REVIEW OF REPAIR TECHNIQUES FOR EARTHQUAKE DAMAGED REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS by AMADOR TERAN, B.S. THESIS Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of ‘The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENGINEERING ‘THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN December 1988ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The author wishes to thank Dr. J.O. Jirsa, not only for his invaluable technical advice, but for his daily smile and enthusiasm. Also, the author wishes to thank M. en I. Jesus Iglesias, whose efforts made this master’s degree possible. Special thanks to Irene and Sharon for their patience and, in summary, for being they way they are.TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION . 1. Introduction 2. General Aspects CHAPTER 2- MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES L CHAPTER 3 - BASIC TECHNIQUES 1. General Concepts . . Resins Concrete. 2. eee a. Cast-in-Place b. Shoterete . . . c. Resin Concretes . d. Polymer Coneretes . Mortars and grouts . . . Structural Steel or Reinforcement... . + Shear Transfer and Anchorage... . Vertical Support a. b. © General Considerations . ‘Timber Shoring Steel Shoring Special Techniques ao ww 10 10 i 12 12 7 iT te 19 23 262. Lateral Support... . 3. a b. Lateral Support of Walls c. Frame Bracing... . Wedging . . . General Considerations... 2-20. - CHAPTER 4 - INTERMEDIATE SOLUTIONS FOR REPAIR 2, Concrete... . ~~ oe a. General. . . . b. Injection... . c. Replacement 4. Steel Jacketing (1) Columns... . (2). Beams and Slabs ©. Special Techniques. Masonry. 2... : a. General. 2. 2 ss Db, Injection 2... c. Replacement d. Strengthening . . . e. Repair and strengthening of intersections CHAPTER 5 - ADVANCED SOLUTIONS FOR REPAIR, L Repair and strengthening of existing elements... . . a. b, Increase in thickness (walls and slabs) Conerete Jacketing . vi 30 30 31 36 40 40 40 aL 44 46 aT 50 35 55 3B 3B 37 37 59 62 62 62 64(1) Columns... 2... eee shes es ay Ba (2) Beams... 22.00 se unbaeagees (3) Joints... 02... eee ce BB c. Masonry Walls 2... eee cee 3 4. Special Techniques... . « a: |) 2. Structure strengthening by addition of new elements. ©... 0-0-0 be ttewe sca 80 a. Structural Walls... 22. 2s awwa see 88 b. Infill Walls 2.2... ee pew ee eee. 86 ce. Wingwalls oe ee ee ave ean ‘BO 4d, Braces, Frames and Trusses... 0 eee ee OL ce. Buttress 2... . ~~ wee . see 98 Masonry walls 2... 2. Se 8 CHAPTER 6- CONCLUSIONS ....... eer eer 1, Summary 2... - ee eee see ee + 101 2. Selection of Appropriate Techniques . . . at pees IH 3. Conclusions .......-- Se wee 105 REFERENCES... ee ee ee eee geudee ress 106i LIST OF TABLES SUMMARY OF REPAIR TECHNIQUES -CONS: WEEDS: xa 3 i OGG ib FORE Eee vili ‘TRUCTIONLIST OF FIGURES 10 u 12 13 uu 15 ‘Types of welded connections (Ref. 1)... 0-0 ee ee Shear force transfer mechanisms between new and old concrete (Ref. 23)... . 2.0.00 005 z Anchorage procedures for steel elements (Ref. 23)... ... -. Mechanical anchorage for dowels in tension (Re oe ee caret Shoring configurations for damaged vertical clements (HE) sca ee ame 3 caRS EES peaart Use of multiple compression elements (Refs. 26,4)... 2+ Proper use of spreader beams and wedges (Ref. 2)... .- +. Support of damage load bearing walls with openings (Beta) ewan se nme ec owen 8 owhe os oe Standard industrial shore (Ref. 4)... oe ee Industrial type scaffolding GED cess tema st ewmeR eee oe RRB RE Shoring with structural steel elements (Refs. 4,13) . 2... Use of steel multiple interconnected steel units (BEE 18,28) se pee gee we so md Support of damaged floor systems with supplemental steel elements (Ref. 19) 2... 2 ee eee ce Use of steel angles at corners of a damaged column (Hee 4,26) 5 5c pea ves bob amenms + 5 Use of wound spiral to repair column (Ref. 1)... . 0.00 es 4 4 16 18 20 21 22 22 24 2516 iv 18, 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 2 28 29 30 31 Additional prestressing for unloading purposes Qe paces 4c (Ref. 4) 2... a ‘Techniques for providing lateral support of external load bearing wall by attaching it to an internal perpendicular wall (Ref. (4) Lateral support of external load bearing wall by continuous ties to end walls (Ref. 2)... .. Compressive braces (Refs. 4, 418) - Lateral support of structure with external tension braces (Ref. 2)... - Use of wood wedges (Ref. 2)... 2. + Flat or plane jacks (Ref. 4) Crack injection (Ref. 4) Replacement of material in a damaged column (Ref. 4) Steel jacketing for columns ( Ref. 1) 2. Steel jacketing of column with steel case and expansive concrete or grout (Ref. 4) . . Strengthening of beam with steel straps attached with epoxy resins (Ref. 26) Strengthening by means of glued thin steel sheets (BEA). ewe Steel jacketing of beams with external post- tensioned steel rods (Refs. 4,26)... . Detail for the jacketed beams (Ref. 13) . tersection of two perpen: 29 32 33. 34 35 aT 39 42 45 48 49 51 51 52 3332 33 34 35 36 37. 38 39 51 Strengthening of column capital (Ref. 26). . ‘Tensioned and tightened collars for confinement of, planar frame joint region (Ref. 1)... . Steel jacketing of corner joint (Ref. 4)... . . Repair of crack by stitching (Ref. 27)... . Reinforcing bar orientation used to effect the repair (Ref. 27) Replacement of material along crack in masonry wall)(Ref. 4) . Strengthening masonry walls (Ref. 4)... Repair of wall separations (Ref. 4)... ... Strengthening of concrete structural walls (Ref. 4) . Strengthening of struetural wall (Ref. 4)... . « Slab repair procedures (Ref. 4) Column jacketing (Refs. 4, 32) Jacket on one side of column (Ref. 4)... - Interior face jacketing of concrete beam (Ref. 2, 4) Local jacketing of joint (Ref. 4)... 0... es Global jacketing of joint, columns and beams (Ref. 4) . . - Jacketing two side of masonry wall (Ref. 4)... - Details of jacket on two sides of masonry walls for corners and intersections (Ref. 4) Strengthening of wall intersections with post- tensioned tie rods (Ref. 42) . Strengthening of wall intersections with perimetral ties (Ref. 2) 53 54 56 56 56 58 60 7 7 7852. 2 56 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Strengthening of masonry structure with externa belts of reinforced mortar (Ref. 2)... 2 2. ee ee Strengthening with external prestressing (Refs. 19,27)... .. . Strengthening of precast conerete structure joints EY ira vem eum en be aw GE ‘Typical load-displacement relationships for different strengthening techniques (Ref. 32)... 2... 5 Addition of shear walls (Ref. 4)... 0 eee ee Addition of internal structural walls to existing structure (Ref. 4) 2. ee Addition of infill walls to existing structure (BA, oc eee cme aes Infill wall connection to existing column (Ref. 4) 20... 00s Addition of infill walls to existing structure (Refs. 4,32)... . Addition of new concrete frame to existing structure (Ref. 26). . . Diagonal steel compressive brace (Ref. 54)... 2. ee ee ‘Types of steel bracing systems (Refs. 18,47)... 0 0-2 es Use of peripheral frames in bracing schemes (Refs. 13,47)... . « External steel braces (Refs. 54,65)... 0. ++. cee Use of buttresses (Refs. 2, 32,58). 2... ee ee ee Strengthening of masonry structures with new walls Qe) . cases caw ees ee aes 2 4 xii 79 81 82 84 85 87 88 90 92 93 93 95 96 97 99 99CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. Background For some time, society has recognized the importance of restoring normal life in a community after a major earthquake. A better approach is to prevent or mitigate damage in such an event so that society is not disrupted. Current policies address not only the stabilization and repair of damaged structures, but on the prevention or diminution of the amount of damage to inad- equate structures. Existing structures designed some decades ago do not incorpo- rate current seismic design knowledge acquired following years of intensive research. ‘Thus, strengthening and retrofit of structures have become an important area of design in seismic regions. But only in recent years has the importance of repair and strengthening of structures been recognized and a major research effort under- taken. In this report, common practices from different countries regarding earth- quake damage repair methods are compiled and summarized. Different procedures are categorized in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 as a function of their purpose and construc- tion complexity. In Chapter 3, temporary measures used to stabilize the structure to carry vertical and lateral loads are described. The main objective of the techniques presented in chapter 4 is to restore the resistance of the structure while techniques included in chapter 5 are aimed at restoring and strengthening the structure to en- hance its lateral load resistance. In chapter 2, materials and construction techniques applicable to all types of repair procedures are discussed. In Chapter 6, a sum- mary of the techniques and their applicability within the contexts of simplicity of construction, cost, expediency, and personnel or material demands are presented. 2. General aspects In many cases, clastic response does not adequately describe the behavior of a structure. An example of this problem is the response of a ductile structure subjected to ground motion, During a severe earthquake, cyclic loading as well as inelastic response of some members of the structure are expected. Elastic and inelas- tic behavior are likely to be observed. An earthquake induces deformations on the 12 structure. External loads are not applied; the maximum forces acting on a structure depend on the structure’s capacity before yielding is reached, not necessarily on the motion itself. The maximum forces acting on a structure diminish for systems that can develop inelastic behavior. This provides the designer with an economical and rational approach to the design of earthquake resistant structures. On the other hand, it is impractical, if not impossible, to design a structure which will dissipate a strong earthquake’s energy without damage and remain within the elastic range of response, Current seismic codes recognize this fact and permit the incursion of some elements, such as beams, into the inelastic range to dissipate energy. The structure is expected to develop non-linear behavior which implies the appearance of cracks in the concrete and the possible yielding of the reinforcement under moderate to strong earthquakes. For seismic regions, even for properly designed structures, the appearance of damage is accepted, and thus, the repair and strengthening of struc- (ures is an important area of seismic design. ‘The possibility of unusually strong ground motions and poorly or inadequately designed structures must be included in the context. One of the main problems the designer has to face during the development of a repair or strengthening scheme is the existence of a damaged or inadequate structure. The usual lack of appropriate drawings and, in general, lack of information concerning the design procedures used, the impossibility of determining the residual strength of the damaged elements, the difficulty in changing the overall layout and/or correcting inadequate detailing of the structure make the repair and strengthening process a much more complicated process than the design of a new building. In many cases the building has been designed using outdated codes. ‘The engineer must try to visualize the original designers intent and, in general, the criteria used in the design process if he is to properly restore or increase the ductility and/or strength of the existing structure, ‘The designer must understand the behavior of the original structure and how the behavior will be modified by the introduction of the repair or strengthening scheme, ‘The behavior of the repaired structural members must be understood to assess properly the effectiveness of a strengthening scheme. Although some design guidance can be found, in current practice the conception and design of 2 repair or strengthening scheme rely heavily on the intuition and experience of the designer.3 ‘Taking care of the initial mode of failure is not enough. ‘The designer must make sure other modes of failure are not likely to occur. ‘That is, the designer must correct, the existing weak links without creating new ones. Poor behavior of the repaired or strengthened area during subsequent earthquakes may lead to local failure that could trigger a collapse mechanism in the structure. A lower bound repair scheme requires that the repair of the damage on the structure should at least restore the structure to its original capacity to resist vertical plus lateral loads. In some cases, a repair scheme may be inadequate to restore or ‘assure sufficient lateral strength and stiffness, thus a strengthening scheme should be considered. One of the following criteria is usually used to design a structure to resist an earthquake: © The structure has enough lateral force capacity to resist earthquake in- duced forces within the elastic range. © The structure has enough ductility as well as adequate strength to dissipate earthquake energy in the inelastic range. * Some combination of the above to provide a structure which has minimal or no damage in light to moderate earthquakes and controlled damage in severe earthquakes. ‘Any repair or strengthening scheme should also address the same criteria. In general, the purpose of a repair scheme must: ® Restore or increase strength. © Restore or increase duetility. © Provide a balance of the stiffness and/or strength between different struc- tural elements. Structures with small natural period, i.e., low and middle height concrete ‘and masonry buildings, withstand an earthquake with small force reductions due to ductility. The shear governed behavior of such structures does not allow for due- tile behavior. Structures of this kind require large strength to resist the expected seismic forces and, thus, restoration or increase in strength must be considered the4 ‘most essential and effective repair technique. For taller buildings the strength must be provided if deflections are to be controlled to avoid damage to mechanical or architectural elements and equipment. Ductility can be provided for structures with higher natural periods, where flexure governs behavior. Combinations of strength and ductility changes can be used to modify stiffness, mass or strength eccentricities over a story or through the entire building, and to eliminate possible weak links. In general, the strength may be achieved by introducing new lateral resisting elements within the existing structure, while ductility may be achieved by confining existing clements. In some cases, the ductility ean be improved by weakening some members to achieve a better behavior by modifying shear to flexural strength ratios of mem- 1g of beams in a frame with strong beams bers. A specific case could be the weaker and weak columns to obtain ductile frame behavior. dynamic behavior of ler the differences Finally, the designer must cor the original and the strengthened structure. In general, a change in the stiffness and/or mass distributions of the structure imply a change in its dynamic properties and a possible change in the lateral forces acting on the structure. Possible load redistribution must be checked under both gravity and lateral loads including a careful study of the forces introduced into the foundation system.CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES 4. General Concepts In the repair and/or strengthening of any structural clement, a monolithic behavior between the old and new material must be accomplished for satisfactory behavior of the elements and the structure. In general, any repair material should meet the following guidelines (References. 1, 2, 3): © Be durable and protect reinforcement © Be dimensionally stable. Low shrinkage repair materials must be provided to avoid loss of contact between the old and new materials. © Achieve adequate bond between materials, including bond between steel and conerete, Bond is essential to satisfactory performance. © Be able to develop resistance at early ages, whenever the need exists to restore the damaged element capacity as soon as possible. ‘To achieve satisfactory behavior of the repaired element, the compressive strength of the new material should be higher than that of the original material. "The use of material of diverse strength must be carefully studied to avoid bond failure and crushing of the contact surface. It is advisable that the repair material properties match relatively well the existing material properties for the repaired clement. ‘The elastic modulii and time or temperature effects on the materials must igh stresses, sustained loads, or temperature be compatible to avoid problems under changes (References 2, 3, 4). In the case of repair by the addition of new elements, a proper connection must be provided to adequately transfer forces between new and existing elements without further damage to the structure. The new elements must be anchored and/or attached to provide for development of design capacity.2. Resins Resins are used to repair cracks and to anchor or attach new (steel or concrete) elements to concrete and masonry members. Low viscosity resins are used for small width crack injection while higher viscosity resins can be used to fill larger cracks or voids (Reference 5). (epoxy, polyester, acrylic, Resins are two component systems, r% polyurethane, ete.) and hardener. Both components can be liquid or solid. Once they are mixed, a reaction takes place and hardening of the material can be accom- plished within minutes. Normally final resistance is reached after a few hours or days. A large range of properties can be obtained due to the availability of resins with different chemical structure and mixing ratios. Resin compounds are highly sensitive to the type of filler or aggregate added. In general, the properties, appli- cation, preparation, and curing are specified by the manufacturer (References 2, 4, 5). Attention must be focused to the need for a careful selection of the type of resin based on a thorough investigation of the properties of the resin and com- patibility with the existing material. Most epoxy components deteriorate with time (solf life). Field quality control is highly advisable. Resins cannot be used in all environments. The hardening process is suspended at temperatures below about 10°C. Certain epoxies may not cure properly in the presence of moisture. In warm weather, the liberated heat produced by the reaction of both components may in- croase shrinkage and provoke the loss of bond with the old material (References 4, 5). Little data is available on the effect of long term aging on the mechanical properties of epoxy compounds. ‘Lhe most pertinent properties of epoxy resins include (References 2, 4): © Excellent bond to conerete, masonry and steel © High early strength and hardness » — Resistance to acids, alkalies and solvents © Small expansion coefficients7 © Loss of integrity at temperatures above 100°C. Resin must be protected against high temperature variations, especially fire exposure. Test results show that the resistance of epoxy repaired clements is substantially reduced under fire. Strength properties of epoxy compounds deteriorate rapidly at clevated temperatures (Reference 6). © Limited pot life. Once the resin and the hardener have been mixed, the setting reaction takes place in a short time. The resin must be placed during this period. © Limited shelf life. The resin changes with storage time and cannot be used if the shelf life specified by the manufacturer has expired. Detailed descriptions of epoxy resins and their recommended use can be found in manufacturer specifications. Well-documented information for epoxy use can be found in ACI 503, “Use of Epoxy Compounds With Concrete” (Reference 7) 3. Conerete a, Cast-in-Place. When new concrete is used to replace damaged parts, to increase the capacity of an element, or to cast new elements, special care must -place concrete has been extensively be taken to obtain monolithic behavior. Cast- used in repair projects. In many cases, poor behavior has been observed due to volume changes and shrinkage of concrete which destroy contact between the old and new materials and prevent proper transfer of stress across the contact surface (References 1, 4). }¢ for normal construction can- Tn some cases, concretes that are appropri not be used due to space limitations. Congestion of reinforcement may make access to the repaired zone difficult. The concrete may have to be placed through holes bored in the existing structure. The workability of the mixture is a very important, aspect that should be carefully considered to achieve adequate consolidation of the concrete, To reduce the shrinkage, the water content of the concrete must be con- trolled. ‘The largest size of aggregate that will pass between bars or other openings should be used. Admixtures may improve workability. Superplasticizers can be used to increase workability while maintaining a low water/cement ratio (Reference 3).8 Preparation techniques for the concrete surfaces are important to assure adequate contact between new and existing materials. Prior to the placement of new concrete, damaged and deteriorated concrete must be removed, by mechanical means. The old concrete surface should be roughened, cleaned and, in some cases, prepared with epoxy or mortar to improve bond of the new concrete with the existing surface (References 1, 2, 4). ‘The concrete surface should be saturated with water before placing new concrete. ‘The concrete should be cast in small layers and carefully vibrated to distribute the new material without forming voids and/or rock pockets. Special curing procedures may be used to prevent concrete shrinkage due to rapid drying of the surface (References 1, 2, 4, 8). Concrete properties can be enhanced by the addition of glass, plastic or steel fibers to the mix. By adding fibers, shrinkage of the mix is reduced, thereby enhancing bond with the existing material (References 3, 5, 9, 10). The fibers will fess, and compres- produce a substantial increase in material ductility and the ion, shear and tension strengths are increased. However, there is limited field data currently available. Fiber-reinforced concrete shows great potential for repair work. Well-documented information for the use of reinforced fiber concrete can be found in ACI 544, “State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete” (Ref- erence 11). Preplaced aggregate concrete, also known as intrusion or grouted concrete, is a placement technique that. can be used in the repair process, especially when the access to the repaired zone is difficult or steel reinforcement is very congested. Clean, well graded, coarse aggregate is placed within the forms before pumping mortar with expansive additives into the casting zone. There is no limitation to the size of the aggregate that can be used. The material placed in this way exhibits high bond strength, and thus, is well suited for repair and restoration work (References 3, 5). b. Shotcrete. Shotcrete often is used to repair and strengthen concrete or masonry walls and to jacket (encase) different types of concrete elements. Special equipment, as well as trained personnel (nozzlemen), are required in the shoterete process. The repair job will only be as good as the technician’s workmanship and his knowledge of the material properties.9 ‘The term shotcrete stands for the procedures used to place fresh concrete or mortars by pneumatically conducting the materials through a hose until they are conveyed (shot) into place at high velocities. The materials can be “wet mixed” before pumping or supplied dry (“dry mixed”) to the hose and moistened just be- fore they exit the hose. In dry mixed shoterete, the water content of the mixture can be reduced to that required for hydration, and thus, achieving a free shrink- age material that shows better bond to old material than wet mix shotcrete. Wet mix requires high water contents and the use of superplasticizer to ensure a plastic mix (References 3, 5). ‘The procedure can be used to place material in vertical, horizontal, diagonal or overhead positions. One of the most important aspects of shotcrete is the reduced need of formwork and the reduction in construction time. In some cases, it is very difficult to insure proper placement of concrete around rein- forcement. The operators (nozzleman) abilities are especially important in avoiding poorly consolidated concrete behind reinforcing bars. Steel fibers can be introduced mechanical properties such as deforma- to the shotcrete mix to improve many of i tion capacity and compressive and tension strengths. Corrosion of the fibers must be avoided by coating the surface of the material with a layer of plain shotcrete or grout (Reference 1). ‘The contact surface must be prepared prior to the application of shotcrete. Similar measures to those mentioned in the previous section should be observed. Proper reinforcement and curing are necessary to avoid problems with high shrinkage in some shotcrete applications (Reference 1, 2, 4). In general, shotcrete provides good bond with concrete, masonry and steel. High strength can be obtained with high compaction energy and low water cement ratios. Shotcreting practices are well-documented in ACI 506-66, “Recommended Practice for Shotereting” (Reference 12). c. Resin Coneretes. Resin concretes are obtained by substituting resins (epoxy, polyester, acrylic, polyurethane, etc.) for the cement in the concrete mix. Normally, resin concrete is used to replace and patch small areas of damaged con- crete, The aggregates used in the mix strongly influence the properties of the con- crete, Before using resin concretes, properties must be established to determine10 compatibility with the old material. As mentioned before for resins, the curing needs are specified by the manufacturer (References 1, 2, 4). ‘The properties of resin concretes which may impact on repair applications include excellent bond with a clean, dry concrete surface. ‘To improve bond, a coat of resin may need to be applied to the contact surface prior to the placement of the resin concrete. ‘The resin concrete will have high tensile, compression, and shear strength and early strength gain. Low resistance against heat and carbonation is @ drawback. Proper measures should be implemented to protect the material against these effects. The concrete has a lower modulus of elasticity compared with portland cement concretes (References 2, 4). Well documented information for use of epoxy compounds can be found in ACL 503, “Use of Epoxy Compounds with Concrete” (Reference 7) ixtures obtained by re- d. Polymer Concrete. Polymer concrete are placing part of the cement by polymers in the concrete mix with the purpose of upgrading or enhancing some concrete properties (References 1, 4). Bond between old and repair materials is improved. Concrete resistance to chemical attack is en- hanced. ‘The material may have low resistance to heat and carbonation. Proper measures should be implemented to protect the material against these effects. Cost and special requirements generally preclude use of polymer concrete for large vol- ume applications. Therefore, the materials are usually used to patch small areas of damaged concrete (Reference 4). 4, Mortars and Grouts Conventional grout is a mixture of cement, sand and water used to repair cracks and fill voids in damaged conerete or masonry elements, Grouts can be a fluid mix that can be poured or injected. Forms or sealer must be used to contain the mix until it has set. If the water content is high, large shrinkage and cracking between the old and repair materials can be expected. If the formation of cracks is unacceptable, expansive additives and superplasticizers can be added to diminish the contraction and inerease workability with lower water contents, Grouts are widely used to anchor metal connectors and dowels to concrete elements (References 2, 4).u Cement milk is a water-cement fluid mixture used to inject cracks up to 0.5 mm width in concrete and masonry elements. It is sometimes applied to the contact surface between old and new concrete to enhance bond. For cracks greater than 0.5 mm width, conventional grouts may be considered (Reference 2). Epoxy grouts can be used whenever high shear force transfer or positive bonding are required. Epoxy grout generally does not shrink. The combination of epoxy with sands results in a material with a higher modulus of elasticity. Other types of special grouts can be obtained by substituting a part of the cement with polymers in the mix to enhance the material strength, bond and shrinkage properties. Epoxy and polymeric grouts can develop full strength at early ages and can be exposed to service conditions in a matter of hours following their application. One typical application for epoxy grout is the anchorage of metal connectors or dowels to concrete (References 2, 4, 5). When voids are large enough, a material known as “dry pack” can be used. ‘The material is placed and then manually packed or tamped into position. Dry pack is a cement-sand mix with just enough water to moisten the mix and provide a cohesive mass that can be compressed into place. Due to its low water content, near optimal for sufficient hydration, a high strength and shrinkage free material should be possible. In reality, the quality of the grout is highly dependent on workmanship. In many operations, the working space may be highly restricted and the resulting dry-packed concrete is not well consolidated nor of uniform quality (References 3, 4). 5. Wood Wood is widely used for temporary support functions. It has three basic functions: (1) acting as a compressive element in vertical and lateral support; (2) as a wedge, to adjust and place a compressive element of fixed length; and (3) load distribution, to provide enough area to adequately transmit loads to support elements and to the existing structure, thus avoiding collapse or improving lateral stability.12 6. Structural Steel or Reinforcement Steel can accomplish the same functions as wood in a repair project, but due to its high tensile and compressive strength and its versatility, it serves other purposes. New steel elements can be used to upgrade and restore damaged reinforce- ment, In case of substitution of old and damaged reinforcement, the continuity of the old and the new steel must be assured by means of splices, welding or mechanical connectors. If the new bars are welded, preheating and cooling procedures may be needed to avoid altering steel properties and producing a brittle behavior. Different types of welded connections are shown in Figure 1. Welding equipment and trained personnel are needed to produce good quality welds. Steel plates or structural shapes properly attached to damaged elements can restore or strengthen the element and enhance ductility, Transmission of shear forces between new and old materials can be achieved by placing dowels (steel bars or bolts) along the contact surface. 7. Shear Transfer and Anchorage ‘To provide monolithic behavior in a repaired structure, complex techniques may be needed when high shear forces must be transferred from one element to the other. Such techniques include shear dowels and concrete interlock as shown in Figure 2. Shear keys are formed by removing concrete in the existing surface or by bonding precast concrete shear keys with epoxy adhesives to the surface of the existing element. The shear force between new and old material is transferred through the shear keys and the dowel action of the anchored bars. On concrete elements with small width, such as walls, spiral bars may be necessary to confine the steel dowels and prevent a splitting failure. If a perfect bond and no slippage between new and old materials is achieved, the element will behave as a monolithic block and optimum strength and stiffness can be developed. Steel dowels are used extensively to enhance shear transfer between a con- crete jacket and the original element and/or between new elements, normally infilled within frames, and the existing structure. Normally, the anchorage length within the old and new materials is the same. On infill walls, the development length used for the old conerete is usually less than that for the new concrete. Although some recommendations for the computation of the embedment length for different types of13 Ni peep TS a= 356 1 d5q 95 } 25cm 1 DSc Boh double or single 1 a) bars overtapping splice with bars b) spliced bars \of splice with angle _ > 16mm mm v-weld \ Je) re €) butt jointed bers Figure 1 ‘Types of welded connections (Reference 1)uM () Adbored precast concrete shone ley method Figure 2. Shear force transfer mechanisms between new and old concrete (Reference 23) Ce — + senewwne eo (b) Chemical anchor (a) Mechanical anchor Figure 3. Anchorage procedures for steel elements (Reference 23)15 steel dowels can be found in codes or manufacturers’ manuals, the determination of this length and the amount of dowels needed for an adequate shear transfer remains more of an intuitive process based on the experience and judgement of the engineer (References 13, 14, 15). Dowels are anchored in the old conerete using adhesive (chemical or grout) or mechanical systems. Steel dowels ean be anchored to old concrete using adhesive materials such as epoxy, epoxy or resin grouts, or non-shrinking cement grouts. After holes have been drilled all along the contact surface, an adhesive or cementitious material is introduced. The hole must be filled in such a way that no air remains trapped. A steel dowel is placed in each hole, and rotated as it is introduced inside the hole to accomplish a better distribution of the bonding material around the periphery of the bar, Better results can be accomplished if the holes are cleaned prior to the introduction of the bonding agent. Some studies suggest that cleaning the hole with a brush and vacuum cleaner to attain a dust free hole increases significantly the pullout resistance of the dowel and the shear transfer capacity as well (References 1, 13, 15). Polyester resins or other chemical grouts can be provided in glass or plastic vials containing the hardener and resin. The vials are placed in the holes and the steol clement is inserted and rotated into place, the containers are broken and the materials mixed, thereby starting the hardening reaction of the resin as shown in Figure 3. Test data shows that a larger embedment depth for the dowels and higher amounts of reinforcement crossing the old and new material interface surface enhance the shear capacity of the connection (Reference 16). Mechanical anchors consist of an interlocking mechanism between the con- crote and a steel anchor. Holes must be drilled on the contact surface and stecl elements are introduced. Usually these elements have an expanding type anchor in one end. The anchor is a loose sleeve or metal shell that expands around a steel cone or wedge. As the sleeve or shell expands, contact with the internal faces of the hole provides the interlocking mechanism (Figure 3). Some mechanical anchors resist tension while others resist tension and shear. Manufacturers have specific rec- ommendations for installation and strength ratings (Reference 5). Adhesive anchors generally behave better in tension than mechanical anchors (Reference 17). Figure 4 illustrates several techniques to improve tensile capacities of dowels through the use of plates and dowels (Reference 1).Liki 0) Threaded bar and anchor plate ee b) Bar welded to anenor plate oO. view (anchor plate can be fastened on an id" RE: element by means of special anchors, ‘expansive or resin ones) in holes new RC. layer ¢) Anchorage by welding on anchor Plates ‘weldee on anor, lorge. Siemeter bars (dowels),see b)above Figure 4 Mechanical anchorage for dowels in tension (Reference 1)CHAPTER 3 BASIC TECHNIQUES ‘Temporary support is needed when structures and facilities suffer serious damage. Unloading of critical damaged elements is required until the capacity to resist its own weight (gravity load) and other possible loads is restored properly. ‘Temporary support may involve emergency measures that need two main require ments (1) to transfer vertical loads from damaged elements to “provisional” auxil- iary elements, and (2) to protect the structure as a whole against lateral instability. Carefully constructed temporary supports provide an interior means of protecting occupants and equipment. In many cases “temporary” protection may serve longer term needs or be incorporated into a more permanent repair scheme, For temporary support of the structure, the load transfer from damaged elements to auxiliary compression elements can only be accomplished by wedging or positioning correctly the new elements. Special care must be focused on supplying adequate bracing to isolated clements to avoid member buckling or sidesway fail- ures, Placing temporary supports is a dangerous process in repairing or stabilizing a structure, When the forces are being transferred from damaged elements to auxil- iary supports, special care must be taken to prevent accidents that can involve loss of life or serious injuries. 1. Vertical Support a. General Considerations. Vertical load capacity must be restored as quickly as possible by installing auxiliary vertical load bearing elements around dam- aged columns and beating walls. In some cases it is possible to limit the inclusion of new elements to the damaged story as can be seen from Figure 5. The shear capacity of sections t-t, which ineludes slab and beams, must be sulficient to carry the floor load plus the shore load (Reference 4). It is difficult to determine the shear capacity (Section t-t) in a damaged structure, Remaining shear capacity cannot be clearly defined. Providing vertical support at every level below and above the damaged element diminishes significantly the shear forces on Sections t-t at both sides of the element. Shoring all floors (Figure 5) is recommended whenever it can be implemented (Reference 4) Ww18. loor systems 6 Lrorlas AL} b,) Low shears in floor systems Figure 5 Shoring configurations for damaged vertical elements (Reference 4)19 When provisional support elements are directly supported by the slab, special care must be taken to avoid punching failure by providing a support surface that can distribute the element load over a bigger area. The support area can consist of wood planks and/or steel plates and must be collinear to avoid shear failures and poor load transfer. ‘The distance from the provisional support elements to the damaged ones must be as short as possible; however, enough space should be provided for the eventual repair or replacement work on the column or load bearing wall (References 2, 4, 13). b, ‘Timber Shoring. Wood is used extensively to shore damaged ele- ments because of its availability and economy. A variety of elements can be used ranging from tree logs, sawn timbers and utility poles to industrially made elements with different sections: planks, boards, skids and beams, The element's structural properties depend on the type and quality of the wood. Unless such elements are stored and available with load ratings already established, it may be difficult to assess the compressive capacity. Individual elements can only be used to support light loads; however, in most cases, the section is too small compared to the axial load it must bear. Com- pound elements can be formed connecting multiple elements by means of wires, nails, bolts, pins, steel straps, ete. The efficiency of isolated elements can be increased by bracing to reduce the effective buckling length, as shown in Figure 6. The intercon- necting members should be strong enough to brace and to hold the vertical elements together. Bracing should be done in the direction of the smallest dimension of the clement for rectangular sections and may be needed in both for square sections and rectangular sections. To properly distribute loads over a larger area to avoid punch- ing problems, boards, beams or planks can be used at the ends. For heavier loads steal plates may be needed. Vertical elements are more easily adjusted by means of wedges rather than multiple layers of flat plates or timber beams and boards (Figure 7)(Reference 4), In case of damaged load bearing walls with openings, vertical load can be carried by timber shores (or any other kind of available shore). The use of timber to take vertical load from a damaged masonry pier between two windows is show Figure 8. Similar solutions can be adopted for a cracked section of wall above any window or door opening (Reference 4).20 a.) Widely spaced and braced timbers (Reference 26) Geieceet ten See piste) b) Closely spaced interconnected timbers (Reference 4) Figure 6 Use of multiple comp: ression elements2 shores damaged column wan spreader beam Figure 7 Proper use of spreader beams and wedges (Reference 2)Figure 8 Support of damage load bearing walls with openings (Reference 4) Figure 9 Standard industrial Figure 10. Industrial type shore (References 4) scaffolding (Reference 4)23 c. Steel Shoring. For higher vertical loads, single or compound steel elements can be used. Steel is an efficient material for vertical support but care must be taken to prevent buckling. A large variety of steel elements with different capacities are used in the construction industry and are appropriate for temporary shoring purposes. Standard industrial shoring ean be used for light loads (Figure 9). For wedging purposes, the height can be adjusted by an adjusting screw. Sup- port plates are attached to each end to provide load distribution. ‘To further avoid penetration problems, additional boards and beams can be provided at both ends (Reference 4). Industrial type scaffolding can be used in case of light damage to bearing elements with small vertical loads or damaged flexural members (such as floor systems or roofs)(Figure 10). In some cases the height of the support can be regulated by a threaded base plate assembly. To support damaged beams, the props, normally tubular elements, are all distributed through the beam length, supporting the beam by means of auxiliary steel sections with length equal or greater than the beam width as shown in Figure 10 (References 4, 13). Rolled steel shapes, pipes and built-up steel sections can be used to sup- port high vertical loads. The length cannot be adjusted and wood or steel wedges must be used to provide the correct length (Figures 11, 12). Punch- ing and shear failures must be avoided at the support face by means of bearing steel plates on the top and bottom ends to distribute the load carried by the member to a bigger area. Often rolled steel shapes are con- nected at the top by auxiliary steel sections, while bottom ends rest on Eshaped sections or stec! plates (Figure 12). In this way, the system can transfer loads acting on the steel shores to the lower story avoiding punch- ing or sidesway problems. When using isolated steel elements, special care must be focused to prevent them from falling sidesway. Figure 11 shows the use of bracing. Figure 12c illustrates a case where the shores were tied to the damaged column by means of wire, This technique is often used to prevent buckling; however, if the column needs to be repaired, the24 ©) Steel pipes (Reference 13) Figure 11 Shoring with structural steel elements25 1) Fabricated frame (Reference 26) b) Fabricated frame (Reference 26) ) Steel shores tied with wire to damaged column (Reference 18) Figure 12 Use of steel multiple interconnected steel units