3 6. mega joule
The power of machine is measured in horse power (HP).
Average Power Consumption in Some Common Activities
Activity Power (watt)
Heart beat 1.2
Sleeping 75
Slow walking 200
Bicycling 500

42 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E

Energy
Energy is measured as the capacity to do a work. It is a scalar quantity having SI unit
same as the work i.e., joule ( J ) and CGS unit is erg. A larger unit of energy is kilojoule. 1
kilojoule (kJ) = 10 J 3

Some Practical Units of Energy

Unit Symbol Equivalence (joule)
Erg erg 10−7
Calorie cal 4.2
Kilowatt hour kWh 3.6 ⋅106
Electron volt eV 1.6 ⋅−
10 19

An object having energy can exert a force (and hence do a work) on another object.
When it happens, energy is transferred from former object to latter object.
■
The energy and power do not mean the same, these are different. Energy
refers to the total amount of work done while power determines the rate of
doing work.

Different Forms of Energy

Energy can manifest itself in several forms. Some examples are
(i) Heat Energy The energy possessed by a body due to its temperature, is called heat
energy.
(ii) Internal Energy The total energy possessed by a body by virtue of particular
configuration of its molecules and also their random motion, is called internal energy.
(iii) Electrical Energy The energy required to maintain the flow of current in an electric
 appliance, is called electrical energy.
(iv) Chemical Energy The energy absorbed or released during a chemical reaction, is
called chemical energy.
(v) Nuclear Energy The energy absorbed or released during a nuclear reaction (nuclear
fission or nuclear fusion), is called nuclear energy.

Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion, is called its kinetic energy and is
given by
1 p
mv m
22
KE = =
22
where, v = velocity of a body at any time, m = mass of the body
and p = linear momentum.
Thus, kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.
e.g.,
When a fast moving cricket ball hits a stationary wicket, the wicket is thrown away. ■
■

When a raised hammer falls on a nail placed on a piece of wood, it drives the nail into the
wood.

Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to change in its position or shape, is called
potential energy.
WORK,POWERANDENERGY
43
e.g.,
■
Water stored in dam has potential energy due to its position at the height. ■ A
stone lying on the roof of the building has potential energy due to its height. ■ A
wound spring of a watch has potential energy due to its shape.
The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of an object, is known as mechanical
energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy

When an object is raised through a certain height above the ground, its energy
increases. This is because work is done on it against gravity while it is being raised. The
energy present in such an object is the gravitational potential energy.
The gravitational potential energy of an object at a point above the ground is defined as
the work done in raising it from the ground to that point against the gravity.
∴ Gravitational potential energy, U mgh =
where, g = acceleration due to gravity,
h = height above the surface and m = mass of the body.

Work-Energy Theorem
According to this theorem, work done by all the forces acting on a body is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the body.
Work done = Change in kinetic energy

Everyday Science
A spark is produced when two stones are struck against each other as the work done in
a
striking the two stones against each other gets converted into heat which appears as
spark.
When a knife is rubbed against grinding stone, the mechanical energy changes into
a
heat.

Law of Conservation of Energy

According to the law of conservation, energy can only be transformed from one form to
another; it can neither be created nor be destroyed. e.g., when an object is dropped from
the height, its potential energy continuously converts into kinetic energy. When an
object is thrown upwards, its kinetic energy continuously converts into potential
energy. The total energy before and after transformation always remains constant.
1 t
2
constan
i.e., PE KE + = constant or mgh m v + =
2

Transformation of Energy
The conversion of energy from one form to other, is known as transformation of
energy. The phenomenon of transformation of energy from useful form to useless form,
is known as dissipation of energy.
e.g.,
■
Green plants prepare their own food (stored in the form of chemical energy) using solar
energy through the process of photosynthesis.
44 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
■
When we throw a ball, the muscular energy which is stored in our body, gets converted
into kinetic energy of the ball.
■
When an athlete runs, the body’s internal energy is converted into kinetic energy. ■ In a
stretched bow, potential energy is stored. As it is released, the potential energy of the
stretched bow gets converted into the kinetic energy of arrow which moves in the
forward direction with large velocity.

Some Energy Transformations

S.No. Instruments Transformations
1. Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy. 2. Electric generator Mechanical
energy into electrical energy. 3. Steam engine Heat energy into kinetic energy. 4. Electric
bulb Electrical energy into light energy. 5. Dry cell Chemical energy into electrical energy. 6.
Solar cell Light energy into electrical energy. 7. Micro phone Electrical energy into
mechanical energy. 8. Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy. 9. Loudspeaker
Electrical energy into sound energy.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence

According to Einstein, neither mass nor energy of the universe is conserved but they
are interconvertible. The conversion is expressed by the equation E mc =2 where, c = ⋅ 3
108 m/s, the speed of light.

Collision
Collision between two bodies (or particles) is said to occur when they either physically
strike against each other or if the path of motion of one is influenced by the other.
There are two types of collision
(i) elastic collision
(ii) inelastic collision

Elastic Collision
If the forces of interaction between the colliding bodies are conservative, the
momentum as well as the kinetic energy remains conserved in the collision and the
collision is said to be elastic.
Collision between atomic, nuclear and fundamental particles are usually elastic.

Inelastic Collision
When the kinetic energy is changed in the collision (the momentum and the total
energy are still conserved), the collision is said to be inelastic.
Collision between gross bodies are always inelastic to some extent. When two bodies
stick together after collision, the collision is said to be completely inelastic.
WORK,POWERANDENERGY
45

Sources of Energy
Any system which is capable of providing useful energy in a convenient form at a
steady rate over a long period of time, is called source of energy.

Classification of Sources of Energy

Different sources of energy can be classified as

1. Renewable Sources of Energy

These are the sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature.
These are inexhaustible. e.g., solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, bio fuels (wood,
bio-gas and alcohol), hydrogen energy from ocean (tidal energy, sea waves energy,
ocean thermal energy).
Advantages of renewable sources of energy are
(i) These sources will last as long as the earth receives light from the sun.
(ii) These sources are freely available in nature.
(iii) These sources do not cause any pollution.

2. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy

These are the sources of energy which have accumulated in nature over a long time and
can not be quickly replaced. These sources of energy will be exhausted one day. e.g.,
fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, fissionable materials. These are also
called conventional sources of energy.
Disadvantages of non-renewable sources of energy are
(i) Due to their extensive use, these sources are depleting fastly.
(ii) It is difficult to discover and exploit new deposits of these sources.
(iii) These sources are the major cause of environmental pollution.

Fuel
It is a source of energy used for different household and commercial purposes.
e.g., coal, LPG, bio-gas, CNG, etc.
Features of an ideal or a good fuel are place to another.
(i) It should have a high calorific or heat Everyday Science
value so that it can produce maximum
The amount of heat
energy by low fuel consumption. a produced by unit mass or
(ii) It should have a proper ignition unit volume of a
temperature so that it can burn easily. fuel is called its
calorific value.
(iii) It should not produce harmful gases
during combustion. The temperature at
a which a fuel starts
(iv) It should be cheap in cost and easily producing energy is called ignition
available in plenty for everyone. temperature of fuel.
(v) It should be easy to handle and
convenient to store and transport from one

(vi) It should not be valuable to any other purpose than as a fuel. (vii) It should burn
smoothly and should not leave much residue after its combustion.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
46

Conventional Sources of Energy

Fossil Fuels
The remains of prehistoric plants and animals which got buried deep inside the earth
millions of years ago and changed into fuel due to excess of heat and high pressure
inside the earth, are called fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of fossil fuels are
(i) The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy and once used can not be
 renewed. (ii) Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution.
(iii) The fossil fuel reserves in the earth are limited and may get exhausted soon. (iv) Burning
fossil fuels release acidic oxides which lead to acid rain which affects our water and soil
resources.
(v) Greenhouse gases like CO2(carbon dioxide) are released on burning fossil fuels.
(vi) Fossil fuels are not burnt completely. They leave ashes after burning.

Thermal Power Plants

In thermal power plants, fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is converted into
electrical energy. Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt every day in power stations to
heat up water to produce steam which further runs the turbine to generate electricity.
The transmission of electricity is more efficient than transporting coal or petroleum
over the same distance. Therefore, many thermal power plants are set-up near coal or
oil fields.

Hydro Power Plants

The power plants which convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity,
are called hydro power plants. Since there are very few water-falls which could be used
as a source of potential energy, hydro power plants are associated with dams. Electricity
produced by hydro power plants, is called hydro electricity.

Principle of Generating Hydro Electricity

To produce hydro electricity, or dam
high-rise dams are kinetic energy of flowing
constructed on water gets converted into
potential energy. The water
Water
turbine from the high
D water
P TC
the river to obstruct the
Flowing
flow of water and thereby
collect water in larger
S
reservoirs.
Electric supply
Due to rise in water level, Shaft
the G
Water reservoir

level is carried through the pipe to Water turbine rotatesElectric

generator
turbine located near the bottom of
the dam, which is connected to the A Schematic View of Hydro Power Plant

electric generator. When the water turbine rotates, the armature of the generator also
rotates rapidly and produces electricity.
Advantages of hydro electricity are
(i) It does not cause any environmental pollution.
(ii) The moving water needed for the purpose is available free of cost. (iii) Water is a
renewable source of energy which will never get exhausted. Each time when it rains,
reservoir of dams gets refilled.
(iv) The construction of dams on rivers helps in controlling flood and also in irrigation.
WORK,POWERANDENERGY
47
Disadvantages of hydroelectricity are
(i) Construction of dams may lead to ecological damage.
(ii) A large variety of plants, animals and their habitat gets submerged in water. (iii) It
decreases the fertility of the soil in the downstream area and affects crops. (iv) Dams can
be constructed only in limited number of places preferably in hilly terrains.
(v) The vegetation that gets submerged rots under anaerobic conditions and gives rise to
large amounts of methane (CH ) 4 which is greenhouse gas.
(vi) It creates the problem of rehabilitation of displaced people.
Due to such disadvantages construction of dams are opposed. e.g., Tehri Dam Project (on
the river Ganga) and Sardar Sarovar Dam (on the river Narmada).

Improvements in the Technology for

Using Conventional Sources of Energy
 Bio-mass
The waste material of living things (cattle dung) and dead parts of plants and animals, is
called bio-mass.
e.g., wood, crop residue, bagasse (residue of sugarcane after extracting juice), cow-dung
cakes are used as fuels for domestic as well as industrial uses. Bio-mass is also utilised to
generate electricity. The energy obtained from bio-mass is called bio-energy.
Bio
-gas
Bio-gas is a mixture of methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. It is
produced by the decomposition of animal waste like animal dung or plant waste in the
absence of air. Such degradation of organic matter in absence of air, is called anaerobic
degradation. Since, the starting material is mainly cow-dung, it is popularly known as
gobar-gas.
Bio-gas Plant
Set-up which is used to produce bio-gas, is known as bio-gas plant. The plant has a
dome-like structure built with bricks.
These are two types of bio-gas plants being used in our country to produce
bio-gas (i) Floating gas holder type bio-gas plant (ii) Fixed dome type bio-gas
plant

Mixing Tank
In the slurry, the mixture of animal dung and
water is prepared.

Inlet Chamber
It connects the mixing tank and the digester tank. It is having a slope to ensure smooth flow of slurry into the digester.
Outlet Chamber or Over Flow Tank
It is an outlet to take out the left over slurry. This slurry is used as a manure as it is rich in nitrogenous compounds.

Gas control valve Gas stove Bio-Gas Plant (fixed dome type)

Gas Tank
Bio-gas is stored in the gas tank just above the digester tank from which it is drawn out through pipes for use.

Digester Tank
It is a sealed chamber in
which there is no oxygen. Here, the anaerobic bacteria, in the presence of water
decompose or breakdown complex compounds of the cow-dung slurry and generate bio-gas (mixture of methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide). This
process takes few days to complete.

48 E n c y c l o p e d i a O F G E N E R A L S C I E N C E
Advantages of bio-gas are
(i) It burns without smoke, therefore causes less pollution.
(ii) Its calorific value is high.
(iii) It is convenient to use and leave no residue (called a clean fuel).
(iv) The slurry left behind in the digester is a good manure.
(v) The large scale utilisation of bio-waste and sewage material provides a safe and
efficient method of waste disposal besides supplying energy and manure. Uses of
bio-gas are
(i) It is used as domestic fuel for cooking as well as in industries.
(ii) It is used to run engines and pumping sets.
(iii) It is used for generating electricity.

Wind Energy
Moving air is called wind. As the moving objects possess kinetic energy, they are
capable of doing mechanical work by virtue of its motion. The energy possessed by the
wind is due to its high speed.
The kinetic energy of wind is utilised for doing works like
(i) generating electricity.
(ii) propelling sail boats in rivers and seas.
(iii) in water-lifting pump to pump out water from ground.
(iv) grinding grain to obtain flour.
(v) rotatory motion of windmill is used to lift water from a well.

Largest Wind Farms in India

Wind Farm Producer State
Muppandal Wind Farm Muppandal Wind Tamil Nadu
Jaisalmer Wind Park Suzlon Energy Rajasthan
Brahmanvel Wind Farm Parakh Agro Industries Maharashtra
Dhalgaon Wind Farm Gadre Marine Exports Maharashtra
Chakala Wind Farm Suzlon Energy Maharashtra
Vankusawade Wind Park Suzlon Energy Maharashtra

Windmill
It is a machine which works with the energy of blowing air or
wind. It is a structure similar to a large electric fan that is
erected at some height on a rigid support.

Principle of Windmill
When the blowing wind strikes across the blades of a
windmill, it exerts a force on them due to which the blades of
the windmill start rotating. This rotational motion of the
blades can be used to drive a large number of machines like
water pumps, flour mills and electric Windmill
generators.
■
Denmark is called the country of winds. More than 25% of their electricity needs
are generated through a vast network of windmills. In terms of total output,
Germany is the leader, while India is ranked fifth in harnessing wind energy for
the production of electricity.
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49
Wind Generator
Windmill used for generating electricity is called wind turbine and the complete set-up
of generating electricity by using wind energy is called wind generator. The wind
rotates the blades of a wind turbine which in turn rotates the armature or coil of a small
electric generator to produce electricity.
Wind Energy Farm
For commercial purposes, a number of windmills are erected over a large area which is
known as wind energy farm. It is estimated that nearly 45,000 MW of electrical power
can be generated, if India’s wind potential (21,264 MW, by the end of January, 2014) is
fully exploited. The largest wind energy farm in India is established near Kanyakumari
in Tamil Nadu which can generate 380 MW electricity.
Advantages of wind energy are
(i) It is an environment-friendly and efficient source of renewable energy.
(ii) It requires no recurring expenses for the production of electricity. (iii) It
do not cause pollution.
Limitations of harnessing wind energy are
(i) It can be established only at those places where wind blows for most of the part of
the year.
(ii) The minimum wind speed necessary for satisfactory working of a wind generator is
15 km/h, that is not always so.
(iii) Wind energy farm requires quite large area of land nearly 2 hectares land is needed
for 1 MW generator.
(iv) The setting up of wind energy farm is very expensive.
(v) As the blades are exposed to vagaries of nature like rain, sun, storm and cyclone,
they need high level of maintenance.
(vi) Wind energy farms disturb rainfall pattern.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Solar Energy
It is the energy obtained from the sun. It provides heat and light to all of us.
Traditional uses of solar energy are
(i) For drying clothes.
(ii) For obtaining salt from sea.
(iii) For reducing moisture content in food grains after harvesting. (iv) For
the preservation of fruits, vegetables, fish, etc by the sun drying.
Advantages of solar energy are
(i) It does not cause any pollution.
(ii) It is available in abundance in a hot country like ours.
(iii) It is available free of cost.
(iv) It can be put to practical appliances.
Limitations of solar energy are
(i) Energy reaching the surface is very much diffused, so direct utility is limited.
(ii) It is not available uniformly all the time and at all the places.
(iii) It is not available in night.
(iv) It is not available on a cloudy day.
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Solar Energy Devices

The various devices which are commonly used for harnessing sun’s energy, are called
solar energy devices.
e.g., solar heater, solar concentrators, solar cooker and solar cells.

Solar Heating Devices

A device in which solar energy is collected as heat energy, is called solar heating device.
These are designed in such a manner that they collect as much sunlight as possible.
They use following components to work in efficient manner
(i) Black Painted Surfaces Black surfaces absorb more heat as compared to white or
reflecting surfaces, so these are used in solar heating devices.
(ii) Glass Sheet Cover The transparent glass sheet kept over the open end of the
heating devices allows the infrared rays and visible rays to enter the device. But it
does not allow the infrared radiations to move out of the heating device due to
greenhouse effect and the temperature of heating device rises appreciably.
(iii) Reflector In order to further increase in efficiency of a solar heating device, a plane
 mirror as a reflector is also attached to it. It is used to increase the area over which
the solar energy is collected, so that more rays once they enter the heating device.
Spherical reflectors like concave reflector and parabolic reflector are also used
where high temperature is required.
Solar Concentrators
Some solar energy devices are designed to concentrate energy of sun from over a large
area into a small area. These types of solar heating devices are called solar
concentrators. They mostly use spherical reflectors.

Solar Power Plant

It is a type of solar concentrator which is used to generate electricity. The solar
energy reflected by the solar concentrator is first used to heat water in a boiler.
The steam, thus, produced is used to rotate the turbines of a generator.

Solar Cooker
It is a device used to cook food by utilising the energy radiated by the sun. It consists of
an insulated metal box or a wooden box which is painted black from inside, so that it
can absorb maximum solar radiations. The box has a thick glass sheet as a cover over
the box. The reflector is a plane mirror which is attached to the box.
Working
Whenever the food is more solar radiations get
required to be cooked, the trapped in the box due to
solar cooker is kept in the greenhouse effect Reflector
sun. It is so adjusted that its Sun ay
reflector receives a strong Sun r s
Inner metal
beam of light and reflect it in box
the solar cooker. The
reflected rays pass through Glass sheet
the glass sheet cover and gets Outer
wooden box
absorbed by the black Container having food to be cooked
surface in the box. More and
which increase the temperature to A Schematic Diagram of Solar Cooker
about 100°C–140°C.
WORK,POWERANDENERGY
51
Advantages of solar cooker are
(i) It saves fuel.
(ii) It does not cause air pollution.
(iii) Since, the food is cooked slowly in the solar cooker, the nutrients do not get
destroyed.
(iv) It can cook four food items at a time.
Limitations of solar cooker are
(i) It can not be used to cook food on cloudy days and during night.
(ii) It can not be used to cook chappaties and for frying.
(iii) The direction of solar cooker has to be changed from time to time to enable it to
keep facing the sun.

Greenhouse Effect
The heat radiations reflected by the earth are absorbed by certain gases like
carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, etc. These gases are called greenhouse
gases and the phenomenon is known as greenhouse effect and are responsible
for heating up of the atmosphere.
The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapours and methane.
Major suppliers of greenhouse gases are volcanic eruptions, respiration of living
organisms, burning of fossil fuels, etc.

Solar Cell
It is a device to convert solar energy into electrical energy. These cells are made from
semiconductors like silicon, gallium, germanium. Solar cells are also known as
photovoltaic cells. The efficiency of solar cells made from these materials is about
10–15%. The modern solar cells are made of selenium and have an efficiency of about
25%.
The principal advantages of solar cells are that they have no moving parts, require little
maintenance and work without the use of any focussing device. Another advantage is
that they can be set up in remote and inaccessible places easily where power
transmission is expensive.
Construction
To make a solar cell, thin layers (also called wafers) of a semiconductor having
impurities are arranged in such a manner that a potential difference develops between
the two regions of the semiconductor when light falls on it.
A typical solar cell consists of a 2 cm2piece of pure silicon and can develop 0.7 W of
electricity and a potential of 0.5–1 V when light falls on it.
Silicon is the most commonly used material to manufacture solar cells. It has the
advantage that it is environmental-friendly and is also available in abundance, but
availability of special grade silicon for making solar cells is limited. Uses of solar cells are
(i) They provide electricity in artificial satellites and space probes.
(ii) These are used for street lighting, for traffic signals, for operating water pumps,
etc. (iii) They provide electricity to light houses situated in sea.
(iv) They provide radio and TV transmission to remote areas.
(v) These are used to operate electronic watches and calculators.
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Solar Panel
When solar cells are arranged cell side by side, connecting each other in such a way that
total potential difference and the total capacity to provide electric current is much
increased, then this arrangement is called solar panel. It provides a much higher power
for many practical uses.
■
The largest solar furnace in the world is located in France.
The entire process of manufacturing solar panel is very expensive because
silver is used for interconnection of the cells in the panel.

Energy from the Sea

Tidal Energy
Due to attraction of moon on sea water, water surface rises and falls, thus the waves
are formed. These waves are called tidal waves and energy possessed by rising and
falling water tides is known as tidal energy.
The rise of sea water due to gravitational pull of the moon is called high tide whereas
the fall of sea water is called low tide. The tidal waves in the sea build up and recede
(rise and fall) twice a day. The enormous movement of water between the high tides
and low tides provides a very large source of energy in the coastal areas of the world.
The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage or tidal dam across a
narrow opening to the sea.
Tidal barrage
SEA
(or Tidal dam)
(a)
Water stored
Reservoir High tide
at high tide
Turbine

SEA
Water (b)
Low tide

Water
 (a) At high tide, water flows from sea into reservoir and turns the turbine. (b) At low tide,stored
water flows out from reservoir into sea and turns the turbine.

Limitations of Tidal Energy

The rise and fall of water during tides is not high enough to generate electrical energy
on a large scale. There are very few places suitable for building dams. That’s why tidal
energy is not likely to be a major source of energy.

Wave Energy
Due to the blowing of wind on the surface of ocean, very fast sea waves are generated,
which have a lot of kinetic energy in them. This energy, with the help of various devices
can be used to rotate the turbine of generator and electricity is generated.

Ocean Thermal Energy

The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the sun while the water in
deeper sections is relatively cold. This difference in temperature is exploited to obtain
energy. This energy is known as ocean thermal energy.
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53

Geothermal Energy
The heat from interior of the earth can be utilised as a source of energy under certain
favourable conditions that are created by natural processes. This is known as
geothermal energy. It is one of the sources of energy which does not come directly or
indirectly from solar energy.

Nuclear Energy
Energy contained in the nucleus of atoms, is called nuclear energy. It is released during
nuclear reactions.
Nuclear reactions occur in the following two ways
1. Nuclear Fission
The reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into two or more smaller nuclei with the
evolution of large amount of energy, is called nuclear fission reaction.
2. Nuclear Fusion
A reaction in which two or more lighter nuclei fuse to form a heavy nucleus and large
amount of energy is given out, is called nuclear fusion reaction.

Nuclear Power Plant

The most important use of nuclear energy is the generation of electricity. This is done
by using a set-up, called nuclear power plant.
Principle of Nuclear Power Plant
The heat produced in a controlled nuclear fission reaction is utilised for producing
steam. This steam is used to run turbines connected to the generators and electricity is
generated.
Kinetic
Nuclear
Energy of →Heat Energy Energy of →Electrical
Turbine Energy
U235
of Steam →

Connection of Nuclear Effects into Electrical Energy

Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant consists of the following components
(i) Nuclear Reactor Here, a controlled nuclear fission of a fissionable fuel such as 92235
U is carried out.
(ii) Heat Exchanger The reactor is connected to a heat exchanger. Here, the heat
 produced in the reactor is transferred to water by circulating a coolant through a
coiled pipe. The water gets converted into steam. The coolant is pumped back to
the reactor.
(iii) Steam Turbine The steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to run the steam
turbine. The spent steam is sent back as hot water to the heat exchanger. (iv) Electric
Generator (or Dynamo) The shaft of the steam turbine is connected to an electric
generator (or dynamo) and electricity so produced is sent for transmission.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENC
54

E
Assessment
Which of the statement(s) given
1. When the angle between the force above is/are correct?
and displacement is 90°, the work done (a) I and II (b) II and III
is [RRB Group D 2018] (c) Only IV (d) I, II and IV
(a) neutral 7. Assertion (A) The work done in
(b) negative bringing a body down from the top to
(c) zero (no work is done) the base along a frictionless inclined
(d) positive plane is the same as the work done in
2. In which of the following activities is bringing it down along the vertical
work said to be done? [RRB Group D side.
2018] (a) Pinki is walking on a leveled Reason (R) The gravitational force on
road with a book on her head the body along the inclined plane is
(b) Khushi is pushing a wall of a the same as that along the vertical
house but fails to do so side.
(c) Shruti is sitting on a chair (a) If both Assertion and Reason are
(d) Harsh is reading a book true and Reason is the correct
3. If a plane flies a distance of 4000 m explanation of Assertion.
with work done of 20000 J, then the (b) Both Assertion and Reason are
force applied is [RRB Group D 2018] (a) true but Reason is not the correct
10 N (b) 0.2 N explanation of Assertion.
(c) 5 N (d) 50 N (c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false. (d)
Both Assertion and Reason are false. 8.
4. The work done by an object is 56 J
Which one of the following force is
and the force exerted on it is 7N, find
non-central and non-conservative? [NDA
the displacement. [RRB Group D 2018]
(a) 8 m (b) 80 m 2019]
(c) 80 m/s (d) 80 m/s (a) Frictional force (b) Electric force (c)
Gravitational force (d) Mechanical force 9.
5. Work done on an object depends on
[RRB Group D
746 W is know as [RRB Group D 2018] (a)
2018] 1 Pa (b) 1 kW
(c) 1 J (d) 1 HP
A. displacement
B. angle between force and 10. ……… is the rate of doing work. [RRB
Group D 2018]
displacement C. force applied
(a) Velocity (b) Energy
D. mass of the object (c) Power (d) Force
Which of these points are 11. Name of the physical quantity which is
correct? (a) A, B and D
equal to the product of force and velocity?
(b) A, B and C
[RRB Group D 2018]
(c) A, C and D
(a) Energy (b) Power
(d) B, C and D
(c) Acceleration (d) Work
6. Consider the following statements. I.
12. Which one of the following is the value
When a coolie carrying a load on his
of 1 kWh of energy converted into joules?
head moves on a horizontal
[NDA 2018]
platform, the work done by the
(a) 1 8 106
coolie against gravity is zero.
. ⋅ J (b) 3 6 106
II. When a satellite revolves in a
.⋅J
circular orbit around the earth, the
work done by the gravitational force (c) 6 0 106
on the . ⋅ J (d) 7 2 106
satellite is zero. .⋅J

III. When a body falls freely under 13. A boy of mass 50 kg runs up a
gravity, the work done by gravity is staircase of 40 steps in 10 s. If the
negative. IV. Work is a scalar quantity. height of each step is 15 cm, find his
 power. (a) 3375 W (b) 300 W
[RRB Group D 2018] (c) 300 ms (d) 300 T
ASSESSMENT
55
2018]
14. Work can only be done when there is I. There is no net moment on a body
[RRB Group D which is in equilibrium.
2018] II. The momentum of a body is
(a) momentum (b) energy always conserved.
(c) power (d) force
III. The kinetic energy of an object is
15. Which one of the following is not the always conserved.
unit of energy? [NDA 2020] (a) J (b) W-h Which of the statements (s) given
(c) N-m (d) kg-m/s 2 above is/are correct?
16. A car is moving with high speed. (a) Only I (b) II and III
Which energy does it possess? (c) I and II (d) All of these
[RRB Group D 2018] 24. Consider the following statements
(a) Frictional force (b) Gravitational force (c) about Kinetic Energy (KE).
Kinetic energy (d) Potential energy 17. If two
I. If the mass of the body is made
unequal masses possess the same double, then its kinetic energy will
kinetic energy, then the heavier mass has become
[RRB Group D 2018] double.
(a) lower speed II. If either velocity or linear
(b) higher speed momentum of the body is double, its
(c) lesser momentum KE will
(d) greater momentum become four times as that of
18. How is the kinetic energy of a moving original. Which of the statements
object affected if the net work done given above is/are correct?
on it is positive? [NDA 2016] (a) (a) Only I (b) Only II
Decreases (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(b) Increases
(c) Remains constant Direction (Q. No. 25 to 26) In each of the
(d) Becomes zero following questions, a statement of
Assertion is given followed by a
19. If the momentum of a body is doubled,
corresponding statement of Reason just
the kinetic energy is [SSC MTS 2017]
1 below it. Of the statements, mark the
(a) becomes 4times (b) unchanged correct answer as
(c) doubled (d) becomes 4 times
Codes
20. An object of mass 15 kg is moving (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true
with a uniform velocity of 7 ms−1. What is and Reason is the correct explanation of
the kinetic energy possessed by the the Assertion.
object? [RRB Group D 2018] (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but
(a) 367.5 J (b) 17.5 J Reason is not the correct explanation of
(c) 180.5 J (d) 367.5 ms the Assertion.
21. Two objects A and B are moving with (c) Assertion is true but Reason is false. (d) If
the same velocity. The mass of object both Assertion is false but Reason is true. 25.
A is twice that of B. The ratio of the Assertion (A) If a light body and heavy
kinetic energy of Ato that of B.( / ) K body have equal kinetic energies,
K A B will be momentum is greater for the heavy body.
[RRB Group D 2018] Reason (R) If a light body and heavy body
(a) 4 (b) 2 have same momentum, the light body will
1 possess more kinetic energy. 26. Assertion
(c) 2 (d) 1
(A) The change in kinetic energy of a
22. The ratio of kinetic energies of two
particle is equal to the work done on it by
bodies of same mass 4 : 9. The ratio
the net force.
of their velocities will be [UPRO/ARO
2017] (a) 4 : 9 (b) 2 : 3 Reason (R) Change in kinetic energy
(c) 16 : 81 (d) 2 3: of a particle is equal to the work done
23. Consider the following statements. only in case of a system of one
[CDS particle.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
56
(d) Both kinetic and potential
27. A wound watch spring has …… 28. A flying jet possesses ……… . (a)
energy. (a) electrical [SSC MTS 2017] (b) potential energy [SSC CAPFs 2017] (b)
kinetic kinetic energy
(c) potential (c) wind energy
 (d) Both kinetic and potential energy 29. A [RRB Group D 2018]
body rolling down on a hill has [RRB (a) 528 J (b) 539 J (c) 637 J (d) 588 J 36. In
Group D 2018] which case does the potential energy
(a) kinetic energy only decrease?
(b) potential energy only I. On compressing a spring.
(c) only friction force
II. On stretching a spring.
(d) Both kinetic energy and
potential energy
III. On moving a body against
gravitational force.
30. When a freely falling object eventually
IV. On the rising of an air bubble in
stops on reaching the ground ………… .
[SSC 2017, 18] water. Select the correct answer.
(a) its potential energy decreases (a) I and II
(b) it kinetic energy increases (b) Only IV
(c) its potential energy decreases and (c) III and IV
its kinetic energy increases (d) All of these
(d) None of the option is correct 37. Which one of the following statements
31. During the free fall of an object, which about energy is correct? [NDA 2017]
of the following energies increases at (a) Energy can be created as well as
any point in its path? destroyed.
[SSC 2018, RRB Group D 2018] (b) Energy can be created but not
(a) Chemical energy destroyed.
(b) Mechanical energy (c) Energy can neither be created
(c) Kinetic energy nor destroyed.
(d) Potential energy (d) Energy cannot be created but can
be destroyed.
32. When a ball bounces off the ground,
which of the following changes suddenly? 38. A body is falling freely under the action
[NDA 2017] of gravity alone in vacuum. Which
(Assume no loss of energy to the one of the following remains constant
floor.) (a) Its speed (b) Its momentum (c) during the fall? [CDS 2015] (a) Potential
Its kinetic energy (d) Its potential energy energy
(b) Kinetic energy
33. When a ball is thrown upwards, then
(c) Total linear momentum
at what position its potential energy (d) Total mechanical energy
will be maximum? [SSC 2017] (a) At
39. Which one among the following
time of throwing
(b) At the ground
happens when a swing rises to a
(c) Just before striking ground certain height from its rest position?
(d) At top most position [RRB 2018, SSC 2018, NDA 2015]
(a) Its potential energy decreases
34. An object of mass 6 kg and having a
while kinetic energy increases.
potential energy of 480 J is placed at
(b) Its kinetic energy decreases
a height. Find the height of the object
while potential energy increases.
w.r.t. the ground. (Take, g = 10 2 m / s
(c) Both potential and kinetic
) energy decreases.
[RRB Group D 2018] (d) Both potential and kinetic
(a) 6 m (b) 8 m (c) 7 m (d) 4 m energy increases.
35. Find the energy possessed by an
40. Conversion of sound energy into
object of mass 13 kg when it is at a
electrical energy is done by [SSC (10+2)
height of 5 m above the ground.
2013] (a) solar cell (b) gramophone (c)
(Take, g = 9 8 2 microphone (d) loudspeaker
.m/s)
ASSESSMENT
57
glows
41. The conversion of mechanical energy [CDS
into electrical energy does not occur in 2014]
[SSC MTS 2013] (a) the electric energy is completely
(a) dams (b) AC generator (c) DC converted into light
generator (d) motor (b) the electric energy is partly
converted into light energy and
42. Which one of the following does not
partly into heat energy
convert electrical energy into light
(c) the light energy is converted
energy? [CDS 2019] (a) A candle
into electric energy
(b) A light emitting diode
(d) the electric energy is converted
(c) A laser
into magnetic energy
(d) A television set
44. The correct sequence of energy
43. When an incandescent electric bulb
transfer that occurs when an apple
 falls to the ground is [NDA 2019] (a) explanation of Assertion.
gravitational potential energy→ heat (b) Both Assertion and Reason are
energy to air→ kinetic energy→ true but Reason is not the correct
heat energy to ground and apple→ explanation of Assertion.
sound energy (c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(b) gravitational potential energy→ (d) Both Assertion and Reason are false. 47.
sound energy→ kinetic energy→ heat
Creation of something from nothing is
energy to air→ heat energy to
ground and apple against the law of [CDS 2015] (a) constant
(c) gravitational potential energy→ proportions
kinetic energy→ heat energy to air (b) conservation of mass-energy
→ heat energy to ground and (c) multiple proportions
apple→ sound energy (d) conservation of momentum
(d) gravitational potential energy→
kinetic energy→ sound energy→ heat 48. Which of the following are the
energy to air→ heat energy to ground characteristics of an inelastic collision? I.
and apple Momentum is conserved.
45. In wind power, which form of energy is II. Total energy is conserved.
converted into electrical energy? III. Kinetic energy is conserved.
(a) Kinetic energy [UPPCS (Pre) 2016] (b) IV. All the forces must be of
Potential energy conservative nature.
(c) Solar energy Choose the correct answer from the
(d) Radianl energy
codes given below.
46. Assertion (A) When two moving (a) III and IV (b) I and II
bodies collide, their temperature rise. (c) I, II and IV (d) II and IV
Reason (R) The potential energy of 49. Which one of the following is not a
the colliding bodies converts into heat
form of stored energy? [NDA 2016] (a)
energy. Nuclear energy (b) Potential energy (c)
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are Electrical energy (d) Kinetic energy
true and Reason is the correct

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (c)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (a) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31.
(c) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (b) 40. (c) 41. (d) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (a)
46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (a)

5
Gravitation
Gravitation is defined as the non-contact force of attraction between any two bodies in
the universe (no matter how far the bodies are). The earth attracts (or pulls) all the
bodies towards its centre. The force with which the earth pulls the bodies towards it, is
called the gravitational force of earth or gravity of the earth.

Characteristics of Gravitational Force

(i) Gravitational force is action at a distance force i.e., it does not need any contact
between the two bodies.
(ii) Gravitational force between two bodies form action-reaction pair i.e., the forces
exerted by two bodies on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
(iii) Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature.
(iv) Gravitational force is 1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and 1038 times
smaller than nuclear force.
(v) Gravitational force is a constant as well as conservative force.
 (vi) Gravitational force between two small bodies is very small. On the other hand,
gravitational force between two large bodies (say, the sun and the earth) is large.
■
Gravitational force is an inverse square force because it is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the two bodies.

Universal Law of Gravitation (Newton’s Law) The

universal law of gravitation was given by Newton. According to this law, the attractive
force between any two objects in the universe is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.
Consider two bodies A and B having masses m1 and m2, whose centres are at a distance
r from each other.

Gravitational force, Fm m
∝1 2
2
r

⇒ FG m m =1 2
2
r

where, G is universal gravitational constant. The value of G is 6 67 10 11

. ⋅− Nm kg 2 2−and
−−132
dimensional formula of G is [M L T ].
The law of gravitation is applicable for all bodies, irrespective of their size, shape and
position.
GRAVITATION
59

Importance of Universal Law of Gravitation

Universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena
like (i) the force that binds us to the earth.
(ii) the motion of the moon around the earth.
(iii) presence of atmosphere around a planet.

Gravity
In Newton’s law of gravitation, the gravitation is the force of attraction acting between
any two bodies. If one of the bodies is earth, then the gravitation is called gravity.
Hence, gravity is the force by which earth attracts a body towards its centre. It is due to
gravity that bodies thrown freely ultimately fall on the surface of the earth.

Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

Whenever an object falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved. This
acceleration is due to the earth’s gravitational force and is called acceleration due to
gravity. It is denoted by g and its SI unit is m/s2. It is a vector quantity and its direction is
towards the centre of the earth.
The value of g changes slightly from place to place. The value of g is taken to be 9.8
m/s2 for all the practical purposes.

Expression of Acceleration due to Gravity g in Terms of

Gravitational Constant G
Suppose that the mass of the earth is Me and its radius Re. Let a body of mass m be
situated at the surface of the earth, then
the force of attraction acting on the body Everyday Science
due to earth is given by A clock controlled by a
a
FGMm pendulum is taken from the plains to a mountain,
e it becomes
=2
R
e slow but a wrist-watch
According to Newton’s second law, controlled by a spring remains
F mg = unaffected due to decrease in
the value of g at the mountain,
∴ mg =G M m e the time period of the pendulum

R other hand, spring watch

e
e2
of the clock increases. On the remains unaffected by the

gGM = 2
R variation of g.
e
A tennis ball bounces higher on
This means that the value of g does not a a hill than on
depend upon the mass of the body. Hence, plain as g is less on hills than on plains.
if two bodies of different mass be allowed One feels giddy while moving on
to fall freely ( in the absence of air), they a a
will have the same acceleration. If they are merry-go-round as weight appears to decrease
when we move down and appears to increase
allowed to fall from the same height, they when we move up.
will reach the earth simultaneously.

Variations of g

(i) Outside the earth surface, if distance of object from the centre of the earth
increases, the value of g decreases. In this case, the difference of two values of
gravitational accelerations (for h << Re) is equal to
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
60

 

2gh  
g
Rg h
from ′= 
  
2
e
1 R
 + e 

where, h = height from the earth’s surface and Re = radius of the earth. (ii) Inside
the earth, if distance of object from the centre of the earth increases, the value of g
increases. In this case, the difference of two values of gravitational accelerations is
equal to
gh  h
 g g Re

  
Refrom ′ = −
1
 
where, h = depth from the earth’s surface.
(iii) At the centre of the earth, the value of gravitational acceleration becomes zero. (iv)
Earth is flattened at poles. Thus, radius of earth is less at poles than at equator. Hence,
the value of g is less at equator than at poles.
(v) The observed value of g at the latitude λ,
g g R λ = − e ω λ 2 2 cos
The value of g is maximum at pole i.e., λ = ° 90 and g g ′ = and the value of g is
minimum at equator i.e., λ = ° 0 and g g R ′ = − e ω2.
where, ω = angular velocity, Re = radius of the earth and g′ = changed value of g.

Mass and Weight

Mass is a quantity which measures the inertia of a body. It is a scalar quantity and is
measured in kilogram. The mass of the body cannot be zero. Greater the mass, greater
will be the inertia of the body. Irrespective of the position of body in the universe, mass
always remains constant everywhere. The weight of an object is the force, with which
it is attracted towards the earth.
Weight of an object, w mg =
Weight is a vector quantity. It acts in vertically downward direction and its SI unit is
newton (N).
■
Weight of 1 kg mass is 9.8 N.
■
Weight of an object is not constant, it changes from place to place because of
change in the value of g.
■
At the centre of the earth, weight becomes zero. This is due to the fact that g in
all directions becomes equal and all forces cancel each other.

Weightlessness
The weight felt by a body near the earth’s surface is called its actual weight. The
deviated value of weight of a body due to variation of g is known as its apparent weight
or effective weight.
In the situation of weightlessness, the effective weight of the body becomes zero.
Weightlessness is achieved
(i) during free fall under gravity.
(ii) inside a space craft or satellite.
GRAVITATION
61
(iii) at the centre of the earth.
(iv) when a body is lying in a freely falling lift.

Weight of a Body at the Moon

As mass and radius of the moon are less than that of the earth, so the force of the
gravity at the moon is also less than that of the earth. Its value at the moon’s surface is
g
6and on the sun is about 27 times of that on the earth i.e., 27 g.

Planet and Satellite

The heavenly body which revolves around the sun is called planet. In the solar system,
the eight planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The heavenly body which revolves around the planets is called satellite. e.g., moon is a
satellite of the earth, this is a natural satellite.
On the other hand, there may be artificial satellite. e.g., Aryabhatta, INSAT-B, etc.

Types of Satellite
There are two types of satellite

1. Geostationary Satellites (Parking Satellites)

The satellites which appear to be at fixed position at a definite height to an observer on
the earth, are called geostationary or parking satellites.
The height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is 36000 km and radius of orbit
is 42400 km. Its time period of rotation is 24 h.
e.g., INSAT-2B and INSAT-2C are geostationary satellites of India.
These are used to reflect TV signals and telecast TV programs from one portion of the
world to another portion.

2. Polar Satellites
These are the satellites which revolve in polar orbits around the earth. The height of the
satellite above the surface of the earth is 880 km (approx). Its period of rotation is 84
min (approx).
e.g., PSLV series satellites are polar satellites of India.
These satellites are used in forecasting weather, studying the upper region of the
atmosphere, etc.
■
The geostationary environmental satellites are used for short range whereas
 polar satellites are used for longer term forecasting.

Uses of Satellite
(i) In communicating through radio, TV and telephone signals across the oceans.
(ii) In forcasting weather.
(iii) In studying the upper region of atmosphere.
(iv) To determine the exact shape and dimensions of the earth.
(v) In the study of cosmic rays and solar radiations.

Energy of a Satellite
When an earth satellite is to be placed in an orbit, the energy associated with the
satellite must be taken into account. This energy is also known as binding energy.
EncyclopediaOFGENERALSCIENCE
62
Aspects of energy consideration are
■
The potential energy required to raise the satellite to the height. ■
The kinetic energy required for the orbit at that particular height. ■
The binding (total) energy of satellite is given by
GmM
E r
=
2(in magnitude)
where, r =orbital radius of satellite, m =mass of satellite, M =mass of the earth

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler gave three laws regarding motion of the planets around the sun.

Minor axis
Planet Sun Major axis

Point of
second focus
(at the

first focus)
Elliptical path (or orbit)

Sun-Planet System

First Law (Law of Orbits)

Planet revolves in an elliptical path around the sun, the sun being at one of the two foci
of the ellipse.
Second Law (Law of Areas)
The radius vector of any planet relative to the sun sweeps out equal area in equal
time. Third Law (Law of Periods)
The square of the period of revolution of any planet around the sun is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
i.e., T a 2 3 ∝ ⇒ T Ka 2 3
=
where, a = length of semi-major axis, T = time period of the planet and K = Kepler’s
constant.

Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of a satellite is the maximum velocity required to put the satellite into a
given orbit around the earth. It is denoted by vo.
Here, the orbital velocity of a satellite is given by
GMe
vRg
 = =
+ +[Q R h r e + = ]
o
Rh ee
Rh

where, Re = radius of the earth

and h = height of the satellite from the earth surface. If the satellite is
revolving near the earth’s surface, then orbital velocity v g R o e = = 7
92. km/h ≈ 8.0 km/h
GRAVITATION
63
■
If v is the speed of a satellite in its orbit and v ois the required orbital velocity to
move in the orbit, then
(i) if v v < o, then satellite will move on a parabolic path and satellite falls back to
the earth. (ii) if v v = o, then satellite will revolve in circular path/orbit around the
earth.

Escape Velocity or Escape Speed

Escape speed on the earth (or any other planet) is defined as the minimum speed with
which a body is to be projected vertically upwards from the surface of earth (or any
other planet), so that it just cross the gravitational field of the earth and never returns
on its own.
Escape velocity or speed, v gR e e = 2
v v eo= 2
where, g = acceleration due to gravity on the planet
and R = radius of the planet or earth.
The value of escape velocity is 11.2 km/s.
■
If orbital speed of a satellite revolving around the earth becomes equal to
escape velocity than it will escape from its path.
■
The moon has the least value of escape velocity is 2.4 km/s. So, no gases exists
on the moon. That’s why the moon has no atmosphere.

Assessment
=1 2
1. Who gave the law of gravitation? [SSC 6. Suppose the force of gravitation
CAPFs ASI; Delhi Police SI 2017] (a) between two bodies of equal masses
Michael Faraday (b) Guglielmo Marconi (c) is F. If each mass is doubled keeping
James Watt (d) Isaac Newton 2. In the the distance of separation between
formula F G M m them unchanged, then the force
e would become
= 2, what is G [NDA 2016]
d (a) F (b) 2F
called? [RRB Group-D 2018] (a) Greater 1
height (c) 4F (d) 4F
(b) Gravitational force 7. Two bodies of mass M each are
(c) Acceleration due to gravity placed R distance apart. In another
(d) Universal gravitational constant
system, two bodies of mass 2M each
3. Which one of the following statements
R
is true for the relation, FGm m are placed 2
r be the gravitational
distance apart. If F
2?
(All symbols have their usual the surface of the earth.
meanings) (d) The quantity G is a universal constant. 4.
[NDA 2017] Which one of the following statement
(a) The quantity G depends on the local about gravitational force is not correct?
value of g, acceleration due to gravity. [NDA 2018]
(b) The quantity G is greatest at the (a) It is experienced by all bodies in
surface of the earth. the universe.
(c) The quantity G is smallest at
 (b) It is a dominant force between gravitational force exerted on the earth
celestial bodies. by the sun would be
(c) It is a negligible force for atoms. (d) It [UPPCS (Main) 2019]
is same for all pairs of bodies in our (a) twice as large as it is now.
universe. (b) four times as large as it is now.
5. In respect of the difference of the (c) one-fourth of what it is now.
gravitational force from electric and (d) Half of what it is now.
magnetic forces, which one of the 9. The acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ for
force between the bodies in the first objects on or near the surface of
system, then the gravitational force earth is related to the universal
between the bodies in the second gravitational constant
system will be ‘G’ as (‘M’ is the mass of the earth
(a) 16 F (b) 1 F and ‘R’ is its radius) [NDA 2015, RRB
(c) 4F (d) None of these 8. If the 2018] (a) GgM
distance between the earth and the sun =2(b) gGM
were twice what it is now, the
following statements is stronger than (c) MgG
true? [CDS 2015] (a)
R =2 R
Gravitational force is
=2(d) RgG
the other two. range force, while the other
two are short range forces.
R
10. Acceleration due to gravity on a
(b) Gravitational force is attractive only,
planet decreases with ………… .
=2 M
[SSC CHSL 2017]
whereas the electric and the (a) decrease in radius of the planet
magnetic forces are attractive (b) increase in mass of the planet
as well as (c) decrease in mass of the body
repulsive. (d) increase in altitude from surface
(c) Gravitational force has a of the planet
very short range.
(d) Gravitational force is a long
ASSESSMENT
65
(d) is greater at the South pole than at
11. Gravitational force is maximum at the North pole
which of the following place? [SSC 15. Suppose there are two planets, 1 and
CGL 2017] (a) At equator 2, having the same density, but their
(b) At tropic of cancer radii are R1and R2respectively, where
(c) At tropic of Capricorn
R R 1 2 > . The accelerations due to
(d) At poles
gravity on the surface of these
12. Which of the following statements is planets are related as [NDA 2019] (a) g
true? g 12>
(a) g is the same at all places on the (b) g g 1 2 <
surface of the earth.
(c) g g 1 2 =
(b) g is less at the earth’s surface than at (d) Cannot say anything
a height above or at a depth below it.
(c) g has its maximum value at the 16. A planet has a mass M1and radius R1.
equator. The value of acceleration due to
(d) g is greater at the poles than at gravity on its surface is g1.
the equator. There is another planet 2, whose
13. Consider a planet whose mass and mass and radius both are two times
radius are one - third the mass and that of the first planet. Which one of
radius of the earth. If g is the value of the following is the acceleration due
acceleration due to gravity on the to gravity on the surface of planet 2?
earth. then its value on the planet will [NDA 2018] (a) g1(b) 2g1(c) g1 2/ (d) g1/4
1 17. Consider the following statements:
be [RRB Group-D 2018] (a) 9g (b) 3g (c)
1 The acceleration due to earth's
3g (d) 9g
gravity decreases, if
14. The value of acceleration due to I. we go up from the surface of the
gravity ( ) g ……… . [SSC (10 + 2) earth. II. we go from the equator
2018] (a) is greater at the poles than at
towards the pole. III. the rotation speed
the equator
of the earth is increased.
(b) is lesser at the poles than the equator
(c) is greater at the North pole than at IV. we go down from the surface of
the South pole the earth towards its centre.
 Which of these statements are
correct? (a) I, II and III (b) I, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV (d) I, II, III and IV 18. The free
fall acceleration g increases as one
proceeds at sea level, from the equator
towards either pole. The reason is [NDA
2016]
(a) earth is a sphere with same
density everywhere
(b) earth is a sphere with different
density at the polar regions than in
the equatorial regions
(c) earth is approximately an ellipsoid
having its equatorial radius
greater
than its polar radius by 21 km
(d) earth is approximately an ellipsoid
having its equatorial radius smaller
than its polar radius by 21 km.
19. Statement I A body weighs less on a
hill top than on the earth’s surface even
though its mass remains unchanged.
Statement II The acceleration due to
gravity of the earth decreases with height.
[NDA 2015] (a) Both the statements are
individually true and Statement II is the
correct
explanation of Statement I.
(b) Both the statements are individually
true but Statement II is not the
correct explanation of Statement I.
(c) Statement I is true but Statement II
is false.
(d) Statement I is false but Statement II
is true.
20. Which one of the following statements
about the mass of a body is correct? [NDA
2017]
(a) It changes from one place to
another. (b) It is same everywhere.
(c) It depends on its shape.
(d) It does not depend on its temperature.