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58 views30 pagesPS-2 Unit - 5 Professional
Power System notes
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 30
TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEM
SYLLABUS | [BE- OU] s
Causes of Over Voltages, Travelling Wave, Theory Wave Equation, Open Circuited Line, The Short
Circuited Line Junction of Lines of Different Natural Impedances, Reflection and Refraction
Coefficients, Junction of Cable and Overhead Lines, Junction of Three Lines of Different Natural
Impedances, Bewley Lattice Diagram.
OUTLINES.
5.1 Introduction 5.2 | 5:7 Reflection
. and Refraction Coefficient 5.17
5.2 Causes of Over Voltage 52 | 5:8 Junction of Lines
aa Diffe Imped: p
5.3. Travelling Wave Theory 56 sc Different nagaralImpediies = 5.19
. 5.9 Junction of Three Lines
4 Wave Equation 5. at Different Natural Impedance 5.21
4 Eq 59 Different Natural Imped:
5.10 Bewley Lattic Diagram 5.24
5.5 Open Circuited Line 5.12
5.11 Junctions
5.6 Short Circuited Line 5.13 of Cables and Over Headlines 5.28 52 Transients i
EES INTRODUCTION.
A power system operates in steady state for a major part of time. However, transients
are also initiated off and on, Transient phenomenon is an aperiodic function of time and
does not last longer. Transient phenomenon lasts in a power system for a very short
period of time, ranging from a few micro seconds upto 1 second. The duration for which
they last is very insignificant as compared with the operating time of the system, Yet
they are very important because depending upon the severity of these transient, the
system may result into black out in a city, shut down of a plant, fires in building etc.
Power System (Unit - Vj
When the current, voltage or power change in a circuit, there is a transient state
between two steady state conditions, The transient behaviour of transmission line differ’s
from its steady state behaviour. The transient period, although of a very short duration
of the order of a few microseconds ends, is sufficient to cause much disturbance in the
line. The transients are set up in the transmission line mainly due to fault, switching and
lightning.
[E358 CAUSES OF OVER VOLTAGE
Overvoltages arise during sudden changes in the operating conditions of an
installation, as, for example, a switch-in, switch-out or sudden change in load, the opening
of circuits with large inductance or capacitance, the interruption of a short circuit current,
the appearance of an arc fault between one phase and earth, as well as other circuit
disturbances.
In all the cases outlined above overvoltage appears as the result of the sudden
release of a portion of the stored energy of the given installation or system.
The peak value of the overvoltage which may appear because of an. internal circuit
disturbance may exceed the operating voltage of the system. by several times. It is
expressed numerically by the overvoltage ratio, which is equal to the value of the
overvoltage amplitude divided by the amplitude of the operating voltage.
Overvoltage characterized by a high ratio may become dangerpus for both the line
insulation and the insulation of the station and substation switchgear, busbar structures
and apparatys. °
Now the causes that give rise to overvoltages will be discussed in detail here,
(1) Switching Operations on Unloaded Line : A switching operation produces a sudden
change in the circuit conditions. When an open ended line is connected to a source
of voltage, travelling waves are set up which rapidly charge the line. On reaching
the open end of the line, these waves are totaliy reflected without change of sign,
thereby producing voltage doubling at that end, These reflected waves travel back
to the supply end, giving tise to further reflections. Actually, owing to losses, the
waves gradually ares and the line ultimately attains the normal voltage.
POWER SYSTEM-II
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS pits Dy Pewee eo pment a
Transients in Power System [Unit - vy 5a
Hen
ce the maximum potential attained by the line at the instant of switching
in can
a Not exceed twice the maximum supply voltage Venne OF Qf WhOFE Vim, 15 15
Ue of phase voltage. In practice, owing to the dissipation of energy, the potential
attained by the line would be somewhat less than this theoretical maximum. If the
eel EV
ge impedance of the line Is Zy then current will fluctuate between 5"
A
ey es
— ms,
4
and
sinusoidally.
1 Analogous phenomena is produced on switching out an open ended line.
nvellng waves are set up and the line momentarily attains the voltage of the
‘agnitude not exceeding twice the supply voltage at the instant of disconnection.
(2) Sud " .,
(2) Sudden Opening of Loaded Line : Ifa line carrying load is suddenly opened, a transien'
volt .
the coat Value given by © = i Zp Is set up, where i is the instantaneous value of
“rent at the instant of opening of line, and Z, is the natural or surge impedance
of the line,
i = 250 A and 2,
the current is interru
be
= 500 ohms, the transient rise of voltage, however, rapidly
vem ted cannot possibly exceed 250 x 500, i.e., 125,000 volts,
a is the maximum value of the voltage wave necessary to store in the
static fleld the whole of the energy stored in the magnetic field at the instant
Of break. If Ving, iS the peak value of the operating voltage, the maximum voltage
to which the line may be subjected is Vag, + 125,000 volts.
From the above discussion it is obvious that transient voltage rise by the sudden
interruption of load is not a function of the line volt refore, low voltage
transmission systems are liable to overvoltage of the same magnitude as high
voltage” systems.-The-higher-safety factor of the insulation on low voltage systems
is thus-justified: -
The worst case that could happen would be the interruption of the short circuit
current of the system at its peak value, when voltage rises of several hundred
Kilovolts might be cause. Fortunately, the use of oil circuit breakers has practically
eliminated all danger on account of short circuits, as these breakers open the circuit
when the current wave has its zero value.
(3) Insulation Failure : The insulation failure in a power system may take place in various
Ways such as between the conductors, of an overhead line or the cores of an
insulated cable, or between one conductor, or core, and earth. The failure of insulation
between the line and earth is very frequent. When there is breakdown of insulation
to earth, the potential at fault suddenly falls from maximum to zero and, therefore,
a negative voltage wave of very steep front in the form of surge travels from the
fault in both directions.
POWER SYSTEM-II
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 54
Transients in Power System (Unit - Vj
Let the line AB be earthed at point F. Let the instantaneous voltage of the fine
with respect to earth at the instant of failure of insulation be 2v. The potential at
the fault F suddenly falls to zero and therefore a. negative voltage, of amplitude y,
and of very steep front, travels from the fault in both directions. The reduction of
voltage to one half is due to the equal dimension of the energy into electromagnetic
and electrostatic energy. Each voltage wave is accompanied by a current wave of
amplitude v/Z, and consequently the current to earth, if there is an extremely low
2v
tower footing resistance -in the case of an overhead line is ~Z)
Surge Due to Insulal
As these waves travel to the ends of the line they reduce the voltage to zero,
and when they reach the open ends, reflected waves are set up which reduce the
voltage to v - vy, i.e., -v and the current is neutralized. When the reflected waves
reach F, the portions of the line along which they have travelled will be charged to
~v. The current at F can be reversed by a flashover in the opposite direction, and
the result is a periodic flashover with reversals of potential on the line and currents
at F until the stored energy is dissipated by damping. irate in Power System {Unit = vy
4)
6)
Arcing eraliuie) It is experienced in insulated neutial system, Consider an alternator,
whose One phase has been connected to a long line which has got distributed
inductance and capacitance to earth, as shown in Fig. 5.2.2. The alternator winding
can be imagined to the connected to earth through its capacitance. Let a spark gap
be connected between the line and earth. The alternating emf impressed on the
circuit by the alternator will charge the line at each half cycle and if the line pd
becomes high enough the gap will breakdown and the circuit will then resonate at
its own natural frequency.
Similar conditions arise when an earth fault develops on a transmission line
* connected to an all-insulated system. On occurrence of flashover, as by the puncture
of an insulator on an overhead line, accidental contact with trees or by the breakdown
Of @ Weak spot in the insulation of an underground cable, the conductor is discharged
through the agency of a transient high frequency oscillation. The faulty conductor
is thus brought down to earth potential, and the other two conductors of the three
phase system correspondingly rise in voltage from the phase to the line voltage. _
As soon as the conductor is discharged to ground, the spark gap to earth opens,
and the conductor then charges again from the power supply of the system, and
the cycle is repeated. In themselves, oscillations such as the above are not
particularly dangerous, but, if continued,-the resulting voltage rise may result in a
breakdown of the insulation at some other point, and possibly on another conductor.
In such a case double fault to earth will be formed, and it will be equivalent to a
short circuit.
Surges and other transient phenomena due to switching operations are taking
place in such a way that the initiating voltage is the system voltage, are rarely
dangerous in themselves, partly because attenuation may limit serious voltage rise,
and partly because the associated energy is small. The danger is when a fishover
may open a path for a power arc, much as the stepped leader of a lightning flash
paves the way for the main discharge. An example is the double fault which may
result from an arcing ground, as explained above. Because of the troubles due to
arcing grounds power systems are rarely operated with insulated neutral. Instead
the system neutral is grounded solidly (i.e., without any impedance between the
neutral and the ground) or through a resistance or reactance.
Resonance : Resonance is an electrical circuit implies that the impedance of the circuit
is purely resistive and the power factor is unity, Thus at resonance the inductive
reactances and capacitive reactances cancel out.
In usual transmission lines the capacitance is usually so small that resonance
cannot occur at the fundamental supply frequency, but if the generator emf wave
is distorted, trouble may y be experienced due to resonance at one at the higher
harmonics.
POWER SYSTEM-IL PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 5.6
ee _ Transtents in Power System [Unit - vj
[XS TRAVELLING WAVE THEORY the 40 Sige aMiedhs oft be hires
The definition of travelling wave is not straight forward _and it is not easy to define
travelling wave.
“In science and Engineering, a travelling wave is a periodic disturbance in space ang
time, possibly transferring energy to a space time region.”
eee
We know that, a surge is a movement of charge along the conductor, Such surges
are characterized by a sudden very steep rise in voltage (Surge front) followed by a
gradual decay in voltage (surge tail). The surges produced on the line due to lightning als
are of particular interest due to their great magnitudes and different wave shapes. ihe
Surges reach the terminal apparatus such as transformer’s switch gear and cable boxes
and may damage them if they are not Properly protected. As the waves travel along the
line their wave shapes and magnitudes are also modified. The study of travelling waves,
therefore, plays an important role in knowing the voltages and currents at all points Tn
@ power system.
The study of travelling waves is ‘necessary due to the following reason’s
1 The study of travelling waves play’s an important role in knowing the voltage and
current at all points in a power system network.
_2- It helps in the design of insulator.
_@tTis useful in the design of protective equipments.
(4) It is also useful to find out the insulation of the terminal equipments.
rt is helpful to find out the insulation coordination.
Specifications of Travelling Waves : A travelling wave is characterized by four specification
as shown in the block diagram 5.3.1.
EE Block Diagram of Specifications
(1) Crest : Crest of the wave is the maximum amplitude of the wave and is usually
expressed in KV or KA as shown in Fig. 5.3.1.
(2) Front : Front of the wave is the Portion of the wave before crest:and is expressed
in time from beginning of the wave to the crest value in ms or us as shown in the
Fig. 5.3.1.
POWER SYSTEM-II PROFESSIONAL P'
BLICATIONS Transients In Power System [Unit vy 57
Magnitude
Time in ps;
——| Front }__
}-—rail —|
RUE Specifications of Traveling Waves
(3) Tail : Tail of the wave is the portion beyond the crest. It is expressed in time (us)
from begining of the wave to the point where the wave has reduced to 50% of its
value at crest shown in the Fig. 5.3.2,
crest
(4) Polarity
It is just simply the polarity of crest voltage of current,
TE + A travelling wave can be represented mathematically in a number of ways. The simplest
and most commonly used representation is the infinite rectangular or step wave as shown in Fig.
Magnitude
in KV or KA
bo
O ——Time in ys ——>
Such a wave jumps suddenly from zero to full value and is maintained at that value
there after. As this wave has front causing maximum gradients and sustained tail
Producing maximum oscillations in machine windings, so it is the most dangerous to
apparatus “or equipments.
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 58 _Transients in Power System [Unit = Vj
a Travelling Waves on Transmission Line
We know that, for steady state operation of the line the transmission line can be
represented by lumped parameter’s but for the transient behaviour of the lines they must
be represented by distributed parameter’, The parameter’s R.L.C, are uniformly
distributed over the length of the line. Here we assume that a transmission ine is a
distributed parameter circuit and a important feature of such a circuit is its ability to support
travelling waves of voltage and current. A circuit with distributed parameter’s has a finite
velocity of electromagnetic field propagation.
To understand the travellin
9 wave phenomenon over transmission line consider Fig
5.3.4(a).
Switch
Switch
pror
(b) Equivalent x section of a Long Transmission Line
EEEERY Equivalent Creuit of travernig wave
The line is assumed to be lossless, Let Lai
respectively per unit length of the line. The lin
by a large number of L and C x sections,
nd c be the inductance and capacitance
e has been represented in Fig. 5.3.4(b)
Such type of a circuit as shown in Fig. 5.3.4(b) the changes in voltage and current,
owing to switching ahd lightning, do not occur Simultaneously in all parts of the circuit Bu
spread out in the form of travelling waves or a
connected to a voltage source by closing
all at once (the voltage does not appear inst
to presence of distributed constants (induct:
urges. When a transmission line is suddenly
Switch, the whole of the line is energized _
tantaneously at the other end). This is due
‘ance and capacitance in a loss free line).
___ PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
POWER SYSTEM-II Franslents In Power System [Un > V]
san open circuit and’C, as short,
because the
when switch a
When switch S is closed, the inductance L, acts ai
circuit instantaneously. The same instant next section ca
voltage across capacitor C, is zero, So unless the capacitor CQ is ¢ charged to some value
Whatsoevér, charging of the capacitor"C, through L, is not posebTe which, of course, will
and $0 on. So we see > tae voltage at the successive sections Duilds up’ gradually. This
gradual build up of voltage over the transmission line conductors can be regarded as
though a voltage wave is travelling from one end to the other end and the gradual
charging of ‘the capacitances is due to associated current wave. The current wave, which
is accompanied by voltage wave set up a magnetic field in the surrounding space. At
junctions and terminations these surges undergo reflections and refractions. In an
extensive network with many lines and junctions, the number of travelling waves initiated
by a single incident wave will mushroom at a considerable rate as the waves split and
‘multiple reflections occurs.
WAVE EQUATION
A transmission line is a distributed parameter circuit and a distinguishing feature of
such a circuit is its ability to support travelling waves of voltage and current. The line
parameter’s are uniformly distributed along the line. It may be assumed that the line
is made up of short section’s of length dx as shown in Fig. 5.4.1.
po Rdx Ldx
t
1
1
1
'
E i Gdx
1
i
1
1
7
Let,
= The resistance of line per unit length
R
L = The inductance of line per unit length
c
The capacitance of line per unit length
w
G = The shunt conductance of line per unit length
For convenience, the resistance and inductance of both line conductor are shown
lumped in one conductor only.
farsa PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS RO
First of all, we take a short section of length dx and the resistance, inductance,
capacitance and shunt conductance for the short section of length dx are Ra, Laxp Cdx
and Gdx respectively as shown in the Fig, 5.4.1.
Transients in Power System [Unit - Vj
Now consider a short section of the line of length dx. The instantaneous value of
voltage and current are function of both distance’ x and time t. At a distance x from the
sending end they can be represented as E(x, t) and I(x, t) respectively. The voltage at
a neighbouring point distance (x + dx) from the sending end is E(x + 4X).
By Taylor's theors :
E(x + dx) = E (x) + SE ax we (5.4.1)
8x
The current I flowing through the resistance Rdx causes a voltage drop I(Rdx) in
it. It changes at the rate of 2 in the inductance Ldx to produce a voltage drop equal
al ; . :
to (. t ox) in it. The difference in the voltage between the ends of the section is
obviously due to the voltage drop in the Resistance Rdx and inductance Ldx. Expressed
mathematically as,
BE al
ef SE ax) = I a
E és ax) (Rdx) 1 + (Lax) =
E al
(or) = = dx = (REx) 1 + (LX)
Cancelling dx from both the sides gives,
al
eR
i a 22 (5142)
Now, the difference of currents between the two ends of the section is equal to
the sum of the currents in the conductance Gdx due to the voltage E impressed on it
and the current through the capacitance c dx due to the voltage changing at the rate
E
of 5. It is expressing mathematically as,
al 8E
1-(1+ Zax] = oe
( oa dx) (Gdx) & + (Cex)
pole ae
(or) 50% = (Gdx) E+ (Cx) =
8 cil
(or) 5 7 SE cE ae ws (5.4.3)
The solution of Eq. (5.4.2) and (5.4.3) is complicated. Since the losses in the line
are much smaller then the energy travelling along the line, they can be neglected. We
know for a lossless line,
(BOWER SYSTEM: PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 5.11
So with this assumption the calculation become much simpler and the same time
the result obtained are satisfactory. Now Eq. (5.4.2) and (5.4.3) can take the forms.
8E al
ae be a wee (5.4.4)
at __ p88 ~
and ROE ve (5.4.5)
Differentiating Eq. (5.4.4) partially with respect to distance x and Eq. (5.4.5) with
respect to time t gives, : 2
ws (5.4.6)
ws (5.4.7)
. (5.4.6) from Eq. (5.4.7), we get,
Ps w+ (5.4.8)
4/4) with ‘respect to t and Eq. (5.4.5) with respect to
a» (5.4.9)
and we (5.4.10)
Menai ve ,
Substituting the value of <-> from Eq. (5.4.9) in Eq. (5.4.10), we get,
|
ws (5.4.11)
Eq. (5.4.8) and (5.4. cal in form and give similar solutions. They are called
the wave equations. They represents the distribution of voltage and current along the
line In terms of time and distance.
POWER SYSTEM-II PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Bal2 Transients in Power System [Unit - V]
[2 OPEN CIRCUITED LINE
Let us consider a transmission line open circuited at the receiving end and a steady
voltage E is suddenly applied at the sending end. Neglecting the effect of line resistance
and leakage, a rectangular voltage wave of amplitude E and associated current wave
of amplitude I = E/Z, will travel with a velocity v towards the open end. Necessarily, at
the open end, no current can flow and as a result, the energy stored in the magnetic
field is transferred into the electric field. This will raise the voltage by an amount .e so
that we have,
tce-tir
2 2 a
ee an en re
T
o
_
<
a
EEN Traveling Wavesin an Open Creanea Line] °; <
Consequently, the voltage E is increased by an equal amount, thereby rising to 2
E, Fig, 5.5.1(a) shows the conditions at the time when the wave has reached the recejving
end (open end), the voltage being E and the current | = E/Z,. At the open end, the current
must necessarily be zero, with the result that there will be a reflected current of |- L
:
POWER SYSTEM-II PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS "The magnetic field energy associated with I gets transformed into electric field energy.
Consequently, as seen above, voltage is increased by an equal amount E. A second
voltage originates from the open end (receiving end) and travels back towards the sending
end, The incoming and reflected waves get superimposed and the resultant voltage is
2€, & shown in Fig. 5.5.1(b). The voltage rise from E to 2E is simultaneously accompanied
by tle disappearance of current due to superimposition of the reflected current -I on
+I, At the instant the reflected waves arrive at the sending end (G), the distribution of
voltae and current is shown in Fig. 5.5.1(c).
“he voltage at the generator is held constant at E and so there will be a reflected
voltae of -E and an associated reflected current wave with magnitude -I. The reflected
voltaye and: current superimposed on the original voltage: and current result in the
condiions as shown in Fig. 5.5.1(d) as the waves travel away from G towards the receiving
end. (open). As the waves reach the open end, the voltage and current will be E and
-I répectively, as shown in Fig. 5.5.1(e).
jhe reflected waves due to the above will be -E and +I, with the result that when
thes¢ reach G again, they will have wiped out both voltage and current distributions.
The |ne is now brought to the original state. There will be resurrection of the cycle.
SHORT CIRCUITED LINE
In the case of open circuited line, the current at the receiving end must necessarily
be zfo. In the case of short circuited line, itis the voltage which would be zero. Hencé,
wher the voltage wave arrives at the end, the energy associated with the electric field
getstransformed into magnetic field energy. Consequently, the voltage is reflected with
chane of sign, whereas the current is reflected without change of sign. Therefore, on
ae reflection, the current gets doubled. The magnitudes of voltage and current in
“Tr steps are depicted in Fig. 5.6.1.
art (a) of Fig. 5.6.1 shows the first stage, depicting the original voltage and current
wavs before the first reflection. Part (b) shows the voltage and current waves after
the ies reflection. On reaching the generator, the voltage and current waves will be as
indigted in Fig. 5.6.1(c). The entire voltage is wiped out.
5 the voltage is maintained at E at the generator, again the voltage wave will travel
fronjthe generator towards the receiving end, The voltage and current waves are shown
POUR SYSTEM-It_ . i _ PROFESSIONAL BUSCA TIONS Travelling Waves in a Short
At each reflection, the voltage gets reduced to Zero, but the current builds|
each end by an additional value equal to I =
theoretically rise to infinity. However, by virtue
resistance, the amplitude of wavefront gets diminished ultimately to the steady
law value of E/R, It may be observed that in a long line short circuited at the re
Transients in Power System [Unit - V]
31
(Current
(e) (Voltage
culated
ine
E/Z,. Consequently, the curren|
of attenuation due to the prese|
p at
may
e of
hm’
iving
end, the establishment of short circuit current takes place in a series of steps, eac| step
corresponding to a new reflection.
POWER SYSTEM-|
PROFE 516,
Transients in Power System [Unit
sl li mes
eee een
cron ORES
An overhead transmission line 300 km long having a surge impedance of 600 Ohm
is short circuited at one end and a steady voltage of 3.3 kV is suddenly applied at
the other end. Neglécting the resistance, explain with diagrams, how the current and
voltage change in different parts of the line and calculate the current at the sending
end of the line 4 millisecond after the voltage is applied.
Ene
The speed at which the wave travels is approximately 3 x 105 kmps so that, as the
line is 300 km long, the wave travels the length of the line once in (300/3.105) 103
milli sec = 1 milli second and is then reflected.
During the first traversal, the voltage builds up to 3.3 kV all the way along the
line and when t = 1 ms, the voltage is 3.3 kV everywhere. Similarly, the current flowing
at each point in the line is given by,
E _ 3300
Taz 5 eqp 55 Amp
At t = 1 ms, the first reflection takes place, the voltage being reflected with
change of sign and the current without change of sign. Between t = 1 ms and 2
ms, the combination of incident and reflected waves along the line result in the line
voltage dropping -to zero commencing at the far end and spreading back to the
~ sending end, where the voltage becomes zero atct = 2 ms. The current reflection
causes the current to become 2 | at the far end at t = 1 ms and the wave travels
back to make the sending current equal to 21 = 11 Amp at t = 2 ms,
The second reflection occurs at t = 2 ms at the sending end and, between t
= 2 ms and 3 ms, a voltage wave travels from the sending end tothe receiving end
(short circuited). A current wave of 3 I also travels between these two points at
the same time.
It will be noticed that each reflection at the sending end causes a voltage wave
of 3300 V to travel along the line, while each reflection at the short circuited end
causes a zero voltage wave to travel back along the line. The current gets increased
by I at each reflection at each end. In this example, I = 5.5 A. At t = 4 ms, the current
wave has reached the sending end after three reflections and is about to experience
a fourth reflection. The sending end current is 4 x 5.5 = 22 A and is about to increase
to Sx 5.5 = 27.5 Amp. eet
POWER SYSTEM. PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Transients in Power System [Unit - vy
5.16 8)
Fig. 5.6.2 depicts the distribution of voltage and current upto 4 millisecond.
E = 3300V '
‘
'
‘
O
