Figure 4-26. There ate sx basic ypes of airport signs — erection, mandatory, locaton, unway stance remaining information, and extnaton,Figure 4.27. As you gain experience in ipo oporatins, you will ocome familar wth he standard port signs RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE A runway incursion is any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. ‘Runway incursions can be very hazardous, and are primarily caused by errors associated with clearances, communication, airport surface movement, and positional awareness, The FAA recommends procedures that you can follow and precautions that you can take to avoid a runway incursion, (Figure 4-28)NTSB Narrative: During the takeot rll on runway 30R, tho MO-2, NO6AU, colided withthe Cessna 441, NASIK, | which was posiianed on the runway wating Yor takeol clearance. The pit of the Cessna acted on an apparanty | preconceived ia that he would use his arial runway, Runway 20R, for departure, Aor receiving tax clearance to ack-tax into position and hold an runway 31, the pilot taxied into a position at an intersection of Runway 3OR, which was the assigned departie nnway forthe MO-83 Ar tafc contal personnel were ot ble maintain visual contact wi) | the Cossna ater taxied rom tho wel-ighted ramp area ino the runwayitaxiay ervronment ofthe nertheastporion of = the anpore ‘The NTSB narative suggested thatthe pt ofthe light twin had incoracty anticipated taking off on Runway GOR, and fatied to that runway even though thal was not the clearance recived. A thorough underslanding of amprt markings, signs, and lighting, as well as proper ratio procedures are essential, especialy whon i is dark and two runways intersect each her and have similar headings. Lock at the aiport diagram before you tx! and i you aro unlamiiar wih the taxiway and runway layout, requostprogrossve tal insrucions from ATC.LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS During land and hold short operations (LAHSO), an aireraft is cleared to land and stop on the runway, holding short of an intersecting runway, intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on the runway. Used only at selected airports, LAHSO is an air traffic control tool that is used to increase airport capacity and maintain system efficieney. [Figure 4-20] igaeteg 29, LAHSO requires an aircraft hold short of pint on he landing runway ater ancing, To conduct LAHSO, you should have at least a private pilot certificate and you must understand your responsibilities. During preflight planning, you should become familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at the destination airport. The Airport/Facility Directory section of the Chart ‘Supplement indicates the presence of LAHSO and includes the available landing distance (ALD) and runway slope, ifit applies, for each LAHSO runway. (Figure 4-30]Figure 4-30_ Mako sure you have the avalablo landing stance (ALD) and slope for any runway on which you might ecoive @ LAHSO arance. Controls may provide the ALD on request. Determine which runway LAHSO combinations are acceptable for your airplane's landing performance and for your personal minimums. During flight, have the published ALD and runway slope readily available and ensure that you can safely land and stop within the ALD with the existing conditions upon arrival. When ATIS announces that LAHSO is in effect, be prepared for a LAHSO clearance from the tower —"Diamond 77 Xray Foxtrot, cleared to land Runway 27, hold short of Runway 23 for landing traffic, Learjet.” As pilot in command, you should decline the LAHSO clearance if you consider it unsafe —"Diamond 77 Xray Foxtrot, unable to hold short of Runway 23,and expect a revised or delayed landing clearance. If you need the full length of the runway, ora different runway, itis preferable that you inform the tower even before they issue a LAHSO clearance. Ifyou accept a LAHSO clearance, read back the full clearance including the words, “hold short of runway, taxiway, or point’—“Diamond 77 Xray Foxtrot, cleared to land Runway 27 to hold short of Runway 23." After you accept a LAHSO clearance, you must adhere to it, just like any other ATC clearance. Visual aids on the LAHSO runway help you identify the hold-short point. (Figure 4-1] Acceptance of a LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing. If you must go around, tell ATC immediately and maintain safe separation from other aireraft or vehiclesFigure 4-21. Ate you accept LAHSO clearance you must adhere to th rnway or stopping botore the asignod holi-short pont onthe landing runway. AIRPORT LIGHTING Your flying experiences will soon take you from flying only in the daytime to the new challenge of night flying. You will notice that airport lighting is similar from one airport to the nest. To maintain continuity, airports that are lighted for nighttime operations use FAA-approved lighting systems and colors. AIRPORT BEACON At night, airport beacons are used to guide pilots to lighted airports. Airport beacons might be of the older rotating type, or the newer flashing variety, which produces the same effect. These airport (and heliport) beacons are most effective from one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, you normally can see them at altitudes well above the ten degree angle. If you maintain sufficient altitude, beacons can be seen at great distances in good visibility conditions. [Figure 4-30] lerance by exiting Figure 4.92 epee a Generally, you will find that an airport's beacon is on from dusk until dawn. The beacon usually is not operating during the day unless the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet and/or the ground visibility is less than 3 statute miles, the normal VFR weather minimums. You should not rely solely on the operation of the Airport beacon to indicate if weather conditions are below VFR minimums. These minimums will be discussed in greater detail in Section D of this chapter. VISUAL GLIDESLOPE INDICATORS. Visual glideslope indicators are light systems that indicate your position in relation to the desired glide path to the runway. The indicator lights are located on the side ofa basic or instrument runway and can be used for day or night approaches. One of the most frequently used installations is the visual approach slope indicator (VASI). The two-bar VASI shows whether or not you are on a glide path that will take you safely to the touchdown zone ofthe runway. The lights are either white or red, depending on the angle ‘of your glide path, and can be visible up to 20 miles at night. (Figure 4-33] -ombinaion of ight colors from an aiport beacon inccates the ype 1) apo. apoFigure 432. The VASI conse light bar thal change colar between whe and ed depending on whather your approach angle is above orblow he gio path VASI configurations vary and may have either 2 or 3 bars. Two-bar systems have near and far bars and may include 2, 4, or 32 light units. The VASI glide path provides safe obstruction clearance within 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline out to 4 nautical miles from the threshold. You should not begin a descent using VASI until your aircraft is aligned with the runway. When landing at a controlled airport that has a VASI, regulations require you to remain on or above the glide path until a lower altitude is necessary fora safe landing. Larger airports might have a three-bar VASI system that incorporates two different glide paths. The lower lide path normally is set at three degrees, while the higher one usually is one-fourth of a degree above it. The higher glide path is used by certain transport category aircraft with high cockpits. This ensures that these aircraft will have sufficient altitude when crossing the threshold. If you encounter a three-bar VASI system, use the two lower bars asifit were a standard two-bar VASI. Some airports have a pulsating visual approach slope indicator (PVASD), which projects a two- color visual approach path into the final approach area. A pulsating red light indicates below glide path; above glide path is usually pulsating white; and the on-glide path indication is a steady white light. The useful range is about 4 miles during the day and up to 10 miles a night. Another system is the precision approach path indicator (PAPI). It has two or four lights installed ina single row instead of far and near bars, (Figure 4-24] Figure 4-34. The PAPI is normally on th let side of he runway and can be seen up oS miles during the day are 20 miles at right APPROACH LIGHT SYSTEMS Some airports have approach lighting systems (ALS) to help instrument pilots transition to visual references at the completion of an instrument approach, These light systems can begin as far away as 43,000 feet along the extended runway centerline, and normally include a combination of steady and Hashing lights. The most complex systems are for precision instrument runways and usually have sequenced flashing lights that look like a ball of light traveling toward the runway at high speed. Fornonprecision instrument runways, the approach lighting is simpler and, for VFR runways, the system may consist only of visual glideslope indicators. [Figure 4-35} = =e Figure 4.35. Appr RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS ‘Runway edge lights consist of a single row of white lights bordering each side of the runway and lights identifying the runway threshold. Runway edge lights can be classified according to three intensity levels. High intensity runway lights (HIRLs) are the brightest runway lights available, Medium intensity runway lights (MIRLs) and low intensity runway lights (LIRLs) are, as their names indicate, dimmer in intensity. At some airports, you will be able to adjust the intensity of the runway lights from your cockpit by using your radio transmitter. At others, the lights are preset or are adjusted by ar traffic controllers. Some runway edge lights incorporate yellow runway remaining lights on the last half of the runway (or last 2,000 feet of runway, whichever distance is less) to inform you of the amount of runway left. These lights are two-sided, so they appear white when viewed from the opposite end of the runway. ght systems can al you in locating the runway at night At night, there are three ways to determine where the runway begins. If the runway has a displaced threshold, there is a set of green lights on each side of the white threshold line to indicate the beginning of the landing portion of the runway. Ifthe threshold is not displaced, the beginning of the runway pavement has a row of green lights across it. These lights are two-sided. If you were taking off or landing on the ‘opposite end, they would appear red to mark the end of the usable portion of the runway. ‘Sometimes high intensity white strobe lights are placed on each side of the runway to mark the threshold. These are called runway end identifier lights (REILs) and can be used in conjunction with the green threshold lights. IN-RUNWAY LIGHTING Some precision approach runways have flush-mounted centerline, touchdown zone, and taxiway turnoff lighting. Viewed from the threshold, the runway centerline lighting system (RCLS) is white until the last 43,000 feet of the runway. From the 3,000-foot point to the 3,000-foot point, alternating red and white lights appear, with the last 3,000 feet of lights changing to red only. This system helps instrument pilots determine the amount of runway remaining in very low visibility situations. Touchdown zone lighting (TDZL.) consists of two rows of transverse light bars on either side of the runway centerline starting at soo feet from the threshold and extending 3,000 feet or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less. Taxiway lead-off lights are alternating green and yellow lights that define the ccurved path of aircraft travel from the runway centerline to a point on the taxiway (normally the runway holding position or ILS critical area boundary), TAXIWAY LIGHTING As you taxi off the active runway, blue lights, lining both edges ofthe taxiway, guide you from the runway to the ramp area. Because they can be seen from any direction, they are said to be omnidirectional lights. At some airports, green taxiway centerline lights also may be installed, These lights are located along thetaxiway centerline in both straight and curved portions of the taxiway. They also may be located along designated taxiing paths in portions of runways and ramp areas. [Figure 4-36] Figure 4-26. This pictorial PILOT-CONTROLLED LIGHTING Pilot-controlled lighting is the term used to describe systems that you can activate by keying the aircraft's microphone, or mic, on a specified radio frequency. For practical and economic reasons, the approach, runway, and taxiway lights at some unattended airports might be on a timer that turns off the lights 45 minutes after they have been activated. Keep in mind that other types of airport lighting can be pilot controlled, not just approach and runway lighting. For example, VASI and REIL lights are pilot controlled at some locations. ary shows the various types of ape marking and lighting ypeally founda age, controlled airport, To activate three-step pilot-controlled lighting, key your mic seven times on the specified frequency to tum all the lights on at maximum intensity If conditions dictate a lower intensity, key your mic five times for medium-intensity lighting and three times for the lowest intensity. For each adjustment, you must key the mic the required number of times within a period of five seconds. Remember though, using the lower intensity lighting on some installations may turn the REILs completely off. The Airport/ Facility Directory section of the Chart Supplement contains a description of the type of pilot-controlled lighting available at individual airports OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING Obstruction lighting is used both on and off the airport, during the day and at night. The purpose of obstruction lighting isto give you advance warning of prominent structures such as towers, buildings and, sometimes, even powerlines. Bright red and high intensity white lights typically are used and flashing lights may be employed. Remember, guy-wires might extend from the top of a tower to the ground, so be ‘sure that you are well clear of the obstruction. AIRPORT SECURITY ‘As a pilot, you are responsible for following best practices to keep your airport and aircraft secure. Always comply with security procedures that limit access to airport ramps and prevent unauthorized use of aircraft. [Figure 4-37]Figure 4.37 Poe must digenty protect apo ramp area and alt tom unauhoized users You also need to be able to recognize suspicious activity and know how to alert authorities if necessary. In addition to obvious criminal activities, such as someone breaking into an aircraft, other activities can alert you that a crime is likely to occur. (Figure 4-28Recognize Supicauehebty Figure 4-38. You can help koop the airport secure by recognizing and repring suspicious and criminal activi. Emirates Fight Training Academy (EFTA) i one ofthe most advanced fight training academies inthe wold. Located in the ctical global aviation hub of Dubai, EFTA has tho unique feature of having ts ow exclusive airport. EFTA boasts @ vate contol tower that manages the training apanes taking of and landing on the 1 800-retor runway. The aor is apablo of accommodating over 400 fights a day. EFTA's fet ol aiing aianes include the Crus SA22 and the twin Jt Embraer Phenom 100E, which are serviced inthe maintenance fact onthe fd Ground instrucon takes pace in classrooms wth stale-o he at interactive technology and students vein apartments at the acadomy. EFTA cadets bagi ther arin wth no fight experience and completa the comprehensive ground and ight training program prepared for caroors as arin pts.‘Authorities take reports 24 hours a day at the phone number, 1-866-GA-SECURE, but they do not dispatch law enforcement. Call 93: if you witness eriminal activitydo not confront the person—and then call 1-866-GA-Secure, as well as your airport, FBO, or flight school manager. SUMMARY CHECKLIST VA two-way radio is required to operate in the controlled airport environment because all aircraft in the Vicinity, as well as those on the ground, must follow instruetions issued from the control tower. ¥ ATC does not control VER traffie at an uncontrolled airport. V The number at the approach end of a runway corresponds to your magnetic heading when taking off or landing on that runway. ¥ Astandard rectangular pattem with five named legs is used at most airports to ensure that air trafic flows in an orderly manner. ¥ The most common wind direction indicator is the windsock, which is used at both controlled and ‘uncontrolled airports, It provides you with the present wind conditions near the touchdown zone of the runway. V Wind tees and tetrahedrons are landing direction indicators that can swing around to point into the wind, or that can be manually positioned to show landing direction. V The segmented circle helps to identify the location of the wind direction indicator and employs L- shaped extensions that show the traffic pattern tum directions for depicted runways. ¥ Adhering to noise abatement procedures reduces the level of noise over neighborhoods that are near airports. A visual runway normally is marked only with the rmway number and a dashed white centerline, ‘When flying instrument approaches, pilots can use the additional markings on IFR runways, such as threshold markings, touchdown zone markings, and aiming point markings. Usually, a runway has a displaced threshold because of an obstruction off the end of the runway that can prevent a normal descent and landing on the beginning portion of the pavement. A blast pad/stopway can serve as an emergency overrun, but is not strong enough to be used for normal landing, takeoff, or taxiing operations. The blast pad is an area where propeller or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard to others. Taxiways normally have yellow centerline markings, and hold lines wherever they intersect with a runway. V There are six basic types of airport signs — direction, mandatory, location, runway distance remaining, information, and destination. ¥ To conduct LAHSO, you should have at least a private pilot certificate, have the published ALDs and runway slopes available, and know which ruaway LAHSO combinations provide acceptable landing distances with the existing conditions upon arrival. ¥ Ifyou believe a LAHSO clearance is unsafe, you are expected to dedine it. If you accept a LAHSO clearance, you must adhere to it, exiting the runway at the first convenient taxiway before the hold- short point or stopping at the holé-short point. Acceptance of a LAHSO clearance does not preclude a go-around, but you must tell ATC immediately and maintain safe separation from other aircraft and vehicles Airport beacons guide pilots to lighted airports at night and can indicate when weather conditions are below VFR minimums during the day. V The two-bar visual approach slope indicator (VASI) shows whether or not you are on a glide path that will take you safely to the touchdown zone ofthe runway.A vatiety of lighting systems, including approach light systems, runway edge lights, runway end identifier lights (REILs), in-runway lighting, and taxiway lighting are used at airports to aid pilots in ‘identifying the airport environment at night and in low visibility conditions. ¥ Pilot-controlled lighting is the term used to describe systems that you can activate by keying the aircraft's microphone on a specified radio frequency. V You are responsible for following best practices to keep your airport and aircraft secure—complying with security procedures that limit access to airport ramps and prevent unauthorized use of aircraft. ¥ You must be able to recognize suspicious activity and know how to alert authorities. If you observe suspicious activity, call 1-866-GA-SECURE (s-866-427-3287). If you observe criminal activity, call 911 and then call 1-866-GA-SECURE. KEY TERMS Controlled Airport Air Traffie Control (ATO) Uncontrolled Airport Runways ‘Traffic Patterns, Windsock Wind Tee Tetrahedron Segmented Circle Noise Abatement Procedures Displaced Threshold Blast Pad/Stopway Area Taxiways Hold Lines Ramp Area Hand Signals International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Runway Ineursion Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) Available Landing Distance (ALD) Airport Beacons ‘Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator (PVASI) Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Approach Lighting Systems (ALS) Runway Edge Lights Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs) Pilot-Controlled Lighting 1-866-GA SECUREQUESTIONS 4. Describe how runway numbers are determined 2. Determine the proper runway and traffic pattem for landing (A Lefandtafifor Runway 4 2. Left-hand trafic for Runway 9 Right-hand traffic for Runway 22 5. Explain the purpose ofa displaced threshold and the operating limitation associated with it. “4 What marking indicates a closed runway? 5. Which airplane is onthe correct side ofthe hold ine tobe clear of the runway? 0% le 6. Direction Sign 7 cation sign 8. Mandatory Instruction sign 9. Lista least five actions you can take to elp prevent arunway incursion. ‘Match the following airport beacon light patterns tothe appropriate airport. 10White/White/Green A. Civilian land airport s1.White/Green B, Military airport 12.White/Yellow C. Water airport4g. What is expected of ou in order to conduct land and hold-short operations (LAHSO)? 14, True/False. After you accept aLAHSO clearance, you must adhere tit and you may not go around ‘Match each illustration tothe correct glide path description. (Questions 15-18) o o @ ‘i “A “A ° “zs ° “BE 5 36 sr. Papi on gitepath 18. Yast low 49, Desrbe the procedure fr activating three-step ilot-controlledUighting 120, What should you doifyou observe criminal activity, suchas someone breaking into an airplane? ‘A. Call. 966-Ga SECURE and then cll 9. 3. call gu and then call 1 866-GA SECURE, all s-866-GA SECURE and then try to detain the suspected criminal 45. VASt,on glide path 36, PAPE slighty highSECTION C Aeronautical Charts aps conjure up images of travel, adventure, and discovery. By exploring maps, you can journey M to exotic locales without ever leaving the comfort of your home. For you, as a pilot, maps are essential in turning imaginary excursions into actual trips. Aeronautical charts are maps that provide a detailed portrayal of an area's topography and include aeronautical and navigational information. Before you learn about the specific features and symbology of aeronautical charts, you need to understand some basic concepts that apply to representations of the earth's surface on maps. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE The largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the earth, or any sphere, is referred to as a great circle. A great circle's plane must pass through the center of the earth dividing it into two equal parts. A ‘small circle is formed on the surface of the earth by the intersection of a plane that does not pass through the center of the earth. Reference lines based on small and great circles are used to define locations on the earth's surface. For example, the equator forms a great cicle, The equator is the imaginary line that circles the earth midway between the north and south poles. You can locate a position north or south of the equator by using parallels, or lines of latitude, which form small cireles, As a reference point, the equator is labeled as o* of latitude. The parallel lines north of the equator are numbered from 0° to 90°, with go° north latitude positioned at the north pole. Parallels in the southern hemisphere also are numbered from 0° to 90", with {90° south latitude representing the south pole. Meridians, or lines of longitude, are imaginary lines that extend from the north to the south pole. (Figure 4-24] Because they connect the poles, lines of longitude always are given in a direction of true north and south, Just as the equator is designated o° of latitude, the Prime Meridian, which passes through Greenwich, England, is labeled o° of longitude. rene Net Figure 4-30. Ret 35 of latitude and longitude form great and small irles onthe earth's surface. ‘There are a total of 60° of longitude encompassing the earth, with 180° on the east side and s80° on the ‘west side of the Prime Meridian. The line of 80° of longitude is on the opposite side ofthe earth from the Prime Meridian. The International Date Line approximately corresponds with the s80° line of longitude, although segments of the Date Line actually vary as much as 20°. When you locate a position east or west of the Prime Meridian, you are determining a position in reference to a line of longitude. The lines of latitude and longitude are printed on aeronautical charts with each degree subdivided into 60 equalsegments called minutes. You can use latitude and longitude coordinates to reference the exact location of apoint on the earth. (Figure 4-40] sow The iO: ee? au fern Aare Pa sil Tis Figure 4-40. Given the geographic coor PROJECTIONS A globe is the most accurate reduced representation of earth, but obviously is not the most convenient navigation tool. To create a useful map or chart, a picture of the reduced-earth globe must be projected onto a flat surface. Because this is ike pressing a section of orange peel on a flat surface, some distortion ultimately occurs inthis process. Projections are used for transferring a section of the earth’s surface onto a flat chart. Two of the most common types of projections are the Mercator and the Lambert Conformal Conic. Mercator projections normally are used as wall charts. Distortion of landmasses on a Mercator chart increases with distance from the equator. [Figure 4-43] ho intersection of the latitude and longiude ines—yu can locate any point on a globe Figure 4-41. The Mercator maps used in classrooms distort tho sizeof land ma almost as big as Seth Armetcabutis actualy ony 1/8 as large jand looks asThe Lambert Conformal Conic projection is frequently used to create aeronautical charts because it offers minimal distortion on the comparatively small area covered by an individual chart. When you compare miles on a Lambert chart to actual miles on earth, the overall scale inaccuracies are negligible within a single chart, [Figure 4-42] Figure 4-42. Lambert Conformal Cone chats donot have sigrfcant dstorion as lng as they do nt cover large area of SECTIONAL CHARTS ‘The first aeronautical chart was a strip chart that covered the route from Kansas City, Missouri, to Moline, Illinois, Published in 1927, the same year that Lindbergh completed his historic transatlantic flight, it showed topographic features and airway beacons that were used for night navigation. Strip charts for other major routes were soon published but each chart only covered an area 80 miles wide. These charts were of little help if a pilot got lost, had to deviate, or needed to fly to a destination that was not located along a primary route, In 1930, atea charts were developed to provide coverage for the entire United States by dividing the country into 87 sections. Today, these sectional charts, or sectionals, cover all of the 48 mainland states, plus Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands and are your primary VER navigation reference, depicting topographic information, visual landmarks, and airport data. Updated every six months, you can downloaded these charts from faa.gov or purchase printed versions. In addition, several commercial flight planning products display sectional charts, Each chart covers 6° to 8° of longitude and approximately 4° of latitude and is given the name of a primary city within its coverage. The scale of a paper sectional chart is 1:500,000. This means that each inch on the sectional chart represents 500,000 actual inches. This translates to one inch on the sectional equaling approximately 7 nautical, or 8 statute, miles on the earth's surface. To choose a safe maneuvering or cruising altitude, you can refer to the contour lines, spot elevations, and color tints used to show terrain elevation on sectional charts. In addition, topographical information includes cities, towns, rivers, highways, railroads, and other distinctive landmarks that you can use as visual checkpoints. Along with airport depictions, sectionals also contain aeronautical information pertaining to navigation and communication facilities, as well as airspace and obstructions. In flightyyou can display a digital chart on a tablet or use a paper sectional chart, which is folded for easy handling, storage, and identification. [Figure 4-43]Figure 4-43. You wl tind infomation about chart features by reterring tothe front and back panels, as wll ast he inside char panels hi gue ls continued on page 4-44 Figure 4-43 continued Most sectionals are revised every 6 months, but some outside the 48 contiguous states are on an annual nn schedule, Changes in aeronautical data that could affect your flight might occur between chart revisions. For this reason, you should consult the appropriate Chart Supplement prior to flight and especially review the Aeronautical Chart Bulletin section. You can find more information about sources of flight information in Chapter 5, VFR TERMINAL AREA CHARTS Whenever you are flying under VFR in or around some of the busiest airports in the country, VFR terminal area charts (TACs) will help significantly with orientation and navigation. Most terminalarea charts cover airports that have Class B airspace. You will learn more about the airspace classes in Section D of this chapter. VFR terminal area charts provide a more detailed display of topographical features and airspace on a larger scale (1:250,000) than sectional charts. Sectional charts display a white border to indicate the area covered by a terminal area chart. (Figure 4-44] Fig scale wih mere deta to facitate VER navigation in and around busy ports. CHART SYMBOLOGY The legend is your tool for deciphering symbols and decoding aeronautical chart information. Divided into seven categories, the legend describes symbology for airports, airport data, radio aids to navigation and communication boxes, airport traffic service and airspace information, obstructions, topographic information, and miscellaneous data. AIRPORT SYMBOLS ‘There are thousands of airports identified by symbols on sectional charts. Because there is a wide variety of airport types, shapes, and sizes, several different airport diagrams are shown on sectional charts to help you picture the actual airport being illustrated. Civil, military, and private airports, as well as seaplane bases, heliports, and ultralight flight parks are depicted by unique symbology. A variety of symbols are used fo provide information regarding the type and length of runways, and the airport services available at particular airport. In addition, you can quickly identify airports with control towers as they are shown in blue, while non-towered airports are magenta in color. (Figure 4-45] 4-44, VER terminal area charts have a large‘ee Figure 4-45. ntcrmation provided in th lagend wil help answer questions you might have concerning aspect appr. AIRPORT DATA A second portion of the sectional legend explains the data printed near each individual airport. Airport data contains communication frequencies, including the common traffie advisory frequency (CTAF), and approximate length of the longest runway, as well as the availability of lighting and weather services. Chapter 5 covers the use of CIAF and other frequencies shown on the chart. In addition, the airport clevation is included as part of the airport data. The official airport elevation is defined as the highest part of usable runway surface, measured in feet above mean sea level. [Figure 4-46]Figure 4-46 Airport data includes information such as communication frequencies, fold elevation, alrportIighting, and runway lngths NAVIGATION AIDS For cross-country planning and flight, you can refer to navigation and communication boxes for information concerning radio aids to navigation, or navaids, and Flight Service frequencies in the area. You will communicate with Flight Service enroute to open and close flight plans, obtain current weather information, or for assistance in emergency situations. Chapter 5 describes the services available from Flight Service in greater detail and Chapter 9 covers the operation of navaids represented by chart symbols. [Figure 4-47]Figure 4-47. Boxes placed near he appropiate naval include the name, requency, ad Morse cade init ofthe navai, Fight Service ‘requoncies are printed above the boxes. improved. 7 hars specitcaly designed for fight inthe clouds, thanks to avaton pioneer Erey B. | doppesen. AS an aimail pit in the 1920s, Jeppesen began recording information about tara heights, fed lengths, | aipot ayous, ight, and obstacles inate black notebook. [Figure A) Tho noes that he took evenly tured into & | tvving business that provided pos with erroute charts depicing aways and navigation aids, as wel as terinal charts ‘operating in FF condone seldom have uce forthe vsual landmarks that are feared on VFR chars. In igure B, you can see thatthe same area depicted on a VFR chat appears much dilerenty on a cig FR chartTOPOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION AND OBSTRUCTIONS. The locations of natural and man-made features, such as lakes, rivers, railroads, roads, and highways are shown on sectional charts as reference points for navigation. (Figure 4-48] In addition to paying close attention to terrain features, you also must be aware of man-made obstructions to flight. Although some structures might extend only several feet above the ground, others might rise more than 1,000 feet. (Figure 4-40]Figure 4-48. Wih experiance, you will come skled at associating he symbol on the chart wth the landmark as viewed from the airplane. Figure 4-49. Although obstructions can impose hazards to fight, they can be go references to dently your pasion. Sectional chart legends also define several miscellaneous symbols that depict areas of parachuting, glider, and ultralight activity, as well as visual check points that can be used to identify your position to ATC. {Eiguze 4-50] You will continue your exploration of aeronautical chart information and symbols as you examine airspace dimensions and operating requirements in Section D ofthis chapter. ‘Seamer SSeS |e S| ete i fesse” ee pa impr spre am istorsine pone a i aoa ties andng a oul coos - Burger spe ss Van! EB : Be Figure 4-50. This sctonal chart excerpt depicts a vately of miscellaneous symbols the area around San Francisca Intemational Alport ‘wide variety of symbols and markings shown on aeronutcal charts ae nt idetfled onthe char agend. These symbole are Getined in the Aeronautical Chart User's Guido, which can bo downloaded at fa.gov. The guide i useful as aleaming id and a ‘quck erence. Can you corey idenily some of hese unique symbol?eo a @ & = SUMMARY CHECKLIST V Aeronautical charts are maps that provide a detailed portrayal of an area's topography and include aeronautical and navigational information. ¥ Reference lines based on great and small circles are used to define locations on the earth’s surface. ¥ You can locate a position on an aeronautical chart by knowing its coordinates of latitude and longitude. ¥ Each sectional chart covers 6° to 8° of longitude and approximately 4° of latitude and is given the name of a primary city within its coverage. V Maximum elevation figures (MEFs) are based on the highest known feature within a quadrangle bounded by lines of latitude and longitude. ¥ You should fly no lower than 2,000 feet AGL over a special conservation area, such as a national park or forest service area, VER terminal area charts (TACs) provide a more detailed display of topographical features and airspace on a larger scale than sectional charts for flight around busy airports, typically with Class B airspace. Sectional charts display a white border to indicate the area covered by a terminal area chart. V The chart legend describes symbology for airports, airport data, radio aids to navigation and communication boxes, airport traffic service and airspace information, obstructions, topographic information, and miscellaneous data. 1 Because there is a wide variety of airport types, shapes, and sizes, several types of airport diagrams are shown on sectional charts to help you picture the actual airport being illustrated. Airports with control towers are shown in blue, while all others are identified by a magenta color. ¥ Tick marks extending from an airport diagram indicate that fuel is available and that the field is attended, a least during normal working hours Astar above the airport diagram indicates an airport beacon normally operates from sunset to sunrise, ¥ By referring to the airport data on sectional charts, you can determine what radio frequencies to use for communication at a particular airport. In addition, information such as longest runway length, airport lighting, and field elevation can be determined. Boxes placed near the appropriate navaid, include the name, frequency, and Morse code identifier of the navaid. Flight Service frequencies are printed above the boxes.The letter R nest to a Flight Service frequency means you need to transmit on this frequency and receive a reply on the VOR frequency. With the help of contour lines, spot elevations, and the elevations of obstructions, you can choose a safe cruising altitude. The locations of natural and man-made features, such as lakes, river, railroads, roads, and highways are shown on charts as reference points for navigation. ¥ Although obstructions can impose hazards to flight, they can be good references. Typically both the AGL and MSL altitude are shown for an obstruction. KEY TERMS Aeronautical Charts Great Circle Small Circle Parallels Latitude Meridians Longitude Prime Meridian Projections ‘Mereator Projection Lambert Conformal Conie Projection Sectional Charts ‘Terminal Area Charts (TAC) Maximum Elevation Figures (MEFs) ‘World Aeronautical Chart (WAC) Legend Airport Elevation Navaids QUESTIONS 1. Determine the appronimate latitude and longitude of Red Blut aipor. '. Whatis the minimum MS alitude that you should flyover the area depicted in this chart excerpt?9. Whatis the contrl tower frequency for Pounds Airport? 40. What the elevation of Pounds aisport 14, True/False Pounds airport has fulltime lighting, 12, What do te tick matis on the port dagram indicate? 4g, What does the star symbol above the airport diagram indicater 14, Does the control tower at Pounds airport opertefull time” 45. You can use the frequency 22, located on top ofthe navaid bos to communicate wich what fait 16, Wht s the height ofthe lighted obstruction? A. s3a5 feet ISL 3.4467 feetaGL ©. 2049 feet AGLSECTION D Airspace ebster’s dictionary defines airspace as “the portion of the atmosphere above a particular land area, especially above a nation.” To efficiently manage the large amount of air trafic that traverses the sky each day, the atmosphere above the United States is divided into several sectors, or classes, In each airspace class, specific rules apply. For example, there are VFR weather minimums (minimum flight visibilities and distances from clouds) that you must maintain in each airspace class, In some afeas, you are required to communicate with ATC and comply with pilot certification and aircraft equipment requirements. In addition to the primary classes, the airspace over the United States includes special use and other airspace areas where certain restrictions apply or specific ATC services are provided. Compared to the ground-based rules of driving, airspace regulations might seem very unusual. For example, when you drive across the country, you do not enter regions where the rules of the road change significantly. You need to comply with the regulations as you fly, but how do you know when you are entering a different class of airspace? There are no signposts in the sky to alert you to the fact that you are crossing over an invisible boundary into another airspace sector. The signposts that you do have are the lateral and vertical airspace dimensions that are depicted on aeronautical charts. [Figure 4-53] Figure 4-51. The lagend helps you identity tho boundaros ol alrpace below 18,00 fost MSL that are depicted on sectional chat. AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATIONS Controlled airspace is a general term that covers five of the six classes of airspace; Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E. While operating in controlled airspace, you are subject to certain operating rales, as well as pilot qualification and aircraft equipment requirements. Class G airspace is referred to asuncontrolled airspace. There is no airspace designation for Class F in the United States. One of the primary functions of airspace classification is the separation of IFR and VER traffic. The FARs prohibit noninstrument-rated pilots from flying when conditions are below the basic VFR weather minimums specified for each class of airspace. VFR cloud clearance and visibility requirements are designed to help you avoid flying into clouds, as well as to allow you to maintain adequate forward visibility to see and avoid other aircraft and navigate inflight. Keep in mind that, these values are legal minimums. You should establish your own personal minimums that are higher than the regulatory ‘minimums based on your experience level, Your instructor can advise you in this area, ‘When the weather conditions deteriorate below VFR minimums, all aircraft in controlled airspace must be flown by instrument-rated pilots in accordance with IFR clearances issued by ATC. If you are an instrument-rated pilot on an IFR flight plan, you are not subject to any visibility or cloud clearance minimums, but ATC must issue a clearance allowing you to proceed through controlled airspace. The following discussion of airspace follows a standard format that makes it easy to understand the features of each class of airspace. Following a general description of the airspace class and its operating requirements, a sectional or terminal area chart (TAC) depiction is shown with examples that apply to operating in and near the airspace. In addition, a table lists the VFR weather minimums that apply to the airspace class and summarizes the operating requirements. For easy reference, a chart that combines the individual airspace class tables, and a diagram that depicts the relationships between each airspace class can be found at the end ofthis chapter. Lateral distances and visibility figures are indicated in nautical or statute miles, When describing airspace dimensions, the term floor often is used to refer to the lowest altitude at which the airspace segment begins, and the term ceiling applies to the upper limit of the airspace. These boundaries, as well as the height of clouds are described as heights above ground level (AGL), above mean sea level (MSL), or as flight levels (FL). At 18,000 feet MSL and above, altitudes are prefaced by the letters FL meaning flight level, with the last two zeros omitted, For example, 35,000 feet is referenced as FL350. CLASS G AIRSPACE (UNCONTROLLED) ATC does not exercise control of traffic and you are not required to communicate with them when operating in Class G airspace, unless a temporary control tower exists, In the early days of aviation, all airspace was uncontrolled. Today the vast majority of airspace that covers the contiguous U.S. is controlled. Class G airspace typically starts at the surface and extends up to the base of the overlying controlled airspace (Class E), which is normally 700 or 3,200 feet AGL. In a few areas of the western U.S. and Alaska, Class G airspace can extend all the way up to 14,500 feet MSL, or to 1,500 feet AGL, whichever is higher. [Figure 4-s2]4-52, Class G airspace isthe leas Fig CONTROLLED AIRSPACE The important thing to know about operating in controlled airspace is that you might be subject to air traffic control. As a routine measure, IFR flights are controlled from takeoff to touchdown because they are permitted to operate in all kinds of weather. Asa VER pilot, your contact with ATC typically is limited to terminal areas. For example, when you take off or land at controlled airports, you must contact the control tower, and you often will use approach and departure control services. Separation of air traffic is the primary function of ATC, and the automatic dependent surveillance- broadeast (ADS-B) system and radar are the controller's principal tools. Because of this, the FARs require you to use your aircraft transponder (if your aircraft is so equipped) whenever you fly in controlled Birspace. A transponder isan electronic device aboard the airplane that enhances your aircraft's identity ‘on an ATC display. A controller may assign an individual code to your transponder to help distinguish your aireraft from others in the area, Transponders carry designations appropriate to their capabilities. A transponder with altitude encoding equipment is referred to as having Mode C capability. The Mode S transponder is required for use with ADS-B. You will learn more about ADS-B, radar, and transponders in Chapter 5, Section A-ATC Services. ‘The FARs require that you have an operating transponder with Mode C capability in Class A airspace, Class B airspace, within 30 nautical miles of Class B primary airports, and in and above Class C airspace. In addition, you must have a Mode C transponder at or above 10,000 feet MSL (except at or below 2,500 feet AGL) even in uncontrolled airspace, over the 48 contiguous states, Starting in 2020, your airplane must have ADS-B equipment in the same airspace. Even if you are not in airspace where transponders are required, if your aircraft is equipped with a transponder, the FARs require that it be tumed on while operating in controlled airspace. (Figure 4-53] srictive ofall aispace.Figure 4-53. You must havea Meds CLASS E AIRSPACE ‘The majority of your flying time will probably be spent in the controlled airspace designated as Class E airspace. There are no communication requirements to operate within Class E airspace, but you can request traffic advisory services that ATC provides on a workload-permitting basis. In Class E airspace, you cannot fly when the weather is below VFR minimums unless you are instrument rated, have filed an IER fight plan, and have received a clearance from ATC. Class E airspace evolved as both VFR and IFR air traffic increased and the government established a system of airways based on radio beacons. Each airway was 8 nautical miles wide (extending 4 nautical ales on each side of the airway centerline) with a base altitude of 1,200 feet AGL. At frst, the airway was designated as controlled airspace, but the surrounding area was still considered uncontrolled. Eventually, there were so many airways that controlled airspace was established between airways at 1,200 feet AGL over most of the country, extending up to, ‘but not includingy'18,000 feet MSL. Today, these Federal airways, or Victor airways, are based on VOR or VORTAC navaids and are identified by a V and the airway number. (Figure 4-54} A few airways are based on L/MF (low/medium frequency) navaids, or NDBs. These airways are referred to as colored airways and are designated by a letter and a number. The only colored airways in the United States still in use are in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, ransponde (ADS-B capablty ater 2020) to operate in he airepace shown here Figure 4-54 n areas around Federal aiaye, Cass E airspace begins at 1,200 feet AGL, of aber alitue specie on the chart. To allow IFR traffic to remain in controlled airspace while transitioning from the enroute to the terminal environment, the base of Class E starts closer to the ground near many airports. At airports without control towers that have approved instrument approach procedures, Class E airspace begins either at 700feet AGL or at the surface and these Class E areas might extend in the direction of the instrument approach. At airports where Class E begins at the surface, weather reporting services are provided by a ‘weather observer or automatic weather observation equipment (ASOS/AWSS/AWOS). [Figure 4-55] Figure 4-55. Cass E airspace encrcing an aitpert extends upto the base ofthe overying or ajacent controled airspace, ‘Another portion of Class E airspace extends from 14,500 feet MSL up to, but not including, the base of Class A airspace at 18,000 feet MSL. This Class E segment covers the 48 contiguous states, District of Columbia, Alaska, and the airspace out to 12 nautical miles from the coastlines. In addition, the airspace in these areas above FL6o0 is designated as Class E. The only exceptions are the airspace located over the Alaska peninsula west of 160° W longitude and the airspace below 1,500 feet AGL. [Figure 4-56] Figure 4-56 Cass E airspace that begins at 14,500 feet MSL and again at FLEOO, is not depicted on sectional chats CLASS D AIRSPACE‘An airport that has an operating control tower, but does not provide Class B or C airspace ATC services, is surrounded by Class D airspace. The control tower provides sequencing and traffic advisories to VFR aircraft operating into and out ofthe airport, and IFR traffic separation. You must establish two-way radio ‘communication with the tower prior to entering Class D airspace and maintain radio contact during all ‘operations to, from, or on that airport. As a general rule, you should avoid Class D airspace except to take offor land at an airport within the area. ‘The airspace at an airport with a part-time control tower is designated as Class D only when the tower is in operation. At airports where the tower operates part time, the airspace changes to Class E, or a combination of Class E and Class G when the tower is closed. For these airports, check the Aitport/Faeility Directory in the Chart Supplement for the tower's hours of operation and the aitspace designation, Class D airspace can be various sizes and shapes, depending on the instrument approach procedures established for that airport. Most Class D airspace is a circle with a radius of approximately 4 NM extending up to 2,500 feet AGL. [Figure 4-57 i [inners | SMMPCHMCM mre oe pt Figure 4-57. Cass D airepace is around an airport where you must bein radio contact with In some Class D airspace areas, a satellite airport may be located within the airspace designated for the primary airport. Ifa control tower is in operation at the satellite airport, you should contact it for arrival and departure, When the satellite airport is a nontowered field, you must establish contact with the primary airport's control tower. When departing a nontowered satellite airport in Class D airspace, contact the controlling tower as soon as practicable after takeoff. To the maximum extent practical and consistent with safety, satellite airports are excluded from Class D airspace. For instance, airspace might be carved out of a Class D area to allow traffic to arrive and depart from a nontowered satellite airport CLASS C AIRSPACE Factors considered in designating controlled airspace include safety, users’ needs, and the volume of air traffic. Because of these considerations, many busy airports are surrounded by Class C airspace. Within Class C area, ATC provides radar service to all IFR and VFR aireraft, and participation in this service is mandatory. An outer area normally extends out to 20 nautical miles from the primary airport, where Class C services are available but not mandatory.Class C areas usually have similar dimensions from one location to another, although some may be ‘modified to fit unique aspects ofa particular airports location. A § nautical mile radius core area extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above the elevation of the primary airport. A so nautical mile radius shelf area usually extends from 3,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. Aeronautical charts depict the MSL altitudes of the floor and ceiling of each segment of Class C airspace. Prior to entering Class C airspace, you must establish two-way communication with the ATC facility having jurisdiction and maintain it while you are operating within the airspace. When you are departing the primary airport, you must maintain radio contact with ATC until you are clear of the area. In addition to the two-way radio requirement, all aircraft operating in a Class C area and in all airspace above it must be equipped with a transponder with Mode C (ADS-B after 2020). Aireraft operating in the airspace beneath a Class C shelf area are not required to have a Mode C transponder. (Figure 4-58} ze eS 4-58, You are requied to communicate vith ATC inthe core and shel ares of Cass C that typical extend to 10M from the A few Class C ATC facilities are part-time, so some services are not always available. If the ATC facility is closed, the operating rules for the Class C area not in effect. Hours of operation for ATC facilities are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory in the Chart Supplement. CLASS B AIRSPACE At some of the country’s major airports, Class B airspace has been established to separate all arriving and departing traffic. Although each Class B area usually is designated for a major terminal, it typically serves several airports in the area. Each Class B area is individually designed to serve the needs of the particular airport that it surrounds. Terrain, the amount and flow of air traffic, and the location of other airports all influence each design. Generally, you will find that Class B airspace surrounds the busiest airports in the country. A transponder with Mode C (ADS-B after 2020) is required within 30 nautical miles of the Class B area's primary airport from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL. In addition, a VOR or TACAN is required for IFR operations. In order to fly within Class B airspace, or to take off or land at an airport within that airspace, you must possess at least a private pilot certificate. In certain Class B areas, student pilots may bepermitted to conduct flight operations by obtaining specified training and a logbook endorsement from a certificated flight instructor. However, student pilot operations are prohibited at designated major airports within the nation's busiest Class B areas. Refer to FAR Part o1 for specific rules pertaining to student pilot operations within Class B airspace. Prior to entering any part of Class B airspace, you are required to obtain a clearance from ATC on the appropriate frequency. You must advise ATC of your intended altitude and route of flight before departing ‘an airport in a Class B area. ATC permission is required before you can fly through Class B airspace, even after a departure from an airport that is other than the primary airport. Whenever you are flying VFR in or around Class B airspace, a VFR terminal area charts (TAC) helps significantly with orientation and navigation, TACs show the lateral limits of the various sections of the Class B area with more detail than sectional charts. Sectional charts display a white border around Class B airspace to indicate the area covered by a TAC. [Figure 4-5a] Figure 4-50. The cong and too for each CiassB arspaco sector is labelad with is MSL aitude on this TAC. VER flyway planning charts are published on the reverse side of some VFR terminal area charts or can be downloaded with these charts. The flyway planning charts show VFR routes for transitioning around, under, and through Class B airspace. These routes are not intended to discourage requests for VER operations, but are designed to help you avoid heavily congested areas, such as IFR arrival and departure routes. Flyway charts omit most of the terrain features and geographic information found on terminal area charts because they are for planning, not navigating. However, major landmarks are shown as visual aids to orientation. [Figure 4-60]Figure 4-60. Flyway planing chars help you navigate around and trou CLASS A AIRSPACE The airspace that extends from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600 is defined as Class A airspace. It covers the majority of the contiguous states and Alaska, as well as the area extending 12 nautical miles out from the U.S. coast. To operate within Class A airspace, you must be instrument rated and your aircraft must be transponder equipped, operate on an IFR flight plan, and be under positive ATC control. Because of the high speeds of airplanes operating in Class A airspace and the corresponding increase of the closure rates between these aircraft, VFR flight is not allowed, Jet routes are designed to serve aireraft operations from the floor of Class A airspace up to and including FL450. Within Class A airspace, you are required to set your altimeter to the standard setting of 29.92 inches Hg so that all pilots maintain their assigned altitudes using the same altimeter reference. altitudes within Class A airspace are expressed to ATC by using the term fight level (FL). (Figure 4-61/ a = Figure 4-61. Cass A airspace exons above 18,000 fet MSL over the matty ofthe US. soit isnot shown on aeronautical chats SPECIAL VFR In addition to maintaining the VFR minimums already discussed, you may only operate within the areas of Class B, C, D, or E airspace that extend to the surface around an airport, when the ground visibility is at least 3 statute miles and the cloud ceiling is at least 1,000 feet AGL. If ground visibility is not reported, you ean use flight visibility. When the weather is below these VFR minimums, and there is no conflicting IER traffic, you may obtain a special VFR clearance from the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the affected airspace. A special VFR clearance allows you to enter, leave, or operate within most Class D and Class E surface areas and in some Class B and Class C surface areas if the flight visibility is at least 3 statute mile and you can remain clear of clouds. At least s statute mile of ground visibility is required for takeoff and landing. However, if ground visibility is not reported, you must have at least s statute mile flight visibility. ‘As a private pilot, you may obtain a special VFR clearance only during the daytime. Because of the difficulty in seeing clouds at night, special VFR is not permitted between sunset and sunrise unless you have a current instrument rating and the aircraft is equipped for instrument flight. At some major airports, special VER clearances are not available, [Figure 4-62] Figure 4-62. The phrase NO SVER indcatos that you cannot obtain a special VFR clearance o operate at the airportImagine that you are on a crss-county fight. Everything has boon progressing smocthy but as you scan the hovizon, you ratce some cleuds up ahoad, “it must just be a high scattered layer," you say to yousel. “My briefing didnt manton Anything about lw clouds." As you proceed on course, you realize thatthe clouds ar at your altudo. “No problem,” you think, “just crop down a lie lower, stay undereath this weather unlit clears up. The forecast for tho alpport was clear.” As you continue fo descend lower and lower to avoid the clouds, visual references begin to disappoar and the sky tum whe, Pane ses "You have just atemped what many plots eer to as “scudrunning’—trying to stay below the clouds while continuing into eterorating weather condtons. When inexperienced, noninstrumentrated plots find themselves in tis stuaton, the futcome often is fatal NTSB slatsticsindeata that approximately 25% of all goneral aviaton accidens are weather related, as wel as neatly 40% of al falalaccidens. The NTSB cles “continued VFR fight into adverse weatherINC” ae the mary cause in many ofthese accidents. Inadverintenty ino instrument weather conditions can result in eer fing into terrain or experiencing spatial disorientation. How can you avd an unplanned ight if instrument contons? The fst step is o define safe personal wether minimums for Yourself and stick to them. Sot conservative coling ad visbly vas, which re higher than those required bythe FAR. Stat tit a thoraugh weather briefing pror fo your fight and there is any question abou! the cantons. dont go. Learn how to ‘blan weather information enroute so you can Keep updated on changing condone. I you do nadverenty enter IFR weather, ‘maintain con of the airplane and make a 180" tum back to VER condtions Ifyou cant maintain VA, do nt lt your prs Koop you trom contacting ATC or Fight Sore fr assistance. AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS Because the airspace at lower altitudes, and especialy inthe vicinity of airports, tends to be congested, the FAA has established aircraft speed restrictions, In general, flights below 10,000 feet MSL are limited to a maximum indicated airspeed of 250 knots. When operating in Class C or D airspace, at or below 2,500 feet above the surface, and within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport, you must not exceed 200 knots indicated airspeed. This 200-knot restriction also applies in airspace underlying a Class B area and in VFR corridors through Class B airspace. SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE Special use airspace is used to confine certain flight activities and to place limitations on aircraft operations that are not part of these activities. Special use airspace is divided into alert areas, military operations areas, warning areas, restricted areas, prohibited areas, controlled firing areas, and national security areas. [Figure 4-63]Figure 4-63. 8y rferng to ables on each sectional chat you can determine the aitudes, times of use, and controling agencies forthe special use airspace dapictod on thal specie chart. ALERT AREAS ‘Areas shown on aeronautical charts to inform you of unusual types of aerial activities, such as parachute jumping, glider towing, or high concentrations of student pilot training are designated as alert areas. Pilots of participating aircraft and pilots transiting the area are equally responsible for collision avoidance, so you should be especially cautious when flying through alert areas. (Figure 4-64} es Ataomy nea Cause Sor SSE Figure 4-64. Alot aroas are dosignatod by heltor A folowed by a number. MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS, Auilitary operations area (MOA) is a block of airspace in which military training and other military maneuvers are conducted. MOAs usually have specified floors and ceilings for containing military activities. VFR aireraft are not prevented from flying through active MOAs, but it is wise to avoid them when possible. If you do choose to fly in an MOA, you should exercise extreme caution when military activity is being conducted. Most military training activities require acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers at high speeds. Flight Service can advise you ofthe hours of operation of an MOA along your route, or you can check the special use airspace panel on the edge of your chart. (Figure 4-65]fein at 000% ML and 000 SL. opal extend pts bc eindiang FLTC tay ets can cout om 1 our br suc # her alr sunset Moray ough Fis Proto ering ster or MOR fey a ae, cote Ft oth Catrler adaahes, Figure 4-65. You should exercise caution whl fying within an active MOA. WARNING AREAS. Awarning area is airspace of defined dimensions, extending from three nautical miles outward from the coast of the United States, that contains activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. ‘Warning areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to caution nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger. A warning area may be located over domestic or international waters or both. [Figure 4-66] Figure 4-66. Hazards suchas arial gunnery and guided missiles may evs over the wators of warring areas. RESTRICTED AREAS Restricted areas often have invisible hazards to aircraft, such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles, Permission to fly through restricted areas must be granted by the controlling agency. [Figure 4-67]Figure 4-67. The dimensions of most resticted areas ae typically sy to plan ight around. However, extra caution i approprato even when you ae fying near the area PROHIBITED AREAS Prohibited areas are established for security or other reasons associated with national welfare and they contain airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. They are shown with the letter “P” followed by a number on charts. You may not operate within a prohibited area without permission from the controlling agency. [Figure 4-68] er Figure 4-68. Although private icra operators can sometimes gain permission to ener resticted areas, thy are generaly are not granted sotese to prohibited areas CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS The distinguishing feature of a controlled firing area, compared to other special use airspace, is that its activities are discontinued immediately when a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout personnel determines an aircraft might be approaching the area. Because nonparticipating aircraft are not required to change their flight path, controlled firing areas are not depicted on aeronautical charts, OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS Most other airspace areas typically do not have the same types of restrictions or hazardous activities that apply to special use airspace areas. Other airspace areas include national security areas, local airportadvisory areas, military training routes, parachute jump aireraft operations, and terminal radar service areas. Temporary fight restrictions (TFRs) are also classified as other airspace areas and have restrictions that are unique to the specific TFR. NATIONAL SECURITY AREAS. National security areas (NSAs) are established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilites. You are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through an NSA. At times, flight through an NSA may be prohibited to provide a greater level of security and safety. A NOTAM is issued to advise you of any changes in an SA's status. [Figure 4-6] Figure 4-69. You should comply with al restrictons related to an NSA, although the rues are normaly voluntary. LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY AREAS Local airport advisory (LAA) areas extend 10 statute miles from airports in Alaska where a flight service station (FSS) is located on the field but there is no operating control tower. You normally will contact the FSS on the published CTAF frequency of 123.6 MHz prior to entering the advisory area. The FSS provides, local airport information, such as wind direction and velocity, favored runway, altimeter setting, and reported traffic within the area. [Figure 4-70] oes eo aan 4) “ations lama ssa is ‘iy aaa om May * Trough October 15 tom odo o 245 acl ree Figure 4-70. In Alaska, several local aiport advisory areas operate on a seasonal basis. MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES Low-level, high-speed military training flights are conducted on military training routes (MTRs). Generally, MTRs are established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250 knots. MTRs are classified as VR for VER operations and IR for IFR operations. Flights on routes marked IR are under ATC control regardless of the weather. MTRs that are entirely at or below s,500 feet AGL are identified by four-digit numbers, and those that have one or more segments above 1,300 feet AGL use three-digit numbers. Although you are not restricted from flying through MTRs, it is good operating practice to check with Flight Service to obtain current information about MTR activity in your area, andexercise caution if operating there. [Figure 4-7 TSODRAGC and apes VFA cousin or y aera Figure 4-71. Highspeed miltary actiy—aster than 250 knots—may occur on miltaty traning routes. PARACHUTE JUMP AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS, Parachute jump aircraft operations areas are tabulated in the Chart Supplement. The busiest periods of activity are normally on weekends and holidays. Times of operation are local, and MSL altitudes are listed unless otherwise specified. Parachute jumping sites that have been used on a frequent basis and that have been in use for atleast one year are depicted on sectional charts. (Figure 4-72] ‘Tre parcn ayn poner Seaee Sore Figure 4-72. You should be alert fr pots announcing parachute acts atthe arport when you see the parachute symbol TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREAS ‘Terminal radar service areas (TRSAs) do not fit into any of the U-S. airspace classes. Originally part of the terminal radar program at selected airports, TRSAs have never been established as controlled airspace and, therefore, FAR Part 91 does not contain any rules for TRSA operations. By contacting approach control, you can receive radar services within a TRSA, but participation is not mandatory. The primary airport within the TRSA is surrounded by Class D airspace and the outer portion of a TRSA normally overlies Class E airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet AGL. [Figure 4-73]ecpasennce Figure 4.73. ATRSA snot aspect clas of airspace, but an area thats collocated wih Cass D and E airspace where terminal radar sence is avalabe TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ‘Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) are regulatory actions that temporarily restrict certain aircraft from operating within a defined area in order to protect persons or property in the air or on the ground. Several types of TFRs are defined by FARs. [Figure 4-74] 2 5 Figure 4-74. TFRs are implamented fora wie vail of reasons. Disaster hazard TFRs are established near disaster or hazard areas to protect persons or property on the ‘surface or in the air from a hazard associated with an incident on the surface, provide a safe environment for disaster relief aircraft operations, and prevent unsafe congestion of sightseeing or other aircraft above the incident. A separate regulation covers natural disaster areas in Hawaii. ‘Space flight operations TFRs provide a safe environment for space launch operations, typically in Florida, New Mexico, and California. ‘The NOTAMs that create these TFRs usually activate existing special use airspace or aitspace adjacent to these areas. VIP TFRs are flight restrictions in the proximity of the President, Vice President, or other government officals. These TFRs are the most restrictive in the vicinity of the President. VIP TFRs are considered National Defense Airspace and violators can be intercepted, face criminal prosecution, or lose their pilot certificates for entering this airspace. [Figure 4-75Of Tis Pessoa TFR conse 0 wo 10M nner ings whe Gh aera re ponies + AS0RM ter tg wer ont Instucton reno. + Snare hat erence fom he ‘Site 1000 RSL Figure 4-75 Rs thal ae issued fo VIP movement severely rest or ban general aviation acy In response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the FAA closed all U.S. airspace for the first time in history. This is an extreme example of the type of situation that would require the FAA to issue emergency air traffic rales, These rules allow the FAA to implement TFRs if an emergency condition exists, oF will exist, that prevents safe and efficient operation of the air traffic control system. On a case-by-case basis, the FAA establishes TFRs for air shows and sporting events. Generally these restrictions encompass the minimum airspace needed for the management of aireraft operations near the event. The FAA also issues TFRs under FAR 99.7 Special Security Instructions. These TFRs address situations determined to be detrimental to the interests of national defense. An example of this type of TER is described by a standing NOTAM that applies to major sporting events. [Figure 4-76] Figure 4-76. You must be aware of this standing NOTAM if you are fing in an area that hosts major sporting event. ‘The FAA's Office of Commercial Space transportaion, refered to as AST, plays a vial oe in commercial space launch and reortty operations in tho U.S. AST isues lcenses for commercial space transportation activities and fr spacoport operations [As the commercial space industry continues to grow and evelve, more and more spacopots are established, Faciios, suchas the Mojave Air & Space Port and Spaceport America are expanding the horizons of commercial spaceight. (The Wallops Flight Facil. a spacepot in Virgina is showin the photo) During launch and reenty of commercial space vehicles, AST coordinates with ATC te ensure that convetional at Wafc can sally operate atthe sara imo. With the Rep of AST, spacepots around the County will continue to make commercial space endeavors possible, including missions such as public Suborial ight andthecestablchment of commercial pace stations. TERs are issued in NOTAMSs that specify the dimensions, restrictions, and effective times. To determine if a TER affects your flight, obtain NOTAMSs from Flight Service during your online or phone briefing. You can also obtain a list of TFR NOTAMs with graphic depictions at tftfaa.gov. The FAA cautions that the depicted TFR data might not be a complete listing, so always follow up with Flight Service during flight planning. [Figure 4-77] Figure 4-77. A t-faa.goy select oach TF that apps to your ght to view detailed informaton, ADIZ An Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) facilitates early identification of all aireraft in the vicinity of a nation’s airspace boundaries, The AIM and FAR Part 99 specify requirements to enter a United States ADIZ. The Alaskan ADIZ, which lies along the coastal waters of Alaska has different operating rules than the contiguous U.S. ADIZ. To operate within the Contiguous U.S. ADIZ, you must file an IER or defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan containing the time and point at which you plan to enter the DIZ, Set your Mode C transponder to the assigned code prior to entering the ADIZ and maintain two- ‘way communication with the appropriate ATC facility. You must depart the ADIZ within 5 minutes of the estimated departure time in the flight plan. If you are planning to fly in an ADIZ, you should refer to the AIM or the International Flight Information Manual for detailed procedural information. (Figure 4-78]Figure 4-78. You must comply with several requirements to ty in an ADI WASHINGTON DC SPECIAL FLIGHT RULES AREA ‘The Washington DC Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA) is airspace where the ready identification, location, and control of aircraft is required in the interests of national security. Depicted on charts, the SFRA includes all airspace within a 3o nautical mile radius of the Washington DC VOR (DCA) from the ‘surface up to but not including flight level s80 (F180). This includes areas with additional requirements: the Leesburg Maneuvering Area with its own special procedures, and the flight restricted zone (FRZ) —a highly-restricted ring of airspace within 13 to 15 nautical miles of the Washington DC VOR, which is directly over the nation’s capital. Only specially authorized aircraft may fly in the FRZ under TFR flight plans. Flight under VFR and general aviation aircraft operations are prohibited. (Figure 4-70] Figure 4-79. The dimension of the Washington OC SFR are shown here onthe VFR Balimore/Washinglon Flay Planning Chat 1 you wore to stay ino the Washinglon DC SFRA without mostng the requirements, th government might point a highly focused laser at your arf waring you fo turn away and contact ATC on the appropiate frequency or 121-5. Tis Visual Warring Systom (VS) consists of an altarating red and green signal pattem visible ely from an encroaching aera.If you are planning to fly under VFR within 6o nautical miles of the Washington DC VOR you must complete the FAA Special Awareness Training course at faasafety.gov. After you finish the training, print the completion certificate and carry it with you. You must present it at the request of an FAA, NTSB, law enforcement, or TSA authority. The Special Awareness course covers all you need to know to operate in or near the SFRA. However, you should be aware of some of the basic requirements, including filing a special flight plan with specifies entry and exit points, communication requirements, and speed restrictions [Figure 4-80] Figure 4-80 you are planing tly under VR within 60 NM of the Washington DC VOR, you must meet specie requ INTERCEPT PROCEDURES If you penetrate an area with security-related flight restrictions, you risk being intercepted by U.S. ailitary or law enforcement aircraft. Review the intercept procedures in the AIM regularly. If you are intercepted: © Donot adjust your altitude, heading, or airspeed until directed to by the intercepting aircraft « Follow instructions from the intercepting aircraft given by visual signals or radio communications until positively released. « Attempt to contact the intercepting aircraft or ATC on 121.5 and provide your aircraft identity, position, ‘and the nature of the light. «# Squawk 7700 on your transponder unless otherwise instructed by ATC. During an interception, two aircraft will approach from behind to identify your airplane. One aircraft fies to the left of your airplane, matches your speed and heading, rocks its wings or flashes its navigation lights if itis night. You should aclnowledge by rocking your wings or flashing your navigation lights at night, If they understand your intentions, the intercepting aircraft might break away by performing a go" tumwithout crossing your light path, which means you are free to go. Ifthis does not occur, you must comply with the intercepting aireraft’s instructions. [Figure 4-8:] ‘Since te einai Figure 48. you ae no nado contact wh the nteroeping ara you must be able to terre visa egal, nd lake acon to com If the intercepting aireraft circles an airport, lowers its landing gear, and overflies a runway, land on the runway. If you cannot land safely, overfly the runway with your gear up (f applicable), flash your landing light, circle the airport between 1,000 to 2,000 feet AGL, and wait for further instructions. (Figure 4-82] Figure 482. This ale sunmaries the intercep signal, ht meanings, nd proper responses. ‘Now that you are familiar with the various classes of airspace, Chapter § will provide you with additional information regarding specific ATC services available and the radio procedures used to communicate with ATC in the airspace system. You can review the primary classes of airspace, their relationship to one ‘another, and airspace operating requirements by referring to Figures 4-83 and 4-84.