CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

3.1 Overview

The present study was carried out to explore the impact of Montessori,
Kindergarten and Play-way methods of teaching on the cognitive development
among pre-primary children. In order to gain an understanding about what has
been done in the past in the field of cognitive development and instruction
methods, and to support the findings of the study, the researcher conducted a
review of related studies. Accordingly, this chapter presents the outcome effects of
the different teaching methods, with special emphasis on Montessori, Kindergarten
and Play-way methods on child development. The role of teachers in academic and
cognitive development of pre-primary children is also investigated. Moreover, the
different theories related to cognitive development are discussed followed by the
various determinants and interventions that enhance cognitive development in
young children are presented. Thus, this chapter deals with the extensive summary
of the relevant research approaches related to the current research topic.

3.2 Impact of Montessori Method on learning

Lillard (2019) reviewed the effectiveness of Montessori education in

cognitive development and learning of young children. The study observed some
positive outcomes of Montessori education, like development of self-determination
and independence in young children. On the contrary, the study observed a lack of
proper implementation of this educational practice and its incommensurability
with the traditional teaching method as barriers to reformation of the learning
culture in preschools.

Kayili (2018) discovered the effectiveness of Montessori method on the

cognitive tempo of Kindergarten children belonging to the age group of four to
five years. The study adopted a pre-test and post-test paired control group design
and included a sample of 60 children who attended nursery school in Konya during
2015-16 education year. The findings revealed that Montessori method reduced the

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number of errors and extended the reflection time among the preschool children
who attended the treatment.

Lillard, Heise and Richey et al. (2017) observed 71 Montessori educated

students and 71 other students from non-Montessori schools for a period of three
years and compared the changes in their outcomes. The students were assessed
through a specific set of tasks such as math puzzles, picture puzzles, picture
vocabulary, tasks for testing creativity, etc. The longitudinal study confirmed that
performance of Montessori students improved with time. The differences observed
in performance among students of different income levels reduced over the years
with Montessori education. Social skills, proficiency, passion for academics,
creativity and executive functions improved significantly with Montessori
education.

Kayili and Ari (2016) identified the effects of Montessori method

supported by social skills training program on the skills of understanding feelings
and social problem solving among Kindergarten children using a pre- and post-test
study design. The study group included 53 children who attended Nursery School
in Konya during the 2013-14 education period. The results revealed that
experimental group showed significant differences in favor of Montessori Method.
Thus, it can be inferred that Montessori Method supported by Social Skills
Training Program helps in the development of children’s skills of understanding
feelings and social problem solving.

Bhatia, Davis and Shamas-Brandt (2015) explored the effectiveness of

Montessori practical life activities in developing fine motor skills in
kindergartners. A quasi-experiment was conducted by the researchers for a period
of eight months. The study participants included 50 children belonging to the age
of five years from four Montessori schools and 50 children of the same age from a
high-performing suburban elementary kindergarten school. The motor skills were
tested with the help of Flag Posting Test, and the results showed that children from
the Montessori treatment group exhibited high levels of speed, accuracy, and

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continuous use of the dominant hand on the post-test, when adjusted for pretest
differences and gender.

Dogru (2015) examined the effectiveness of Montessori education in

attention gathering skill of children with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD). The research participants included six girls and nine boys, among which
seven children were with ADHD and eight children were with only AD. The study
adopted a pre- and post-test design approach. The results showed that Montessori
method enhanced the attention gathering level and eye-hand coordination of the
students and helped in their development of tactile, visual and auditory senses.

Mallet and Schroeder (2015) compared the ITBS (Iowa Test for Basic
Skills), reading, Mathematics skills of 518 first and second grade Montessori
students with 517 non-Montessori students. TAKS (Texas Assessment of
Knowledge and Skills) was also carried out by the researchers on fourth and fifth
grade students to reveal better performance in Mathematics and reading among
Montessori and non-Montessori students using a cross-sectional comparative
approach. The study observed no significant differences in the ITBS, reading and
Mathematics scores between first and second grade Montessori and non-
Montessori students. However, significant differences were observed for the
TAKS reading and Mathematics scores between fourth and fifth grade Montessori
and non-Montessori students.

Harrison (2014) analysed the Montessori Method of early education using

an in-depth descriptive approach. It was observed that Montessori Method is the
coming together of the principle of freedom and training of the senses of young
children. According to the study, the Montessori system emphasizes on individual
development and imaginative abilities, and not group training which results in the
lack of cooperation and social qualities in children. Further, the findings states that
the system lacks storytelling and does not help the children to express themselves
by virtue of their pre-planned materials and also that the system does not
accommodate religious education.

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 Md-Yunus and Peng (2014) assessed 196 students who underwent
Montessori education in Mathematics, language and Social Sciences. The research
assessed the students’ performance using standard measurement scales. Slightly
better scores in language performance was observed among Montessori students of
all the three grades while Mathematics performance was improved only in lower
grade students, i.e., first grade and not among second or third grades. No
significant differences were found between the groups among students of any
grade with respect to social studies. In addition, number of years of attending
Montessori also had no significant effects on their academic performance.

Lillard (2013) compared Montessori learning with Play-way learning

methods and observed both the methods to be fairly similar in terms of objects
used in classrooms, involvement of peers while learning, personalized lessons, etc.
and vastly different from traditional learning methods. The results revealed
thateven though the Montessori method of instruction offers varied choices, they
were limited when compared to the choices offered by the play-way method.
Significant differences were also observed in the case of fantasy play with Play-
way type of schools found to be more accommodating than However, the author
also posited that such restrictions enforced by Montessori enhanced the life of the
program and helped the teachers to organize their work.

Lillard (2012) compared the development and learning outcomes of

preschool children who were exposed to different programs such as high fidelity
classic Montessori programs, lower fidelity Montessori programs, supplemented
Montessori programs, and conventional programs. It was found that students who
were exposed to the classic Montessori programs showed high levels of social and
academic skills. Students in classic Montessori programs showed significantly
greater school year gains on outcome measures of reading, vocabulary, social
problem-solving, math, and executive function.

Kayili and Ari (2011) analysed the effects of the Montessori method on the
readiness of the preschool children to primary education. The sample selected for
the study included 50 children who belonged to five-six years and attending SU

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MEF IhsanDogramaci Application Nursery School in Selcuklu county of Konya.
Upon analyzing the collected data with the help of Mann Whitney U test and
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, it was found that the Montessori method contributed
effectively to the readiness of the preschool children to primary education, when
compared to the existing preschool education program.

Nance (2009) examined the significance of early childhood education and

the role played by play, language, socialization, and formation of values in the
development of a child. The researcher observed that the Montessori method of
education is characterized by an emphasis on self-directed action of the children
and clinical observation on the part of the teacher. The paper also pointed out that
the Montessori method gives importance to the adaptation to the learning
environment for the developmental stage and the role played by physical activities
in understanding abstract concepts and practical skills. Further it also stated that
the Montessori method is characterized by the use of self-correcting study material
in teaching various concepts to the children.

Besançon and Lubart (2008) explored the differences in the development

of creative competencies in children from diverse learning environments. A semi-
longitudinal study was carried out for a period of two consecutive years with 210
children who attend elementary schools with Montessori, Freinet and traditional
philosophies of learning. The results showed that children’s creative performance
is not only affected by the type of task but also by the type of school. The findings
indicated that alternative pedagogies like Montessori Method enhanced the
creative performances of children when compared to traditional pedagogy. The
study also provided evidence for the effectiveness of Montessori schools in
enhancing the creative ability levels of students, from all initial creative ability
levels. It also showed that alternative pedagogies like Montessori use different
types of exercises to develop divergent thinking, which is an essential component
of creative thinking.

Dohrmann et al. (2007) studied the academic outcomes of Montessori

education by comparing the high school grades of students who attended and did

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not attend Montessori schools between preschool and fifth grade. The results of the
study indicated that students who had finished their elementary education in
Montessori schools exhibited significantly higher grades in mathematics and
science subjects in high school when compared to the other study respondents who
attended traditional elementary schools. However, no such differences could be
observed in the case of Social Science and English grades between the traditional
and Montessori groups of respondents.

Manner (2007) reported the differences between academic achievements of

elementary level students enrolled in Montessori and non-Montessori programs
over a period of three years based on achievement test scores. The data collected
were subjected to analysis of variance and one-sample t test. While from the
results could observe no significant differences between the groups during the first
year of study, assessment during second and third years exhibited significant
improvement in reading among Montessori students. Similar results were not
obtained in the case of math performance of students. However, the investigator
reasoned that Montessori with its emphasis on sensorial materials were not
involving enough pencil work might support learning only at an abstract level.

Lillard and Else-Quest (2006) stated some of the benefits of Montessori

education. It was observed and reported by them that by the end of Kindergarten,
the Montessori children performed better in reading and Math and were found to
be more positively engaged in playground interaction. Montessori children also
exhibited more advanced social cognition and executive control. Furthermore,
senior Montessori children wrote more creative essays with complex sentence
structures and selected positive responses for social dilemmas.

Lopata, Wallace and Finn (2005) conducted a study to compare the

academic achievement of students who attended Montessori and traditional
education programs. The research population included 291 students attending
fourth grade and 252 students attending eighth grade. While some students
attended Montessori school, others attended structured magnet, open magnet, and
traditional non-magnet public schools. The results of the study failed to provide

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any evidence for the claim that enrolment in Montessori programs is associated
with higher academic achievement. Contrary to other previous studies that found
Montessori students demonstrated higher academic achievement and growth, their
study yielded mixed results that showed the lack of significant higher scores for
students in Montessori school.

Rathunde and Csikszentmihalyi (2005) compared the outcomes of

Montessori and traditional school methods in their study which included 290
demographically matched students from both the programs. Multivariate analyses
performed on the data revealed that students who attended Montessori school
programs exhibited greater affect, potency, intrinsic motivation, and undivided
interest while being engaged in academic activities. On the other hand, though the
students from traditional school programs showed higher salience while engaged
in academic work, their responses were accompanied by low intrinsic motivation.
The findings revealed that Montessori programs enhance the intrinsic motivational
levels of students while engaged in academic work.

3.3 Impact of Kindergarten method on learning

Dean and Jayachandran (2020) investigated the influence of kindergarten

teaching method on child development in the Indian state of Karnataka. Using a
randomized assessment technique, the authors observed a significant effect of
kindergarten teaching method on the cognitive development of the children, where
40% of the cognitive effects continued through first grade, particularly for higher-
order thinking skills. However, no significant effect of kindergarten method on
social and emotional development of the children was observed.

Park and Yang (2016) tested the influence of Froebel’s kindergarten

system in the early childhood education methods used in the United State of
America and South Korea. The study considered various aspects of kindergarten
education that are beneficial to the children. The study went on to suggest that the
basic idea behind the kindergarten education must be revisited. The findings
recommended higher adoption of developmentally appropriate processes,

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interaction between children and nature, and emphasized the role of “learning
through play” in the holistic development of children.

Abbas, Ansari and Rizvi (2015) investigated the development of social

and language skills in children enrolled in Montessori and Kindergarten systems of
education. The study was limited to private pre-schools located in the Rawalpindi
city, Pakistan. It was observed that both the systems of education are equally
effective in imparting quality education. From the results, it can be noted that
children of Kindergarten system had better social skills, while the children from
Montessori system had better language skills. The results revealed that both the
methods of learning, Kindergarten and Montessori, employed activity based
learning and resulted in significant academic and developmental performance.

Carnes and Albrecht (2012) explored the academic and social-emotional

effects of full-day Kindergarten on children using a mixed-method approach. The
study found that students who attended full-day Kindergarten performed well in
their academics when compared to students who attended half-day Kindergarten.

Burchinal et al. (2010) investigated the association between the quality of

care a child receives and child outcomes with respect to Kindergarten programs
among low-income children using a threshold analysis. The findings suggested
that the quality of teacher-child interactions was a strong predictor of higher social
competence and lower behavioral problems in higher quality classrooms when
compared to lower quality classrooms. Also, high quality classrooms can
effectively improve the social and academic outcomes of children enrolled in pre-
kindergarten programs for low-income children.

McClelland, Acock and Morrison (2006) examined the influence of

Kindergarten learning skills on the academic achievement of children at the end of
elementary school. The study examined the performance of children with poor
learning skills throughout elementary school with regard to math and reading.
Based on Full Information Maximum Likelihood method and logistic regression
analysis, the results stated that the learning related skills acquired in the
Kindergarten have a unique and positive impact on the reading and math skills of
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the children until sixth grade. Moreover, children with poor learning skills have
been found to fare lower than the others. Also it is reported that acquiring learning
skills in early childhood will have a positive impact on the academic performance
of children throughout primary school.

Gormley et al. (2005) tested the effectiveness of a universal pre-

Kindergarten program in improving the cognitive outcomes of 1567 pre-
Kindergarten and 3149 kindergarten students using Woodcock-Johnson test of
achievement. According to the study, test scores related to reading, spelling,
writing, problem-solving and reasoning skills improved as a result of the pre-
kindergarten program. In addition, the study also confirmed the efficiency of the
program in enhancing the cognition of students from all races and family
backgrounds. Similarly, pre-kindergarten curriculum was found to be effective in
the students of both full-day and half-day programs.

3.4 Impact of Play-way method on learning

Germeroth et al. (2019) assessed the effectiveness of mature make-believe

play in developing numeracy, literacy and self-regulation skills of young children
using the Mature Play Observation Scale. The study observed that children who
scored better on the assessment scale had better numeracy, literacy and self-
regulation skills.

Sari et al. (2018) tested the effect of geometric puzzle game towards
children’s recognition of geometric shapes and fine motor skills. The quasi-
experimental research adopted a quantitative method and used non-equivalent
control group design. The study found that classical method of learning which
includes lecturing and making the children do worksheets makes learning activities
less attractive and innovative, and reduces the children’s recognition levels of
geometric shapes and fine motor. The results implied that geometric puzzle games
can be used effectively to help students to know the geometric shapes and fine
motor.

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 Upadhyay et al. (2017) examined the effectiveness of play-way method in
teaching numbers from 1 to 10 in pre-school children with hearing impairment.
The sample for the study included eight children belonging to the age group of 3 to
4 years. The children were undergoing training in special educational centres for
children with disabilities. Pre- and post-test experimental analysis on the data
revealed that play-way technique is the most natural and appropriate technique for
educating children with special needs. It is also inferred that traditional games and
play activities enhance the acquisition of pre-academic skills in young children and
arouse their curiosity to learn, keeps them alert for better absorption and
comprehension, and helps them to effectively retain what has been learnt for a long
period of time.

Ayob (2016) analysed the effectiveness of play-way method in developing

numeracy and literacy skills in pre-primary children. The data were collected by
means of semi structured interviews, document analysis, non-participant
observations, and visual data. The findings revealed that structured movement
educational activities produced positive outcomes related to preschool learners in
terms of their social and cognitive development. The study also stated that
children’s poor acquisition of motor skills and difficulties in acquiring the
conceptual knowledge of numeracy and literacy skills can be identified easily by
means of structured movement activities. The results implied that preschool
learners who are physically involved in movement activities are engaged in a
variety of tasks such as listening, seeing, doing and practical applications of
concepts related to literacy and numeracy.

Jacob and Odafin (2016) examined the effects of play way method and
music therapy in reducing the aggressive behavior of children with mild
intellectual infirmity in Nigeria. The study adopted a quasi-experimental research
design with pre-test, post-test and control groups with treatment at three levels.
The study revealed a significant effect of the combined approach using play-way
and music therapy in minimizing the aggressive behavior of children with mild
intellectual infirmity.

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 Kumar et al. (2015) compared the effects of conventional and game-based
teaching on enhancing children’s awareness about oral hygiene. The study was
conducted among children belonging to the age group of seven to ten years. A total
of 60 students, selected for the study, were randomly split into two groups. One
group was educated on oral health by means of flash cards and the other group
using Play way method (connect the dots game, combined with flash cards). The
results showed that connect the dots game proved as an effective intervention aid
for teaching basic oral health concepts among young children.

Khaledi, Pak, Mirkhan and Atai (2014) analysed the positive influence of
play therapy on writing performance of students with Dysgraphia. The study
adopted a quasi-experimental design comprising pretest-posttest with control
group. The sample included 30 first-grade students who suffered from dysgraphia
in the centre of learning disorders in Marivan. The experimental group which had
15 students selected randomly from the sample attended play therapy sessions for
two months. The findings suggested that play therapy can be used as an effective
intervention for improving the writing performance of students with dysgraphia
and to help them to overcome writing difficulties.

Nair, Yusof and Arumugam (2014) studied the effects of adopting play
way method for enhancing the mastery of vocabulary among pre-school children.
The quasi experimental study compared the effects of play method with the
conventional method to teach Malay language to preschool children. The study
participants included 100 preschool children from a government preschool in the
state of Tamil Nadu, India. While the experimental group was taught Malay
language using the play method, the control group was taught Malay language
using the conventional method. It was found that play method was found to be
effective in enhancing the pupil’s vocabulary and interest in learning the Malay
language.

Popoola (2014) investigated the effects of Play-way method in enhancing

the numeracy skills of pupils during their attainment of early basic education. The
study adopted a quasi-experimental design, wherein the students were exposed to

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different interactions such as guided play and demonstrations. The study
population, which included 120 students, was split into two groups, with each
group exposed to different interaction. It is evident from the results that students
from the guided play group performed higher than those from the demonstration
groups. Thus, it can be seen that guided play with lots of activities can enhance the
pupil’s achievement in numeracy skills.

Adebesin, Mafikuyomi and Oyelola (2012) presented a paper on the

effectiveness of various teaching methods in early childhood education. The
authors discussed the effectiveness of Play-Way method along with other methods
like lecture method and role play. The authors stated that Play-Way method can
effectively enhance the attention span of children and improve their imagination
and creativity skills. The authors also stated that Play-Way method better prepares
the children to adulthood and reiterated the existence of strong positive
relationship between play and learning.

Adewale and Taiwo (2010) compared the effects of two types of

instructional strategies, namely, Play-Way and Guided-Discovery on pupil’s
achievement in geometry. The sample consisted of 222 primary school children
from six schools in Akure South, Ondo State. The results of the study showed that
pupils who were taught by Play-way method and Guided-discovery method
performed significantly higher in geometry than pupils who were taught by
conventional method. The study recommended the adoption of innovative teaching
methods that are student-centred and interactive in nature by teachers to enhance
pupil’s academic achievement and obtain desired results in the educational system.

3.5 Impact of other teaching methods on learning

Bjorklund et al. (2020) discussed the modern educational approach to

teaching and learning Mathematics among the pre-primary children. Based on the
review of the existing studies, the researchers identified three themes essential for
understanding the approach to teach and learn Mathematics during early
childhood. These include interventions and their outcomes during early childhood,

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factors stimulating learning and development and key concepts of Mathematics
that can be observed in pre-schoolers.

Sundstrom (2019) examined the teaching techniques in four preschools

(one in a high-income area, one in a low-income area, one in a refugee camp and
one in a special needs centre) in Uganda using mixed-method and multiple case-
study approaches. The study revealed that the preschools differed in terms of
availability of resources and quality. However, it was observed that teacher-
directed educational practices were followed in all the preschools, where the
teachers decided the content and led the activities, indicating the need to introduce
innovative or modify existing practices to improve learning and development
among pre-schoolers.

Ansari and Pianta (2018) evaluated the persistence of preschool programs

through elementary grades up to fifth grade. Based on the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Program, Kindergarten class of 1998, the study found that the
sustenance of long-term academic benefits of preschool program depends on the
quality education of elementary school children. If the student is moved to a low-
quality elementary school, then 25% of preschool effects were faded. Their study
suggested that the efficacy of preschool programs depends on child experiences as
well as implemented educational policies and practices implemented of elementary
school.

Bakken, Brown and Downing (2017) observed the impact of high-quality

and early learning education on economically disadvantaged children in the United
States. Based on a control and experimental study design, it was observed that
children who received high-quality and early learning education exhibited positive
and long-term outcome as they got promoted from kindergarten to elementary
school. Upon tracking their achievements, it was found that children in 4th grade
who received early education, scored higher in academic skills such as in math and
reading tests and had fewer discipline issues as compared to the control group.
These children also showed appropriate behaviors, emotional maturity and
improved social interactions, suggesting that the academic, emotional and lifelong

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success of children significantly depends on their exposure to an early stimulating
preschool environment.

Ganyaupfu (2013) investigated the differential effectiveness of different

teaching methods on the academic performance of students. The effectiveness was
measured using the general linear model based univariate ANOVA technique.
Tukey post-hoc results showed significant differences on the effectiveness of the
three teaching methods considered in the study. The results showed that teacher-
student interactive method was found to be the most effective teaching method,
this was followed by student-centred method. Teacher-centred method was found
to be the least effective teaching method.

Manisha and Sunita (2013) evaluated the different types of teaching

methods adopted by different pre-schools in Lucknow. The different types of pre-
schools considered for the study include Montessori, Kindergarten, Nursery, and
Anganwadi. The various teaching methods considered for the study are Play-way
method, playing while learning, real objective, using audio aids, using visual aids,
e-learning, by adopting strategies, and drama and storytelling. Chi-square analysis
on the data showed that playing while learning and play way methods were the
most important and commonly adopted methods for teaching pre-schoolers.

Modebelu and Duvie (2012) discussed some of the innovative methods

and strategies adopted for effective teaching and learning. The study also listed
some of the teaching methods that are available for effective teaching and learning
which include the following: lecture method, activity method, project method,
discussion method, discovery method, demonstration method, and role playing
method, demonstration method, experimentation method, individual method, peer-
teaching method, team teaching method, play-way method and excursion method.
The paper discussed the various concepts, techniques, approaches and methods
related teaching and concluded by stating that effective use of teaching methods
can enhance teaching and learning experience.

Adumola (2011) analysed the impact of different teaching methods adopted

by the teachers on the academic performance of the students in primary school.
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The study adopted a case study design to investigate two teaching methods,
namely, storytelling and play way method. A descriptive research design was
adopted and the sample for the study was selected randomly from five nursery
schools. From the results of the study, it can be observed that storytelling method
which involves telling stories from culturally diverse sources enabled the creation
of multicultural awareness in classrooms and also encouraged the development of
healthy self-concepts. On the other hand, it was observed that the Play way method
contributed to enhancing the productivity of teachers and make learning more
permanent for the learners. The study stated that both the methods, Play way and
storytelling helps both teachers and the pupils.

Tarim (2009) carried out a study to observe the effects of cooperative

learning, a teaching method suggested for mathematics problem solving ability, on
the problem solving ability of pre-schoolers. The research group was split into
experimental group and control group. It was found that experimental group
showed significant improvement in their problem solving ability. It can be inferred
from the study that cooperative learning methods can be adopted for teaching
verbal mathematics problem-solving skills and for promoting pre-schoolers
sharing, listening and fulfilling individual responsibilities in group work.

3.6 Role of teachers in pre-primary education

Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) outlined the significance of classroom

practices in improving learning and development of young children. Based on the
assessment of existing studies within a framework of developmental systems, the
findings highlighted the importance of authenticated strategies and classroom
practices adopted by teachers in providing individualized response to variabilities
and supporting resilience, which in turn, positively affects development outcomes
in children.

Denham, Bassett and Zinsser (2012) explored the roles of teachers in

developing young children’s emotional competence. Theoretical assessment of the
existing studies revealed that early childhood teachers and parents are important
socializers of emotion who provide children with experiences that can promote or
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deter their development of emotional competence. The study observed that
teacher’s ability to handle their own emotions which include perceiving emotions
of self and others by means of facial and postural expressions, utilizing emotions
to facilitate cognition and action, understanding emotions, and managing emotions
play an important role in socializing pupils’ emotional competence. Further, the
findings emphasized that positive emotionality of teachers helped the children to
experience calmer and more regulated positivity among them and enable them to
be receptive to learning about emotions.

Farmer, Lines and Hamm (2011) discussed the role of teachers in

children’s peer relationships (social development) and interpersonal growth. Based
on the review of empirical studies, the researchers provided support for the
observation that teachers are the only professionals in the life of a child who can
view the whole child in relation to the social ecology (ecological contexts) in
which the child is embedded, and also directs institutional expectations, which
provide opportunities for the children to construct peer culture collectively.

Wasik and Hindman (2011) examined the effects of professional

development of preschool teachers in enhancing the language and literacy skills of
preschoolers. The findings of the randomized control study showed that intensive
and intentional professional development of preschool teachers can enhance their
classroom practices as well as the preschool children’s vocabulary and pre-literacy
outcomes.

Baker, Grant and Morlock (2008) evaluated the context of student-

teacher relationship in terms of degree of closeness and conflict in the relationship
between teachers and urban American elementary school children who exhibit
behavior problems, using a survey method. The study sample consisted of 423
children from Kindergarten through fifth grade from four elementary schools in a
small city in the south-eastern United States. The results revealed that student-
teacher relationships characterized by warmth, trust, and low degrees of conflict
yielded significant positive school outcomes and successful school adjustments.

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 Buyse et al. (2008) explored the moderating role of Kindergarten classroom
climate on the classroom problem behavior and teacher-children relationship using
survey method and abilities test. The emotional support of teachers was identified
to be protective for the relational functioning of children at risk owing to
maladjusted behavior. It was found that teachers who are emotionally supportive
tend to prevent children who expose internalizing and externalizing behaviors from
developing less close or more conflictual relationships with their teachers.

Thijs and Koomen (2008) studied the role of emotional security in the
dyadic interaction task between 79 kindergarten children and their 40 teachers.
Multilevel modelling on the data revealed that support from teachers shared a
positive link with children’s emotional security and terminating this link showed a
negative relationship between children’s emotional security and social inhibition,
i.e., children who perceive their teachers to be more supportive felt more secure
when they were less inhibited. The study also stated that teachers have a positive
influence on children’s task motivation, i.e., support from teachers enabled
children to develop persistence and independence. Lastly, the study also
established the relationship between teacher’s support and children’s task
behaviors was mediated by emotional security.

3.7 Cognitive developmentof the pre-primary children

Bago et al. (2019) studied the effectiveness of early childhood education in

improving development outcomes in children aged three to four years in Ghana
using the 2011 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey data. The study observed that
early childhood education program facilitates early development skills in young
children.

Tripathi and Ahad (2017) studied the impact of internet on cognitive

development of young adults using a questionnaire survey. Figure 3.1 shows the
elements of cognitive development include retention, memory, attention,
perception, problem-solving, analysis and reasoning. The findings of the study
suggest that prolonged and excessive usage of internet has an impact on the
various elements of cognition such as memory, comprehension, problem solving,
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judgement, analysis and reasoning, attention, and perception in a number of ways;
thereby, affecting the process of cognitive development, which in turn, results in
improved learning, and symbolic interpretation and thinking.

Peyre et al. (2016) conducted a study to examine the differential effects of

various factors that influence the cognitive development of children belonging to
the age group between 5 and 6 years. A sample of 1129 children was selected for
the study and structural equation modelling was used to study the effects of the
broad range of predictors of cognitive development. Verbal and non-verbal
cognitive tests were conducted among the study participants. The results provided
evidence that modifiable aspects of early childhood environment such as family
stimulation, number of older siblings, and breast feeding duration have an impact
on the verbal rather than the non-verbal cognitive measure.

Pem (2015) discussed the factors affecting the early childhood growth and
development of children in Bhutan. The findings of the review identified that
growth and development in young children are predominantly affected by factors
like nutrition (maternal nutrition and child nutrition), dietary deficiencies,
complementary feeding, parent behaviour, parenting factors such as personalized
care for children, social and cultural factors (feeding practices and child care) and
environmental factors.

Dai and Heckman (2013) examined the causal effects of early parenting
and other environmental factors on the cognitive skills of children, such as English
and Mathematics using test scores. The study reported that older siblings and early
parenting have a significant impact on young children’s cognitive development,
both directly and indirectly. The study provided evidence supporting economic
literature that shows the causal effects of early parenting and other environmental
factors on the cognitive skills of children. Further results showed that older
siblings are very much important in explaining the children’s achievement in
Mathematics and English.

Skibbe at al. (2011) examined the schooling influence on self-regulation,

literacy skills such as decoding and letter knowledge, and language skills
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(vocabulary) of 76 preschool children. Preschool children were tested in two times
of the school year (fall and spring) using test measures. They found that same age
children in their second year showed a better understanding of decoding and letter
knowledge as compared to children in their first year of preschool suggesting that
there is a cumulative gain of decoding and letter knowledge. Further, it was found
that self-regulation which was used in the context of school readiness, and
vocabulary had no relation to preschool education rather it was gained with the
progressing age.

Burger (2010) discussed the impact of early childhood education and the
care programs on the cognitive development of children. The review-based
findings suggested that a majority of early education and child care programs had a
considerable short-term positive impacts and smaller long-term effects on the
cognitive development of children, irrespective of their social backgrounds. The
study also stated that early education programs cannot compensate for the
developmental deficits that occur due to unfavourable learning conditions.

Cunha, Heckman and Schennach (2010) examined the significance of

early endowments and late investments on the schooling attainment of children.
The study developed a multi-stage model of the development of cognitive and non-
cognitive skills as identified by parental inputs during the various stages of life-
cycle of disadvantaged children. The results showed that investment during the
early stages, i.e. early environmental conditions is necessary for the formation of
adult cognitive skills.

Nores and Barnett (2010) reviewed the international evidence available on

the benefits of early childhood interventions. The study analysed a total of 56
studies that reported the effects of 30 interventions in 23 countries across Europe,
Asia, Africa, Central and South America. The findings of the review showed that
interventions that provided direct care and education to children were more
effective in terms of their cognitive development. Interventions that have an
educational component were found to produce significant cognitive effects.

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 Loeb et al. (2007) studied the influence of pre-school centres on the
cognitive development of children. The study used the national data from the Early
Childhood Longitudinal Study to examine the effects of different child care
arrangements on children during the initial stages of their schooling. The findings
inferred that children who start schooling between two to three years of age enjoy
the greatest cognitive benefits and spend more time in pre-schools which enhances
their academic skills. It also suggested that starting school before the age of four
and spending full day at school allows children to gain pre-reading and math skills.

Paus (2005) attempted to discuss how the maturation of the brain was
mapped with cognitive development during the adolescent stage and how human
brain implements behavior of human beings.. The review-based findings identified
that continuous maturation of the brain and the nervous system has a significant
effect on the cognitive behavior, i.e. interpersonal/ peer to peer interaction and
processing of verbal and non-verbal information among adolescent children. It was
also observed that the maturation of the human brain also affects the complex
behaviour of children during the onset of adolescence.

Brody (2004) discussed the direct and indirect contributions made by

siblings to child development. The review-based findings revealed that interaction
with older siblings promotes young children’s language and cognitive
development. Children who are nurtured by older siblings were reported to be
more sensitive to other people’s feelings and beliefs. The contribution made by the
siblings could be either direct or indirect. While direct contribution occurs as a
result of sibling’s encounter with each other, indirect contribution occurs through
the impact of a child on the parents which in turn has an impact on the care
received by other children from the parents.

Li and Atkins (2004) explored the association between early childhood

computer experience and cognitive development among young children. The
research population included 122 preschool children enrolled in a Head Start
Program in the United States during 2001-2002. Various tests were administered to
the children and the association between early computer experience and cognitive

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development was assessed by means of bivariate and multivariate analyses. It was
found that children who had access to a computer were found to be better prepared
for school life and performed better on cognitive measures, compared to those who
had limited or no access to computers.

Linver, Brooks-Gunn and Kohen (2002) examined the mediating role of

various family processes in the relationship between family income and the
cognitive and behavioral development of children using test scores. The findings
showed that higher family income resulted in a more cognitively stimulating home
environment, less maternal emotional stress and more positive parenting practices
which in turn resulted in higher cognitive test scores for the children and lower
behavioral problems.

Luna and Sweeney (2001) discussed the maturation of distributed brain

functions and how it serves cognitive development. The study described that
neurological maturation of children enabled them to voluntarily suppress
inappropriate behavior in their late childhoods. This ability was found to increase
as they neared adolescence. The study also observed that neurological maturation
sets in during the early stages of childhood and results in children being able to
suppress response from a very young age.

Culp and Starost (2000) identified the effects of parenting characteristics

of a mother and school involvement on the cognitive development of head start
children. The study sample included 114 children along with their mothers. The
maternal parenting characteristics considered by the study include warmth,
punitiveness, intrusiveness, and involvement in school activities. The results
showed that maternal intrusiveness was a significant predictor of child’s cognitive
competence when the child is in head start stage. Similarly, maternal school
involvement was found to be a significant predictor of child’s cognitive
competence when the child is in Kindergarten stage.

Morrison et al. (1995) researched the impact of early schooling on the

cognitive development of children using a memory test method. The findings
revealed that early childhood education resulted in distinct and specific
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improvements in the memory and language development of children. Further, it
was observed that kids with early schooling experience had commendable
elementary memory and phonemic awareness compared to the children who did
not receive early schooling.

Greenfield (1990) listed the various child-development-theories developed

by Bruner during the Harvard years. He narrated that the cognitive development
theory by Jerome Bruner states that: “children extract information from their
environment through three modes of information: enactive, iconic and symbolic”.
Further, it can be observed from the research that the instructional theory of Bruner
states that culture and cognitive development are significantly associated. In other
words, when cultural factors are sequenced in an instructional manner, the three
modes of representation have to be maintained.

Rutter (1985) analysed the influences exerted by family and school

experiences on the cognitive development of children based on a review of
empirical studies. The findings revealed that under normal circumstances
environmental factors, i.e., family and school, had a modest impact on the
intelligence on the children, while under disadvantageous circumstances, these
factors had a significant impact. Further, the results stated that family and school
interactions directly affect cognition and indirectly cause changes in self-image,
ambitions, attitudes towards learning, and interpersonal interactions.

Reid (1979) attempted at understanding the relationship between learning

and the process of equilibration. While explaining that the concept of equilibration
is the essential and dynamic force in the development of knowledge, it also states
that equilibration is the compensation between popular affirmations and negations.
The results explained that teaching and subsequent learning aid the process of
equilibration by changing the existing belief of the child and by reinforcing new
thought. When children are taught a new concept, it challenges their already
existing beliefs regarding the matter and their thought process gets disturbed.
Following this disturbance, children will alter their belief system to accommodate
the new learning thereby improving their knowledge base. It also reiterated that the

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process of equilibration is of utmost importance for any teaching module to be
successful as it has a direct impact on the ability of children to assimilate and
understand.

Piaget (1977), who pioneered the studies on the stages of cognitive

development in children, conducted a study of equilibration of cognitive structures
and its impact on the development of thought. The research explained that
equilibration is a process wherein the thought process of children tends to move
from simple forms to complex and abstract structures during the course of their
growth, thereby improving development of cognition. The study confirmed that in
children, knowledge develops from a series of cognitive structures which are built
one above the other. Further, these cognitive structures are in the process of
continuous adjustment which results in further complex and abstract nature.

Bruner (1964) perceived the growth of the human intellectual working

from infancy till cognitive stability as a result of various technological advances.
The researcher categorized the human methods of processing information into
three groups: using actions, using images, and using language. The ‘Bruner and
Kenney’ experiment was analyzed to arrive at conclusions. It is inferred that
children involved in iconic representations respond quicker to the spatial
arrangement of objects and lesser to the ordered items,. However, the language
tool was not considered sufficient for the perception. Finally, Bruner stated that the
essential factor contributing to intellectual growth depends on the exploitation of
the child’s capacity based on the environment the child is involved in.

Piaget (1964) conducted a study of the various factors that impact cognitive
development in order to ascertain how much each of the factors impact cognition.
The researcher opines that neurological maturation is an indispensable part of a
child’s development and must not be ignored. According to the study, maturation
causes most of the mental, emotional, and physical transformation in children and
it is responsible for the development of the natural qualities of intelligence,
emotional stability, and physical activity in children.

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3.8 Cognitive development in structured interventions

Dere (2019) examined the effectiveness of preschool curriculum in

developing creative skills among 184 children from preschools and nursery
schools using a pre- and post-test design approach. The study observed that the
curriculum adopted in preschools improve creative skills among the children.

Rao, Sun, Chen and Ip (2017) analyzed the effectiveness of early

childhood interventions in enhancing cognitive development of children. More
than 100 interventions used in 30 developing countries were included in the meta-
analysis and the participants included 43,696 children who belonged to 8 years of
age. The results showed that comprehensive programs and childhood development
interventions are the most effective interventions in improving cognitive
development of children. Some of the other effective interventions identified in the
study were parent-focused support, income supplementation, and nutrition and
health interventions.

Fessakis, Gouli and Mavroudi (2013) tested the effectiveness of computer

programming on the problem solving skills of Kindergarten children who belong
to the age group between five and six years. The researchers conducted an
exploratory case study to examine the various dimensions of problem solving with
the help of computer programming. The children were exposed to a series of
computer programming problems. A teacher-guided intervention which is a part of
the structured learning activities of problem solving capabilities and algorithmic
reasoning among children.

Lan et al. (2011) explored the influence of cultural difference in

kindergarten children was designed and conducted in a class social mode. The
results of the study suggested that computer programming based learning activities
facilitate the development components of executive functions like inhibition,
working memory and attentional control, and academic achievement tasks like
reading and Mathematics among Chinese and American pre-schoolers. The results
found that the memory performance in both the cultures were comparable;
however, Chinese children were found to outperform American children on
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inhibition and attentional control tasks. The results thus stated that cultural
differences have an impact on the performance of the children on executive
function tasks.

Alloway (2010) examined the effectiveness of working memory and IQ in

academic achievement of elementary school children using a longitudinal
approach. The study found that rather than IQ, the working memory skills at the
start of formal education, i.e., at 5 years best predicts the child’s academic success
at the elementary level especially in the areas like reading, spelling and math. The
findings suggested that child’s academic attainment in later ages is linked to
child’s early cognitive skill development and recommended that by adopting early
interventions related to working memory will improve the chances of child’s
academic success.

Tomporowski et al. (2008) discussed the existing studies that analyse the
effects of exercise on the cognitive and academic achievement of students.
Experimental studies that assessed the chronic effects of exercise on children’s
cognition were reviewed. The findings of the review stated that exercise training
programs prove to be simple yet most effective methods for enhancing various
aspects of children’s mental functioning that are vital to cognitive and social
development.

3.9 Determinants of cognitive development

Missing cognitive developmental milestones risks the child’s overall

development. According to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, biological to
circumstantial factors, such as maturation of the nervous system, experiences of
the child, social transmission of information or teaching, and equilibration can
affect the cognitive functioning in children (Hurley, 2005).

Ranjitkar et al. (2019) examined the determinants of cognitive

development in 6 to 11 months old children with age z-score in Nepal. The
assessment was done among 600 infants using the Bayley Scales of Infant and
Toddler development. The study observed a positive association between cognitive

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development and age z-score among the infants. The study also observed poor
cognitive development in children with poor vocalization.

Bidzan-Bluma and Lipowska (2018) reviewed literature pertaining to

association between sport activity and cognition in terms of concentration,
thinking ability, linguistic skills, learning capacity, and memory. The researchers
argued that increased physical activity positively impacts cognition in late
childhood, and thus training programs developing skills in pre-adolescents should
be initiated.

Ajayiet al. (2017) evaluated the different factors associated with cognitive
development of 1580 children from South Africa. The factors including nutritional
factors, geographical location, preschool education, socioeconomic status, and so
on were studied for two years. The results implied that nutrition factor had a direct
impact on cognitive development which was followed by rest of the factors.

Barretoet al. (2017) evaluated the impact of family context and

sociodemographic factors among children in two phases: two years and
subsequently, four years. Structural equation modelling (SEM) on the data
revealed that socioemotional interaction help parents to assist in the enhancement
of cognitive development and lingual development in children.

Briley and Tucker‐Drob (2017) held a study to characterize the features of

cognitive ability and personality development using meta-analyses approach. Their
study implied that cognition is heritable and is maximized under improved social,
economic and educational opportunities. Further, the researchers concluded that
cognition heightens with age and is intervened by several genetic factors. Lastly, it
was found that cognitive stability is achieved by the age of ten.

Ford and Stein (2017) evaluated the nutritional, environmental and

maternal factors that impact the cognitive development among children in sub-
Saharan Africa. Based on national survey reports (2000-2014), the study
concluded that the factors affecting cognitive development of poor children were
distinct across countries. Further, the requirement of national-level policy

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including iron fortification of grains, utilization of unleaded fuels, and salt-
iodization were recommended.

Kocevska et al. (2017) analyzed the impact of sleep duration and number
of awakening on the cognitive results of 2800 children using a generation R cohort
study. The results found that there was non-linear association between the duration
of sleep and non-verbal comprehension at 24 months and between the duration of
sleep and linguistic ability at 6 years. Further, it was noted that toddler sleep for 11
to 14 hours showed a positive impact on cognition. However, frequent awakenings
were not associated with cognitive abilities.

Landry (2017) investigated the impact of responsive parenting on cognitive

development of children. A review of experimental studies revealed that
responsive parenting involving frequent interaction, display of warmth and
affection and activities with children help to evolve a sensitive and responsive
personality. Further, the researchers ascertained the growth of brain development
as a result of responsive parenting.

Pempek and Lauricella (2017) reviewed the literature pertaining to effect

of media and parent-child interactions on cognitive development in children. The
researchers found the absence of communication between parents and children
while extensive usage of media to be the factor that primarily impacts cognitive
development. Further, it was ascertained that media should be made available to
children under the supervision of parents.

Rao et al. (2017) analysed the role of interventions adopted during early
childhood in improving cognitive development of children below 8 years of age.
The meta-analyses results implied that comprehensive programs had the most
significant impact followed by education focused on individual child, parent-based
support, income level, and nutritional supplements. Thus, the findings concluded
that early interventions positively impact the cognitive development in children.

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 Ahmad et al. (2016) evaluated the impact of play on cognitive
development of 300 children using a quantitative approach. The results implied
that play enhances the creativity and abstract thinking of the children.

Nurliyana et al. (2016) studied the significance of nutrition, growth and

cognitive development of Malaysian children from birth up to two years of age
using a longitudinal cohort study. Several factors, such as pre-natal factors
(mothers’ pre-pregnancy body mass index, blood sugar, blood pressure, and
weight gain), post-natal factors (diet, feeding practices, anthropometric
measurements, and so on), iron status of children, home environment, and infant
temperament were assessed for the study. The study implied a positive significance
of the factors considered and offered important information on early nutrition and
development in the first two years of infant life.

Kafadar, Akıncı and Çakır (2015) studied the impact of parent interaction
on the cognitive development of 10 to 12 years old children using a pre- and post-
test study design. The researchers concluded that parents needed to adopt the
acceptance-involvement style rather providing complete freedom or being very
stringent with the children.

Noble et al. (2015) analyzed the association between socio-economic status

and brain structure in both children and adolescents within 3to 20 years of age
using a cohort study. The results implied that for those children belonging to low-
income areas, any slight change in income would largely affect their brain surface
area, whereas for those children belonging to high income are, any small change
would only slightly impact the brain surface area. The brain regions impacted
included the learning capability, reading skills, language skills, and other creative
and spatial function.

Shute and Slee (2015) explored the traditional perspectives and post-
modern theories of child and adult psychology. The authors stated that socio-
cultural variables involving family structure, cultural knowledge, ethnic values,
religious practices, etc. which also guides their feelings, behavior and problem-
solving capabilities influence the psychology of children.
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 Tucker-Drob, Briley and Harden (2014) assessed the influence of
heritable factors on the cognitive development from infancy to adulthood, as well
socioeconomic factors. The review of empirical studies revealed that
socioeconomic opportunities and educational availabilities can affect the child’s
thinking process, and language and reading skills. Moreover, heritable
opportunities were found to be more significant among the older children who had
the autonomy to choose from their environment.

Arain et al. (2013) highlighted the role of some clinically significant

factors for the brain development of adolescents. The research implied the
following: sex hormones, building of excitatory glutamatergic neurotransmission
and the growth of the prefrontal cortex has a significant impact on the cognitive
development during adolescence.

Bernier et al. (2012) evaluated the possibilities of association between

caregiving environment and cognitive development in early childhood. The
association was assessed in terms of paternal interaction, maternal interaction, and
child bond. The results implied that attachment security of children had a
significant high association with cognitive development.

Duncan and Magnuson (2012) opined the impact of occupational,

educational and economic components of socioeconomic status (SES) on certain
components of cognitive abilities. Socioeconomic status (SES), such as economic
resources, parent’s education, especially the mother’s education, occupation, status
in society directly affect the health, nutrition, quality education and improves
parent-child interaction which benefit the cognitive development in children.

Parisi et al. (2012) researched the mediation of intellectual, productive,

physical, social, and lifestyle on the relationship between cognitive abilities and
education using multiple mediation models (Figure 3.2). The cognitive outcomes
included processing rate, reading skill and memory, and different models were
used for each outcome. The results implied that intellectual activities and lifestyle
activities partially accounts for the relation between education and cognitive
outcomes.
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 Camilli, Vargas, et al (2010) studied the impact of early education
preschoolers using a meta-analyses approach. The results implied that early
childhood interventions impact IQ, academic performance, and school readiness
among pre-school kids and persistently impacts their higher grades. Notably, the
educational preschool program had a significant impact on their social well-being
and other cognitive outcomes.

3.10 Synthesis of the reviews

The relationship between teaching and cognitive development has an

interesting history in psychology, characterized more by a shifting of attention
towards these processes rather than by a focus on their inter-relationship.Because
learning is a process of hypotheses testing based on probabilistic models. Children
learn through explicit teaching. General cognitive abilities of self-regulation and
executive function help children succeed in school by setting learning goals.
Focusing their attention on the learning task at hand, resisting distractions and
balancing their emotions. Children’s learning strategies show great variability.
Education should provide children with opportunities of supported exploration and
instruction, as well as guided discovery.

With some notable exceptions such as the work of Kayili (2018), Ayob
(2016), Lillard (2012), Lillard and Else-Quest (2006), McClelland, Acock and
Morrison (2006), Gormley, Gayer, Phillips and Dawson (2005), this relationship
has been largely ignored by the researchers.

The work of Rathunde and Csikszentmihalyi (2005) explored the impact of

the Montessori Method on student’s intrinsic motivation. Similarly, Thijs and
Koomen (2008) examined the impact teachers have on the motivational level of
students. However, after a thorough scrutiny of the existing studies on different
teaching methods, it has been found there is a dearth of research in identifying the
various other internal and external influences that the Montessori, Kindergarten,
and Play-way teaching methods have on children.Cognitive development does
show a number of weaker stage like characteristics. First, development occurs in

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orderly sequences of steps for relatively homogeneous population of children
(Flavel- 1972)

Thus, the complex role of different teaching methods in the cognitive

development has been ignored. How the different teaching methods influence the
personality, motivation, family bonding, and health of the children and how they
affect their physical surroundings, cultural values, learning at school, and other
social activities; thereby, have an impact on the cognitive development of children
have rarely been explored in the past by the researchers.

3.11 Research Gap

The relationship between teaching and cognitive development has an
interesting history in Psychology, characterised more by a shifting of attention
towards these processes rather than by a focus on their inter relationship. After a
thorough scrutiny of the existing studies on different teaching methods, it has been
found that there is a dearth of research in identifying the various other internal and
external influences that these teaching methods – Montessori, Kindergarten and
Play-way have on children. The complex role of different teaching methods in the
cognitive development has been ignored. How the different teaching methods
influence the internal and external aspects of cognition has rarely been explored in
the past by the researchers which will be covered in the present study.

3.12 Summary

The present chapter reviewed the published studies based on the proposed
objectives and hypotheses of the current study. Based on the review of the existing
studies in this chapter, next chapter outlines and discusses in detail the
methodology and analytical techniques employed for the study.

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