MODULE 1:

LIMITS OF A FUNCTION
At the end of the module the students should be able to:
1. illustrate limit of a function using table of values and graphs of
functions;
2. illustrate the limit laws;
3. evaluate limits using limit laws;
4. illustrate continuity of a function at a number;
5. determine whether a function is continuous at a given point; and
6. illustrate continuity of a function on an interval.
 • It is a part of Mathematics that deals with the
properties of derivatives and integrals of quantities
such as area, volume, velocity, acceleration, etc. by
process initially dependent on the summation of
infinitesimal differences.
• It helps determining the changes between values
CALCULUS that are related to the functions.
• It was developed in the 17th century by Sir Isaac
Newton (English, 1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniz
(German, 1646-1716).
• It is the study of continuous change of functions,
such as problems about motion and things that
change.
 o Calculus is used in various areas of computer science, including
machine learning, data mining, scientific computing, image processing,
and creating graphics and physics engines for video games. It is also
used in creating simulations, problem-solving applications, coding in
applications, creating statistic solvers, and the design and analysis of
CALCULUS algorithms. Calculus helps to figure out rate of change, which is an
in important ingredient in many algorithms and programs. Calculus is the
finding and properties of derivatives and integrals of functions, and it is
COMPUTER essential for creating an artificial intelligence or developing a model of
calculation to decode the human genome.
SCIENCE o Computer science uses calculus in a wide range of areas, including
creating graphs and visuals, simulations, problem-solving applications,
coding in application, creating statistical solvers, and designing and
analyzing algorithms. Calculus reinforced mathematical skills needed for
a wide range of areas, including creating graphs and visuals,
simulations, problem-solving applications, coding in application,
creating statistical solvers, and designing and analyzing algorithms.
 ▪ Helps to find the rate of change of a
quantity
Differential ▪ DERIVATIVE
▪ The measures of the rate of change of a
Calculus function
Two Main • Explains the function at a specific point

Types of
CALCULUS • Helps to find the quantity when the rate of
change is known
Integral • INTEGRALS
Calculus • The measure of the area under the curve
• Accumulates the discrete values of a
function over a range of values
FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
A function is a relationship between two variables such
that to each value of the independent variable there
corresponds exactly one value of the dependent variable.
- The domain of the function is the set of all values
of the independent variable for which the function
is defined. It is sometimes called the input value.
- The range of the function is the set of all values
taken on by the dependent variable. It is sometimes
called the output value.
Example:

Given:
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
Find:

o 𝑓 0

o 𝑓(1)

o 𝑓 –2

o 𝑓(5)

o 𝑓 𝑦
Example:

Given:
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
Evaluate:

o 𝑓 −2
o 𝑓(4) – 𝑓(– 2)
o 𝑓 𝑥 +1
o 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦)
o 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) – 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) – 𝑓(𝑥)
o
𝑦
LIMIT OF A
FUNCTION
LIMIT
The limit of a function at a point a in its domain (if it exists) is the value that
the function approaches as its argument approaches a. The concept of a
limit is the fundamental concept of calculus and analysis. It is used to define
the derivative and the definite integral, and it can also be used to analyze
the local behavior of functions near points of interest.
The limit of f(x) is L as x approaches a and write this as
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
provided we can make f(x) as close as L as we want for all x sufficiently
close to a, from both sides, without actually letting x be a.
 Example: 𝒙𝟐+𝟒𝒙−𝟏𝟐
Estimate the value of the given limit: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐𝒙

x approaches 2 from the left x approaches 2 from the right

𝒙 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.5

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐
5.0 4.157894737 4.015075377 4.00150075 3.99850075 3.985074627 3.857142857 3.4
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙

f(x) approaches 4 f(x) approaches 4

Note that we made sure and picked values of x that were on both sides of x = 2 and that we moved in
very close to x = 2 to make sure that any trends that we might be seeing are in fact correct. Also notice
that we can’t actually plug in x = 2 into the function as this would give us a division by zero error. This
is not a problem since the limit doesn’t care what is happening at the point in question.
𝒙𝟐 +𝟒𝒙−𝟏𝟐
From the table, it appears that the function is going to 4 as x approaches 2. Thus, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 =𝟒
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐𝒙
Example: 𝒙 𝒙−𝟑
Evaluate: 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙 − 𝟑) 1 -2
𝒙→𝟐
1.1 -1.9 As the value of x gets closer
to 2 from the left of 2, the
1.3 -1.7 value of f(x) gets closer and
1.5 -1.5 closer to -1. Based on the
graph if we moved from the
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1.7 -1.3 right of 2, as the value gets
-0.5
1.9 -1.1 closer and closer to 2, it
approaches -1.
-1
1.99 -1.01
x-3

-1.5 Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙 − 𝟑) = −1

1.999 -1.001 𝒙→𝟐
-2
1.9999 -1.0001
-2.5
x
2 -1
Example: 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒙
𝒙−𝟏
𝒙𝟐−𝟏
Evaluate: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 0.5
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 0.9
0.99
0.999
0.9999
1.00001
1.0001
1.001
1.01
1.1
1.5
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
OF FUNCTIONS
 THE LIMIT OF A CONSTANT
• lim 5 =𝟓
x→2
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 = 𝒄 • lim −3 = −𝟑
𝒙→𝒂 x→4

THE LIMIT OF IDENTITY FUNCTION

• lim x =𝟓
x→5
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒂 • lim x =𝟒
𝒙→𝒂 x→4

THE LIMIT OF A CONSTANT C TIMES A • lim 4𝑥 = 4 lim 𝑥

x→5 x→5
FUNCTION
= 4(5) = 𝟐𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 • 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 • 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 • lim 7𝑥 = 7 lim 𝑥
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 x→−2 x→−2
= 7 −2 = −𝟏𝟒
 THE LIMIT OF THE SUM OF TWO • lim(𝑥 + 7) = lim 𝑥 + lim 7
FUNCTIONS x→2 x→2 x→2
=2+7=𝟗
• lim(𝑥 + 3) = lim 𝑥 + lim 3
x→3 x→3 x→3
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) =3+3=𝟔
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

THE LIMIT OF THE DIFFERENCE OF TWO

FUNCTIONS • lim x − 7 = lim x − lim 7
x→2 x→2 x→2
= 2 − 7 = −𝟓
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 − 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) • lim(x − 3) = lim x − lim 3
x→4 x→4 x→4
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
=4−3=𝟏
 • lim x x − 7 = lim x • lim x − 7
x→2 x→2 x→2
THE LIMIT OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO
= lim x • lim 𝑥 − lim 7
FUNCTIONS x→2 x→2 x→2
= 2 2 − 7 = 2(−5) = −𝟏𝟎
• lim 3 x + 3 = lim 3x • lim x + 3
x→4 x→4 x→4
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 • 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 • 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = lim 3 • lim 𝑥 + lim 3
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 x→4 x→4 x→4
= 3 4 + 3 = 3(7) = 𝟐𝟏

THE LIMIT OF THE QUOTIENT OF TWO 2𝑥+5 lim (2𝑥+5)

𝑥→2
lim 2•lim 𝑥 +lim 5
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
FUNCTIONS • lim = =
𝑥→2 𝑥+2 lim (𝑥+2)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim 𝑥+lim 2
𝑥→2
2 2 +5 𝟗
= =
2+2 𝟒
𝒇 𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 5𝑥+4 lim (5𝑥+4)
𝑥→1
lim 5•lim 𝑥 +lim 4
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒙→𝒂 • lim
𝑥→1 𝑥+1
=
lim (𝑥+1)
=
lim 𝑥+lim 1
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈 𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
𝒙→𝒂 5 1 +4 𝟗
= =
1+1 𝟐
 3
3
• lim (3𝑥 + 4) = lim (3𝑥 + 4)
THE LIMIT OF THE Nth
POWER OF 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
3
A FUNCTION = lim 3 • lim 𝑥 + lim 4
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
3
= 3•1 +4 = (3 + 4)3 = 73 = 𝟑𝟒𝟑
2
2
𝒏 • lim (4𝑥 + 9) = lim (4𝑥 + 9)
𝒏 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 2
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 = lim 4 • lim 𝑥 + lim 9
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
2
= 4(−3) + 9 = (−12 + 9)2 = −3 2
=𝟗

THE LIMIT OF THE Nth ROOT OF A

3 3 3
FUNCTION • lim 𝑥 2 + 4 =
𝑥→2
lim (𝑥 2 + 4) =
𝑥→2
lim 𝑥 2 + lim 4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

3 2 3 3
= lim 𝑥 + lim 4 = 2 2 +4 = 8=𝟐
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝒏 𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 5
• lim 𝑥 2 − 8 = 5
lim (𝑥 2 − 8) = 5
lim 𝑥 2 − lim 8
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

5 2 5 5
= lim 𝑥 − lim 8 = 3 2 −8 = 1=𝟏
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
Techniques for Evaluating Limits: THE REPLACEMENT THEOREM

IF f IS A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION AND c IS REAL NUMBER

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒄)
𝒙→𝒄

Evaluate the following

1. lim 𝑥 + 7 𝑓(2) = 2 + 7 = 𝟗
x→2

2. lim(3𝑥 − 5) 𝑓 4 =3 4 −5=𝟕
x→4
Example:

Evaluate the following

o lim(2𝑥 − 3)
x→3

o lim(𝑥 + 3)
x→3

o lim x − 7
x→2
Example:
Evaluate the following

o lim(x − 3)
x→4

o lim 3(x + 3)
x→4

2x+5
o lim
x→2 x+2
Example:
Evaluate the following

5x+4
o lim
x→1 x+1

o lim(3x + 4)3
x→1

o lim (4𝑥 + 9)2

𝑥→−3
Example:
Evaluate the following

3
o lim 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥→2

5
o lim 𝑥 2 − 8
𝑥→3

o 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (2𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→−7
Example:
Evaluate the following

o lim (−𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2)
𝑥→2

𝑥+3
o 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥+6

o lim 8(𝑦 − 5)(𝑦 − 7)

𝑦→6
Example:
Evaluate the following

o lim 𝑥
𝑥→8

o lim1 4𝑥 2 + 8 − 8𝑥 3
𝑥→
2

𝑥2−2𝑥+1
o lim
𝑥→2 𝑥2+1
INDETERMINATE FORMS

We call an indeterminate form, when computing limits the case

when we get an expression that we cannot determine the limit.

Here are some examples to illustrate each of these indeterminate

cases:
0 ∞
; ; 0×∞ ; ∞ − ∞;
0 ∞
00 ; ∞0 ; 1∞
Example:
Evaluate the following

𝑥2−5𝑥+6
o lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3

𝑥2+3𝑥−10
o lim
𝑥→−5 𝑥+5
Example:
Evaluate the following

𝑥3+27
o lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3

𝑦−5
o lim 2
𝑦→5 𝑦 −25
Example:
Evaluate the following

𝑡 2+𝑡−2
o 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2
𝑡→1 𝑡 −1

𝑥+𝑎 −𝑎
o 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥
Example:
Evaluate the following

𝑥
o lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥−1
o lim
𝑥→1 1− 𝑥
Example:
Evaluate the following

𝑥−1
o lim
𝑥→1 𝑥− 2−𝑥

𝑥+2− 2
o lim
𝑥→0 𝑥